References materials for preparation of practical note book

Exp-1
Title : Tree selection and identification for AFS at different areas:
1. High Hills: Dhupi, Bhotesallo, Dhupi, Bhotepipal, Okher, Sallo
2. Mid Hills: Katus, chilaune, uttish,
3 Terai ; Sal, Sisoo, Bakaino, Tick, Neem,

3. High Hills (>2000m asl)

SN English Name Nepali Name Scientific Family Main purpose/ Uses
Name

4. Mid Hills (1000-2000m asl)

SN English Name Nepali Name Scientific Family Main purpose/ Uses
Name

3. Terai (<1000m asl)

SN English Name Nepali Name Scientific Family Main purpose/ Uses
Name

Conclusion: Knowledge gained findings etc.

Exp-2
Title: Preparation ‘A’-frames and determines contour lines, Practice contour farming systems

A Frame: A Frame is an A shaped structure made from wooden poles or thin metal poles that can be
easily constructed and used to peg flat or graded contours or water drains. These contours are mostly used
as soil and water conservation structures.
The A-Frame is used for marking out horizontal lines, or contours, across a slope. These can be used to
dig ditches or plant trees which will prevent soil, nutrients and water from being washed away.

Materials required
• 2 - 3 meter poles 2 pc
• 1 rail (pole) 1.5 meter long 1 pc
• Stone weight or half brick 1 pc
• 2.6 meter long string 1 pc
• 3 - 5 cm nails or tying wire 3 pc

MAKING AND USING AN A-FRAME

A-frame is an essential tool in preparing the land for many of the agroforestry technologies mentioned in
this manual. It enables a farmer to mark the slope, or contour of the land, so that it can be used in a way
that minimizes erosion.
1. Find three wooden poles, two that are 3m long and one that is 2m long, some string (about 5m), and a
stone about the size of a fist.
2. Tie the two 3m poles together at the top.
3. Tie the 2m pole across the two longer poles about 1m from the bottom, to form an A.
4. Tie the string to the structure at the point where the two longer poles (legs) are fastened together, so
that it hangs about 5-10cm below the horizontal pole.
5. Tie the other end of the string to the stone.

Calibration:
Calibrate the A-frame by standing it on a level surface. Mark the point where the string passes through
the center of the horizontal pole. Mark the two spots made by the legs of the frame on the ground. Reverse
the position of the A-frame legs. If the string now passes through the same spot on the horizontal pole,
this is the midpoint. If it differs, mark the midpoint between the area the string is hanging in now and the
area it hung the first time. This is now the midpoint.

A Why use an A-Frame ?

 The A-frame is used especially to mark out contours on slopes. Ditches or terraces can be dug along these
marked contours, or trees can be planted along them. There are many benefits of doing this, such as :-
• Rain water is prevented from running off down the slope
• Soil is prevented from being washed away with the water
• It's easier to make terraces on the sloping land
• The ditches can be used to irrigate evenly
• Ravines and gulleys are prevented from forming
• Existing gulleys will gradu - ally be filled in with soil
• Soil nutrients are pre - vented from being washed away
• Therefore, more water and nutrients are made available to the soil and crops growing in the soil

Contour line: A line on a map representing an imaginary line on the land surface, all points of which are
at the same elevation above a datum plane, usually mean sea level. Lines drawn closely together indicate
that a slope is steep.

Construction of contour line

1. Drive a stake into the ground at the highest corner of the field and place one of the legs of the A-frame
next to it.
2. Hold this leg in place and move the other leg around until the string hangs over the midpoint. Drive
another stake into the ground at this point.
3. Hold the second leg in place and pivot the first leg around until the string again hangs over the
midpoint. Drive a stake into the ground at this location. Continue this process until you reach the other
side of the field. You will now have a line of stakes on ground with the same contour.
4. Move downhill from the first stake to the position of the next contour. This will be approximately 10-
15m below the first contour but will vary according to the slope.
5. Repeat steps seven to ten above and work your way across the field.
6. Continue to mark contours across the field by repeating steps seven to ten at intervals down the slope.
Contour farming:
Contour farming, the practice of tilling sloped land along lines of consistent elevation in order to
conserve rainwater and to reduce soil losses from surface erosion.
These objectives are achieved by means of furrows, crop rows, and wheel tracks across slopes, all of
which act as reservoirs to catch and retain rainwater, thus permitting increased infiltration and more
uniform distribution of the water.
The practice has been proved to reduce fertilizer loss, power and time consumption, and wear on
machines, as well as to increase crop yields and reduce erosion. Contour farming can help absorb the
impact of heavy rains, which in straight-line planting often wash away topsoil. Contour farming is most
effective when used in conjunction with such practices as strip cropping, terracing, and water diversion.

Exp - 4

Title: Lay-out of a soil-water conservation systems.

There are two types of measures for soil and water conservation, that is, mechanical/ engineering/
structural measures and biological measures.
Mechanical measures are permanent and semi-permanent structures that involve terracing, bunding,
trenching, check dams, gabion structures, loose/stone boulders, crib wall, etc., while biological measures
are vegetative measures which involve forestry, agroforestry, horticulture and agricultural/agronomic
practices 

Exp -5
Nursery establishment for AFS
5.1 Collection and identification of seeds of Agroforesty trees
5.2 Preparation of nursery bed for Agroforestry tree
5.3 Seed sowing for Agroforestry trees

5.1. Draw the diagrams of seeds or fruits of the followings tree species available in Nepal

Scientific Name         Nepali Name Scientific Name         Nepali Name

Acacia catechu Khair Aesendra butyraceae Chiuri
Azadirachta indica Neem Alnus nepalensis Utis
Melia azedarach Bakaino Schima wallichi Chilaune
Saraca asoca Asoka Eucalyptus globulus Masala
Juniperus Indica Dhupi Elaeocarpus ganitrus Rudraksha
Sapindus mukorossi Rittha Delonix regia Gulmohar
Bombax ceiba Simal Dendrocalamu spps. Baans
Albizia procera Seto siris Choerospondias axillaris Lapsi
Cinnamomum camphora Kapur Cinnamomum tamala Dalchini/Tejpat
Tectona grandis Teak Dalbergia sissoo Sissoo
Shorea robusta Sal Fraxinus floribunda Lankuri
Castanopsis hystrix Patle katus Jatropa curcus Sajiwan
Rhododendron Laligurash Castanopsis indica Dhale katus
arboreum, 
Exbucklandia populnea Pipla Ilex excelsa Puwanle
Juglans regia Okhar Michelia champaca Champ
Abies pindrow Gobre salla Pterocarpus santalinus Raktachandan

Nursery
Nursery is defined as an area where plants are raised for eventual planting out. Nursery bed is defined as
a prepared area where seed is sown or into which seedlings or cuttings are raised. On the bases of kind of
plants growing in them nursery beds are classified into seedling beds and transplant beds. A nursery
which has only seedling beds i.e. in which seedlings are only raised, for   transplanting is called seedlings
nursery. Transplant beds are those nursery beds in which seedlings raised in seedling beds are
transplanted before planting out in forest.

Nursery Site Selection:

The selection of an appropriate nursery site is the most important decision affecting the efficient
production of good quality plants. The following are some of the technical factors which need to be
considered while setting a nursery.

1. Water Supply: In order to have the good irrigation facilities, it should be situated near or slightly
below the source of adequate water supply. Reliable (understanding with villagers) and adequate water
supply is essential. Water source should be near and at the higher level than nursery site. Water should be
available throughout the year.

2. Availability of suitable soil: For raising seedlings in polythene pot (tube) soil of the actual nursery
itself is not important. There should be suitable source of soil preferably forest topsoil and sand within
easy reach of the nursery. Clayey soils should not be selected as their aeration and drainage is poor and
they are liable to crack during summer.
The symbiotic organism (Micorrhiza and Rhizobium) should be present in soil for following reasons.
• Most of the trees grow best if their roots are associated with certain symbionts, which help in their
nutrition.
• Mostly these organisms are found naturally but in some cases artificial inoculation are needed.

3. Access: nursery should be situated as centrally as possible with reference to the area to be planted. It
should preferably be near a Ranger’s or forester’s quarter for close and regular supervision i.e. nursery
should be near to the plantation site to supply soil and other materials and other transportation of
seedlings and access road should be usable at all seasons of year.

4. Aspect: Slope with Southey aspect is much warmer and chosen for hill nursery at high elevation while
in low elevation north facing slope is chosen.

5. Slope: The ideal slope is about 5 degree which is steep enough to allow proper drainage.
Complete flat land should be avoided; it is likely to become water logged during monsoon rains.
Steeper slopes will have to be terraced and very steep slopes should be avoided as it, may be difficult to
make a nursery bed and path on each side to allow access to the beds.
 6. Exposure to frost, strong winds and flooding: at high altitudes, sites, which are particularly liable to
frost damage, should be avoided. Sites exposed to strong winds and with danger of flooding or landslides
should be avoided.

7. Labor availability: labor should be available without difficulty preferably near a village so that they
don’t have to walk much for work.

8. Availability of land: There should be enough land to raise the numbers of seedlings needed and if
possible room for expansion. Legal enquiries should be made about the legal ownership of the land.

Importance of Forest Nursery:

1. Some important species do not need seed every year. Plantation of these species can be raised annually
only by collecting all available seed in years and sowing it in nursery to raise seedlings to be planted out
in various years.

2. Some species grow very slowly and if the seed of these species is sown directly in plantation, the
seedlings are most likely to be swamped by weeds and killed. Therefore, slow growing species are
generally raised in nursery and planted only when the seedlings are not liable to be damaged by weeds.

3. Success of roadside avenue plantations depends largely on planting tall and study plants which can only
be obtained from nursery.

4. Plantations of some species when raised by direct sowing are not so successful as when raised by
planting. In such cases, nursery is an essential part of artificial regeneration of those species.

5. The best method of introduction of exotics, viz tropical pines, poplars, Eucalyptus, etc is only by
planting and therefore nursery is very essential for them.

6. Planting of nursery-grown plants is surest method of artificially regenerating poor and barren sites.

7. Causalities in plantations have to be replaced either in the year of formation or in the next year. Sowing
done in the gaps are liable to be unsuccessful as a result of suppression from weeds and cannot catch up
the plants from original sowing. Therefore, replacement of causalities is always is done by planting
nursery-grown plants or stumps and so nursery is very essential for causality replacement.

Types of Nursery
 Retail Nurseries: Retail nurseries raise plants for sale to the general public. ...
 Wholesale Nurseries: Wholesale nurseries usually grow plants in bulk for the purpose of selling to
large clients. ...
 Private Nurseries: A private nursery grows plants exclusively for a single client.

Classification of Forest Nurseries:

A. On the Basis of Area Size:
Based on size of area, forest nurseries are classified into:
i. Small Nursery:
Nurseries with an area of less than 3 ha
ii. Medium Nursery:
Nurseries with an area of 3-10 ha
iii. Large Nursery:
Nurseries with an area of more than 10 ha
B. On the Basis of Irrigation Facility:
Based on the water availability, forest nurseries are classified into:
i. Dry Nursery:
It is a nursery that is maintained without any irrigation or other artificial watering.
ii. Wet Nursery:
It is a nursery that is maintained by irrigation or other artificial watering during the dry periods.

C. On the Basis of Planting Stock:

Based on the planting stocks produced, forest nurseries are classified into:
i. Bare root Nursery:
In bare root nursery, plants grow directly in the nursery soil and the roots are separated from the soil at the
time of lifting. The lifted planting stock is further handled and planted without soil surrounding the roots.
ii. Container Nursery:
In container nursery, plants are grown with roots in a growing medium held in a container. Roots of lifted
plants are covered by the adhering growing medium.

D. On the Basis of Size of Seedlings:

Based on the seedling size, forest nurseries are classified into:
i. Seedling Nursery:
A nursery which has only seedling beds i.e., in which seedlings only are raised, no transplanting being
done is called seedling nursery.
ii. Transplant Nursery:
A nursery which has only transplant beds, in which seedlings are transplanted for preparation for forest
planting, is called transplant nursery.
In general, separate seedling and transplant nurseries are seldom made.

E. On the Basis of Ownership:

Based on ownership, forest nurseries are classified into:
i. Institutional Nurseries:
They are commonly established, operated and maintained by research institutions, academic institutions,
corporations and international organizations. They are permanent in nature but may be larger, medium or
small, based on purpose.
ii. Government Nurseries:
They are established and operated by national or local government to support reforestation and
community tree planting programmes. They are large in size and are permanent in nature.
iii. Industrial Nurseries:
They are commonly established and operated by large integrated wood based industries. They are large in
size with high production capacities and permanent in nature. Seedling production complies with rigid
quality standards or specifications.
iv. Project Nurseries:
They are established and managed by projects and nongovernmental organizations (NGOs) or
development organizations to promote tree planting culture within target communities. The intended
lifespan of project nurseries is usually 3-5 years, but may continue for longer periods.
v. Community Nurseries:
They are established by communities to support tree planting programmes for social benefits.
vi. Group Nurseries:
They are also established to build technical and leadership capacities of group members and expand the
number of species and quality of germplasm available to group members.
vii. Individual Nurseries:
They are also known as household nurseries or backyard nurseries and are generally established and
managed by individual farmer or household. These nurseries are usually initiated to produce seedlings for
planting on operator’s personal farms. The house compound or farmland provides the planting sites. They
are normally small in size.

F. On the Basis of Duration of the Use:

Based on the duration of their use, forest nurseries are classified into:
i. Temporary Nursery:
It is a nursery that is maintained for supplying stock for a short period after which it is abandoned.
Normally, it is constructed in the plantation area and usually small in size. It is suitable for hilly regions.
ii. Permanent Nursery:
It is a nursery that is maintained for supplying nursery plants for a long time on a permanent basis. It is
intended to meet the requirements of one or more ranges and it is relatively larger in extent.

CALCULATING THE SEED REQUIREMENT

To calculate seed requirements a farmer should know the number and species of trees needed, the size of
the area to be planted and the desired spacing between the trees and the germination rate of that species.

Eg -1. A farmer wants to plant a green manure bank measuring 1,000m x 500m with Gliricida sepium.
All the trees must be at least 2m apart. That is, the spacing is to be 2m x 2m. G. sepium has 7,000 seeds
per kilogram. The seed the farmer wants to use has a 70 per cent germination rate. Note that the amount of
seeds required will depend on the number of seedlings to be planted out and that this will partly depend
on the shape of the block of land and whether or not trees can be planted right on the boundaries of the
land.
In most cases, if you divide the total area of land by the amount of space needed by each tree (in this case
2mx2m, or 4m2 ). Area = 1,000 x 500m = 500,000 m2 Spacing = 2m x 2m = 4m2,
Seedlings needed = Area/Spacing = 500,000m2/4m2 = 125,000 Additional seeds needed to make up for
the 30% of seeds that will not germinate = 30% x 125,000 = 37,500 Total number of seeds needed =
125,000 + 37,500 = 162,500
As there are 7,000 G. sepium seeds per kilogram, the required 162,500 seeds will weigh 162,500/7,000kg
= 23.21kg. Therefore, a total of 23.21 kg of seeds is required for the area to be planted.

SOIL AND ORGANIC MATERIAL PREPARATION

The best soil for most seedlings is neither sticky nor sandy but somewhere in between, allowing for
retention of water, good drainage and aeration.
If the soil is hard clay, add compost and sand in proportions of 2:2:1 (soil:compost:sand).
If the soil is medium-textured, add both compost and sand in proportions of 1:1:1. If the soil is sandy, add
only compost at a ratio of 1:1.
Organic material in soil provides the nutrients essential for good plant growth. The two most common
sources of organic material for use in the nursery are compost and animal manure.–

Seed sowing for Agroforestry trees

Seed bed preparation:
Nursery beds can be arranged in different ways. Potted seedlings can be raised on a flat bed, or can be set
into a sunken bed, which is a basin like excavation of about 1 m by 1 m and about 10 cm deep. Such a
structure holds seedlings together, and helps to conserve water in dry areas.
Potting:
Potting mixture (soil, sand and compost/manure) should be moistened and then pressed into containers to
a depth of about three-quarters of the height of pots. Pots should then be topped up more loosely with
mixture and pressed down slightly to about 2 cm below the top. Heavy compaction should be avoided at
the top of pots because it will inhibit root penetration.
Before planting seed, containers should be watered lightly. Sometimes, more than one seed can be planted
in a pot and then, if more than one germinate, seedlings can be removed to leave a single individual.
Sowing seed:
When raising seedlings in pots it is normal to use polythene tubes that are around 10 cm in diameter and
20 cm deep, though the size of pots will depend on the species in question and the time that seedlings will
be in the nursery.
Pricking Out:
This is the process of transferring young and tender seedlings from seedbeds into containers (pots).
Pricking out should be carried out when the seedlings reach a height of 2 cm. This is usually about two
weeks after sowing but depends on the species.
Shading:
Construct a shade to protect the seedlings from direct sunlight for two to three weeks after pricking out.
Use locally available materials such as grass, mats, or banana fibers for shade construction.
Watering:
The regular supply of clean water is essential to plant growth. Plants are made out of more than 90%
water. When grown in containers, nursery plants have only a limited volume of substrate and do not have
the ability of mature trees to search for water from below the soil surface. The amount of water seedlings
require depends on upon:-
• Seedling age. More water is required after germination when the seedling is young and at pricking out
but this requirement reduces as the seedling grows in age. The amount of water should be reduced four
weeks before the seedlings are planted out. At that stage, the soil can be left to dry out completely and the
plants to wilt for a day. The process should be repeated several times.
• Amount of sunlight. If the area is sunny, more water is needed and vice versa. However, do not keep the
area shady for too long to reduce water use.
• Soil type. A sandy soil loses water faster than a soil with high clay content hence need more frequent
watering.
Use adequate amount of water, e.g. 20 liters for 1,000 seedlings
Weeding: Weeds are a threat to healthy seedlings development. They compete with seedlings for
nutrients, water and light hence they must be controlled.
Application of additional fertilizers (Nutrition): Fertilizers or manure is applied when the seedlings
show sign of weakness. The most common fertilizers are NPK and DAP.

Exp-6

Tree-clinic for AFS.

The tree clinic is offer a wide variety of service ranging from diagnosis and treatment, pruning and
removals and even landscape design and installation.

Exp -7
Training and pruning for Agro forestry trees

TRAINING
• Mainly concerned with giving a form or shape to the plant.
• Determines the general character and even details of the plant’s outline and of its branching and
framework.
• Training includes summer training and summer pruning as well as dormant pruning.
• The goal of tree training is to direct tree growth and minimize cutting

.Objectives of Training
• To admit more sunlight and air to the centre of the tree and to expose maximum leaf surface to the
sunlight.
• To direct the growth of the tree so that various cultural operations, such as spraying and harvesting are
performed at the lowest cost.
• To protect the tree from sunburn and wind damage.
• To secure a balanced distribution of fruit bearing parts on the main limbs of the plant.

Principle of Training
• The principle object in training a young tree is to develop strong framework of scaffold branches. – All
methods of training must stand or fall by their ability to achieve a tree capable of bearing high yielding
fruits without undue breakage.
• Trunk: Main stem of the plant.
• Head: Point on the trunk from which first branch arise
• Scaffold branches: Main branches arising from the head are known as scaffold branches.
– Low headed tree: Trees in which scaffold branches arise within 0.7-0.9 m height from ground level.
Low headed trees come into bearing comparatively much earlier, are able to resist stormy winds more
effectively and their spraying and harvesting expenses are less.
– High headed tree: Trees in which scaffold branches come out from the trunk above 1.2 m. In the tropical
climate, high headed trees are unsuitable as their exposed trunks are subjected to sunscald in summer.
• Crotch: The angle made by scaffold limb to the trunk or the secondary branch to scaffold limb is called
crotch. The crotch should be broad and not narrow.
• Leader: The main growing branch from ground level upto the tip dominating all other branches.
• Spur: Numerous shoot growth which are abundant over the fruit trees and upon which most of the fruit
is borne.
• Water shoots: These are extraordinary vigorous vegetative shoots which grow from the high points on
the main branches in upright direction at the expense of main branches.
• Suckers: arise from adventitious buds on the roots or underground parts of the stem of the tree.

PRUNING
• Pruning is the removal of un wanted portion of a tree to correct or maintain tree structure.
• It has an effect on the function of the plant.
• It is meant to assist more in determining what the tree does in respect of fruiting.
• Pruning is most often done during the winter, commonly referred to as dormant pruning. Also done
during summers, referred to as summer pruning

Objectives of Pruning
• To control the size of the plant.
• To control the form (structural make up of the plant) which involves number, placement, relative size
and angle of branches.
• Better quality fruits by better light distribution.
• To remove diseased, criss-crossed, dried and broken branches.
• To remove the non-productive parts in order to divert the energy into those parts that are capable of
bearing fruits.
• Proper proportion of root- shoot ratio.
• To regulate the fruit crop.
• Longevity of the tree.
 • Chances of insects-pests, diseases and winter injury are less. Principle of Pruning
• To admit more sunlight, remove unproductive branches which are producing few or no fruits and also to
keep the plant in its proper vigour, vitality and to obtain optimum yields of good quality fruits.

Types of Pruning
• Thinning out
• Heading Back
• Bulk Pruning
• Thin wood Pruning

Thinning out: When a shoot is entirely removed from the point of its origin and no re-growth is allowed
to occur from the cut ends.
Heading back: When the terminal portion of branch/shoot is removed and it encourages lateral growth
from the remaining shoot.

Thin wood pruning: refers to the removal of slow growing, weak, under hanging branches or shoots
which are either not fruiting or producing fruits of low quality.
Bench Cut - removes vigorous, upright shoots back to side branches that are relatively flat and outward
growing.
– used to open up the center of the tree and spread the branches outward.
– This is a major cut and should only be used when necessary.

Season of Pruning
• Dormant Pruning
• Summer Pruning
Dormant pruning
• Most often done during the winter- commonly referred to as dormant pruning.
• Dormant pruning is an invigorating process.
• Heavy dormant pruning also promotes excessive vegetative vigor,
• Timing of dormant pruning is critical. Pruning should begin as late in the winter as possible to avoid
winter injury.

Training Systems
Central Leader System
• Main trunk extends from the soil surface to the total height of the tree
• Several side branches grow at different heights in various directions.

Open Centre System

• Main trunk is allowed to grow upto 1.0 m by cutting within a year of planting.
• 3-5 lateral branches are allowed to develop from short main stem.
• Widely used fro peaches and is good for mechanical harvesting.

Modified Leader System

• This training system is most acceptable for commercial fruit cultivation.
• This system combines the best qualities of the central leader and open centre systems.
• A leader develops on the young tree until it reaches the height of 2-3 m and then the growth is restricted.
• Laterals are selected to ascent in a spiral fashion up the central trunk and are cut until the proper number
and distribution of branches have been obtained.

Systems of Training Dwarf Trees

1. Spindle Bush: modification of the dwarf pyramid or as intermediate between a vertical cordon and a
bush form.
• Differs from the dwarf pyramid in that it has no specific arrangement of scaffold branches and from the
vertical cordon in that the fruit is borne on short branches rather than directly on the main stem or trunk.
• Most important feature of this system is the tying down of lateral shoots in a horizontal position with
little or no summer pruning.
• Trained with or without support posts with a central leader straight and with many small fruiting
branches.
• These branches are bent out and down by spreaders to develop wide crotches and to induce early
fruiting.
• Tree spread is controlled by cutting back the shoots to ½ to ¾ of their length or back to weak laterals.

2. Dwarf Pyramids: consists of a tree with a central stem about 2.5 m tall from which short branches
radiate in successive tiers so that a pyramidal shape is build up. • Fruiting spurs are developed on the short
branches. • Summer pruning forms an essential part of success with dwarf pyramids.
Systems of Training Dwarf Trees
3. Cordons: are single stemmed trees. This form is seldom found in commercial fruit production and has
been replaced by dwarf pyramids. Cordons are vertical, oblique or horizontal Vertical cordons: trees are
trained erect and grown to a height of 10-12 feet with the first fruiting wood developed at about 30 cm.
from the ground Oblique cordons: are trained at the 450 angle.

4. Palmettes: refers to the shape of a palm leaf, an open fan or an open hand with spread fingers.
• Formed by developing lateral scaffold branches from the trunk beginning at 30 cm from the surface of
the ground.
• These laterals are in pairs and are equally balanced in opposite directions. Other scaffolds are in turn
vigorously developed but are kept about 30 cm apart.
• Four groups: Horizontal, Oblique, Candelabra, Fan Palmette
5. Espaliers: similar to kniffin system of training grapes. - The trellis is 5 feet high with either 2 wires at
3 feet and 5 feet OR 4 wires at 2,3,4,and 5 feet.
6. Hedgerow Plantation:
• Adapted to mechanical cultivation.
• Distance within the rows - close and between the rows - wide to accommodate machinery and
management.
• Adapted to compact trees, staked free standing on trellised growing north to south.
• Trees planted fairly close 4 feet in rows, 12 feet apart and grown as small bushy trees that develop into a
continuous or hedgerow habit.
• Hedgerow plantation can also be developed without support using semi dwarf or semi-standard
rootstocks with trees 10-15 feet apart in rows 20-30 feet apart.
• Trees are kept 10 feet in height.
7. Meadow or Bed Orchards:
• In this system, trees are planted at ultra high densities of 30,000 to 100,000 tree per hectare.
• Trees spaced 30 x 45 cm apart with sprinkler head through which hormones, fertilizers, herbicides,
pesticides and water may be applied.
• Cropping is taken every other year upto 20 t/acre but cropping every year may be possible by judicious
pruning and management.
• It offers complete mechanization of both pruning and harvesting coupled with chemical control of
weeds.
Limitations: - High cost of establishment - Orchard become uneconomical before standard orchards. -
Annual production is sacrificed because of removal of fruiting buds in alternate years.
8. Tatura Trellis system in Peaches:
• One of the highest yielding systems.
• System appears to be V shaped.
• Trees are planted about 6 x 1 m apart ( 1668 trees/ha).
• Bearing starts in the second year.
• Main framework consists of Y shaped leaders which are tied with the wires.

Exp-8
Height and canopy measurement for selected Agroforesty trees

Canopy cover is measured as the proportion of a fixed area of the ground covered by tree crowns.
The canopy cover will be determined by the tree species, as they have different crown sizes, shapes, and
heights.
A dense canopy cover will let little light reach the ground and will lower temperatures. The canopy
protects the ground from the force of rainfall and makes wind force more moderate. Thus, habitat
conditions on the ground are shaped by the degree of canopy cover.
Forest canopies differ, and so do their effects on the surrounding ecology. It is easy to imagine how the
canopy of a broadleaved forest differs from that of a coniferous forest or a rainforest.

The canopy layer provides protection from strong winds and storms, while also intercepting sunlight and
precipitation, leading to a relatively sparsely vegetated understory layer. Forest canopies are home to
unique flora and fauna not found in other layers of forests

Canopy cover is measured as the proportion of a fixed area of the ground covered by tree crowns.
The canopy cover will be determined by the tree species, as they have different crown sizes, shapes,
and heights
Height and Distances
Height is defined as the measurement of an object in the vertical direction. Distance is considered as the
measurement of an object from a specific point in the horizontal direction.
The most significant definitions that are used when dealing with heights and distances are given as:
Line of sight: It is the line drawn from the eye of an observer to the point in the object viewed by the
observer.
Here, the cat is the observer and the object is the bird.

The angle of elevation: The angle between the horizontal and the line of sight joining an observation
point to an elevated object.
The angle of depression: The angle between the horizontal and the line of sight joining an observation
point to an object below the horizontal level.
How do you Calculate Height and Distance?
The calculation of the height of an object is achieved by the measurement of its distance from the object.
This includes the angle of elevation at the top of the object while calculating the height. The tangent of the
angle is considered as the height of the object, which is divided by the distance from the object. From this

calculation, the height of the object is evaluated.

To measure the heights and distances of different objects, we use trigonometric ratios. 
Use the Tangent rule to calculate the height of the tree (above eye level).
tan(angle) = opposite/adjacent
Where the opposite is the height of the tree and adjacent is the distance between you and the tree.

This is rearranged to:

opposite = tan (angle) x adjacent, or more simply
height =tan (angle) × distance
Distance can be calculated as:

B (distance) = A (height) x tan (e)

Therefore, to calculate B, (distance) we will need the value of A (height) and angle e
Trigonometric Ratios Table
Values of trigonometric functions for the standard angles such as 0°, 30°, 45°, 60°, and 90° could be
easily found using a trigonometric ratios table. 
The table consists of trigonometric ratios – sine, cosine, tangent, cosecant, secant, and cotangent. 
In short, these ratios are written as sin, cos, tan, cosec, sec, and cot.
It is best to remember the values of the trigonometric ratios of these standard angles.
Important Values to memories: i. √ 2 =1.414 ii. √ 3 =1.732 iii. √ 5 =2.236

Eg-1: If I stood 20 m from a tree and the angle between the tree’s top and horizontal from my eye was 30
degrees, I would calculate the height as follows:

Solution
height = tan(angle) x distance
height = tan(30) x 20
height = 11.55 m
I am 1.75 m tall at my eyes and so
Total height = 11.55 m + 1.75 m
total height = 13.3 m

Eg-2 : A man standing at a certain distance from a building, observe the angle of elevation of its top to be
600. He walks 30 yards away from the building. Now, the angle of elevation of the building’s top is 300
. How high is the building?
Solution
Let the height of the building be h, and d be the original distance between the man and the building. The
following figure depicts the given situation:
We have:
tan600=√ 3
⇒ h/d= √ 3
⇒ d=h/√ 3
Also, tan30∘=1√ 3
⇒hd+30=1√ 3
⇒√ 3 h=d+30
⇒√ 3 h=h√ 3 +30
⇒h(√ 3 −1√ 3 )=30
⇒h=15√ 3 yd≈26yd

Exp-9

Different AFS development (SALT and home garden)

Home Garden
A home garden refers to the traditional land use system around a homestead, where several species of
plants are grown and maintained by the household members and their products are primarily intended for
the family consumption.

Typically, home gardens are valued for the following specific uses:
• Food security, nutrition and a cash income
• Fodder, firewood and timber
• Spices, herbs and medicinal plants
• Green manures and pesticide crops
• Cultural and religious uses

Home gardens also constitute a valuable part of the in situ conservation method, but their importance for
genetic resources conservation is still not widely recognized. Home gardens are common in many rural
areas of Nepal.
 Sloping agricultural land technology (SALT),
Sloping agricultural land technology (SALT), known as contour hedgerow intercropping (agroforestry) technology
(CHIAT), is a system in which dense hedgerows of fast growing perennial nitrogen-fixing tree or shrub species are
planted along contour lines thus creating a living barrier that traps sediments and gradually transforms the sloping
land to terraced land. The nitrogen-fixing hedgerows lining the terrace help improve soil fertility through nitrogen
fixation at the roots and incorporation of the hedgerow trimmings into the soil.
SALT has been studied in considerable detail at the Godavari site. The aim was first to determine whether this
method, originally developed for tropical areas, could be used in the cooler climate of the HKH mid hills, and
second to discover the optimum conditions for establishment and use of nitrogen-fixing hedgerows. Detailed
investigations have been made of the impact of SALT on soil erosion, water runoff, and soil fertility; the conditions
for establishment; appropriate nitrogen-fixing hedgerow species for mid-hill areas; crop/hedgerow combinations;
and potential competition between crops and hedgerows. SALT offers a potentially very valuable method for
controlling soil erosion and increasing soil fertility in the HKH mid-hills. It can be established on farmland slopes
with gradients ranging from 5 to 25 per cent or more. Various SALT plots are demonstrated at different locations in
the Knowledge Part at Godavari, and training in the technique has been and is offered at regular intervals.

Exp-10
Establishment of Agroforesty farm at Agriculture and Forestry University (AFU)

Exp-11
A visit to success story of Agroforestry project (s) at local level