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MODULE 2: Globalization and Cultural and
Multicultural Literacies
Globalization is the process of interaction and integration between people, business entities
governments, and cultures from other nations, driven by international trade and investment and supported by
information technology (Levin Institute, 2017). To better illustrate this, consider two people from different countries, for
example, the Philippines and South Korea. Let us say they meet in college and become good friends, so that the Korean
comes to be treated like a member of the Filipino's family. After some time, the Korean returns to her own country, but
something has changed—she notices an aspect of her culture that she finds herself wishing to be more Filipino. She
knows very well that she cannot change Korean culture as a whole, so she decides to just change herself. She does not
change everything, of course —just a little thing ' here and there; she is still obviously Korean, but she just does a few
things differently from those who have never been to the Philippines.
Now suppose a little more time passes and the Korean is very happy with the changes she has made to
her life that makes it just a little more Filipino. Let us say some of her colleagues notice how she does some things
differently and they become curious, so she tells them about her experiences in the Philippines and how that in some
ways, she wishes to do things the way the Filipinos do. Her colleagues decide to give it a try, and they find that they like
this different way of doing things; too. Now let us say that when we look at the person from the Philippines, something
similar has taken place: The Filipino, while still being Filipino through and through, has made a few changes in her life as
a result of her experience of Korean culture through her friend during their years in college. Some of her friends have
also noticed it and have made similar little changes in their own lives.
Because our exposure to the concept of globalization has largely been through an economic lens, it is
tempting to limit globalization as something that concerns economists and businessmen. But globalization and its effects
go beyond import or export and Foreign Direct Investment (FDI). Notice that in our illustration, the friends of the two
people in question were affected by their interaction, even if they themselves had never been to Korea or had not met a
Filipino. Now scale this up to the point where it is not just two people from two different nations interacting, but millions
of people, from nearly two hundred different countries, where we are no longer integrating just languages or
mannerisms or food recipes, but everything from styles of clothing, forms of entertainment, education, technology,
manufacturing, ways of doing business, ideas, and whole worldviews. This is globalization as we know it today.
Globalization as a phenomenon is not new. Nations and cultures have been interacting and integrating
with one another for millennia. What is different now, however, is the speed at which globalization is happening, its
overall scope, and its effects on the lives of ordinary people. Not only are we interacting with, learning from, and
integrating knowledge gleaned from other cultures and nations at an unprecedented rate, there is now also a sense that
no matter where one lives or how limited is one's face-to-face interaction with members of another nation or culture
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and how limited one's time is spent online, globalization and its effects are inescapable. Even remote villages will be
exposed to the latest KPOP hit, if they have access to a radio. If they produce rice, they will also feel the effects of more
affordable rice imports from Thailand and Vietnam. If they have access to a kerosene stove, they will feel the effects of
the fluctuations in oil prices originating from Arab nations. All these things take pace without having to know anyone
from or anything about Korea, Thailand, Vietnam, or the Middle East.
THE EFFECTS OF GLOBALIZATION
The effects of globalization are multi-dimensional. As shown
earlier, they range from economic to cultural, on both national and
individual levels. Meyer (2000) summarizes the effects of
globalization as follows:
economic, political, and military dependence and
interdependence between nations;
expanded flow of individual people among societies.
interdependence of expressive culture among nations: and
expanded flow of instrumental culture around the world.
1. Economic Dependence/Interdependence
When the term globalization entered the Philippine public mindset in the early 90s, it was a popularly
understood to be a mainly economic phenomenon, and could a negative one at that. The idea that foreign-owned
businesses could come into the country and freely "set-up shop," thereby choking-out local Industries was not a
welcome thought, even though it was erroneous.
While Philippine society has come to realize that this early perspective represented a shallow understanding of
globalization, the fact of the matter is that globalization has brought economic development to our society as a whole.
By attracting Foreign Direct Investment (FDI), new technologies, employment opportunities, and money have come into
the country. The phenomenon of a taxi driver owning multiple smartphones to browse social media while stuck in traffic
because of the rise of the number of vehicles on our roads is testament to this fact.
This does not mean, however, that there have been no negative effects of globalization. Kentor (2001) notes
that foreign capital dependence increases income inequality in four ways:
(1) It creates a small, highly paid class of elites to manage these investments, who create many but usually low-
pay jobs;
(2) Profits from these investments are repatriated, rather than invested in the host country, therefore inhibiting
domestic capital formation;
(3) Foreign capital penetration tends to concentrate land ownership among the very rich; and
(4) Host countries tend to create political and economic climates favorable to foreign capital that in turn limit
domestic labor's ability to obtain better wages. In simple words, "the rich become richer, and the poor become poorer."
Hout (1980) observes that international dependence (another word for globalization) tends to suppress adult
wages, which in turn perpetuates the role of children as economic necessities (the familiar saying "Kapag maraming
anak, maraming katulong so hanapbuhay"), leading to explosive population growth.
In a chain reaction of negative effects, this explosive population growth creates a large sub-sector of society that
is insulated from economic development yet competes for resources with the rest of the population. Coupled with the
economic inequalities in which this society is couched, this encourages political instability, resulting in policies that favor
the redistribution of income, which in turn discourages investment, which then slows economic growth.
2. Political and Military Dependence/Interdependence
A survey conducted in late 2018 found that three in five Filipinos believe that the United States would intervene
on behalf of the country in case of war (Viray, 2018). Despite the current very conservative stance of the US on its
foreign policies, this can be taken as evidence of the Philippines' dependence on both the political and military power of
the US in order to maintain its sovereignty as a nation-state in the Southeast Asia region. Similar things Can be said of
Russia and the many communist nations throughout the world. The point is that where there are some forms of
economic dependence/interdependence, political dependence/interdependence is not far behind, as the participating
nations strive to protect their investments and interests in one another.
3. Expanded Flow of Expressive and Instrumental Culture
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Expressive culture, as the term suggests, deals with how a particular culture expresses itself in its language,
music, arts, and the like. Globalization encourages the monetization of these cultural artifacts and their import/export
among participating cultures; the increased consumption of which changes the consuming culture. Case in point, KPOP
music and culture was a relatively niche occupation ten years ago, with very few people aware of its existence, let alone
actual fans. Today it is practically ubiquitous in Philippine society, alongside the consumption of all things Korean, from
skin-care products to instant noodles. Instrumental culture, on the other hand, refers to "common models of social
order" (Meyer, 2000)—that is, models or ways of thinking about and enacting national identity, nation-state policies
both domestic and foreign, socio-economic development, human rights, education, and social progress. A simple
example of this is the Philippine educational system: Closely patterned after the American educational system,
education leaders in the country closely follow the educational trends in America and select European countries.
perceiving them to be the global leaders in the field. While this has served us to an arguably satisfactory degree thus far,
it is interesting to observe that the problems and difficulties in American education eventually show-up in Philippine
education, albeit five to ten years removed.
4. Expanded Flow of People among Societies
The fact that globalization encourages the movement of people between nation-states should come as no
surprise to us. The Philippine Statistics Authority (PSA) estimates that there were 2.3 million Overseas Filipino Workers
(OFWs) during the period of April to September 2017, who were responsible for up to 205.2 billion pesos in remittances
(Philippine Statistics Authority, 2018). Meyer (2000) observes three reasons for this: socio-economic migration, political
expulsion, and travel/tourism. Socio-economic migration explains the Philippines' OFW phenomenon. Filipinos travel
abroad to find better economic opportunities for themselves and their families for lack of said opportunities here.
Political expulsion, on the other hand, has more to do with trying to escape the political climate of a particular country,
thereby forcing an individual to seek asylum (and ultimately, resettlement) in another more favorable country.
Travel for the sake of leisure (i.e., tourism) is a strong indicator of economic development as more and more
Filipinos are able to finance short-term travel; abroad, fueled by curiosity that is fed by social media and enabled by
globalization.
CULTURAL LITERACY
Cultural Literacy is a term coined by Hirsch (1983), referring to the ability to understand the signs and symbols of
a given culture and being able to participate in its activities and customs as opposed to simply being a passive (and
outside) observer. The signs and symbols of a culture include both its formal and informal languages, its idioms and
forms of expression, entertainment, values, customs, roles, traditions, and the like—most of which are assumed and
unstated. Thus, they are learned by being part of the culture, rather than by any formal means.
Of course, by its very definition, cultural literacy is culture-specific, but it is not limited to national cultures,
contrary to what many people assume. The culture of one workplace can be very different from another, just as the
culture of a particular school can differ widely from another school nearby. There are far too many cultures for any one
person to be literate in all of them. As more and more Filipinos travel—both domestically and abroad—as the result of
globalization and the increased opportunities it brings, the need to develop new cultural literacies comes to the fore.
Cultural Literacy in the Philippines
The National Commission for Culture and the Arts (NCCA) is the government body tasked with the
documentation, preservation, and dissemination of Philippine culture, both locally and abroad. Part of how the NCCA is
addressing this and related matters is through the establishment of the Philippine Cultural Education Program (PCEP),
which "envisions a nation of culturally literate and empowered Filipinos" (NCCA, 2015). Designed to make cultural
education accessible to all sectors of Philippine society, the PCEP held national consultative meetings, conferences,
workshops, art camps, and festivals on culture-based teaching and good governance from 2003 to 2007. As a result of
Republic Act 10066 (2010), PCEP has been designated as the body, together with the Department of Education (DepEd),
tasked to "formulate the cultural heritage education' programs both for local and overseas Filipinos" that are to be an
integral part of Philippine education in all its aspects. Cultural education—and thus cultural literacy—in the Philippines is
quite a challenge, given that Philippine culture is a complex blend of many indigenous and colonial cultures and varies
widely across regions, and the average citizen is almost as ignorant of other Philippine cultures as foreigners are. To
point out, consider the question, "What makes something or someone 'Filipino'?" The average reader will be hard-
pressed to pin down a definite answer. De Leon (2011) argues that this is in part due to a colonial mindset among
Filipino artists that inhibits the full development and realization of Filipino artistic creativity—a kind of artistic and
cultural creativity that is fully Filipino. De Leon (201 1) coins this propensity for Filipinos to look at their culture and
themselves through Western lenses as the Dona Victorina Syndrome, a kind of inferiority complex wherein anything and
everything natively Filipino is considered by the Filipinos themselves as being inferior, backward, and worthless in
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comparison to their Western counterparts, and therefore a source of embarrassment and unease. As De Leon puts it,
our low self-esteem borders on self-contempt, the results of which are doubt in the Filipino capacity for on self-
contempt, the results of which are doubt in the Filipino capacity for achievement, perverse delight in belittling ourselves,
lack of respect and even outright contempt for one another, and blind dependence on foreign goods, concepts,
techniques, approaches, and expertise (2011). The biggest challenge then, according to him, is the deconstruction of the
negative self-images and notions of ourselves that we have imbibed over generations through "a workable, effective
program of education that can make Filipinos more responsive and sensitive to Filipino dignity, needs, values, and
cultural potentials and assets."
For De Leon, it is excellence in the arts via an expression that is truly Filipino—that can form the core of national
unity. Of course, this remains to be seen.
Challenges for Cultural Literacy in the Philippines As Applebee (1987) observes interesting discussions on cultural literacy
give rise to some very difficult questions which are particularly important to a multicultural and multilingual nation like
the Philippines.
• What kinds of knowledge constitute cultural literacy? Is it knowing facts, names, and dates, or is it something more
experiential like being familiar with a story or a particular song?
• If culture is more "caught than taught," should cultural literacy be one of the goals of education? If yes., how does one
teach it?
• Whose cultures must we be literate in to be considered "culturally literate"? Who decides which cultures are included
and which ones are excluded, and on what bases?
• Is cultural literacy education simply a means for the dominant culture to express its dominance over minority cultures?
• How is cultural literacy to be assessed and evaluated? How can we know someone is "culturally literate"? As of the
writing of this book, no definitive answers to these questions exist in the literature.
MULTICULTURAL LITERACY
As cultures begin to mix and change as a result of globalization, conflicts inevitably arise over identity, values,
and worldviews. This situation consequently needs for a literacy that enables us to quickly and easily identify and resolve
such conflicts, preferably before they even begin. This has come to be understood as multicultural literacy. Multicultural
Literacy as a set of skills and knowledge is difficult to define because of how it changes depending on the contexts in
which it is discussed. For example, multicultural literacy as defined in American literature is different from how it is
deployed in a more European context. In America, multicultural literacy has very strong leanings toward knowing or
identifying the poly-ethnic origins of knowledge with the express goal of fostering equality, diversity, and social justice.
This is in direct response to the "Euro-centric" and "white-dominant" traditions of education that in the eyes of
American cultural minorities (particularly the blacks) is a form of racial injustice. This is very foreign to the Philippine
context, which, despite having our own deeply ingrained traditions of discrimination, does not have the same issues of
discrimination as in the United States, nor the same amount of hostility. Nevertheless, the fact that the perceived need
for multicultural literacy stems from a slighted sense of justice for "the other" (that is, any individual, group, or culture
that another individual, group, or culture considers -not of us," for any reason) cannot be ignored in our attempts to pin
down a functional definition of multicultural literacy for ourselves.
It is important to realize that under this definition, a "different culture" is not just limited to "someone from
another country," but could also include someone whose gender, economic background, religious beliefs, sexual
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orientation. or even sense of fashion is different from our own. The skills and knowledge required for one to be multi-
culturally literate are not mere language skills, since it is assumed that some medium of Communication already exists
between two cultures. Rather, true multicultural literacy Consists of perspectives, attitudes, and beliefs about other c,
that affect the manner in which we communicate and the motives behind our communication. Here are some examples:
1. Be selfless - An attitude of selflessness—one that is less concerned with how I feel and more concerned with how I am
making others feel—is crucial to multicultural literacy, as so much of the offense art conflict associated with the meeting
of different cultures is the result of a "me first" attitude: I should be accommodated, you should be the one to adjust to
me, 1 should feel comfortable with you before I make efforts to make you feel comfortable, etc. Such selflessness is not
instinctive to people, and is especially difficult when one feels insecure of oneself and identity.
2. Know that good and useful things can (and do) come from those different from us - Hand-in-hand with a dismissive
attitude toward another culture is the idea that nothing good can come from them. Furthermore, there is a tendency to
ignore or outright dismiss evidence to the contrary. Simply acknowledging that good ideas and products have come from
cultures we might not like goes a long way in preparing our minds to perceive them as being equally valuable.
3. Be willing to compromise - Any significant interaction with someone from a different culture is governed by the
principle of "He/She wants something, and I want something." In other words, cultures do not interact out of pure
magnanimity. If both of you are willing to give the other what they want, well and good. But what happens when one or
both are unwilling to give what the other wants? There must be a compromise: a reciprocal adjustment of demands and
expectations to accommodate what the other party is willing to give.
4. Accept that there are limits - At some point however, one or both cultures will be unwilling/unable to adjust their
wants for the sake of the other any further. Beyond this point, the productivity of the interaction drops and one must
either change the purpose of the interaction or walk away, accepting that what you want cannot be had from that
particular source. Attempting to force the other party to adjust (when you refuse to do the same) only results in
misunderstanding, hurt, and conflict. The sooner we accept this; the sooner we can set realistic expectations of one
another.
ISSUES IN TEACHING AND LEARNING MULTICULTURAL LITERACY IN THE PHILIPPINES
A number of important issues stand in the way
of Philippine educators attempting to learn
multicultural literacy for themselves and teach
it in turn to others, which are different from
what can be found in Western literature,
particularly those of the United States.
Conflicting Requirements for Peace
When all is said and done, the heart of
multicultural literacy is peace among different
cultures—that is, productive and non-violent
interaction. It is easy to assume that all cultures
value peace to the same degree and ore
therefore willing to make the same compromises in order to attain it, but this is not necessarily true. Take for example
the Israeli/Palestinian conflict, which is realty a conflict over territory: Both sides desire peace, but they do not desire it
enough to be willing to compromise. In a very real sense, both sides would rather live in Perpetual conflict with one
another rather than give-up their claim to the land which each side believes is rightfully theirs. On a more personal,
immediate front, I am reminded of an activity a fellow teacher conducted in her class where she asked her students to
write down how they defined "peace." One student revealingly wrote: "Peace is when I get what I want."
Nationalistic and Regionalistic Pushback
The increasing demand for multicultural sensitivity, inclusion, and diversity in the recent years has also given rise
to resistance from groups who believe that their identity is being "watered-down" by the needed compromises. Case in
point is the very recent proposal of "Ortograpiya ti Pagsasao nga Ilokano" by officials of the Komisyon ng Wikang Filipino
(KWF) in October of 2018. The proposal was met with intense backlash from group of Ilokano writers and language
advocates over the "incompetence in preparing the Ilokano orthography that didn't conform with the existing
orthography being used by the Ilokano writers and experts," claiming that the proposed orthography was based on
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Tagalog and not Ilokano and that the commission's attempts to compel the regional language to conform to the
standards of the Ortograpiyang Pambansa (National Orthography) would "destroy the identity of the Ilokano language"
(Dumlao, 2018).
In the ensuing online firestorm. one particular individual commented on how such regional pride is out of step
with modernity, particularly with our need to be united as a country Now this sentiment is consistent with the
multicultural literacy of being able to put aside differences for the sake of a common god. but notice he for the Ilokanos,
national unity (as far as language, Is concerned) is not worth the cost of giving-up their ability to determine the
orthography of their language for themselves. Such issues become even more complex and clouded when they come to
a head with economics, social justice, and religion. What is to be done when accommodating the idiosyncrasies of
another culture means decreased economic opportunities for other members of my culture? What about when we must
decide between gender equality and retaining a venerable historical institution like the Boy Scouts of the Philippines?
What about if for the sake of peace, one culture must compromise on its religious values? we might think that peace is
worth it, but what if the other culture believes otherwise? We see here that while multicultural inclusiveness is by and
large a good thing, it comes at a cost. Part of the identity of the host culture becomes diluted and lost—the inevitable
result of the compromises necessary for it to have some form of multicultural understanding. In effect, pushing for
multicultural inclusion might very well be asking some cultures to decide which has more value: Inclusion or Identity?
We must be aware that these questions are easier to answer for the culture that wants to be accommodated
(because it will cost them nothing), rather than the one that must do the accommodating.
The Persistence of the Problem
On the surface, multicultural literacy might seem to just be a matter of -good common sense," and
understandably so, no one actively desires to experience discrimination regarding what they know and what they can
and cannot do simply on the basis of race, ethnicity, or in the case of the Philippines, region of origin. It therefore makes
perfect sense to collectively refrain from such behavior under the assumption that "If you don't do it to me, I won't do it
to you." And yet, to our horror and shame, the practice persists. Worse, we sometimes find ourselves participating in
and justifying such discriminatory behavior—if only online and not in real life (as if anything written or posted online is
not, in fact, in real life). Therefore, the primary issue that educators face in teaching multicultural literacy to their
students and learning it for themselves is, "Why does this problem persist?" Or to put it in another way, "Despite all out
advances in science, technology, and culture, why is this still a problem today?"
Another issue in teaching and learning multicultural literacy is better Posited as a question: should I treat people of
another culture with respect?' It might seem that the answer to the question is a simple one: for peace. But as we have
seen earlier, not everyone values peace to the same degree. What if, for a certain culture, it is easier to just destroy
anyone who opposes them rather than expend the effort needed to come to a mutual understanding? Such statements
might sound crass, but only if we believe that we, as a society „ are above such things. How many times have we broken
"small" laws and rules of etiquette—running red traffic lights "because no one is there to catch me," or asking a vendor
at a flea market or tiangge to list a different price on the receipt than what an item is worth—because it is more
convenient than to do otherwise? How many times have we been selfish in our decision-making, not thinking about, not
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caring about its implications for others? And how many times have we justified such behavior "because of the
circumstances" or "because everyone else is doing it"? In other words, "Why should I value another culture, another
society: another person more than myself and my own?" If we subscribe to Dawkins' (2016) concept of a "selfish
gene"—where on a genetic level, the more two individuals are genetically similar to one another, the more sense it
makes to behave selflessly toward one another and selfishly toward others who are different--then we can easily frame
the issue of discrimination of cultural discrimination and injustice as one of both genetics and survival. This means that
the injustice you experience is necessary for my survival, and therefore it is in my best interests (genetic and otherwise)
that I maintain the status quo—or reverse it, as the case may be. Educators like Freire (2000) have recognized and
written against such a monstrous perspective—and rightly so—hut have also admitted that when the oppressed are
freed from their oppression, they inevitably become the new oppressors. If such perspectives seem horrible to us (and
they should), it is because the question of the value of humanity, both individually and collective, as a culture, makes no
sense without subscribing to some absolute moral standard—one that is true and right for all people, regardless of racer
color, or creed. But in today's society where such absolutes are reduced to matters of perspective, there remains no final
and sensible answer to the question.
EXTEND
A majority of research on multicultural literacy stems from the West, specifically, the United States, and focuses on
teaching teachers to be more multicultural in their pedagogies.
• Learn about other cultures.
• Familiarize yourself with how discrimination and prejudice appear in your own culture.
• Examine the key to genuine multicultural literacy – which is core values.
•Model more, tell more.
SUMMARY
• Globalization is the process of interaction and integration between people, business entities: governments, and
cultures from other nations, driven by international trade and investment and supported by information technology.
• Cultural Literacy is the knowledge and understanding of the life of a culture to the point where one can fluently
participate in the activities of the said culture. This includes, but is not limited to, its languages, traditions, values,
beliefs, forms of entertainment, and worldviews.
• Multicultural Literacy is the knowledge and skills necessary to ensure that any communication with a culture different
from our own is clear, productive, and respectful such that their differences are celebrated and neither culture is
demeaned or treated as inferior.
• The skills and knowledge required to be multi-culturally literate are:
1. selflessness;
2. knowledge that good and useful things can (and do) come from those different from us;
3. willingness to compromise;
4. acceptance that there are limits; and
5. idea that we cannot be friends with everyone.
• The issues in teaching and learning multicultural literacy in the Philippines are the nationalistic/regionalistic pushback,
the persistence of the problem, and the question of value.
Please proceed to the Google Classroom for the Written Task, E-Portfolio
Output or Quiz.
