Kingdom of Funan By Dr Uday Dokras

“There is nothing new in the world except the history you do not know.”

In the beginning of the first century A.D. a Hindu community existed in Funan.
The oldest Hindu kingdom established in the lower valley of the Mekong, the
area now included in the Indo-China peninsula was known as the funan with
its capital at Vyadhapura, probably near Ba Phnom.

According to the tradition recorded in inscriptions, it was founded in the 1st

century B.C. by a Brahamana and Kaundinya from India who defeated and
married the Naga prnices soma of that place.
The second Kaundinya - again a Brahmana from India was elected king by the
people, thus marking the next stage of Indian colonisation, Hinduism too deep
root in that country, and the rulers bore Indian names and followed Indian
religion. The brahminical hierarchy was a notable feature in the social order.

Chinese records mentions the year as 191 A.D. when Kaundinya, a Brahmin,
"planted his javelin and married a local naked princes". This was confirmed by

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the inscriptions relating to King Srimara of the third century A.D. History of
Thais also confirms this evidence.

One of the kings, Ashvanarman performed otrthodox Aryan sacrifices. For

certain, another Kaundinya who ruled over Funan in the fourth century A.D.
appears to have reorganized the state and society.
The successor of Kaundinya II, Gu navarman, built temples in honour of
Vishnu. In the fifth century A.D. there was a war between Funan and the newly
emerging Champa. At this time Jayavarma of Funan sent an emissary to China
seeking its help.

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This kingdom established by Kaundinya flourished for a few centuries. Chinese
annals refer to some of the vasslas of Funan in the seventh century A.D.

Funan lost its importance and was merged in the famous kingdom of Kambuja
(Cambodia) named after Kambu-Svayambhuva. By abo to the 6th century A.D,
King Bhavavarman founded a new royal family. Consolidating his hold over
kingdom of Kambuja and Funan. His successors ruled for a very long time.
The later story is that of the empire of Kambuja extending over a period of more
than five centuries.

Three important kingdom existed at the opening of the sixth century - Kambuja
(Cambodia), Champa (Thailand) and Srivijaya, a great maritime empire which
included the Malaya peninsula and Simatra.

KAMBUJA:

Kambuja began as a vassal state of Funan but by the middle of the sixth
century ir became an independent State of Funan. The founder was
Stiravarman. The early inscriptions are in classical Sanskrit, full of references
to ancient India. The kings were Hindus, mainly Saivite. More interesting is the
fact that the prasati of Bhavaarman was written in the Kavya style closely
imitating the Rabhuvansa of Kalidasa.

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Buddhism appeared ni Kambuja by the middle of the seventh century, and two
religions, Hinduism and Buddhism, co-existed as in India.

From the homeland it was the Pallava influence that dominated. It was the
Pallava doctrine of Saivism that the official cult of Kambuja also. Kambuja's
architecture bears the influence of the Pallava tradition.
CHAMPA:
Champa or Thailand was also an ancient kingdom. It too broke away from
Funan.
Chmapa covered Vietnam, Laos and Cambodia at one time.
Founded by the turn of the first century A.d. with its capital at Indrapura, Its
nucleus was modern Thailand. Probably might have been the first historical
king, if not the founder of the Hindu dynasty.
The first known-important king was Rudravarman.
One king Indravarman III mastered the six systems of Hindu Philosophy, the
Buddhist philosophy system, the grammer of Panini, and the sacred texts of
the saivitis.
The Vedas and the Dramasastras were studied and one king Sri Jaya
Idnravarma VII had mastery of the Dharmasastras. Even the Ramayana and
the Mahabharata were videly known.
The architecture of Champa was of the southern type. Champa disappeared in
the 14th century from History after many centuries of fight with the kingdom of
Annam which was the advanced post of Chiense culture.

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5
SAILENDRAS:

Probably, the sailendras were merged with the Srivijaya kingdom of Sumatra in
the fourth century A.D.By the end of the eighth century, the empire spread to
Malaya peninsula, One of the kings sent an expedition to Java. I-Tsing visited
one king, Sri Jayanasa. Inscriptions show of Sailendra rule over Sumatra, java
and the Malay peninsula by the end of the thirteenth century A.D. As a naval
power the Sailendras continued till the 12th century.

The third kingdom of Srivijaya had the glory of guarding the sea routes. The
kingdom was first established in Sumatra. Soon the king conquered the other
island groups and established their hegemony over the Malacca straits by the
beginning of the seventh century. In the eighth century they extended their
power to the Malay peninsula. "Thus with one foot on the continent and the
other on the great island of Sumatra they bestrode the straits and retained the
mastery of both seas for over 500 years."

It was this authority of Srivijaya kingdom that was challenged by the Chols in
the eleventh century.It was Rajendra Chola who began the 100 years war with
the Sailendras. At the end of the war the Sailednras remained masters of the
sea. Thus for full 700 years they did had held sovereignty over the seas
surrounding the islands and upheld Indian culture in the archipelago.

They maintained friendly relations with the Palas of Bengal. Balaputradeva of

the Sailendras built a monastery at Nalanda. Another ruler built a monastery
at Nagapatnam.The Sailendras were Mahayana Buddhist. Sumatra and Java
attracted foreign scholars. Atisadipankara of the Vikramsila university styed for
ten years in Sumatra.Their greatest stupa is the Buddha temple at Borobudur
largest in the world - 2000 relief scultupres on the life of the Buddha - built in
the from of terraces - the top-most terrace crowned with a bell-shaped stupa.
Arab travelers by compliments to the wealth and grandeur of the empire in the
8th century.

But Kambuja as Java broke away in the 9th century.

(Post by pescador » Sun Jan 22, 2012 11:23 am)

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 Funan, ancient state in Cambodia that arose in the 1st
century AD and was incorporated into the state of Chenla in the 6th
century. Funan (perhaps a Chinese transcription
of pnom, “mountain”) was the first important Hinduized kingdom in
southeast Asia. It covered portions of what are
now Vietnam, Thailand, and Cambodia. Funan had trade relations
with India as well as China, to whose emperor the people of Funan
sent tribute between the 3rd and 6th centuries. Archaeological
evidence shows that Funan was influenced markedly by
Indian cultures.

Hinduism in Southeast Asia had a profound impact on the

region's cultural development and its history. As the Indic
scripts were introduced from India, people of Southeast
Asia entered the historical period by producing their earliest
inscriptions around the 1st to 5th century CE.[1] Today, the only
practicing Hindus in Southeast Asia other than Overseas
Indians are the Balinese and Tenggerese minorities in Indonesia,
and the Cham minority in Cambodia and southern Vietnam.
Hindu civilization also transformed and shaped the social construct
and statehood of Southeast Asian regional polity. Through the
formation of Indianized kingdoms, small indigenous polities led by
petty chieftain were transformed into major kingdoms and empires
led by a maharaja with statecraft akin to India. It gave birth to the
former Champa civilisation in southern parts of Central
Vietnam, Funan in Cambodia, the Khmer
Empire in Indochina, Langkasuka Kingdom and Old Kedah in
the Malay Peninsula, the Sriwijayan kingdom on Sumatra,
the Medang Kingdom, Singhasari and the Majapahit Empire based
in Java, Bali and parts of the Philippine archipelago. The
civilisation of India influenced the languages, scripts, written
tradition, literatures, calendars, beliefs system and artistic aspects
of these peoples and nations.

Ancient Record: Indian scholars wrote about the Dwipantara

or Jawa Dwipa Hindu kingdom in Java and Sumatra around 200
BC. "Yawadvipa" is mentioned in India's earliest epic,
the Ramayana. Sugriva, the chief of Rama's army dispatched his
men to Yawadvipa, the island of Java, in search of Sita.[3] It was

7
hence referred to by the Sanskrit name "yāvaka dvīpa" (dvīpa =
island). Southeast Asia was frequented by traders from eastern
India, particularly Kalinga, as well as from the kingdoms of South
India[

The Indianised Tarumanagara kingdom was established in West

Java around 400s, produced among the earliest inscriptions
in Indonesian history. There was a marked Buddhist influence
starting about 425 in the region. Around the 6th
century, Kalingga Indianized kingdom was established on the
northern coast of Central Java. The kingdom name was derived
from Kalinga east coast of India.[4] These Southeast Asian seafaring
peoples engaged in extensive trade with India and China. Which
attracted the attention of the Mongols, Chinese and Japanese, as
well as Islamic traders, who reached the Aceh area of Sumatra in
the 12th century.

Examples of the Hindu cultural influence found today throughout

the Southeast Asia owe much to the legacy of the Chola dynasty.
For example, the great temple complex at Prambanan in Indonesia
exhibit a number of similarities with the South Indian architecture. [

According to the Malay chronicle Sejarah Melayu, the rulers of

the Malacca sultanate claimed to be descendants of the kings of the
Chola Empire.Chola rule is remembered in Malaysia today as many
princes there have names ending with Cholan or Chulan, one such
being Raja Chulan, the Raja of Perak.

The Chola school of art also spread to Southeast Asia and

influenced the architecture and art of Southeast Asia. [7][8]
Some scholars have pointed out that the legends
of Ikshvaku and Sumati may have their origin in the Southeast-
Asian myth of the birth of humanity from a bitter gourd. The legend
of Sumati, the wife of King Sagar, tells that she produced offspring
with the aid of a bitter gourd.

FUNAN KINGDOM
 After the A.D. 1st century complex polities began emerging in
what is now Cambodia. The most powerful of these was known

8
as Funan by the Chinese, and may have existed across an area
between Ba Phnom in Prey Veng Province in Cambodia and Oc-
Eo in Kien Giang Province in southern Vietnam. Its capital is
believed to have been in Kompong Thom in Cambodia. Funan
was a contemporary of Champasak in southern Laos (then
known as Kuruksetra) and other lesser fiefdoms in the region.
[Source: Lonely Planet]

 Funan was the first large Southeast Asian civilization. It was

centered on the lower Mekong Delta in present-day Cambodia
and Vietnam and stretched into Thailand, and, possibly,
Malaysia. Funan lasted from the A.D. 1st century to 7th
century. Archeologists are still not sure where the Funanese
capital was. They are currently excavating a site at Angkor Borei
in Cambodia, which they think may have been it. Funan is a
Chinese name, and it may be a transliteration of the ancient
Khmer word bnam (mountain). What the Funanese called
themselves, however, is not known. Although very little is
known about Funan, much has been made of its importance as
an early Southeast Asian centre of power.

 Even the Chinese, who considered most everyone around them

to be Barbarians, marveled over Funan's treasures of gems and
gold. Funan was a convenient stopover point for Hindu traders
on their way to China. The Funanese were in power when
Hinduism and Buddhism were introduced to Southeast Asia.

 Funan, the earliest of the Indianized states in Southeast Asia,

generally is considered by Cambodians to have been the first
Khmer kingdom in the area. Its capital, Vyadhapura, probably
was located near the present-day town of Phumi Banam in Prey
Veng Province. The earliest historical reference to Funan is a
Chinese description of a mission that visited the country in the
third century A.D. Funan reached its zenith in the fifth century
A.D.. Beginning in the early sixth century, civil wars and
dynastic strife undermined Funan's stability, making it
relatively easy prey to incursions by hostile neighbors. By the
end of the seventh century, a northern neighbor, the kingdom of
Chenla, had reduced Funan to a vassal state.

9
Nancy Tingley of the Asia Society wrote: "The Fu Nan culture
flourished in the Mekong River delta in southern Viet Nam and
was a center of Southeast Asian trade between the first and fifth
century. This period saw an increase in international trade from
the Mediterranean to China. Westerners sought the gold of the
East, and with the development of more advanced sailing ships
that harnessed the power of the monsoon winds, transoceanic
travel became possible. Few details are known about the Fu Nan
people; however, it is evident that they were a technically
advanced seafaring people with the means to participate in
trade on a large scale. One third-century source describes their
ships as two hundred feet long and able to carry seven hundred
men and an extensive cargo. “

 The Funan Empire collapsed in the 6th century, under the

pressure of the vassal state, Kambuja to the north of Cambodia.
One of the kings, Icanavarman I, based his capital at Sambor
Prei Kuk (30 kilometers northeast of present-day Kompong
Thom in Cambodia).

Funan Culture
 During the first century A.D., when Rome ruled the
Mediterranean, the Funanese traded widely, established a
wonderful tradition of Hindu-influenced art and architecture,
and became skilled goldsmiths and jewelers. They also built an
irrigation system, impressive even by today's standards, and
used an extensive network of canals for both transportation and
agriculture.

 Funan was essentially an Indian civilization set in Southeast

Asia. Ruled by Hindu rulers and influenced by the culture of the
Indian Pallava kingdom, it absorbed of Indian concepts of
jurisprudence, astronomy, literature and universal kingship.
The Sanskrit language was used in Funan courts. It gave birth
to the first writing system and inscriptions used in Southeast
Asia.

 Most of what historians know about Funan has been gleaned

from Chinese sources. According to Lonely Planet: These report

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that Funan-period Cambodia (1st to 6th centuries AD)
embraced the worship of the Hindu deities Shiva and Vishnu
and, at the same time, Buddhism. The linga (phallic totem)
appears to have been the focus of ritual and an emblem of
kingly might, a feature that was to evolve further in the
Angkorian cult of the god-king. The people practised primitive
irrigation, which enabled successful cultivation of rice, and
traded raw commodities such as spices with China and India.

 Indianization was fostered by increasing contact with the

subcontinent through the travels of merchants, diplomats, and
learned Brahmans (Hindus of the highest caste traditionally
assigned to the priesthood). Indian immigrants, believed to have
arrived in the fourth and the fifth centuries, accelerated the
process. By the fifth century, the elite culture was thoroughly
Indianized. Court ceremony and the structure of political
institutions were based on Indian models. The Sanskrit
language was widely used; the laws of Manu, the Indian legal
code, were adopted; and an alphabet based on Indian writing
systems was introduced.

 Cambodia's modem-day culture has its roots in Funan. It is

from this period that evolved Cambodia's language, part of the
Mon-Khmer family, which contains elements of Sanskrit, its
ancient religion of Hinduism and Buddhism. Historians have
noted, for example, that Cambodians can be distinguished from
their neighbors by their clothing - checkered scarves known as
Kramas are worn instead of straw hats

Funan Government and Economy

 According to the Library of Congress: Funan emerged in the
second century B.C. as the earliest and most significant power
in Southeast Asia. Its Hindu ruling class controlled all of
present-day Cambodia and extended its power to the center of
modern Thailand. The Funan economy was based on maritime
trade and a well-developed agricultural system; Funan
maintained close commercial contact with India and served as a
base for the Brahman merchant-missionaries who brought
Hindu culture to Southeast Asia. [Source: Library of Congress]

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  Funan traded with the Mediterranean, Persia, India, China and
Indonesia. At the Funanese site of Oc-Eo in Vietnam Roman
artifacts (including a gold medallion dated at A.D. 152) have
been found as well as a seal rings with Sanksit inscriptions, a
life-size Hindu statue, gems, crystal beads, a gold bell, and gold-
and-sapphire rings.

 Modern-day archaeological findings provide evidence of a

commercial society centered on the Mekong Delta that
flourished from the 1st century to the 6th century. Among these
findings are excavations of a port city from the 1st century,
located in the region of Oc-Eo in what is now southern Vietnam.
Served by a network of canals, the city was an important trade
link between India and China. Ongoing excavations in southern
Cambodia have revealed the existence of another important city
near the present-day village of Angkor Borei.

 During the Funan period the population was probably

concentrated in villages along the Mekong River and along the Tonle
Sab River below the Tonle Sap. Traffic and communications were
mostly waterborne on the rivers and their delta tributaries. The area
was a natural region for the development of an economy based on
fishing and rice cultivation. There is considerable evidence that the
Funanese economy depended on rice surpluses produced by an
extensive inland irrigation system. Maritime trade also played an
extremely important role in the development of Funan. The remains
of what is believed to have been the kingdom's main port, Oc Eo
(now part of Vietnam), contain Roman as well as Persian, Indian,
and Greek artifacts. [Library of Congress] By the fifth century A.D.,
the state exercised control over the lower Mekong River area and
the lands around the Tonle Sap. It also commanded tribute from
smaller states in the area now comprising northern Cambodia,
southern Laos, southern Thailand, and the northern

12
Cambodia

Statue of Buddha at Angkor Wat converted from statue of Visnu.

Cambodia was first influenced by Hinduism during the beginning of
the Kingdom of Funan. Hinduism was one of the Khmer Empire's
official religions. Angkor Wat, the largest temple complex in the
world (now Buddhist) was once a Hindu temple. The main religion
adhered to in Khmer kingdom was Hinduism, followed by
Buddhism in popularity. Initially, the kingdom followed Hinduism
as the main state religion. Vishnu and Shiva were the most revered
deities worshipped in Khmer Hindu temples. Temples such as
Angkor Wat are actually known as Preah Pisnulok (Vara
Vishnuloka in Sanskrit) or the realm of Vishnu, to honour the
posthumous King Suryavarman II as Vishnu. Hindu ceremonies
and rituals performed by Brahmins (Hindu priests), typically only
remained among the ruling elites of the king's family, nobles, and
the ruling class.

Angkor Wat, in Cambodia, is one of the hundreds of ancient Hindu

temples in Southeast Asia.

The Khmer Empire has developed a complex society where

sophisticated culture, art, and architecture flourish. The Khmer
king and his officials were in charge of irrigation management and

13
water distribution, which consisted of an intricate series of
hydraulics infrastructure, such as canals, moats, and massive
reservoirs called barays. Society was arranged in a hierarchy
reflecting the Hindu caste system, where the commoners — rice
farmers and fishermen — formed the large majority of the
population. The kshatriyas — royalty, nobles, warlords, soldiers,
and warriors — formed a governing elite and authorities. Other
social classes included brahmins (priests), traders, artisans such as
carpenters and stonemasons, potters, metalworkers, goldsmiths,
and textile weavers, while on the lowest social level are slaves. The
extensive irrigation projects provided rice surpluses that could
support a large population. The state religion was Hinduism but
influenced by the cult of Devaraja, elevating the Khmer kings as
possessing the divine quality of living gods on earth, attributed to
the incarnation of Vishnu or Shiva. In politics, this status was
viewed as the divine justification of a king's rule. The cult enabled
the Khmer kings to embark on massive architectural projects,
constructing majestic monuments such as Angkor Wat
and Bayon to celebrate the king's divine rule on earth.

The empire's official religions included Hinduism and Mahayana

Buddhism until Theravada Buddhism prevailed, even among the
lower classes, after its introduction from Sri Lanka in the 13th
century. Since then, Hinduism slowly declined in Cambodia, and
finally being replaced by Theravadan Buddhist as the major faith in
the kingdom. Despite this, Hindu rituals continue to play an
important role in the kingdom. Like in neighboring Thailand, the
ceremony of coronation is conducted mostly by royal brahmins,
during which the sovereign swears in front of the idols of gods
Vishnu and Shiva to maintain the ancient national traditions.

14
Hinduism in Indonesia- Balinese Hinduism and Hinduism in
Java

The main three towers of the 9th century Prambanan Trimurti temple complex,

the largest Hindu temple site in Indonesia.

Today in Indonesia, Hinduism is practised by 1.7% of the total

population. Hindus constitute 83.29% of the population of Bali and
5.75% of the population of Central Kalimantan, as of the 2010
census.[16] However, between the 4th century to 15th century,
Hinduism and Buddhism was adhered by the majority of the
population, along with native
indigenous animism and dynamism beliefs that venerated natural
and ancestral spirits. By 15th to 16th-century Islam had
supplanted Hinduism and Buddhism as the majority religion in the
Indonesian archipelago. The influence of Hinduism has profoundly
left its marks on the culture of Bali, Java, and Sumatra. Bali has
become the last remnant of once Hindu dominated region.

15
Hindu influences reached the Indonesian Archipelago as early as
first century. In 4th-century, the kingdom of Kutai in East
Kalimantan, Tarumanagara in West Java, and Holing (Kalingga)
in Central Java, were among the early Hindu states established in
the region. The notable ancient Indonesian Hindu kingdoms
are Medang i Bhumi Mataram (famous for the construction of the
majestic 9th-century Trimurti Prambanan temple) followed
by Kediri, Singhasari and the 14th-century Majapahit, the last and
largest among Hindu-Buddhist Javanese empires.

The Hindu civilisations have left their marks on Indonesian culture.

The epics Mahabharata and Ramayana, became enduring
traditions among Indonesian art forms, expressed
in wayang shadow puppet and dance performances.
Many Indonesian names are Sanskrit-based, and Bahasa
Indonesia contains loads of loanwords of Sanskrit origin. The
vehicle of Vishnu, Garuda, was adopted as both national emblem
16
Garuda Pancasila and flag carrier national airline named Garuda
Indonesia.

Today, the Indonesian government has recognised Hinduism as one

of the country's six officially sanctioned religions, along with
Islam, Protestantism, Roman Catholicism, Buddhism
and Confucianism.

The Hindu communities in Java tend to be concentrated around

built temples (pura) or around archaeological temple sites (candi)
which are being reclaimed as places of Hindu worship. An
important Hindu temple in eastern Java is Pura Mandaragiri
Sumeru Agung, located on the slope of Mt. Semeru, Java's highest
mountain. Another Hindu temple, built on a site with minor
archaeological remnants attributed to the Kingdom of Blambangan,
the last Hindu polity on Java, and Pura Loka Moksa Jayabaya (in
the village of Menang near Kediri), where the Hindu king and
prophet Jayabaya is said to have achieved spiritual liberation
(moksa). Another site is the new Pura Pucak Raung in East Java,
which is mentioned in Balinese literature as the place from
where Maharishi Markandeya took Hinduism to Bali in the 14th
century.

17
An example of resurgence around major archaeological remains of
ancient Hindu temple sites was observed
in Trowulan near Mojokerto, the capital of the legendary Hindu
empire Majapahit. A local Hindu movement is struggling to gain
control of a newly excavated temple building which they wish to see
restored as a site of active Hindu worship. The temple is to be
dedicated to Gajah Mada, the man attributed with transforming the
small Hindu kingdom of Majapahit into an empire. Although there
has been a more pronounced history of resistance to Islamization in
East Java, Hindu communities are also expanding in Central Java
near the ancient Hindu monuments of Prambanan. On 9 to 12
November 2019, the grand Abhiṣeka sacred ceremony was
performed in this temple compound. This Hindu ritual was held for
the first time after 1,163 years after the Prambanan temple was
founded on 856. The Abhiṣeka ceremony was meant to cleanse,
sanctify and purify the temple, thus signify that the temple is not
merely an archaeological and tourism site, but also restored to its
original function as a focus of Hindu religious activity.

Hinduism in Laos
Hinduism makes up less than 0.1% of the population of Laos.
Approximately 7,000 People of Laos are Hindus
Ancient Laos used to be a part of Hindu Khmer Empire. The Wat
Phou is one of the last influences of that period. The Laotian
adaptation of the Ramayana is called Phra Lak Phra Lam.

Funan Government and Economy
 Angkor Borei: the Capital of Funan?
 Chenla
 Impact of the Chenla
 Funan Art
 Kompong Thom
 Sambor Prei Kuk
 Ruins at Sambor Prei Kuk
 Sambor Prei Kuk: UNESCO World Heritage Site
 Phnom Da
portion of the Malay Peninsula.

18
Angkor Borei: the Capital of Funan?
 Angkor Borie (in Takeo province, about 102 kilometers south of
Phnom Penh)is a town in the area of several ruins and
archaeological digs. The area contains artifacts dating from the
Funan (4th and 5th century) and Water Chenla (8th century) as
well as the later Angkorian period. The prasat ruins on top of
nearby Phnom Da are 11th century Angkorian. There is a small
museum in the town.

Angkor Borei was nominated to be a UNESCO World Heritage

Site in 2020, According to a report submitted to UNESCO:
“Angkor Borei is an important center of one of the earliest
complex polities in Southeast Asia. It was a major political
centre and the foundation of Khmer civilization that began
between 500 B.C. until the late 6th century. It located the
modern capital city of Cambodia." Angkor Borei is one of the
important archaeological sites in Cambodia and is believed to be
the capital of Funan. It has also been proposed that Angkor
Borei served as an early Khmer capital and became a quasi-
model for the later period city development that include the
current World Heritage sites of Sambor Prei Kuk (Ishanapura)
and Angkor (Yasodharapura).

Angkor Borei is approximately 300 hectares in size with many

brick structures. It is surrounded by a large brick and soil wall,
lined by moats both inside and outside. A long canal connected
this site with other Funan centres such as Phnom Bayong and
with the Oc Eo region, in present day Vietnam. The site has
revealed the oldest extant dated Khmer inscription and the
earliest examples of architecture and sculpture that can be
considered to be Khmer. Moreover, the Angkor Borei area
continued to be an important religious centre following the pre-
history period including the burials at Komnou pagoda and
Borei mountain. [Source: Permanent Delegation of the Kingdom
of Cambodia to UNESCO]

19
Angkor Borei has unique architecture and town planning,
influenced from India and became distinct as it developed. Its
concept of making a town influenced later period such as
Sambor Prei Kuk, Angkor, Long Vek and Oudong. The
authenticity of Angkor Borei and Phnom Da have been
expresses OUV through some type remaining attributes such as;
all the relevant historical, culture, social, traditional, religious,
art, artifice, archaeological and ancient city complexes include
moat city, hydraulic structure, monument and religious area
both Hindu and Buddhist. The ancient hydraulic structure such
as canal and water tanks are still in use today and some of

20
important and rebuilt have remained in situ. The Angkor Borei
archaeological and cultural landscape continued to be used in
several periods until present for human habitation, religious
site, with idea and concepts of town planning serving as be a
role models in following periods there by assisting to maintain
and preserve the archaeological and cultural landscape until
today.

The location of the capital of Funan has not been definitely

proven. It is not even known for sure if Funan was a single
unified polity. One linguistics-based theory, based on the
presumed connection between the word "Funan" and the Khmer
word "phnom", locates the capital in the vicinity of Ba Phno near
the modern Cambodian town of Banam in Prey Veng Province.
Another linguistic theory, forwarded by George Coedès, is that
the capital was a town identified in Angkorian inscriptions as
"Vyadhapura" (City of the Hunter). Coedès based his theory on a
passage in the Chinese histories which identified the capital as
"Temu". Coedès claimed this name represented a transcription
from the Khmer word "dalmāk", which he translated as
"hunter." This theory has mainly been rejected by other scholars
on the grounds that "dalmāk" means "trapper", not "hunter".

21
Only limited archaeological research has been conducted on
Funan in southern Cambodia. Archaeological surveys and
excavations have been carried out by joint Cambodian (Ministry
of Culture and Fine Arts; Royal University of Fine Arts) and
international teams at Angkor Borei since 1994. The research
included excavation and dating of human burials at Wat
Kamnou. Numerous brick features, architectural remains, and
landscape features such as mounds, canals and reservoirs have
also been identified. Some have been dated with a wide
spectrum of results ranging from the late centuries BCE to the
Angkorian period. A significant canal system linking the site of
Oc Eo has also been researched and dated. Phon Kaseka led a
Royal Academy of Cambodia and Ministry of Culture and Fine
Arts team (also with Royal University of Fine Arts personnel)
conducted Iron Age to Funan period burial excavations at
neighboring Phnom Borei.

Chenla:  In the 6th and 7th centuries Funan was weakened by
civil wars and absorbed by the pre-Khmer civilization of Chenla
(Zhenla). Chenla endured for around 200 years. In the 8th
century it split into two kingdoms. Lower Chenla was located
east of Tonle Sap. Upper Chenla extended from the northern
shore of Tonle Sap northward up the Mekong River into
southern Laos. Chenla was conquered by Khmers.
 From the 6th century, Cambodia’s population gradually
concentrated along the Mekong and Tonlé Sap Rivers, where the
majority remains today. The move may have been related to the
development of wet-rice agriculture. From the 6th to 8th
centuries it was likely that Cambodia was a collection of
competing kingdoms, ruled by autocratic kings who legitimised
their absolute rule through hierarchical caste concepts
borrowed from India.

22
 This era is generally referred to as the Chenla period. Again,
like Funan, it is a Chinese term and there is little to support the
idea that Chenla was a unified kingdom that held sway over all
of Cambodia. Indeed, the Chinese themselves referred to ‘water
Chenla’ and ‘land Chenla’. Water Chenla was located around
Angkor Borei and the temple mount of Phnom Da, near the
present-day provincial capital of Takeo, and land Chenla in the
upper reaches of the Mekong River and east of Tonlé Sap Lake,
around Sambor Prei Kuk, an essential stop on a chronological
jaunt through Cambodia’s history.
 Chenla flourished from southern Cambodia to southern Laos.
The first stone inscriptions in the Khmer language and the first
brick and stone Hindu temples in Cambodia date from the
Chenla period. Little archeological evidence exist on Funan or
Chenla. Most of what is known about them is based on Chinese
texts. Many historian now think they were relatively minor
states and the only reason they were mentioned in Chinese texts
is because they paid tribute to the China. States that may have
been more powerful but didn’t pay tributes were not mentioned.
23
 King Mahendravarman reigned form 607 to 616 over Chenla.
He was a son of a king. The century following the death of
Jayavarman I, the last known king of the kingdom, in the
second half of the 7th century, was a dark period in the history
of Chenla. According to a Chinese accounts, in the 8th century,
the country of Chenla was divided into land and water Chenlas.
The obscurity prevails and this monument might be neglected
thereafter. The history. However, is traced again with the
accession of Jayavarman II, who founded a new polity that is
now referred as Angkor in the beginning of 9th century.

Impact of the Chenla

 The people of Chenla also were Khmer. Once they established
control over Funan, they embarked on a course of conquest that
continued for three centuries. They subjugated central and
upper Laos, annexed portions of the Mekong Delta, and brought
what are now western Cambodia and southern Thailand under
their direct control. [Library of Congress]
 The royal families of Chenla intermarried with their Funanese
counterparts and generally preserved the earlier political, social,
and religious institutions of Funan. In the eighth century A.D.,
however, factional disputes at the Chenla court resulted in the
splitting of the kingdom into rival northern and southern halves.
According to Chinese chronicles, the two parts were known as
Land (or Upper) Chenla and Water (or Lower) Chenla. Land
Chenla maintained a relatively stable existence, but Water
Chenla underwent a period of constant turbulence. [Library of
Congress]

24
 Funan and Chenla gave way to the Angkor Empire with the rise
to power of King Jayavarman II in 802. Late in the eighth
century A.D., Water Chenla was subjected to attacks by pirates
from Java, Sumatra, and the Malay Peninsula. By the beginning
of the ninth century, it had apparently become a vassal of the
Sailendra dynasty of Java. The last of the Water Chenla kings
allegedly was killed around A.D. 790 by a Javanese monarch
whom he had offended. The ultimate victor in the strife that
followed was the ruler of a small Khmer state located north of
the Mekong Delta. His assumption of the throne as Jayavarman
II (ca. A.D. 802-50) marked the liberation of the Khmer people
from Javanese suzerainty and the beginning of a unified Khmer
nation. [Library of Congress]
Funan Art
 Nancy Tingley of the Asia Society wrote: "More than three
hundred Fu Nan archeological sites have been identified in the
Mekong Delta region; these sites are characterized by domestic
architecture built on stilts, terracotta wares and buff-colored
ceramics, gold jewelry, and Buddhist and Hindu architecture
and sculpture. A preponderance of imagery from this region is
associated with the worship of the Hindu god Vishnu, and
several examples are on view here. Extensive excavations of the
city of Oc Eo have yielded rich local artifacts and a few examples
of international contact, including Roman coins and jewelry,
Chinese sculpture, and Indian beads. The dominant position of
the Fu Nan people in international trade fell significantly by the

25
sixth century and then came to a halt around 650." [Source:
Nancy Tingley, Asia Society **]
 Describing an Ekamukhalinga from the 6th century Tingley
wrote: "The Hindu god Shiva is frequently worshipped in his
linga (phallus) form, which according to ritual texts signifies
Shiva’s highest level of being. This is an example of an
ekamukhalinga, or one-faced linga. The linga is generally
installed in the garbhagrha ("womb," or central, chamber) of the
temple, and is the primary object of worship for devotees of
Shiva. The form of the linga is divided into three sections, a
square section that alludes to Brahma the Creator; an octagonal
section, to Vishnu the Preserver; and the cylindrical upper
portion, to Shiva the Destroyer." [Source: Nancy Tingley, Asia
Society, found at the Oc Eo site, My Lam Village, An Giang
Province; now in Museum of Vietnamese History, Ho Chi Minh
City, BTLS 5532]

 Describing Three Intaglio made from carnelian and crystal from

the 6th century, Tingley wrote: "These intaglios, along with
Indian inscribed gems, cameos, and Roman medallions, attest
to the cosmopolitanism of Oc Eo. The use of carnelian for stone
seals was common in the western ancient world. A close look at
these carnelian intaglios reveals that they were produced with a
rotary abrasive tool, which creates a round edge at the end of a
cut. In contrast, the crystal intaglio was more coarsely carved
with a chisel, and was probably made at a different location.
Several similar crystal examples with figures seated in the
posture of royal ease were excavated at Oc Eo." [Source: **
found at Oc Eo site, My Lam Village, An Giang Province now in
the Museum of Vietnamese History, Ho Chi Minh City, BTLS
2248, BTLS 2258, BTLS 22
26
53]

 Describing a stone lintel from the late 7th century, Tingley

wrote: " The lintel of a Southeast Asian temple, positioned above
the doorway, served as the sculptural focus for the temple’s
entrance and provided a large surface for deep relief carving.
The lintel framed the image of the primary deity inside and was
one of the first views the devout had of the building. As in this
example, early lintels often included a curved arch that imitated
wooden prototypes." [Source: ** found at Thuy Lieu Village, An
Giang Province; now in the Museum of Vietnamese History, Ho
Chi Minh City, BTLS 5977 ]

 Bronzes combine elements of indigenous animism with

tantricism. Buddhism. Describing a bronze Vishnu from the 7th
century, Tingley wrote: "Vishnu was the most popular Hindu
god during the Fu Nan period, and four-armed images of him
are abundant throughout the Mekong Delta region. In these
images, he holds a conch (a symbol of the origin of existence); a
mace, which also serves to support the figure in this example; a
clod of earth; and a wheel (a symbol of power), broken here. The
long dhoti he wears recalls earlier images of Vishnu, but also
suggests Pallava south Indian influences. The silvery patina of
this piece reveals that the bronze is of high tin content, which is
typical of Southeast Asian bronzes. The large hands and the
backward thrust of the second pair of upper arms are also
common in sculpture of this early period." [Source: ** found at
the Tan Phu site, Tan Hoi Village, An Giang Province; now in the
Museum of Vietnamese History, Ho Chi Minh City, BTLS 1585]
 Describing Three Elephants made of gold sheet from the 7th–
8th century, Tingley wrote: "The site of Go Xoai, excavated in
1987, included a square brick temple measuring approximately
50 feet (15.4 meters) on all sides. The temple contained a
smaller structure in its western section. In this secondary
structure, the excavator found a hole filled with white sand and
ash, as well as a thin inscribed gold leaf text; inlaid jewelry; and
tortoise, snake, eight elephants, and a number of lotuses all in
gold repoussé. The dedication of a temple in Southeast Asia was
an important religious and secular event that involved the

27
practice of burying gold and other precious objects in the
foundation. The Agni Purana, an Indian text of which the
Southeast Asians were aware, states that a tortoise and five
objects of cosmological significance were to be buried in the
base of the temple." [Source: ** found at the Go Xoai site, Duc
Hoa District, Long An Province; now in the Long An Museum,
BT87-M1-I-3]

 Describing a stone Surya from the 7th–8th century, Tingley

wrote: "Surya, the sun god, is an important generative force
derived from Indian Vedic and other solar deities. When
portrayed without his chariot and attendants, he can be
distinguished by the two lotuses he holds and his heavy
clothing. Early images of Surya have been found in many areas
of Southeast Asia. His importance derives not only from his
independent identity as sun god, but also from his close
association with the Hindu god Vishnu. In this sculpture,
Surya’s headdress recalls that of Vishnu, although this
headdress has an octagonal form, rather than the more common
circular shape." [Source: ** at the Ba The Village, An Giang
Province; now in the Museum of Vietnamese History, Ho Chi
Minh City, BTLS 5527]

Kompong Thom
 Kompong Thom was a very powerful capital in Southeast Asia
during the Funan period. A1 Kampong Thom Province is
Cambodia's second largest province by area. Kampong Pos
Thom, meaning the “Place of Big Snakes”, was the original
name. Because originally a long time ago, at the dock of the Sen
River next to a big natural lake, there was a big cave with a pair
of big snakes inside. The people living around this area usually
saw these big snakes every Buddhist Holiday. After that, the
snakes disappeared, and the people of that area called it
Kampong Pos Thom. Then, only short words Kampong Thom.
During the French colony in Cambodia, the French ruled and
divided Cambodian territory into provinces, and named them
according to the spoken words of the people Kampong Thom
Province.

28
 Kampong Thom Province is located at the central point of the
Kingdom of Cambodia and home to exotic lakes, rivers, forests,
mountains and more than 200 ancient temples. Sambor temple
and Prei Kuk temple are the two main temples in Kompong
Thom as well as other less significant Angkorian sites.

 The province has a total land area of 15,061square kilometers

divided into 8 districts, 81 communes and 737 villages. The
province borders Preah Vihear and Siem Reap Provinces to the
north, Kratie Province to the east, Kampong Cham to the south
and Kampong Chhnang to the west. Kampong Thom Province is
divided into two parts: 1) East of National Road 6 covers 70
percent of the province and consists of forests and plateaus,
which are rich in natural resources and good for profitable
agriculture, forestry and animal husbandry; and 2) West of
National Road 6 covers 30 percent surface and consists of wet
plains extending to Tonle Sap Lake. This area is one of the best
areas in Cambodia for rice cultivation and fishing. Two of the
three core areas in Tonle Sap Biosphere Reserve are located in
Kampong Thom: Boeng Chhmar (14,560 hectares), and Stung
Saen (6,355 hectares).

29
Sambor Prei Kuk
Sambor Prei Kuk (25 kilometers northeast of Kampong Thom,
150 kilometers southeast of Siem Reap) is a historical site
located in Sambo village, Sambo commune, Prasat Sambo
district. The site was once an old capital named Isanapura and
a religious center for the worship of the Hindu god Shiva. Many
temples were built in Sambor Prei Kuk during the reign of King
Isanavarman I (A.D. 616- 635) in the 7th century. The temples
of Sambor Prei Kuk constructed of solid brick, laterite and
sandstone and decorated by bas-reliefs. The lintel, pillars and
the door frames are all made of sandstone. So far, 140 temples
have been discovered in the forest.

Sambor Prei Kuk (Sambo Preykuk) was the capital of Chenla in

7th century. Chenla was a former vassal of the Funan kingdom
that was one of the first state in Southeast Asia, but it gradually
gained its power and eventually King Citrasena

30
Mahendravarman of Funan in the early 7th century. The ruins
lies off the main road going towards Phnom Penh. If you expect
grand temple ruins you will be disappointed. Sambor Prei Kuk
is a group of ancient temple ruins scattered within a shady
forest. They pre-date Angkor Wat and made up a capital city
during the reign of King Isana Varman 1, the son of King
Citrasena. Few tourists know of it. The main temple group
known as Prasat Sambor is dedicated to Gambhireshvara, one
of Shiva’s many forms. The few visitors that come are often
swarmed by child peddlers hawking bracelets and trinkets.

31
Built at the end of the 6th century, the ruins are touted as the
oldest structures in the country, covering an area of five square
kilometers. About 100 small temples are scattered throughout
the forest. Left in the open and not maintained, some of the
structures are just mere remnants of their original building,
perhaps a broken wall here, a vine-choked edifice there. There
are 52 temples in recognisable condition, and another 52 sites
where the original structures are now buried in the ground,
visible only as small hills.The Ministry of Culture and Fine Arts
together with the Waseda University, supported by The
Foundation for Cultural Heritage and the Sumitomo Fund, have
started the Sambor Prei Kuk Conservation Project to restore
these ruins. Many decorative details in Khmer architecture and
sculpture are classified as Sambor style: the name was derived
from these monuments.

Ruins at Sambor Prei Kuk

 Prasat Sambor Group (Northern Sanctuaries) is comprised of
11 sanctuaries separated from each other with the one at the
middle, and had two-wall rampart. The sanctuaries were built of
brick and limestone and decorated with carvings and bas-reliefs
influenced by India. The main sanctuary houses 14 temples
(only 8 remains), and was surrounded by two-wall rampart.
These temples were constructed in various plans: square and
octagonal shapes. The top of the temples were carved in lotus
petals of sandstone, but some parts were cracked down and
buried into the ground and the pile of bricks. Some inscriptions
in Prasat Sambor (Northern Group) are dated in the 10th
century under the reign of the King Rajendra Varmanii.
The Robang Romeas group that is located about two kilometers
northward from main temple area, contains other inscriptions of
the king Suryavarman I period. Some decorative details date to
the late Angkor period. Decorative details of Prasat Tao (Central
Group) are similar to the style of the remains belong to the
period of the king J ayavarman II, Particularly, characteristic
lion statues resembles the statues found in Phnom Penh. From
these reasons this architectural complex is said to be
constructed in this period.

32
The Lion temple group comprise 18 temples with two ramparts
closed to the pond. The reasons why the people called Lion
Temple is because on the tops of all stairs from the four
directions, there were sitting lions with forelegs standing up,
hind-legs humbling down, its head rose up and its mouse
opened to the sanctuary. The rampart outside are made of
laterite were 328 meter in length, 310 meter wide and enclosed
101,650-square-meter surface. This rampart had Gopura
entrances on the east and west sides that are connected by the
other laterite ramparts. In between rampart 2 and 1, at the
Northeastern side near the rampart 1, there is a rectangular
pond (42.10 meters x 34.20m). The bottom of the pond is
covered by laterite and surrounded by stairs. The small stairs of
the Southern side are made of sandstone. Now the pond is
empty during the dry season. When we enter from the Eastern
Gopura on either side of the road, we see two sanctuary hills
were built on high terrace with the tracks of the round column
made of laterite lining up in 0.40 meters height.
Prasat Yeai Poeun Group comprised a total of 22 sanctuaries (5
have octagonal shapes) with two wall rampart, and was built of
brick, masonry, laterite and sandstone in rectangular from in
7th century (600-635) during the reign of Isanavarman I to
dedicated to Shiva. They were built on a hill with Gopura from
the eastern and western entrances joining to an outside laterite
rampart. The inner rampart reached by gateways from the four
directions and joined to the brick rampart carved in various
clustering figures. Along the sanctuary contained the eastern
and western Gopura joined to the laterite rampart (304m x
274m or 83,296 square-meter surface). Gopura contained
framed door with diamond columns and a lintel built of
sandstone. Eastern Gopura contained a buried large inscription
(size: 2.41m x 0,9m x 0,15) inscribed with 17 lines of script.
This inscription was brought to be kept in Kampong Thom
Museum.
Behind in the Kroul Romeas Group, there were four more
sanctuaries made of brick and built during the reign King
Suryavarman 1(end of 11th century). These sanctuaries were
built on a rectangular hill, and faced to the East. One of
sanctuaries was not completely built yet, it was likely built in

33
later period. The lintel was carved in the form of bow without
the modal. At the southeastern side, there were two temples
recognized as the original ancient khmer styles.

Sambor Prei Kuk: UNESCO World Heritage Site

 The Temple Zone of Sambor Prei Kuk, Archaeological Site of
Ancient Ishanapura was designated a a UNESCO World Heritage
site in 2017. According to UNESCO: “The archaeological site of
Sambor Prei Kuk, “the temple in the richness of the forest” in
the Khmer language, has been identified as Ishanapura, the
capital of the Chenla Empire that flourished in the late 6th and
early 7th centuries AD. The property comprises more than a
hundred temples, ten of which are octagonal, unique specimens
of their genre in South-East Asia. Decorated sandstone elements
in the site are characteristic of the pre-Angkor decorative idiom,
known as the Sambor Prei Kuk Style. Some of these elements,
including lintels, pediments and colonnades, are true
masterpieces. The art and architecture developed here became
models for other parts of the region and lay the ground for the
unique Khmer style of the Angkor period. [Source: UNESCO]
 Sambor Prei Kuk has distinctive characteristics in terms of
architecture and city planning, both of which were influenced by

34
Indian culture. In addition, there are also some unique aesthetic
decorations, such as the sculpture of a castle, coin-shaped
picture frames on the brick walls of religious buildings, and
lintels used to furnish religious venues in the artistic style
known as Sombor Prei Kuk Art. This cultural heritage site also
has a landscape design with water management system allowing
water flowing cycle and water collection for all year utilization.
[Source: Thailand National Committee on the World Heritage
Convention]
 The ancient Ishanapura civilization came from Indian culture
and played an important role in the Khmer Empire, influencing
the social, religious, and artistic structure and contributing to
unique traditions, values, and arts. This is particularly true of
the Chenla Kingdom, the linking hub between Hinduism and
Buddhism, which impacted many societies throughout
Southeast Asia. Sombor Prei Kuk is also one of the largest
monastic sites in Southeast Asia with traces of evidence from
brick and stone constructions, similar religious beliefs, and
languages, representing a civilization that continues to exist into
the present.
 Languages and inscriptions found at Sombor Prei Kuk are
evidence of the initial use of Khmer and later addition of
Sanskrit language. This area was a centralized governance
center and the foundation of the Khmer royalism that existed
until the beginning of the 20thcentury. In addition, carvings on
the lintels of Sombor Prei Kuk Sanctuary depict a pattern of
musical instruction and musical instruments, which is
important evidence of ancient musical education in Cambodia.
In the past, Ishanapura was the center of the cosmos in terms
of governance, language, and religion.
Phnom Da
Phnom Da (in Takeo province near Angkor Borei) was
nominated along with Angkor Borei to be a UNESCO World
Heritage Site in 2020, According to a report submitted to
UNESCO: “Phnom Da is the name of the mount to the south of
the town of Angkor Borei. Currently, two temples still remain
standing on this mount and several caves that have been found
around its base. The principal temple, now known as Phnom Da
temple, was built in the 11th century on foundations remaining

35
from the Funan period. On the northeast slope of the mount is
another temple named Asram Maha Rosei. It is a temple built of
unusual material for Khmer construction. A very hard basalt
stone has only been used in two temples in Cambodia, and it is
one of a very few temples in Cambodia that has an internal
“womb” (Garbhag ha) where the priests (Pujari) go inside to
make ceremonial actions. [Source: Permanent Delegation of the
Kingdom of Cambodia to UNESCO]
Around the foot of the mount of Phnom Da, some five caves
have been located – three on the north face, one on the east and
one on the west. Sculptures related to Vishnu were found in
those caves, some of which are currently housed in the National
Museum of Cambodia in Phnom Penh. From an art history
perspective, Phnom Da was identified by art historian as the
first Khmer art history style, defined as Phnom Da style with
two different parts ; Phnom Da part A and Phnom Da part B.
The main characteristic of this style is to integrate both Hindu
and Buddhist sculpture, showing similarity with the Indian arts
of Gupta and Post-Gupta period, and the style has a strong
relationship with the Indo-Greek Mathura school.
Phnom Da is an outstanding masterpiece of early Khmer
architecture and art that were influence by Indian culture, but
were distinctly transformed into the hallmark of the local
culture. The majority of early examples of Khmer architecture
such as Asram Moha Rosei, Phnom Da foundation temple and
the artificial caves are to be found in the Angkor Borei region.
Additionally, the Romlok and Koh pagodas reveal that the
Angkor Borei region is deeply steeped in religious and symbolic
values.
The architecture and arts of Phnom Da represent the redefining
of Indian architecture into a distinctive early Khmer style. The
main features of Phnom Da include the artificial caves, little
niches with heads (Kudu), the temple that was built from basalt,
and the presence of the womb (Garbhagrha). Moreover, the
sculptures found at this site and around this area form basis of
what has been identified as the early Khmer arts history style
known as Phnom Da style. The development of the architecture
and arts at Phnom Da become a role model that spread to
another place, developing to become a persistent distinctive

36
 style in the post period Phnom Da shows the influence of India
with a local derivation both in technique and the ideas that is
represented on the monument and art of the main religious
centre of Funan. A Vishnu statue with eight arms found at
Phnom Da show this Vishnu holding weapon not typical such as
an antelope skin and a flask that are the weapon of Shiva, the
flame a weapon of Agni, and the Mace a weapon of Yama. Asram
Moha Rosei was dedicated to the Hindu got Harihara, a
representation of Vishnu and Shiva in combination. Moreover,
Buddhism was also practiced at Angkor Borei. The combination
of both Hindu gods and Buddhist icons shows that during that
time Angkor Borei practiced religious and social harmony.”
Han Chey Mountain (Cambodia: late 6th to late 7th century) is
an archaeological site on the banks of the Mekong river and has
a collection of the Pre-Angkorian temples. One of these is Kuk
Preah Theat located on the slope of Han Chey mountain. It has
a very similar shape to Asram Moha Rosei and was built by
using the same basalt stone. These are the only two temples so
far found in Cambodia built with such stone.
Image Sources: Wikimedia Commons
Text Sources: New York Times, Washington Post, Los Angeles
Times, Times of London, The Guardian, National Geographic,
Smithsonian magazine, The New Yorker, Time, Newsweek,
Reuters, AP, AFP, Wall Street Journal, The Atlantic Monthly,
The Economist, Global Viewpoint (Christian Science Monitor),
Foreign Policy, Wikipedia, BBC, CNN, NBC News, Fox News and
various books and other publications.

HISTORY OF FUNAN AND CAMBODIA

In the beginning of the first century A.D. a Hindu community
existed in Funan. The oldest Hindu kingdom established in the
lower valley of the Mekong, the area now included in the Indo-China
peninsula was known as the funan with its capital at Vyadhapura,
probably near Ba Phnom. According to the tradition recorded in
inscriptions, it was founded in the 1st century B.C. by a
Brahamana and Kaundinya from India who defeated and married
the Naga prnices soma of that place. The second Kaundinya - again
a Brahmana from India was elected king by the people, thus
marking the next stage of Indian colonisation, Hinduism too deep

37
root in that country, and the rulers bore Indian names and followed
Indian religion. The brahminical hierarchy was a notable feature in
the social order.
Chinese records mentions the year as 191 A.D. when Kaundinya, a
Brahmin, "planted his javelin and married a local naked princes".
This was confirmed by the inscriptions relating to King Srimara of
the third century A.D. History of Thais also confirms this evidence.
One of the kings, Ashvanarman performed otrthodox Aryan
sacrifices. For certain, another Kaundinya who ruled over Funan in
the fourth century A.D. appears to have reorganized the state and
society. The successor of Kaundinya II, Gu navarman, built temples
in honour of Vishnu. In the fifth century A.D. there was a war
between funan and the newly emerging champa. At this time
Jayavarma of Funan sent an emissary to China seeking its help.
This kingdom established by Kaundinya flourished for a few
centuries. Chinese annals refer to some of the vasslas of Funan in
the seventh century A.D.
Funan lost its importance and was merged in the famous kingdom
of Kambuja (Cambodia) named after Kambu-Svayambhuva. By abo
to the 6th century A.D, King Bhavavarman founded a new royal
family. Consolidating his hold over kingdom of Kambuja and
Funan. His successors ruled for a very long time. The later story is
that of the empire of Kambuja extending over a period of more than
five centuries.
Three important kingdosm existed at the opening of the sixth
century - Kambuja (Cambodia), Champa (Thailand) and Srivijaya, a
great maritime empire which included the Malaya peninsula and
Simatra.
KAMBUJA:
Kambuja began as a vassal state of Funan but by the middle of the
sixth century ir became an independent State of Funan. The
founder was Stiravarman. The early inscriptions are in classical
Sanskrit, Full of references to ancient India. The kings were
Hindus, mainly Saivite. More interesting is the fact that the prasati
of Bhavaarman was written in the Kavya style closely imitating the
Rabhuvansa of Kalidasa.
Buddhism appeared ni Kambuja by the middle of the seventh
century, and two religions, Hinduism and Buddhism, co-existed as
in India. From the homeland it was the Pallava influence that

38
dominated. It was the Pallava doctrine of Saivism that the official
cult of Kambuja also. Kambuja's architecture bears the influence of
the Pallava tradition.

CHAMPA:
Champa or Thailand was also an anceitn kingdom. It too broke
away from Funan. Chmapa covered Vietna, Laos and Cambodia at
one time.
Founded by the turn of the first century A.d. with its capital at
Indrapura, Its nucleus was modern Thailand. Probably might have
been the first historical king, if not the founder of the Hindu
dynasty. The first known-important king was Rudravarman. One
king Indravarman III mastered the six systems of Hindu Philosophy,
the Buddhist philosophy system, the grammer of Panini, and the
sacred texts of the saivitis. The Vedas and the Dramasastras were
studied and one king Sri Jaya Idnravarma VII had mastery of the
Dharmasastras. Even the Ramayana and the Mahabharata were
videly known. The architecture of Champa was of the southern
type. Champa disappeared in the 14th century from History after
many centuries of fight with the kingdom of Annam which was the
advanced post of Chiense culture.

SAILENDRAS:
Probably, the sailendras were merged with the Srivijaya kingdom of
Sumatra in the fourth century A.D. By the end of the eighth
century, the empire spread to Malaya peninsula, One of the kings
sent an expedition to Java. I-Tsing visited one king, Sri Jayanasa.
Inscriptions talek of Sailendra rule over Sumatra, java and the
Malay peninsula by theend of the thirteenth century A.D. As a naval
power the Sailendras continued till the 12th century.
The third kingdom of Srivijaya had the glory of guarding the sea
routes. The kingdom was first established in Sumatra. Soon the
king conquered the other island groups and established their
hegemony over the Malaca straits by the beginning of the seventh
century. In the eighth century they extended their power to the
Malay peninsula. "Thus withone foot on the continent and the other
on the great island of Sumatra they bestrode the straits and
retained the mastery of both seas for over 500 years."

39
It was this authority of Srivijaya kingdom that was challenged by
the Chols in the eleventh century. It was Rajendra Chola who began
the 100 years war with the Sailendras. At the end of the war the
Sailednras remained masters of the sea. Thus for full 700 years
they did had held sovereignty over the seas surrounding the islands
and upheld Indian culture in the archipelago.
They maintained friendly relations with the Palas of Bengal.
Balaputradeva of the Sailendras built a monastery at Nalanda.
Another ruler built a monastery at Nagapatnam.
The Sailendras were Mahayana Buddhist. Sumatra and Java
attracted foreign scholars. Atisadipankara of the Vikramsila
university styed for ten years in Sumatra. Their greatest stupa is
the Buddha temple at Baraboudour largest in the world - 2000
relief scultupres on the life of the Buddha - built in the from of
terraces - the top-most terrace crowned with a bell-shaped stupa.
Arab travelers by compliments to the wealth and grandeur of the
empire in the 8th century. But Camobida as Java broke away in the
9th century.

SOCIAL LIFE:
The Indian, immigrants in South-East Asia, while setting up their
kingdoms, tried to build a social structure on the orthodox Indian
model with the traditional four castes (caturvarna) and the
supremacy of the brahmins and the ksatriyas. The distinction
between brahmins and the Kastriyas was more apparent than real.
Intermarriage between the two was not unknown. But the caste
system in these regioins was not as rigid as in India. The
aristocracy and the common people had a sharp line of distinction,
specially noticed in their dress, which was scanty in the case of
ordinary people but gorgeous and ornamented for the aristocrats.
Caste did not interfere in the Choice of the avocation. A Kambuja
record refers to the members of a Brahmin family being elephant
drivers. Artisans and priests.
The Indian dhoti wsa very commonly used. It is mentioned by
Chinese historians. A sculpture at Bayon depicts the king dressed
in dhoti with a hara - jeweled gold garland - round his neck. The
history of the Sui Dynasti mentions that the kings was dressed in
purple silk clothes which were embroidered. Inscriptios and
sculptures bring out the use of Indian ornaments.

40
The food habit of the people was the same, tandula (rice) was the
staple food with pulses like tila and mudga. Likewise gharta, dadhi
and guda (ghee, curd anomolasses) are mentioned in inscription s.
ART:
It is astonishing that the greatest Buddhist temple is found not in
India but in Baraboudur in Indonasia. Considered to be the largest
Buddhist temple in the whoel world, It was constructed in the
eighth century A.D. and 436 images of Buddha were engraved onit.
The temple of Angkorvat in Kampuchea to medieval times of
Baraboudur. Although this temple belongs to medieval times in can
be compared to the best artistic achievements of the Egyptians and
Greeks. The stories of the Ramayana and Mahabharata are written
in relief on the walls of the temple. The story of the Ramayana is so
popular in Indonasia that many folk plays are performed on its
basis. The Indonesian language called BHASHA INDONESIA
contains numerous Sanskrit words. In respect of sculptures the
head of the Buddha from Thailand, the head from Kambuja and the
Magnificent bronze images from Java are regarded as the best
examples of the blending of Indian art with local art traditions of
South-East Asia. Similarly beautifull examples of painting
comparable to those of Ajanta have been found not only in Sri
Lanka but in the Tun Huang Caves on the Chinese border.
It was a two-way traffic. Indians acquired the craft of minting gold
coins from the greeks and Romans. They larnt theart of growing silk
from Cinha. That of growing betel leaves from Indonasia, and
several other products from the neighbouring countries. Similarly
the method of growing cotton spread from India to China and
central Asia. However, Indian contribution seems to be more
important in art, religion and language.
nan Kingdom - 100-545 AD
That portion of Asia which today hears the name of Cambodia, is
comparatively small in area and sparsely populated. Its greatest
length does not exceed two hundred and seventy miles, and its
breadth one hundred and thirty. Despite the obscurity hanging
about its early history, it is certain that Cambodia, though now
reduced to insignificance, in ages long past was a great and
mighty empire. Sometimes a person can get lost; sometimes even
a city in a jungle or a desert can get lost. In Southeast Asia
empires sometimes got lost. Funan is a lost empire that rose to

41
prominence, declined and then was forgotten over the centuries.
Funan existed along the southern edge of Southeast Asia in what
is now Cambodia and southern Vietnam and extending an
uncertain amount to the west into what is now Thailand even
perhaps into what is Myanmar (Burma).
At about the time that the ancient peoples of Western Europe
were absorbing the classical culture and institutions of the
Mediterranean, the peoples of mainland and insular Southeast
Asia were responding to the stimulus of a civilization that had
arisen in northern India during the previous millennium. The
Britons, Gauls, and Iberians experienced Mediterranean
influences directly, through conquest by and incorporation into
the Roman Empire. In contrast, the Indianization of Southeast
Asia was a slower process than the Romanization of Europe
because there was no period of direct Indian rule and because
land and sea barriers that separated the region from the Indian
subcontinent are considerable. Nevertheless, Indian religion,
political thought, literature, mythology, and artistic motifs
gradually became integral elements in local Southeast Asian
cultures. The caste system never was adopted, but Indianization
stimulated the rise of highly-organized, centralized states.
Funan was a Hindu kingdom founded in the first century AD
with its capital Vyadhapura, close to the Mekong River near the
border with Cambodia. The first kingdom of Southeast Asia was
Phnom (the Cambodian word for "mountain"), or Funan (the
Chinese name for the region). Both names refer to Mount Meru,
the home of the gods in Hinduism. The kingdom formed when the
lower Mekong delta was united under a city called Vyadhapura
("hunter city" in Sanskrit).
King Fan Che Man during the 2nd century enlarged Funan about
10 to 12 times of the previous size of 500 li. Funan was a
tributary state to China from about 300 AD to 600 AD. Funan is
the Chinese pronunciation of the ancient Khmer word pnom,
meaning mountain. The exact nature of the ethnology of Funan is
uncertain but it was probably an Indianized state of Khmer
people that preceded the similar state at Angkor Wat. Funan had
a Malay upper class, but most of the population was Negrito.
Funan ruled the fertile valleys of the Mekong and the Meinam,
and doubtless extended from the China Sea to the Bay of Bengal,

42
and from the Gulf of Siam on the south to the frontiers of China
at the north. It held commercial and other intercourse with the
Chinese, and is mentioned in the annals of that people under
various names, particularly those of Funan and Chinla. Its ports
were visited for purposes of trade by the merchant galleys of
Ancient Rome.

Funan arose about 100 AD and was taken over by Chenla, its
former vassal state, about 600 AD. Chenla subsequently divided
into a kingdom oriented to the land and centered in northern
Cambodia and Laos and a kingdom oriented to the sea in the
Mekong Delta region in what is now southern Vietnam. After first
diplomatic contact with India from 230s, Funanese
administration were reformed by slowly adopting Indian political
system. And the strong Indian style of kingship and
Administration was commenced from the reign of Kaundinya who
was believed to come from India during late 4th century.
Local written legends again appear to speak of two early
immigrations from Gangetic India. The Pali-Buddhistical annals
of Ceylon record that at the conclusion of the third great synod of
the Buddhist church, held at Palibothra, in the year 302 after
Buddha (corresponding, according to ordinary Ceylonese
43
reckoning, to 241 BC, but as corrected by others to 175 BC), a
mission was despatched to the region of Savarna-Bhumi—i.e.,
Aurea-Regio or Ohryse; and this record may have been the real
basis of the earlier Cambojan tradition.

But it must not be forgotten that in Ptolemy's map of the Indo-

Chinese coast are found many Sanskrit names, indicating the
existence of Hindu settlements at least as early as the 1st
century of our era. The name of Kamboja, though in later days
we find it subjected to fantastic charade-making after the
Chinese fashion of etymology,1 appears to be simply the transfer
of a name famous in old Indian literature as that of a race and
region on the N.W. of the Panjab, in or near the present Chitral.
Such transfers were common, and many survive in Indo-Chinese
use or memory to this day.'
Funan is mentioned in the records of the Chinese Empire. In the
Chinese annals Cambodia is noticed under the names Tchinla,
Funan, Kan-pogee. The Anamese also refer to the kingdom as
Funan and as Chanlap. The Chinese annals mention, under the
name of Fu-nan, and as early as the 12th century BC, a kingdom
embracing what afterwards became Camboja; and the Emperor
Hiao-wuti of the Han dynasty is alleged to have made Funan
tributary, along with adjoining countries, circa 125 BC.
Some two centuries later the same annals place an immigration
under a foreign prince, who became the founder of a dynasty,
and is perhaps to be identified with the Indian leader of the
native legends. The fourth king of this dynasty—say in the latter
part of the 2d century—makes extensive conquests over the
adjoining kingdoms and coasts, and takes the name of Tawang
("great king"), probably a translation of the Indian title Mahd-
rdja, which reappears some centuries later in Arab narratives as
that of the King of the Isles.

It is alleged, too, at this time, that the people of the Roman

empire, including Western Asia, frequented the ports of Funan
for trade. This circumstance is highly probable when it is
considered that Ptolemy attests such voyages as having been
made at least occasionally, in the 1st or 2d century. During this

44
early period in Funan's history, the population was probably
concentrated in villages along the Mekong River and along the
Tonle Sab River below the Tonle Sap. Traffic and communications
were mostly waterborne on the rivers and their delta tributaries.
The area was a natural region for the development of an economy
based on fishing and rice cultivation. There is considerable
evidence that the Funanese economy depended on rice surpluses
produced by an extensive inland irrigation system. Maritime
trade also played an extremely important role in the development
of Funan. The remains of what is believed to have been the
kingdom's main port, Oc Eo (now part of Vietnam), contain
Roman as well as Persian, Indian, and Greek artifacts.

By the fifth century AD, the state exercised control over the lower
Mekong River area and the lands around the Tonle Sap. It also
commanded tribute from smaller states in the area now
comprising northern Cambodia, southern Laos, southern
Thailand, and the northern portion of the Malay Peninsula.
Indianization was fostered by increasing contact with the
subcontinent through the travels of merchants, diplomats, and
learned Brahmans (Hindus of the highest caste traditionally
assigned to the priesthood). Indian immigrants, believed to have
arrived in the fourth and the fifth centuries, accelerated the
process. By the fifth century, the elite culture was thoroughly
Indianized. Court ceremony and the structure of political
institutions were based on Indian models. The Sanskrit language
was widely used; the laws of Manu, the Indian legal code, were
adopted; and an alphabet based on Indian writing systems was
introduced.
Funan reached its zenith in the fifth century AD. Beginning in
the early sixth century, civil wars and dynastic strife undermined
Funan's stability, making it relatively easy prey to incursions by
hostile neighbors. By the end of the seventh century, a northern
neighbor, the kingdom of Chenla, had reduced Funan to a vassal
state.
The last king of Funan was named Rudravarman, who ruled from
514-545 AD. The so-called successive kings at the turn of 6th-
7th centuries, founders of Chenla period claimed to be
descendants of the Funan emperor.

45
Funan by Woods Bagoyt architects( SINGAPORE)

46