Handbook of Nutrition tots tisHandbook of Poultry Nutrition Edited by V. Ramasubba Reddy Professor, Department of Livestock Production and Management College of Veterinary Science Hyderabad, Andhra Pradesh, India and Dinesh T. Bhosale Technical Director - Poultry & Livestock American Soybean Association New Delhi, India Published in Association with FEASA ‘Association International Book Distributing Co. (Publishing Division)Published in Association with FSA Son ‘American Soybean untreo soveman ating Tour eke Pay Of by International Book Distributing Co. (Publishing Division) Chaman Studio Building, 2nd Floor, Charbagh, Lucknow 226 004 U.P. (INDIA) Tel. : Off. : 2450004, 2450007, 2459058 Fax : 0522-2458629 E-Mail : ibdco@sancharnet.in 1st Printing 2001, New Delhi, India 2nd Printing 2004, IBDCo (Publishing Div.), Lucknow, India Price: Rs. 800/- ISBN 81- 8189-068-X Copyright © 2001 by American Soybean Association All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be produced or distributed in any form or by any means, or stored in a data base or retrieval system, without prior written permission of the copyright owners. Printed at: Army Printing Press 33, Nehru Road, Sadar Cantt. Lucknow-226 002 Phone : 2481164, 2483354, 3246263, Fax : 0522-2480543 E-mail : armypress@indiatimes.comPreface Chapter 1 Chapter 2 Chapter 3 Chapter 4 Chapter 5a Chapter 5b Chapter 6 Chapter 7 Chapter 8 Chapter 9 Contents Indian Feed Industry S. V. Vaidya Digestion and Metabolism A. Nageswara Rao Nutrients and their Functions D. T. Bhosale and S. V. Rama Rao Measure of Nutritive Value of Feeds A. Nageswara Rao and S. V. Rama Rao Feed Sources V. Ramasubba Reddy, S. V. Rama Rao and R. A, Swick Feed Composition Tables V. Ramasubba Reddy, S. V. Rama Rao and A, Nageswara Rao Feed Additives D. Chandrasekharan and V. Ramasubba Reddy Anti-nutrients in Feed Ingredients S. V. Rama Rao and V. Ramasubba Reddy Nutrient Requirements and Specifications V. Ramasubba Reddy and S. V. Rama Rao Feed Formulation V. Ramasubba Reddy, A. Nageswara Rao and D. T. Bhosale nN a 66 104 120 129 158Chapter 10 Chapter 11 Chapter 12 Chapter 13 Chapter 14 Chapter 15 Chapter 16 Chapter 17 Feed Milling Technology Rajive Shete Physical Evaluation of Feed Ingredients D. Chandrasekaran, A. Natarajan and T. K. Sundaram Immunomodulation through Nutrition R.N. Sreenivasa Gowda Feeding Management S.A. Khan and A. Nageswara Rao Nutrition Management under Adverse Environment S. V. Rama Rao and V. Ramasubba Reddy Effect of Feed and other factors on Egg and Meat Quality R.C. Chadha Mycotoxins G Deve Gowda Feed Analytical Laboratory D. Chandrasekaran, T.K.Sundaram and A. Natarajan 205 210 217 235 246Preface There has been considerable increase in the utilization of soybean meal and other soy products like soybean oil, full fat soybeans in poultry feeds in recent years. This handbook on poultry nutrition has been prepared by the American Soybean Association to assist poultry feed millers, nutritionists and poultry farmers to formulate good quality poul / intends this document to be an ea: reviewing each and every aspect of poultry nutrition. 'v feeds. ly readable reference manual The American Soybean Association encourages constructive comments on this handbook, including suggestions to be included in subsequent editions. Affiliated specialists and consultants to the American Soybean Association are willing to assist poultry feed millers, poultry producers, poultry organizations, and universities with additional information on how to improve quality of feed by using soybean products. American Soybean Association New DelhiAmerican Soybean Associa' 5 Woodcrest Executive Drive, 5 Phone: 314 ASA International Offices Turkey & Middle East Mr. Christopher Andrew Regional Director American Soybean Association BJK Placa, Spor Cad. 92 A Block, Kat: 8 85/86 80680 Besiktas, Istanbul TURKEY Phone : 90-212-258-2800 Fax | 90-212-236-2620 Fmail : asatr@superonline com South-east Asia Mz John Lindblom Regional Director American Soybean Association 341 Orchard Road, #11-03 Liat Towers REPUBLIC OF SINGAPORE 238881 Phone :63-6737 6233 Fax 63-67: 849 Email:asaspore@pacificnet.sg, Website: wiww.asasea.com Taiwan Mr Anthony Thang Country Director American Soybean Association 6” FL, #27, Chang An East Road Section 1, Taipei 104, TAIWAN Phone : 886-2-2560 2927 Fax : 886-2-2568 3869 Fmail:thang@gcn.net.tw Website: wwwsoybean@org.tw North Europe Mr. Deieter Kundrun Director American Soybean Association c/o US Ag Trade Office US Consulate General Alsteruter 27/28,D-20354 Hamburg FEDFRAL REPUBLIC OF GERMANY Phone : 49-40-41 3455 01 Fan : 49-40-41 34 55.08: Fmail: hamsova Website: wivwasa-hamburg.de Japan Mr. Kei-Ichi-Ohara Country Director merican Soybean Association 7° FL Tokyu lameike Building 1-1-14 Akasaka Minato-ku n itis, MO 63141, USA. 786 te 100, SUL 0, Fay: 314) 376 Tokyo 107-0052 JAPAN Phone : S1-3-5563 1414 Fay : 81-3-3563 1415 Email : asatokyo@gol.com Website: ww w.asajapan.co.ip People’s Republic Of China Me. Phillip Laney Country Director American Sovbean Association Room 902, China World Tower 2 No 1 Jianguomenwai Avenue Beijing 100004 PEOPLE'S REPUBLIC OF CHINA Phone ; 86-10-6505 1830 &1831 Fax : 86-10-6505 2201 Emaik:beisoya@ ina.org, Western Europe & North Africa Dr. Hans Hoyer Regional Director American Soybean Association Rue du Luxembourg 16b 1000 Brussels, BELGIUM Phone : 32-02-548 9385 Fax : 32: 502 6866 Email : soyabru@attglobal net Website: ww w.asa-curope.org Asia Subcontinent Mr. Virgil Miedema Regional Director American Soybean Association 168 Jor Bagh New Delhi 110 003, INDIA Phone:91-11-465 1611 /465 1659 Fax : 91 -11-465 1526 Email : asaasc@nde vsnlnet.in Website: wwiw.asaasc.com M Mr. Mark Andersen Regional Director American Soybean Association US Agriculture Trade Office Jaime Balmes #8, 2do.Piso Col. Morales Polanco MEXICO,D.F. C.P. 11510 Phone : 52-35-5281-0120, ext.230 Fax : 5: 281-6154 & 281-0147 Email: asamex@soyamex.com.mx Website: wivw:soyasa.comCHAPTER ONE Indian Feed Industry S.V. VAIDYA Managing Director, Pranav Agro Industries Ltd Pune, Maharashtra, India Introduction The animal feed industry in India has been in existence for around 35 years now. It developed with the advent of cross-breeding in cattle. The growth of the feed industry is linked to the phenomenal growth of laver and broiler production in the country. Over the past 10 years, aqua feeds are also being produced for fish and prawns. Today, the industry caters mainly to the dairy and poultry sectors. The Livestock Industry The comparative growth rates of cattle and poultry sectors, and population of animals are given in Table 1. India is the world’s biggest producer of milk and has the world’s largest population of cattle and buffaloes as well. The Indian dairy industry is predominant and spread all over the country, however, only a small number of organised dairy farms exist. Cross-breeding has been between domestic cow breeds and either Jersey or Holstein-Friesian breeds. The buffaloes are unique in India, with their milk having 7-8" fat. India is the world’s fourth biggest producer of eggs. In contrast to the other livestock industries, the poultry industry in India ig more scientific and well organised. It is also continuously adopting modern technologies for pure line breeding, latest management practices, environmentally controlled hous improved vaccines, medicines, poultry processing, units, processed chickens, hatching egg export and excellent feed quality Breeding and feed management practices have improved through education, training, competition and expansion.fable 1. Comparative growth rates of cattle and poultry sectors and population of animals Dairy annual growth rate - 5% Poultry annual growth rates Commercial layer - 6-7% Commercial broiler - 15-18% Population and per capita consumption Crossbred cows, (million) 10 Commercial layers, (million) 150 Improved cows, (million) 15 Commercial broilers, (million) 650 Improved buffaloes, (million) 36 Breeders stock, (million) 65 Milk production, (million tonnes) 78 Egg production, (million) 40,000 Per capita consumption, (g/day) 240 Per capita availability, (eggs/year) 40 Poultry meat, (million tonnes) 1.0 Poultry meat per capita availability, (g/year) 1,000 Poultry feed production, (million tonnes) 9.0 LEMA: Published reports in carious Indian Dairy and Poultry Journals Currently, the poultry industry is going through a phase of integration in broilers, which is likely to change the face of the industry. Although this phenomenon is new, it is expected that there will be rapid changes towards integration, as more and more farmers are finding it difficult to run their farms with marginal profits or negative margins. Feedstuff Availability The production of feed ingredients and solvent extracted cakes is given in Table 2. The ingredients commonly used in animal feeds are given in Table 3. Despite demand from the domestic feed industry, India exports large quantities of solvent extractions, mainly soybean meal, to earn foreign exchange in the process. Exports of compound feed as well as that of finished products like chicken, eggs, milk and its products should be promoted instead of oilseed meals. The uniqueness of cattle feed lies in the usage of hulls or shells, commonly known as “chunis”, and the non-inclusion of any material of animal origin, including the bone-based DCP. This has been done not out of v NutritionTable 2. Production of feed ingredients and solvent meals in India (2000-2001) Commodity Production Export Remarks Million Million tons tons Maize 10.2 Maize is an important Sorghum 93 cereal in animal feeds. Rice bran, deoiled 2.95 0.005 About 4.7 million tonnes is used in animal feed: million tonnes in the starch industry and 2.3 million tonnes for human consumption. Soybean meal 3.86 1.90 Soybean meal is most popular for animal feed. Peanut meal 2.65 0.02 Rapeseed meal 37 01 Sunflower meal 0.53 0.05 Cottonseed cake 3.87 Source: Data collected from th Fertilis Statistics and IS: EA, Government of India publications, Table 3. Ingredients commonly used in animal feeds Maize, Sorghum, Bajra (millet) Rice bran, Wheat bran Rice bran extractions Tapioca Molasses Soybean meal Groundnut (Peanut) meal Rapeseed meal, Sesame meal Sunflower meal, Cottonseed meal Horse gram chuni Black gram chuni Pigeon Pea chuni Copra meal, Guar meal Dicalcium phosphate Meat meal, Meat- cum-bone meal Fish meal (DCP) Bone origin Mineral based fear of any zoonotic problems, but due to the deep-rooted belief that the cow is a sacred animal and must, therefore, be a vegetarian. Fish meal and meat meal were popularly used in poultry feed, but with the increased production and availability of soybean meal and better Indian Feed Industryawareness, soybean meal has replaced them in most poultry rations mainly tor broilers. The induction of sovbean meal has also been aided by the fact that farmers have faced production problems due to bacterial contamination of fish and meat meal, whose quality has also not been consistent The Indian economy is agro-based. However, the yield per hectare is lower than in many countries as is evident from Table 4. Table 4. Average yield of select crops Tons/hectare Type World's highest India Soybean USA 262 Lo Rapeseed France 3.52 10 Sunflower Argentina 1.78 10 Groundnut USA 2.82 15 Sesame China 0.78 0.6 Maize USA 79 L71 Source: Compiled and collec Fertiliser statistics ISSN 0971-4 d from SEA Publications 2000, 67 Related Issues i, Import of maize Import of maize was under restricted entry. From April 2000, imports have been allowed under the open general licence (OGL). But with 15°. duty and grain inspection fee, there is no price parity. ii, Shertage of edible oil Thete is a shortage of edible oil in the country as a result of which India is regularly importing edible oils iii, Standardisation and regulation of animal feed manufacturers The Government through its institutions (Bureau of Indian Standards, BIS) publishes animal feed standards as guidelines Industry alse has its ewn guidelines. Cur rently, there is no officialompulsion on the industry to use BIS standards. But the government is planning to bring animal feeds under the Essential Commodity Act, something with which the industry is not comfortable. The organised sector of the compound feed industry is reeling under the problems of huge idle capacity, about 50°. or more in some cases. Indian and global players also are adding fresh capacities. There is need to conduct generic promotion of compound feed usage by educating farmers regarding its advantages. Also, ingredients used in the animal feed industry do not attract the Essential Commodity Act. Changes, if any, in Government standards are slow, prolonged and difficult to arrive at because of participative conflicts and various lobbying, Classification of animal feed supplements /additives for import (OGL vs. restricted entry) The world over, animal feed supplements /additives are covered under Chapter 23.09 of the “Harmonised System of Nomenclature” (HSN). India is a signatory to the HSN. However, the Indian Government included animal feed supplements /additives under the restricted category in October 1995, instead of including it under the “free” category for import as per HSN. Counter-vailing Duty (CVD) on amino acids Essential amino acids like DL-Methionine, L-Lysine hydrochloride and L-Threonine are not manufactured in India. The Government has reduced the import duty on these amino acids to 10%, with a view to promoting animal husbandry. However, the Government continues to impose a countervailing duty (CVD) and other additional duties. Sales tax Sales tax is being imposed on animal feeds in some states. Ifa uniform sales tax of 4%, which is currently under consideration, is applied, it will increase feed prices. Indian Feed Industry evii . Integration Integration is a new phenomenon, about five-six years old, and it has already spread to many parts of the country. If integration succeeds, there will be few small farmers, few major feed units, few parent stock hatcheries and so on. There will be clustering of integrators and this may bring about a complete change in both poultry as well as feed industry New Challenges and Industry Response India should allow import of oilseeds rather than imports of edible oils. That will help the solvent extraction industry to utilize their extraction capacity and will also make more oilseed meals available for the Indian feed industry. India should promote exports of compound feed and finished products from the livestock industry instead of exports of oil seed meals. India needs high-yielding varieties of cereals and oilseeds, and proper application of irrigation, fertilisers, pesticides, etc., to meet the feed requirements of its growing livestock population. If India becomes active in the export of dressed chicken and eggs as well as milk products, it will have to adopt international standards. That would mean restrictions on usage of animal by-products and antibiotics in feed. Emphasis has to be placed on eco-friendly products. Research and development has to focus on biotechnological products like probiotics, prebiotics, yeast, mannans, acidifiers, herbal growth promoters, anti-pollutants and other nature friendly products. Feed formulation will go through a sea change. Nutrition 6CHAPTER TWO Digestion and Metabolism A. Nageswara Rao Associate Professor, Poultry Experimental Station Hyderabad, Andhra Pradesh, India Digestion and Absorption Feed consumed by a chicken undergoes changes in its digestive tract, with the complex nutrients being converted into simple nutrients in intestines. This is known as digestion. Enzymes produced in the digestive system have a specific function in breaking down complex molecules into simpler units of respective nutrients for absorption. The digestive and absorptive processes in a chicken are rapid and take less than three hours. Digestive System The description and function of each part is given in Table 1. The digestive secretions and their action are shown in Table 2. The layout of digestion in chicken is shown in Fig 1. The end products of digestion are given in Table 3. Digestion and MetabolismTable 1. Description and functions of the digestive system in a chicken Description Function Mouth (Beak) The food stays just a short time. Upper horny mandible Attached to skull Lower horny mandible Hinged Hard palate Divided by a narrow slit Hard palate contains slit. in the centre that is open Therefore, the bird scoops water to the nasal passages and elevate its head. Water thus runs down the esophagus by gravity. Soft palate Absent Tongue Dagger shaped Rough surface at the back helps force food into the esophagus Few taste buds (about 24) are present. Sense of taste is poor. Salivary glands Saliva mainly acts as a lubricant, aiding easy passage. Esophagus Along tube Food passes along it from pharynx (back of the mouth) and crop to the proventriculus. Crop Extends on one side just Food material remains for before itenters the body _varying lengths of time, cavity into a pouch depending on the particle size, called crop. amount consumed, quantity of the ingesta in the gizzard, etc. ae acts as a storage place for food. No enzymes are produced in the crop. Feed particles are softened. Proventriculus Connects esophagus Produces gastric juice that (True stomach) and gizzard contains pepsinogen and hydrochlonic acid. Food is held here for a short time. Little or no digestion takes place. Gizzard Lies between Enzymatic secretions are absent. (Muscular stomach) proventriculus and upper —_ Digestion continues by the ‘small intestine (duodenum). secretions of proventriculus. Composed of two pairs of —Gizzard exerts great force and very powerful muscles. food material undergoes Mucosa is thick. mechanical grinding. Abrasive materials like grit, rock, gravel, etc., aid grinding of food particles.ee — Description Function Small intestine First part of the small Enzymes secreted through intestine forms a loop pancreas and from intestinal wall known as the Duodenum. complete the digestive process. Jejunum and ileum (lower Nutrients digested are absorbed small intestine) are not through small intestine. very distinct The epithelial lining of small intestine has large surface area (villai) for rapid absorption of nutrients. Caeca Two blind pouches lying Caeca have little function in between small and large _ digestion. intestines. Soft material passes in and out. Some microbial digestion of fibre may take place. Rectum About twice the diameter Water resorption takes place. of small intestine. Relatively short. Cloaca The bulbous end of the A common outlet of digestive, digestive tract. urinary and reproductive canals. Vent External opening of the cloaca. Pancreas Lies within the duodenal _Secretes pancreatic juice into the loop of the small intestine. distal /posterior end of duodenum by way of pancreatic duets. Liver Two lobes (right and left) _ Secretes bile, a light sticky The right bile duct is yellow-green fluid. Bile enlarged to form the gall _ flows into the lower end bladder. of the duodenum through two bile ducts. Bile contains bile acids (taurocholic and glycocholic acids). Bile aids digestion and absorption of fats and fat- soluble vitamins. Bile is temporarily stored in the gall bladder. Digestion and MetabolismBeak, mouth, tongue Salivary glands (mucin and ptyalin) Throat or pharynx Blood stream Gullet or esophagus Crop Lymphatic system Vv Liver Glandular stomach or (Bile) Proventriculus (Hydrochloric acid and pepsin) Vv { Gall bladder Gizzard (Insoluble grit) Pancreas (Pancreatic juice) Bile ducts —___» Duodenum-small intestine: (Succus entericus, Enzymes lactase-erepsin) ylase, trypsin, chymotrypsin, lipase) Pancreatic ducts Caeca-large intestine (Microbial degradation of fibre) { Cloaca Fig 1. Different parts of digestive tract and their significance in digestion and absorption Handbook of Poultry Nutrition 104. Maize with cob and dust Handbook of Poultry Nutrition 25. Maize Norm 6. Maize Normal and Moldy Handbook of Poultry Nutritionag ay ed 9 A Sr ty ae i, aa1) poor quality var (sorghum 11. Jo% 12. Rice full grains14. Rice broken - moderate quality Handbook of Poultry Nutrition "16. Rice polish - A good quality rice polish Handbook of Poultry Nutrition 18Table 2. Digestive secretions and their action Digestive Principle Site of action Action secretion ‘components Saliva from ‘Water, mucus, salts Mouth and crop Softens food for Salivary glands easy passage. Provides neutral medium for action of salivary amylase. Salivary amylase (Ptyalin) Splits starch into dextrin and maltose. Water Further softens food. Mucus Prevents gastric juice from damaging the ae wall. Gastric juice from Hydrochloric acid Gizzard and gastric glands of (HCl) duodenum as to pepsin. proventriculus Pepsinogen ipsinogen gets converted to pepsin by HCl and ie pepsin itself. Pepsin splits proteins tw pepiones and proteases. Bile from liver Water ‘Small intestine pra the acidity Bile salts, cholesterol, igesta and phospholipids pls fats. Bile pigments. ‘Waste materials excreted through faeces. Water, alkaline salts Increases alkalinity in Pancreatic lipase intestine. Splits fats into fatty acids and monoglycerides. Pancreatic amylase Small intestine Splits starch and dextrin to maltose and isomaltose. Pancreatic juice Trypsin and Splits certain proteins, from pancreas Chymotrypsin proteases a to shorter polypeptides and liberates some amino acids. Intestinal juice from Water, mucus ‘Small intestine Protects intestinal duodenal glands and _Enterokinase mucosa. goblet cells of Carboxypeptidase and Activates trypsinogen to ‘small intestine Aminopeptidase trypsit Splits amino acids from poly peptide chains. Dipeptidase Splits dipeptide residues. Maltase and isomaltase ‘Splits maltose and isomaltose into glucose. Sucrase Digestion and MetabolismTable 3. End products of digestion Nutrient End product of digestion Main site of absorption Carbohydrates Glucose "Small intestine (Starch and sugars) Crude fibre Not utilised Fats Monoglycerides, fatty acids Small intestine and glycerol Proteins Amino acids Small intestine Minerals As mineral elements Small intestine Vitamins As vitamins Small intestine Metabolism The absorbed nutrients are metabolised in the body to perform various functions like maintenance of life, body and feather growth, egg production, fat deposition, activity, etc. The metabolism of carbohydrates, fats and proteins is described briefly in this section. Excess carbohydrates and proteins are not deposited in the body as such. They are converted into fat and deposited in the body. Minerals and vitamins after absorption perform various functions as detailed in the chapter on ‘Nutrients and their Functions’. Metabolism of Carbohydrates Glucose is used as available source of energy. The excess of glucose and a few other simple sugars are converted into glycogen (animal starch) by the liver and muscle. The storage capacity for glycogen is very limited. When the bird’s storage capacity reaches its maximum, the additional glucose in the blood stream is converted into fat. The fat is deposited as adipose tissue in various parts of the body. In times of demand for more energy, the stored glycogen is converted back to glucose. The schematic metabolism of carbohydrates is given in Fig 2. Metabolism of Fat Fats are converted into fatty acids for energy, egg production, or stored as body fat. Fats are not excreted. Excess is deposited in the fat cells in Handbook of Poultry Nutrition 20Starch and sugars Digestive tract Undigested carbohydrates Glucose in blood stream Glycogen in liver Carbohydrate Body glycogen Body fat Egg fat of the cells Oxidised for energy CO,+H,0 Fig 2. The metabolism of carbohydrates Food fat Digestive tract Undigested fat Fat in blood stream Subcutaneous Body fat ——} Egg fat lipids - Oxidised for energy CO, +H, Fig 3. The metabolism of fats ion and Metabolism 21the body. If the carbohydrate, protein or fat consumed by the bird is greater than the required quantity, fat gets deposited in body. If the energy intake is lowered below the requirement, the stored fat is catabolised for energy. The schematic metabolism of fats is given in Fig 3. Metabolism of Proteins Absorbed amino acids are used to form various tissues of the body, for repair of the tissue, egg production, etc. Excess intake of amino acids is used for energy through de-amination (removal of ammonia). Excess nitrogen derived from unutilised amino acids is excreted as uric acid through the kidneys. The schematic metabolism of proteins is given in Fig 4. Metabolism of nutrients and inter-relationship of proteins, fat and carbohydrate metabolism is shown in Fig 5. Handbook of Poultry Nutrition 2Food protein | Digestive tract Undigested protein Amino acids in blood stream Amino acids Body protein Egg protein De-aminated in liver Ammonia Non-nitrogenous fraction Uric acid Partly converted to glucose | Excreted in urine Body glycogen Body fat Egg fat Oxidised for energy C0, +H,0 Fig 4. The metabolism of proteins Digestion and Metabolic 2BProteins Carbohydrates Lipids Amino acids Glycogen or glucose Triglycerides (Glycogenic) Glucose ~ 6 - P Monoglycerides — Free fatty acids tt | Triose -P <> Glycerol Phosphoenolpyruvate Alanine Cysteine Glycine Pyruvate <—> Lactate AcetylCoA —_Acetoacetate Serine Threonine | | Oxaloacetate Isoleucine Leucine Threonine Alanine Tryphtophan Tyrosine Asparate Citric acid Citrate Ketogenic amino acids (Kreb’s) cycle Alanine-> Fumarate Tyrosine ‘Alpha-ketoglutarate q— Glutamate Methionine ———>Succinyl CoA Valine Arginine Histidine Omnithinine Proline Fig 6. Metabolism of carbohydrates, fats and amino acids Handbook of Poultry Nutrition 4CHAPTER THREE Nutrients and their Functions D.T. Bhosale Technical Director ~ Poultry & Livestock American Soybean Association New Delhi, India S. V. Rama Rao Scientist, Project Directorate on Poultry Hyderabad, Andhra Pradesh, India The nutrients required by a chicken are: 1. Water 2. Carbohydrates 3. Protein 4. Lipids 5. Minerals 6. Vitamins 1. Water Water can be regarded as an essential nutrient. The water content in the body decreases with age. A week-old chick’s body contains about 85% water, an adult chicken’s about 55% and an egg 65%. Functions i. A major component of blood, intercellular and intracellular fluids. ii. Regulates osmotic pressure, electrolyte concentrations and body temperature. iii. Essential in digestion, metabolism and transport of nutrients and also in transport and excretion of waste products. Deficiency i. Reduced feed intake, growth and egg production ii, Death if water loss from the body is more than 20% ‘Nudrients and their Functions 25Sources i. Drinking water (major source) ii. Moisture present in feed ingredients iii. Water produced due to metabolism of nutrients 2. Carbohydrates i. Principal energy source in food for poultry. ii. Chief constituents of plants. They form 50-80% of the dried weight of plants. li, The carbohydrate content in the animal body is negligible, i.e. less than 1%. iv. Some carbohydrates have a special role in structure, function and metabolism of cells. Classification The classification of carbohydrates is as follows: cee Carbohydrates Monosaccharides Oligosaccharides Polysaccharides LPentoses Il. Hexoses. i, Disaccharides__I. Hexosans _II. Pentosans iArabinose i,Glucose ii, Trisaccharides i. Cellulose i, Arabans ii. Xylose ii, Galactose ii,Starch ii. Xylans iii, Ribose ili. Fructose iii. Glycogen EEE ———————E——EEESS Among carbohydrates, starch, disaccharides and to some extent, pentosans are the energy sources for chickens. Starch is the reserve carbohydrate of seeds and tubers. It is a polymer of glucose. It consists of amylose and amylopectin. On digestion, starch yields glucose. Glycogen (animal starch), found in animals, is similar to starch but is more branched. The disaccharides of nutritional significance to chickens are sucrose and maltose. Sucrose contains glucose and fructose, while maltose contains glucose only. Individual sugar molecules are released on digestion. Lactose, the sugar present in milk, is a disaccharide consisting of glucose Handbook of Poultry Nutrition 26and galactose. Chickens cannot digest lactose. Pentosans are hemicelluloses. Cellulose, hemicelluloses (mainly arabans and xylans), and lignin (crude fibre) are not digestible by chickens. Crude fibre, if present in feed at high level, may reduce the performance of chickens. Soluble non-starch polysaccharides i. The non-starch polysaccharides (pentosans, some other polysaccharides) are non-digestible. ii. May depress the performance of chickens. These are called anti- nutrients. iii. They increase visosity of digesta and reduce digestion of nutrients. 3. Proteins and amino acids Chicken body contains about 20% protein on as such basis and about 75% ona dry matter basis. Amino acids are the constituents of proteins. Chickens need amino acids but not proteins as such. Several types of proteins are present in the body. The protein content in feed ingredients is variable. Functions i. Components of structural tissues (skin, feathers, bone matrix, ligaments, muscles, connective tissue, beak) and cells (lipoproteins, nucleoproteins, glycoproteins). ii. Blood proteins maintain homeostasis, regulate osmotic pressure and are involved in clotting. iii, Carry several nutrients in the blood (calcium, iron, fat soluble vitamins, fatty metabolites). iv. All enzymes and many hormones are proteins. v. Involved in absorption and transportation of nutrients and metabolites. vi. Proteins, as antibodies, are concerned in immunological functions. vii. Associated with genes. Nutrients and their Functions nyDeficiency i. Depression in growth, egg production, egg weight and feed efficiency ii. Weight loss iii, Immunosuppression iv. Increased susceptibility to diseases Classification of Proteins The classification of proteins is as follows. Proteins Fibrous proteins Globular proteins Conjugated proteins i, Collagen Albumin i. Nucleoproteins ii, Elastin Globulin. Mucoproteins. iii, Keratin iii, Histones Glycoproteins . Protamines iv. Lipoproteins v. Phosphoproteins vi. Others Non-protein nitrogenous substances Proteins contain nitrogen. However, some nitrogen containing substances are not proteins. They are known as non-protein nitrogenous (NPN) substances. Sources i. Feed ingredients ii. Protein hydrolysates and synthetic amino acids (Lysine, methionine, threonine) Amino acids These are further discussed in the chapter on Nutrient Requirements and Allowances. 4. Fats i. Body fat is variable dependent on species, age, sex and level of nutrition. Handbook of Poultry Nutrition 28ii. Minimum body fat compatible with life appears to be not less than 2% of body weight. Sometimes, 50% of the body weight of a bird may be fat. Functions i. Structural and functional components of cell membranes ii. Carriers of fat soluble vitamins iii. Energy reserves in the bird iv. Concentrated form of energy. Fats contain 2.5 times more energy than carbohydrates. Classification The classification of fats is as follows. i. Neutral fats ii. Phosphoglycerides iii. Compound fats iv. Phospholipids Galactolipids v. False fats Pigments Sterols Waxes Essential fatty acids Certain fatty acids contain double bond in their structure and they are called unsaturated fatty acids. If the double bonds are more than one, the fatty acids are called polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFA) Polyunsaturated fatty acids are susceptible to oxidation, which is preceded by an induction period that can be shortened by increased temperature, presence of oxygen, radiation and by minute amounts of peroxides. Trace minerals like copper and iron act as catalysts in oxidation of fats. Once induced, the reaction is auto-catalytic and proceeds rapidly. The oxidation products (aldehydes, ketones, etc.) are toxic. Anti-oxidants are added in fat-rich substances to prevent oxidation. Certain polyunsaturated fatty acids, required by chickens, cannot be synthesised in the body and are to be provided in the diet. These are Nutrients and their Functions 29called essential fatty acids: Linoleic, y-linolenic, and arachidonic fatty acids. Linoleic acid has to be provided in diet. Vegetable fats are the sources of linoleic acid. Linoleic and arachidonic acids are the structural components of the phospholipids found in cell membranes. Linoleic acid is the only essential fatty acid in poultry. Functions i. Growth ii. Maintaining egg weight iii. Spermatogenesis iv. Embryonic development Deficiency i. Poor growth ii. Low production iii. Reduced egg size iv. Poor fertility, hatchability Energy Functions Energy is a function of nutrients. Energy is required for: i. Maintenance of cells ii. Metabolic functions iii. Growth iv. Activity v. Production Deficiency i. Loss of body fat ii. Lowered metabolic functions iii. Reduced growth and production iv. Loss in body weight Handbook of Poultry Nutrition 30Excess Energy i. Nutritional deficiencies on imbalanced diets ii. More fat deposition Sources - Feed i. Carbohydrates ii. Fats iii. Proteins The energy stored in these nutrients is released in the body during metabolism. Carbohydrates and fats are the principal sources of energy, while amino acids (proteins) are primarily utilised for synthesis of body proteins. Excess amino acids are catabolised, releasing energy. However, the use of protein as energy is costlier than from carbohydrates and fats. 5. Minerals i. Minerals are the inorganic constituents of feeds and body tissues. They constitute around 4% of the body weight. ii, Minerals are the structural components of the body (Ca, P, Mg and F). iii, They maintain acid-base balance as principal cations (Ca, Mg, K, Na, Fe, Mn and Zn) and anions (Cl, I, PO,). iv. Act as catalysts in enzyme and hormonal functions. v. Act as immunomodulators. vi. Body cannot synthesise minerals; therefore, they have to be supplied through diet (Essential minerals). The essential and critical minerals are given in the chapter on Nutrient Requirements andSpecifications (8). The sources of miferals are given in the chapter on Feed Sources (5a). Calcium (Ca) and phosphorus (P) Ca and P are discussed together because these minerals co-exist in the animal system. Nutrients and their Functions mei. Majority of the Ca and P is in the bones. ii. Vegetable feed ingredients are deficit in Ca and P. Animal protein supplements, especially fish meal and meat-cum-bone meal, contain considerable quantity of these minerals. iii. P present in vegetable feed ingredients is in the forms of phytin phosphorus (PP) and non-phytin phosphorus (NPP). Monogastric animals, including birds, cannot utilise the PP. About 30% phosphorus in vegetable feed ingredients is considered to be NPP. Entire P in feed ingredients of animal origin is NPP. iv. Supplementation of Ca and P is required to meet the requirement of poultry. v. Optimum level of vitamin D, is essential for proper absorption and utilisation of Ca and P. Higher dietary levels of vitamin D may help at wider Ca and P ratio. Functions Calcium i. Structural constituent in skeleton (nearly 99%) and egg shell ii. Controls cell permeability iii, Essential for neuromuscular excitability iv. Concerned in blood clotting, v. Co-factor for many enzymes Phosphorus i. Component of bone. Nearly (80%) body P is in bone ii, Structural constituent in cell: As a component of phosphoprotein, phospholipid and nucleoprotein iii, Concerned in energy release: Cell oxidative phosphorylation iv. Component of cell buffer system Deficiency i. Loss of appetite and weakness ii, In young birds Rickets Handbook of Poultry Nutrition 32iii, In layers Decreased egg production Cage layer fatigue Reduced egg size Poor shell quality Blood spots Yolk mottling iv. In breeders Decreased hatchability Poor performance of offspring Sodium (Na) and Chloride (Cl) These two elements are broadly similar in function and requirements. Sodium is the principal cation, while chloride is the major anion in extra- cellular fluid. i, Plant sources are deficient in sodium and chloride. ii. Animal feed ingredients, such as fish meal and meat-cum-bone meal, are good sources of sodium and chloride. Functions i. Helps in maintaining pH and volume of body fluid ii. Necessary for transmitting energy impulses in nerves iii. Essential in absorption of certain essential nutrients iv. Necessary for proper function of enzyme systems of cell nucleus and mitochondria v. Essential component of gastric juice and bile vi. Activation of intestinal amylase Deficiency i. Loss of appetite, growth retardation, poor feed utilisation (impairment of protein and energy metabolism) ii, Decrease in plasma fluid volume ii. Gonadal inactivity Nutrients and their Functions 33iv. Reduced egg production and hatchability v. Cannibalism vi. Moulting in layers Salt toxicity Too much of salt, either through feed or drinking water, causes salt toxicity or salt injury, which is characterised by dehydration of body cells and death. Potassium (K) Practical feed ingredients contain adequate amounts of potassium. Functions i. Asa principal cation, maintains acid-base equilibrium and osmotic balance ii. Concerned in transportation of nerve impulses to muscles iii, Concerned in transport of oxygen and carbon dioxide in blood iv. Cofactor for many metabolic enzymes Deficiency i, Reduced appetite, depressed growth, muscular weakness and paralysis Intracellular acidosis Titanic seizure iv. Reduced egg production and shell quality Magnesium (Mg) Practical diets are normally adequate in magnesium and hence supplementation is not needed. Functions i. An integral part of bone ii. Co-factor for several enzymes (e.g. Thiamin pyrophosphatase) Handbook of Poultry Nutrition EYiii. Essential for activation of several enzymes (galactokinase, phosphoglucokinase, isocitrate dehydrogenase, enolase, etc.) iv. Required in oxidative phosphorylation Deficiency i. Anorexia and depressed growth ii. Poor feathering, panting and gasping iii. Nervous symptoms like hyperirritability, tetany, muscular in- coordination iv. Decreased egg production, egg weight and shell quality Tron (Fe) Typical poultry diets are generally high enough to meet the requirement.Iron in feed ingredients of animal origin is not easily assimilated. Functions i. An essential component of haemoglobin and myoglobin (oxygen carriers) ii, An integral part of several enzymes (oxidases, oxygenase, peroxidase, catalase) and electron transport (cytochromes) iii. Essential for pigmentation of feathers along with lysine and folic acid in coloured feather chicken The requirement of iron increases during certain conditions. i. Blood loss (debeaking, parasitic infestation, etc.) ii. When feeds contain gossypol, phytin and tannins iii. Excess dietary levels of phosphorus, copper or manganese reduce iron absorption Deficiency Macrocytic and hypochromic anaemia Low growth rate Nutrients and their Functions 35iii. Poor feathering Depigmentation of feathers in colour plumage birds iv, Embryonic mortality (9 to 15d) Hatched out chicks — weak, anaemic, reduced haemoglobin Manganese (Mn) Rice bran, wheat bran, wheat middlings and alfalfa meal are good sources of manganese. Functions i, An integral component of many enzymes like arginase, pyruvate carboxylase and manganese superoxide dismutase ii, Activates several enzymes like hydrolases, kinases, decarboxylases and transferases Involved in development of bone organic matrix iv. Helps in biosynthesis of choline and cholesterol i.e. lipid metabolism v. Essential for insulin synthesis i.e. glucose utilisation vi. Maintenance of immune system (neutrophils and macrophages) vii. Involved in normal functioning of central nervous system viii. Activates glycosyl transpharase involved in the synthesis of mucopolysaccharides (perosis) ix. Manganese ions strongly inhibit lipid peroxidation x. Required for oxidative phosphorylation in mitochondria Deficiency Excess dietary levels of calcium, phosphorus, iron or cobalt decrease the utilisation of manganese in chicken. Calcium phosphate formed in the lower intestine might result in the removal of soluble manganese. i. Perosis (chondrodystrophy): Both legs may be affected. Thickened and enlarged hock joint, twisting and bending of tibia and tarsometatarsus, thickening and shortening of long bones, slipping of achilles tendon from its condyle. Choline, biotin and other B complex vitamin deficiencies also cause perosis. Handbook of Poultry Nutrition 36iii. Breeders: Reduced growth, hatchability, poor shell quality, chondrodystrophy in embryos, characterised by poor growth, edema, protruded abdomen, round head, parrot beak Micromelia: abnormally small, and imperfectly developed extremities (legs, wings, spinal column) Ataxia and star gazing posture Zinc (Zn) Common poultry feed ingredients are deficit in zinc. Absorpticn of zinc is influenced by the concentration of phytate, calcium, fibre, copper, cadmium and chromium in the diet. Functions v. Activator or a component of enzymes (Carbonic anhydrase, alkaline phosphatase, alcohol dehydrogenase, carboxypeptidase and nucleic acid polymerase) Influences production, secretion and storage of testosterone, insulin and adrenal corticosteroids Acts as an antioxidant and protects cell membrane (sulfhydryl group of membrane) Essential for the integrity of immune system Maintains water balance Deficiency iii, Decrease in the weight of lymphoid organs (thymus, bursa, spleen) and the count of circulating lymphocytes Young chicks: Retarded growth, shortening and thickening of leg bones, enlargement of hock joint, scaling of skin on shanks Breeders: Reduced hatchability Embryonic abnormalities: shortened legs, curvature of spine, shortened and fusion of lumbar vertebrae, missing toes and in extreme cases missing legs. Hatched out chicks too weak to stand, accelerated and laboured breathing Nutrients and their Functions asiv. Reduced feed intake, feed utilisation, delayed sexual maturity, reduced egg production v. Poor feathering: Ranging froma frizzle appearance to near failure of feather to emerge from the follicle Copper (Cu) Excess molybdenum, calcium, iron and sulphur may lower copper utilisation. Functions i. Helps in red blood cell formation ii. An integral part of lysyl oxidase, which plays an essential role in cross-linking of connective tissue protein (collagen and elastin) iii. As a component of cytochrome oxidase helps in synthesis of phospholipid, an essential component of myelin sheath iv. Essential for proper utilisation of iron in a way to synthesise haemoglobin and myoglobin vy. As a component of cytochrome oxidase, involved in electron transport mechanisms vi. Supports the immune status through copper, zinc and manganese dependant superoxide dismutase Participates in the process of osteogenesis and pigmentation of vii. feathers Deficiency i. Anemia ii. Enlargement, thickening and sometimes rupture of aorta due to defective elastin formation Fragile long bones and lameness iv. Shell-less and misshapen eggs iv. In breeders, reduced egg production and hatchability v. Embryonic mortality at 3-4 d of incubation Handbook of Poultry Nutrition 38Todine (I) About 70-80% iodine is concentrated in the thyroid glands. Functions The role of iodine in animal system is through thyroxine, which is essential for i. Thermoregulation ii. Intermediary metabolism Cell oxidation iv. Neuromuscular function v. Growth and reproduction Deficiency i. Enlargement of thyroid gland (goitre) by interfering with thyroid hormone synthesis ii. Poor growth, egg production, egg size iii. Abnormally long and lacy feathers iv. Accumulation of fat v. Decreased hatchability (low iodine in egg) vi. Decreased sperm count Selenium (Se) Selenium is an essential element. However, the difference between toxic and requirement levels of the mineral is narrow. Selenium in organic form (selenomethionine or selenocystine) is rapidly absorbed compared to its inorganic form (sodium selenite). Functions i. Protects the cellular and sub-cellular membrane from oxidation. Glutathione peroxidase, a selenium dependant enzyme aids in protecting these membranes by destroying the peroxides before they attack the cellular membrane.