Unit FOUR

MARGINAlizED, MinoRITIes, AND VulneRABLe GROUPS

Dear Students!

Welcome to Unit Four. In the previous unit we have seen the nature and dimensions
of human cultural diversity. We also discussed issues related culture areas, culture
contact and cross-cultural similarities in the Ethiopian setting. Unit Four focuses on
issues of marginalization and vulnerability. It specifically deals with different forms of
marginalization affecting occupational groups, women, children, and older people,
religious and ethnic minorities. It also discusses the human right approaches and the
notion of inclusiveness. In due course, students are required to assume active role in
class activities and discussions; sharing of experiences, engaged in different
debates and arguments and do take-home assignments.

Contents of the Unit

 Concepts related to marginalization

 Gender-based marginalization

 Marginalized occupational groups

 Age-based vulnerability: marginalization of children and older persons

 Marginalization of religious and ethnic minorities

 Inclusiveness and the human rights approach

Unit Learning Outcomes

Up on the successful completion of this unit, you will be able to:

 define concepts related to marginalization,

 identify forms of marginalization affecting different social groups
and populations,
 analyze the major causes and manifestations of marginalization
 discuss the notion of inclusiveness and the human rights approach to protect
vulnerable and minority groups, and
 suggest viable ways of promoting inclusive approaches and protecting
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 marginalized and vulnerable groups

As noted at the outset, in this unit, we will discuss issues related to marginalized,
minority and vulnerable groups focusing on global and Ethiopia settings. The chapter
specifically focuses on marginalization of women, children, occupational, religious
and ethnic minorities. Let us begin with definition of some concepts.

4.1.Definition of Concepts

What is marginalization? Marginalization is defined as a treatment of a person or

social group as minor, insignificant or peripheral. Marginalization involves exclusion
of certain groups from social interactions, marriage relations, sharing food and
drinks, and working and living together.

Who are mostly marginalized? There are marginalized social groups in every society
and culture. Women, children, older people, and people with disabilities are among
marginalized groups across the world. The nature and level of marginalization varies
from society to society as a result of cultural diversity. Religious, ethnic, and racial
minorities are also among social groups marginalized in different societies and
cultures. Crafts workers such as tanners, potters, and ironsmiths are marginalized in
Ethiopia and other parts of the world.

What is vulnerability? Vulnerability refers to the state of being exposed to physical or

emotional injuries. Vulnerable groups are people exposed to possibilities of attack,
harms or mistreatment. As a result, vulnerable persons/groups need special
attention, protection and support. For example, children and people with disabilities
need special support and protection as they are exposed to risks and neglect
because of their age and disabilities. Universities have introduced special needs
education for students with disabilities to give them special support.

Minority groups: The phrase ‘minority group’ refers to a small group of people within
a community, region, or country. In most cases, minority groups are different from
the majority population in terms of race, religion, ethnicity, and language. For
example, black Americans are minorities in the United States of America. Christians

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would be minorities in a Muslim majority country. Muslims would be minorities in a
predominantly Hindu society. Hence, minority groups can be ethnic minorities,
religious minorities, or racial minorities in a given community, region or country.
There are different forms of marginalization. In this unit we will discuss issues related
to occupational, age and gender-based marginalization.

Reflect on the following questions

 What kind of marginalization do you observe in your
social environment?
 Who are the most marginalized groups?
 What are the major causes for the marginalization
ofthose groups of people?
 What are the manifestations of the marginalization?

4.2.Gender-based Marginalization
Gender-based marginalization is closely related to gender inequality. Gender
inequality involves discrimination on a group of people based on their gender.
Gender inequality mainly arises from socio-cultural norms. The manifestations of
gender inequality vary from culture to culture. Girls and women face negative
discrimination in societies across the world. Women are exposed to social and
economic inequalities involving unfair distribution of wealth, income and job
opportunities.

Gender-based marginalization is a global problem. It involves exclusion of girls and

women from a wide range of opportunities and social services. Gender disparities in
education are a good example. Girls in developing countries, especially those who
live in remote and rural areas, are excluded from formal education. The enrollment of
girls in higher education is much lower than that of boys. Women do not enjoy equal
employment opportunities. They do not have equal rights in terms of property
ownership and inheritance in many cultures in Ethiopia and other parts of Africa.
Women and girls are also vulnerable to gender-based violence such as rape, child

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marriage, abduction/forced marriage, domestic violence and female genital
cutting/mutilation.

There are some customary practices that affect the health and wellbeing of girls and
women. These practices collectively are called harmful traditional practices (HTPs).
We will discuss two examples: female genital mutilation/cutting (FGM/C) and child
marriage. Child marriage will be discussed under another section in this Unit. Now,
let us begin with female genital cutting, which is widely practiced in most regions of
Ethiopia.

4.3. Marginalized Occupational Groups

According to anthropological findings, there are occupational marginalized groups in

many parts of Ethiopia. The most marginalized occupational groups are tanners,
potters, weavers and ironsmiths. These craft-workers have different names in
different parts of the country. Craft-workers such as potters and tanners are
considered as impure and excluded from social interactions, ownership of economic
resources (e.g., land), and participation in associations and celebrations.

As noted above, marginalized occupational groups are people engaged in craftworks

such as pottery, tannery, and iron works. Craft-workers in Ethiopia produce several
articles such as traditional hand-woven clothes, household utensils, and farm tools.
Crafts workers lead a life of paradoxes. They have important contributions to their
communities; however, they are marginalized by the dominant and majority groups.
For examples, weavers produce cultural clothes highly demanded by thousands and
millions of people. Many people use cultural clothes during annual celebrations,
religious holidays, weddings, culture days, and mourning. The demand of cultural
dresses has been increasing in the last three decades. People dress cultural clothes
in different occasions such as cultural festivals, days of nations and nationalities, and
religious celebrations. Despite their contributions, weavers are marginalized from the
wider society.

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 Reading
A book edited by Dena Freeman and Alula Pankhurst (2001) is an
important reading material on marginalized occupational groups in
Ethiopia. The title of the book is ‘Marginalized Minorities of Craft-
workers and Hunters in Southern Ethiopia’. The book focuses on
marginalized occupational groups in 14 ethnic/cultural groups
including the Gurage, Kambata, Kafa, Dawro, Gamo, Sidama and
Konso. Read chapters from the book and discuss some of the
issues among your classmates or during class discussion.

Ironsmiths are among occupational groups marginalized in many cultural setting in

Ethiopia. Ironsmiths make and repair iron articles without using machines. They
contribute a lot especially in rural areas. Ironsmiths serve rural communities by
producing farming tools such as plough shares, sickles, and hoes. Ethiopia families
widely use household utensils (e.g., knives and axes) made by ironsmiths. Tanners
make leather products that serve community members. Potters produce pottery
articles essential for food processing and serving and fetching water. Despite their
contributions, these craft-workers are considered inferior and marginalized from wide
areas of social interactions.

Craft-workers such as potters and weavers have big contributions

to their respective communities; however, they are excluded and
mistreated by the majority groups.
 What do you think the reason for the marginalization
ofthese occupational groups?
 What is the impact of this practice to the development of
thecrafts industry in Ethiopia?
 What solution do you suggest to eradicate the
marginalization of crafts workers and protect their rights?

Write your answer and read it in the class.

Marginalization of despised occupational groups is manifested in many ways in

different parts of Ethiopia. Dena Freeman and Alula Pankhurst (2001), well-known
anthropologists, identified different forms of marginalization targeting minority
occupational groups. Some of them are summarized in the following table.
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Types and manifestations of marginalization of craft-workers
Type of Manifestations of marginalization
marginalization
Spatial  Craft-workers settle/live on the outskirts of villages,
marginalization near toforests, on poor land, around steep slopes.
 They are segregated at market places (they sell their
goods atthe outskirts of markets).
 When they walk along the road, they are expected to
give way for others and walk on the lower side of the road.
Economic  Craft-workers are excluded from certain economic
marginalization activities including production and exchanges. In some
cultures they are not allowed to cultivate crops.
 They have a limited access to land and land
ownership.
Social  Craft-workers are excluded from intermarriage,
marginalization they do notshare burial places with others; they are
excluded from membership of associations such as
iddirs.
 When marginalized groups are allowed to participate in
social events, they must sit on the floor separately-sometimes
outside the house or near the door.
Cultural Cultural marginalization is manifested in negative stereotyping such
marginalization as the following:
 Occupational minorities are labelled as impure and polluting;
they are accused of eating animals that have died without
being slaughtered;
 Occupational minorities are also considered unreliable,
lacking morality, respect and shame.

Source: Dena Freeman and Alula Pankhurst (2001)

The above table summarizes forms of marginalization targeting occupational

minorities such as potters, tanners, and ironsmiths. Manifestations of marginalization
outlined above illustrate the level of discrimination against craft-workers. These are
examples. You may find other forms of marginalization when you read the literature
on this issue. There are different arguments related to this issue. Discuss the
following issues.

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 The marginalization of craft-workers is an issue of human rights.
Provide your critical reflection on the following questions.
 How do you evaluate the negative stereotypes against craft-
workers?
 What are the short and long-term impacts of such stereotypes
targeting occupation minorities?
 Some people argue that marginalization of craft-workers is one
of the factors that hinders the development of craftworks and
small scale manufacturing in Ethiopia. Do you agree? If you do
what
are your reasons?
4.4. Age-based Vulnerability

What is age-based vulnerability? Age-based vulnerability is susceptibility of people,

especially children and older people, to different forms of attack, physical injuries and
emotional harms. For example, children and older people (people aged 60 and
above) are exposed to possibilities of attack, harm and mistreatment because of
their age. As a result, vulnerable persons/groups need special attention, protection
and support. In this section, we discuss some example related to children and older
people.

4.4.1. Children: Discrimination and vulnerability

Children are among vulnerable groups exposed to harm because of their age. Both
boys and girls are exposed to some harm and abuse in the hands of older people.
However, younger girls are exposed to double marginalization and discrimination
because of the gender. Child girls are exposed to various kinds of harm before they
reach at the age of maturity. As discussed earlier in this unit, girls are exposed to
harmful traditional practices (HTPs) such as female genital mutilation/cutting. Minor
girls are also exposed to early/child marriage in many parts of Ethiopia.

Child marriage: Child marriage refers to marriage which involves girls below the age
of 18. The prevalence of child marriage is declining in Ethiopia and other African
countries. However, it is still widely practiced in different regions of Ethiopia.
According to international human rights conventions, child marriage is regarded as
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violation of the rights of the child. Child marriage has the following major harmful
consequences:
4.4.1.1. Young girls enter into marital relation when they are too young to
give their consent to get married.
4.4.1.2. Child marriage inhibits girls' personal development; it hinders girls’
chance to education and future professional development.
4.4.1.3. Child marriage exposes young girls to sexual abuse by their older
husbands.

4.4.1.4. Child marriage leads to early pregnancies, which increases risks

of diseases and complications during delivery, fistula, and death
of the mother or child.
Child marriage is an illegal practice according to the Criminal Code of Ethiopia.
Despite these legal restrictions, however, child marriage is still practiced in
different regions of the country.

Facts about child marriage in Ethiopia

 Forty percent of all women who are in their early twenties
married before the age of 18.
 Eight per cent of girls aged 15-19 were married before
theyreach at the age of 15.
 Uneducated girls, girls from poor family, and girls living
inrural areas more likely marry earlier that rich-family,
urban and educated girls (Harper et al, 2018, page 44).
Read more on child marriage and its implications for the wellbeing of
girls.

Factors encouraging child marriage: According to study findings, there are

various factors that drive child marriage. Social norms and economic factors are the
two major drivers of the practice.

Social norms: Social norms contribute a lot for the continuation of child marriage in
many parts of the world. Chastity of girls is one of the social norms that influence
parents and relatives to protecting girls from pre-marital sex. Premarital sex and

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pregnancy would expose the girl and her family to social exclusion in many parts of
Ethiopia. The value attached to virginity is another driver of child marriage. Girl’s
reputation and family social status are associated with sexual purity of girls. Parents
incline to marry off their daughter before the girl reach at the stage of puberty to
avoid the possibility of pre-marital sex and pregnancy. Community members
influence unmarried teen-age girls to get married as early as possible. They do this
through social pressure including insulting unmarried young girls. Komoker, an
Amharic term, is the widely used insult to ridicule girls considered to be late to get
married.

Economic issues are among the major factors that drive child marriage. In many
areas of Ethiopia marriage provides economic security for young girls. Hence,
parents, in some cases girls, support child marriage for economic benefits such as
access to land and other resources. Parents’ desire to get a good husband for their
daughter is also another reason.

4.4.2. Marginalization of older persons

We have discussed age-based marginalization considering the vulnerability of
children. Age-based marginalization also affects older people. The phrase ‘older
persons’ refers to adults with the age of 60 and above. The number of older people
is increasing globally. According to the estimation of the United Nations (2009), the
number of older people will increase to 2 billion by 2050. Eighty percent of the 2
billion older persons would live in low and middle-income countries. This means
Africa would have a large number of older adults after 30 years. Ethiopia, the second
populous country in Africa, would also have millions of older persons after three
decades.

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 Discuss the impacts of demographic changes
- What do you think about this demographic change? What are
the potential challenges of an increasing population of older
people?
- Ethiopia currently has large number of younger people. What
are the advantages and challenges of having large population
of young people in countries like Ethiopia?

People’s attitude towards older persons is changing over time in Ethiopia and all
over the world. Older men and women have been respected across Ethiopian
cultures. Older persons have been considered as custodians of tradition, culture, and
history. The role of older persons has been crucial in mentoring younger people,
resolving disputes, and restoring peace across Ethiopian cultures. Situations are
changing as family structures and living patterns are changing over time. Rural-
urban migration, changes in values and life style, education and new employment
opportunities lead to so many changes. Care and support for older men and women
tend to decline as younger people migrate to urban areas and exposed to economic
pressure and new life styles.

Ageism is a widely observed social problem in the world. Ageism refer to

stereotyping, prejudice, and discrimination against people based on their age. Older
women and men enjoyed a certain level of support and respected in the past. This
was true in many cultures of Ethiopia in the past. Things have been changing in
recent times. Older people are facing various problems as a result of modernization,
globalization, and urbanization. Older people are exposed to social exclusion
because of their lower social and economic status. In most cases, older people are
excluded from social, cultural, political and economic interactions in their
communities. Older persons are marginalized because they are considered as social
burden rather than social assets. Communities do not provide older persons with
opportunities to contribute to their communities.

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 Discuss changes related to older people
 What kind of challenges do older men and women face
inEthiopia? Do the challenges vary in rural and urban
areas?
 Do you think that respect for older people is declining
overtime?
 What kind of change do you observe in social
and economic status of older people in the community
youcome from?

4.5. Religious and Ethnic Minorities

We have discussed the marginalization of different social and occupational groups in

different socio-cultural contexts. Religious and ethnic minorities groups also face
different forms of marginalization. There are several examples of marginalization and
discrimination targeting religious and ethnic minorities in the world. Let us mention
two widely known examples.

4.5.1. The Jewish people suffered from discrimination and persecution in

different parts of the world. They were targets of extermination in
Germany and other Western European countries because of their identity.
4.5.2. Muslim Rohingyas are among the most marginalized and persecuted
people in the world. According to Abdu Hasnat Milton et al (2017), the
Rohingya are ‘one of the most ill-treated and persecuted refugee groups
in the world’. In recent years, more than half-a-million Rohingyas fled from
their homes in Nyanmar to neighboring countries such as Bangladesh. As
people living in refugee camps, the Rohingyas are vulnerable to problems
such as malnutrition and physical and sexual abuse.

These are among the widely known examples of discrimination against religious and
ethnic minorities. The problem is not limited to specific areas, regions or countries.
Although the level of the problem varies in different contexts, religious and ethnic

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minorities face different forms of discrimination in many parts of the world.

Reflect on these questions

 Do you believe that marginalization of minority religious
and ethnic groups is a major problem in our country?
 What are the causes of marginalization of minority
groups?
 How do we protect minority groups from marginalization
and discrimination?

4.6. Human Right Approaches and Inclusiveness: Anthropological perspectives

All forms of marginalization and discrimination against vulnerable and minority

groups contradict the principles of human rights. The major human rights
conventions denounce discrimination against women, children, people with disability,
older people and other minority and vulnerable groups. People with disabilities have
the right to inclusive services and equal opportunities. The human rights of women
and girls include right to be free from harmful traditional practices such as forced
marriage, child marriage, and female genital mutilation/cutting. Any form of
discrimination, exclusion, and gender-based violence also violate the human rights
girls and women.

Explore the human rights treaties

The Convention on the Rights of the Child (CRC) is a human
rights treaty approved by the United Nations in 1989. The
Convention has 41 articles focusing on the survival rights,
development rights, protection rights and participation rights of
the child.
Convention for the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination
against Women (CEDAW) is a human rights treaty endorsed by
the United Nations General Assembly in 1979.
Read the two conventions and outlines articles that denounce on
exclusion and discrimination against children and women.

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Anthropology appreciates cultural diversity and commonality. Do you remember the
meaning of cultural relativism? It is one of the guiding principles in social
anthropology. It is about the importance of understanding the values, norms,
customs and practices of a particular culture in its own context. This requires
appreciating the life styles of others including their dressing styles, food habits,
beliefs, rituals and celebrations. It also requires avoiding value judgments such as
saying ‘this custom is backward or primitive’. This does not mean that we need to
appreciate every custom and practice. Anthropologists do not support/appreciate
customary practices that violate the rights and wellbeing of individuals and groups.
For example, anthropologists do not support the following harmful practices in the
name of cultural relativism:
 Female genital mutilation/cutting (FGM/C): Anthropologists do not support
FGM/C for practical reasons: FGM/C violates the rights of girls to physical
integrity. It has short and long term consequences for the health of girls and
women.
 Early/child marriage: Anthropologists do not support child marriage for
similar reasons: Child marriage violates the rights of young girls to make
decision about their future. It destroys their chance to education, and
personal and professional development. Child marriage negatively affects
their physical and psychological wellbeing.

Dear Students, we are finalizing this unit. Please reflect on the following issues
before you move on to the next unit:

1. How do you understand cultural relativism?

2. Do we need to support/appreciate harmful customary practices in the name of

cultural relativism?

4.7. Unit Summary

In this Unit, we have discussed issues related to marginalization of different groups

including gender, age, religious and ethnic groups. We also outlined the
marginalization of occupational groups such as potters, tanners and weavers in
different cultural settings in Ethiopia. We also dealt with the human rights

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approach and the importance of inclusive approaches to protect the rights of
marginalized, vulnerable and minority groups. In the next Unit you will learn about
multiculturalism, culture areas and inter-ethnic relations in the Ethiopian setting.
4.8. Assessment Techniques
The assessment methods to be used in this unit include; quiz, group assignment,
individual assignments, administering different examinations and mandatory reading
assignments.

4.9 Facilities Required: White/Blackboard, LCD/Power Point Presentations,

White board Markers etc.

Suggested Reading Materials

Abul Hasnat Milton, Mijanur Rahman, Sumaria Hussain, Charulata Jindal, Sushmita
Choudhury, Shahnaz Akter, Shahana Ferdousi, Tafzila Akter Mouly, John
Hall and Jimmy T. Efird (2017). Trapped in Statelessness: Rohingya
Refugees in Bangladesh. International Journal of Environmental Research
and Public Health. 14, 942, p. 1-8.
Central Statistical Agency (CSA) [Ethiopia] and ICF. (2016). Ethiopia Demographic
and Health Survey 2016. Addis Ababa, Ethiopia, and Rockville, Maryland,
USA: CSA and ICF.
FDRE. (2019). Summary: National Roadmap to End Child Marraieg and FGM/C,
2020-2024. Ministry of Women, Children Affairs, and Youth Affairs.
Freeman D. and Pankhurst, A. (Eds.) Living on the Edge: Marginalized Minorities of
Craft-workers and Hunters in Southern Ethiopia. Department of Sociology
and Social Anthropology, Addis Ababa University.
Harper, C.; Jones, N.; Ghimire, A.; Marcus, R.; and Bantebya, G. K (Eds.). 2018.
Empowering Adolescent Girls in Developing Countries: Gender Justice and
Norm Change. New York: Routledge.

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