MACHIAVELLI 1469 – 1527 AD

Introduction

Machiavelli marked the end of the middle ages and beginning of the era of modern political thought.
Machiavelli, according to Allen “makes that first decisive break with the political thought of middle
ages. He represents many new tendencies in his political ideas which have come to be regarded as a
characteristic feature of the modern age.” It is universally acclaimed that modern political thought
begin with Machiavelli. He introduces a set of new political ideas that lists his contribution to the
development of modern political thought. He was more a practical philosopher. He is regarded as
one of the most important theoretical philosophers of the ‘renaissance’.

However, Niccolò Machiavelli commanded sinister reputation as no other thinker in the annals of
political theory. He was called “the murderous Machiavelli” and damned Machiavelli by
Shakespeare. This was so because Machiavelli sanctioned the use of deception, cruelty, force and
violence for achieving the desired political ends. But, if one tries to understand Machiavelli in
context of his time, then he/she realises that how much practical, original and progressive he was in
his political philosophy. In fact, the hostility that Machiavelli received was partly due to the
misunderstanding of the context in which he wrote and partly due to sheer ignorance about their
context and implications.

He is admired for his various contributions. Spinoza regarded him as a friend of the people for having
exposed the prince. Montesquieu regarded him as a lover of liberty. Rousseau, Voltaire and Diderot
also tried to bring out the true character of Machiavelli as a reformer, artist and philosopher. In fact,
Machiavelli heralded in a new era. He laid the foundations of a new science of politics by integrating
the ancient past with contemporary history. He is praised for his realism and pragmatism that wrote
about human nature, the nature of society and rule- making with a concern for objectivity and have
things as are, rather than how they ought to be.

1.1 Renaissance and its Impact on Machiavelli

“The whole of Renaissance is in Machiavelli”.

Renaissance marks the series of cultural, economic, social and political changes that began in the
14th century. The Renaissance signified a rebirth of the human spirit in the attainment of liberty, self-
confidence and optimism. It resurrected the belief in the rationality of man and liberation from the
clutches of supernatural forces. In contrast to the medieval Christian stress on asceticism, poverty,
humility, misery and the worthlessness of the earthly person; humanism defended the freedom of
man from the religion and religious beliefs.

Alongside the development of the modern individual was the beginning of the modern state. It was
the establishment of service/developmental state where the prince had to take charge of everything
i.e., preservation of public buildings and churches, maintenance of the roads, sanitation, drainage,
police and defence forces, supply of food grains and levying of taxes. Renaissance also marks end of
the clerical monopoly and papal supremacy by a secular and sovereign identity, culture and
language. This led to the establishment of nation–state and explorations and voyages leading to
geographical discoveries altering the perceptions regarding the world. New geographical discoveries
opened up new vistas of trade and commerce. This led to the growth in commerce and economic
development as the basis of modern capitalism. Growth in education, science, humanism and
industrialisation ended clerical monopoly relegating religion to the private sphere. The invention of
printing, establishment of libraries, revival of past, opening of modern education and spread of
literacy lead to the rise of modern awareness and scientific outlook.

In Europe, it was Italy that experienced the first currents of Renaissance in the form of commercial,
entrepreneurial and economic forces. All these reflected in the political and societal organisation of
Italy. Florence the one of the fine states of Italy – was the most cultured city and the seat of the
Italian Renaissance that produced some eminent and renowned figures. It was the first modern state
in the world. Italy produced some great minds and intellectuals of that period, like Alexander
Michelangelo, Leonardo da Vinci and Alexander Botticelli. They made Renaissance Italy comparable
to Athens of the 5th century BC.

Machiavelli political philosophy was based upon the ideals of secularism, individualism, pragmatism,
realism and nationalism. He denounced authority of church. All this reflects a departure from
traditionalism. That is why he is regarded as the father of modern political thought. He was deeply
influenced by Aristotle and Marsiglio. He relied on the ‘historical method’ to understand various
political problems. From Marsiglio, he derived the idea of secularism and also political utility of
religion. He denounced the authority of church. In Prince, we find an elaborate treatise on the state
craft ship. It was for the first time that the art of statecraft-ship came into being.

As a modern political thinker, he made individual or human nature as the basis of his political
philosophy. He kept the state over and above everything else. He advised the rulers to encourage
and exaggerate public insecurity even by raising spectre of external danger to the community.
Though he condemned religion and tried to sub-ordinate church to state yet he could not forget the
role which church had played in the last two centuries. He advised ruler to take advantage of the
religious beliefs and to exploit religious sentiments for promoting national interests.

In short, freedom of the country and the common good remained the core themes of Machiavelli’s
writings .A perfect state was one which promoted the common good, namely the observance of
laws, honouring women, keeping public offices’ open to all citizens on grounds of virtue, maintaining
social equality, protecting industry wealth and property. The freedom of the country had to be
safeguarded with the help of war and expansion.

1.2 Machiavelli Views on Relationship between Ethics and Politics

Machiavelli holds moral degradation and civic corruption as the biggest threats to the stability of the
state. Corruption to Machiavelli’s means licence, violence, inequities in wealth and power, lack of
justice, disorder, lawlessness, dishonesty and contempt for religion. It means sub-ordination of
public values to the private interests i.e. use of public sphere for furthering private interests. Under
such corrupt system, common people were not allowed to participate in public affairs. That’s why
Machiavelli favours the generation of public virtue as a common ideal and goal for the entire polity.
Besides he also talks about a strong ruler to curb corrupt and morally degraded tendencies. That’s
why; Machiavelli gives importance to religion as a source of civil morality and public spirit.

Machiavelli is not anti-religion but anti-church and anti-clergy. Religion according to him is necessary
not only for man’s social life but also for the health and prosperity of the state. Religion is an
indispensable part of civic life. As a political tool, princes and rulers were to use religion to maintain
their power but responsibly and cautiously otherwise it could be disastrous. Religion is good as it
promotes order and peace. Thus, Machiavelli has a utilitarian understanding of religion. It is a social
force enduring proper behaviour and good conduct in the society through its doctrine of rewards
and punishment.

Machiavelli makes a distinction between the public and private conception of morality. While the
state had a morality of its own the morality of success, the private individuals display qualities
identical to highest moral standards. In politics, fair is foul and foul is fair depending on
circumstances and situations. No general rule is valid as everything is a matter of political
expediency. In fact, the prince had to be compassionate, loyal, and honest while simultaneously
willing to use force, fraud, deception etc.

Machiavelli holds that public spirit is crucial to the stability of the state. The key determinant of
public spirit is religion and the liberty. He advises the prince to do everything to cultivate people’s
belief in religion even if he is not religious himself. Thus, he takes religion as a coercive force to inflict
order and stability in the state. However, Machiavelli does not condemn Christian morality but
Paganism. He rejects the idea of absolute good and divine and super natural elements of individual
personality. Good and evil are not transcendental but a reflection of community behaviour.

Machiavelli maintains that original Christianity taught virtue that linked internal good of the soul
with the generation and training of civil virtue. Thus, he was not against Christianity. He retained the
basic Christian views on the difference between good and evil. He was clear that Italy needs a
religion similar to one that was in ancient Rome, a religion that taught to serve the interests of the
state.

Machiavelli’s attitude to religion and morality made him highly controversial. Strauss and Sabine
categorised him as a ‘teacher of evil’ and ‘preacher of amorality’. The ruler for Machiavelli was
technician. He tries to marry morality with the elements required to be successful. He was too
realistic to overlook irony of the political situation. He attempts to establish the autonomy of the
politics while denying ethical absoluteness. Thus, Machiavelli taught not only the science of politics
but also the art of the politics as he believes that a society is a moral fabric that is made and
destroyed by its people. The criterion of successful state was efficiency and not legitimacy. He
separated religion from politics and set the stage for secularisation of thoughts and life.

1.3 Machiavelli’s Views regarding Preservation and Extension of State Power

A. Machiavelli’s Views regarding State

Machiavelli considered the state as the highest association to which the subjects must completely
surrender themselves. It came into existence to check the selfish interests of the human beings and
was an artificial creation. It was expected to promote material property of the people. The success
or the failure of a state could be judged by the prosperity of the people. According to Machiavelli
successful states was one which is founded by a single man and the laws which he creates reflect the
national character of the state. In other words, he favoured monarchy and completely rejected
Aristocracy.

A normal state according to him, was the one in which the citizens were faithful and law abiding.
They possessed sprit of patriotism and were prepared to defend their motherland at all costs. On the
other hand, in a perverted state, these qualities were conspicuously absent. He held that a normal
state had a tendency to expand and grow. In fact, expansion was a symbol of the health of normal
state. Machiavelli also lays down detailed rules for the preservation and strengthening of the state.
Some of the important suggestions made by him for this purpose are as follow.
 B. His Views on Preservation of State Power: In context of Machiavelli’s views regarding
the state and state power, he is undoubtedly a champion of the realist theory. He relied
on the instrument of state power and advocated its use to the fullest extent to preserve
the vital national interests. He talked about following characteristics to be possessed by
the state to preserve its power in an atmosphere of anarchy and fierce competition.

 National Army: State should have a reliable army composed of mature troops between the
age group of 17 to 40 years physically well trained in armed and military skills and
psychologically fit to fight a battle if necessary.
 Republic state: Machiavelli’s ideal state is a republic. He considers the republican state as
the best, but under the then prevailing conditions. He favoured monarchical state. He says
“the only way to establish any kind of order there is to found a monarchical government”.
 Strong government at the centre: A well-ordered and stable state could be successful if it
has a strong government at the centre an integrated public authority recognised by all.
Machiavelli’s general purpose is to revive public spirit rather than to advocate any particular
form of government.
 Secular state: Machiavelli’s state is completely secular state. He attached great importance
to materialistic values. He attributed important place to religion but within state and not
above it.
 State as an organised force: Machiavelli defined the state as an organised force for the
maintenance and security of possessions. A state has to try and augment territory and
power for itself. It had to look upon its neighbour as actual or potential enemies.
 Existence of laws: Laws occupy a prominent position in the state of Machiavelli. Law is not
only important and helpful in regulating and controlling the action of citizens but also helps
in the growth of civil and moral virtue.
 Absence of Violence: Machiavelli remains against the use of violence for private reasons. He
condemned the petty small minded and badly executed acts of violence so widely prevalent
in Florence. He praised the great glorious violence that a republic used in its conquests and
expansions.
 Public spirit: The existence of public spirit is indispensable for a healthy state. Machiavelli
urged upon his Prince to enthuse public spirit in the minds of his subjects by the use of
education, religion or propaganda.
 To be an opportunist: Machiavelli again and again suggested that the ruler or the prince
should become opportunist to achieve his objectives. He asserts that a ruler must not lose
the opportunity just for the sake of morality or ethical principles.

C. His Views on Extension of State Power

According to Machiavelli the state has a natural tendency to expand territorially and grow in power.
This tendency is present in both republican as well as monarchical state. To carry out the extension
of the dominion, a common wealth should follow the following policy.

a) It should try to increase the population of the city.