UNIT 5

UNDERSTANDING DATA AND WAYS TO

SYSTEMATICALLY COLLECT DATA

Lesson Qualitative Research

12 Designs
Definition

Design is a word which means a plan or something that is conceptualized by the

mind. In the field of research, it serves as a blueprint or skeletal framework of your
research study. (De Mey 2013)

Types

1. Case Study – used to describe a person, a thing, or any creature on Earth for the
purpose of explaining the reasons behind the nature of its existence. Your aim here
is to determine why such creature acts, behaves, occurs, or exists in a particular
manner. Methods of collecting data for this design are interview, observation, and
questionnaire. (Meng 2012; Yin 2012)
2. Ethnography – gives stress to the study of a group of people, in a way, this is one
special kind of a case study. The only thing that makes it different from the latter
is your participation as a researcher in the activities of the group. Realizing this
qualitative design is living with the subjects in several months; hence, this is usually
done by anthropologists whose interests basically lie in cultural studies. (Winn
2014)
3. Historical Study – tells you the right research method to determine the reasons for
changes or permanence of things in the physical world in a certain period (years,
decades or centuries). It has element named SCOPE or coverage of a historical
study which refers to the number of years covered, the kinds of events focused on,
and the extent of new knowledge or discoveries resulting from the historical study.
The data collecting techniques for this design are biography or autobiography
reading, documentary analysis, and chronicling activities.
4. Phenomenology – makes you follow a research method that will let you understand
the ways of how people go through inevitable events in their lives. Unstructured
interview is what research design directs you to use in collecting data. (Paris 2014;
Winn 2014)
5. Grounded Theory – a research study following this takes place in an inductive
manner, wherein one basic category of people’s action and interactions get related
to a second category; to third category; and so on until a new theory emerges from
the previous data. (Gibson 2014; Creswell 2012)
Collecting data based on this design is through formal, informal, or semi-structured
interview as well as analysis of written works, notes, phone calls, meeting
proceedings, and training sessions. (Picardie 2014)
 Lesson
13
Sampling
Definition

Sampling refers to your method or process of selecting respondents or people to

answer questions meant to yield data for a research study. The chosen ones are called
SAMPLE. The bigger group from where you choose the sample is called POPULATION,
and SAMPLING FRAME is used to mean the list of the members of such population from
where you will get the sample. (Paris 2013)

1. Probability Sampling or Unbiased Sampling

- Involves all members listed in the sampling frame representing a
population focused on by your study. An equal chance of
participation in the sampling or selection process is given to every
member listed in the sampling frame.
Sampling error crops up if the selection does not take place in the
way it is planned. It is manifested by strong dissimilarity between
sample and the ones listed in the sampling frame.
Types:
a. Simple Random Sampling
- Pure-chance selection
- Fishbowl method
b. Systematic Sampling
- Chance and system are the ones to determine who should
compose the sample
- For instance, if you want to have a sample of 150, you may select
a set of numbers like 1-15, and out of a list of 1,500 students, take
every 15th name on the list until you complete the total number of
respondents to constitute your sample.
c. Stratified Sampling
- The group comprising the sample is chosen in a way such that
group/strata is liable to subdivision during analysis stage.
d. Cluster Sampling
- A set of persons is isolated instead of individual members to
serve as sample members. For example, if you want to have a
sample of 120 out of 1000 students, you can randomly select
three sections with 40 students each to constitute the sample.

2. Non-Probability Sampling
- Disregards random selection of subjects. The subjects are
chosen based on their availability or the purpose of the study, in
some cases, on the sole discretion of the researcher. This is not
a scientific way of selection of respondents. Neither does it offer
a valid or an objective way of detecting sampling errors. (Edmond
2013)
Types:
a. Quota Sampling
- You only resort to this if you know the characteristics of the target
population very well. In this case, you tend to choose sample
possessing the characteristics of the target population.
b. Voluntary Sampling
- No need of selection process because the target subjects are
volunteering.
c. Purposive or Judgmental Sampling
- You choose people you are sure could correspond to the
objectives of your study, like selecting those with rich experience
or interest in your study.
d. Availability Sampling
- The willingness of a person as your subject to interact with you
counts a lot in this sampling method.
e. Snowball Sampling
- this is true for a study involving unspecified group of people. Free
to obtain data like snow freely expanding and accumulating at a
certain place, you tend to increase the number of people you want
to form the sample of your study. (Harding 2013)
- first respondents can suggest another respondent
 UNIT 6
FINDING ANSWERS THROUGH DATA COLLECTION

Lesson
14
Observation
Definition

Observation is a technique of gathering data whereby you personally watch,

interact, or communicate with the subjects of your research.

Types
1. Participant Observation
- The observer, who is the researcher, takes part in the activities
of the individual or group being observed. Your actual
involvement enables you to obtain firsthand knowledge about the
subject’s behavior and the way they interact with one another.
Diary method or logbook is used here to record the findings. The
first part of the diary is called descriptive observation which
describes the people, places, events, conversation, and other
things involved in the activity or object focused on by the
research. The second part of the diary is called the narrative
account that gives your interpretations or reflections about
everything you observed.
2. Non-participant Observation
- It completely detaches you from the target of your observation.
Checklist or observation schedule is being used here.
Methods
1. Direct Observation
- Makes you see or listen to everything that happens in the area of
observation.
2. Indirect Observation
- Also called behavior archaeology because you observe traces of
past events to get information or a measure of behavior of your
subject.
Methods of Indirect Observation
a. Continuous Monitoring or CM
- Evaluates the way people deal with one another
b. Spot Sampling
- Also named as scan sampling or time sampling
- Comes in two types: time allocation (TA) and experience
sampling.
 Lesson
15
Interview
Definition

Interview is a data gathering technique that makes you verbally ask the subjects
or respondents questions to give answers to what your research study is trying to look
for.
Types:
1. Structured Interview
- Requires the use of an interview schedule or a list of questions
answerable with one and only item from a set of alternative
responses.
2. Unstructured Interview
- The respondents answer the questions based on what they
personally think and feel about it. There are no suggested
answers.
3. Semi-Structured Interview
- Characteristics of the first two types are found in here.
Approaches:
1. Individual Interview
- Only one respondent is interviewed here. (one-on-one interview)
2. Group Interview
- Asking questions to more than one person or group of people at
the same time. It is also called as focus-group interview.
3. Mediated Interview
- This is done through electronic communication devices such as
telephones, mobile phones, email, among others.
- It is synchronous if you talk with the subjects through the
telephone, etc. and it is asynchronous if only two persons are
interviewed at a different time through Internet, email, Facebook,
and the like.
Steps in Conducting an Interview
1. Getting to Know Each Other
2. Having an idea of the research
3. Starting the interview
4. Conducting the interview proper
5. Putting an end to the interview
6. Pondering over interview afterthoughts
Questionnaire
- A paper containing a list of questions including the specific place and space
in the paper where you write the answers to the questions.
Types:
1. Postal Questionnaire
- This goes to the respondent through postal service or e-mail.
2. Self-administered Questionnaire
- Makes you act as the interviewer and the interviewee at the same
time.
 UNIT 7
ANALYZING THE MEANING OF THE DATA AND
DRAWING CONCLUSION

Lesson
16
Data Analysis
Nature

Data analysis is a process of understanding data or known facts or assumptions

serving as the basis of any claims or conclusions you have about something.
In analyzing data, you go through coding and collating.
• Coding – act of using symbols like letters or words to represent arbitrary subject to
ensure secrecy or privacy of the data.
• Collating – way of bringing together the coded data and put them in a table of
responses.

Data Matrix
It is used to name this table of responses that consists of table of cases and their
associated variables.
Types:
a. Profile Matrix – shows measurements of variables for a set of cases or
respondents
b. Proximity Matrix – indicates measurements of similarities and differences between
items.
b.1 similarity matrix – shows how things are alike
b.2 dissimilarity matrix – shows how different they are

Qualitative Data analysis

You analyze data that reflect the respondents’ thoughts, feelings, attitudes, or
views about something.

Lesson
Drawing of conclusions
17
Meaning

Conclusion is a type of inferential or interpretative thinking that derives its validity,

truthfulness, or reasonableness from your sensory experience.

Pointers in Writing Conclusions

1. Explain your point in simple and clear sentences.

2. Use expressions that center on the topic rather than on yourself, the researcher.
3. Include only necessary items; exclude any piece of information or picture not
closely related to your report.
4. Have your conclusion contain only validly supported findings instead of falsified
results.
5. Practice utmost honesty and objectivity in stating the results of your critical
evaluation of outcomes that you expect to support your conclusions.

UNIT 8
REPORTING AND SHARING THE FINDINGS

Lesson Reporting and Sharing the

17 Findings
Meaning

The findings of your research are meant to be reported to or shared with

others because your primary aim in researching is to strengthen existing knowledge
or discover new ones for the improvement of the world.

Referencing your Research

It means directing your readers to the exact sources of data or information

stated in your report, particularly those stated in the review of related literature.

Styles:
1. MLA (Modern Language Association) – also called as Humanities style.
2. APA (American Psychological Association) – also called as Author-Date style and
most preferably used nowadays by the researchers.