Worktext in Prof Ed 18 Prepared by: Reymarie M.

Caban, PhD
Assessment of Student Learning 1 College of Teacher Education

UNIT 2
PRINCIPLES OF ASSESSM ENT IN INSTRUCTIONAL DECISION

Topics:
I. Clarity of Learning Targets
a. Cognitive , affective and psychomotor targets
b. Skills, competencies and abilities targets
c. products, outputs and projects target
2. Appropriateness of Assessment Methods
a. Written-Response Instruments
b. Product Rating Scales
c. Performance Tests
d. Oral Questioning
e. Observation & Self Reports
3. Properties of Assessment Methods
a. Validity
b. Reliability
c. Fairness
d. Practicality & Efficiency
e. Ethics in Assessment
Objectives:
1. Explain the role of assessment in the improvement of teaching-leaning process, students’
performance and instruction.
2. Identify the differences of the cognitive objectives.
3. Write learning targets based on levels of cognitive objectives
4. Determine appropriate assessment procedure.
5. Follow procedures to ensure the validity & reliability of assessment

I. Clarity of Learning Targets

Assessment can be made precise, accurate and dependable only if what are to be achieved are
clearly stated and feasible. To this end, we consider learning targets involving knowledge,
reasoning, skills, products and effects. Learning targets need to be sta ted in behavioral terms
which denote something which can be observed through the behavior of the students. Thus, the
objective “ to understand the concept of buoyancy” is not stated in behavioral terms. It is not
clear how one measures “understanding”. On the other hand, if we restate the target as “to
determine the volume of water displaced by a given object submerged”, then we can easily
measure the extent to which a students understands “buoyancy”.

A. Cognitive Targets
Blooms Taxonomy

A useful guide for developing a comprehensive list of instructional objectives is the

Taxonomy of Educational Objectives. Bloom’s Taxonomy is regarded as one of the most
influential curriculum writings of the twentieth century (Anderson & Krathwohl, 2001; Shane,
1981).

1.Cognitive Domain: Knowledge outcomes and intellectual abilities and skills.

2.Affective Domain: Attitudes, interests, appreciation, and modes of adjustment.
3. Psychomotor Domain: Perceptual and motor skills.

COGNITIVE DOMAIN

Bloom’s Taxonomy includes six separate cognitive domains or levels. These cognitive levels
progress from less complex to more complex cognitive abilities. Each level is cumulative and is
intended to serve as a building block for the higher levels. A summary of each cognitive domain
follows (Bloom et al., 1956).

a. Knowledge. The student is able to recognize specific information, such as the ability to
recognize words, definitions, numbers, facts, concepts, theories and formulas.

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Knowledge of historical facts like the date of the EDSA revolution, discovery of the Philippines
or of scientific concepts like the scientific name of milkfish, the chemical symbol of argon etc,
all fall under knowledge.

b. Comprehension. The student is able to understand and interpret information throug h

translating knowledge -level information into his or her own words and concepts.
Example: The Spaniards ceded the Philippines to the American in 1898 (knowledge of facts).
In effect, the Philippines declared independence from the Spanish rule only to be r uled by yet
another foreign power , the Americans (comprehension).

c. Application. The student is able to apply comprehended information to solve a particular

problem.
Example: The classic experiment Pavlov on dogs showed that animals can be conditioned to
respond in a certain way to certain stimuli. The same principle can be applied in the context
of teaching and learning on behavior modification for school children.

d. Analysis. The student is able to break down and analyze each separate component in order
to derive a conclusion about the whole.
Example: Poverty in the Philippines, particularly at the barangay level, can be traced back
to the low income levels of families in such barangays and the propensity for large households
with an average of about 5 children per family. (Note: Poverty is analyzed in the context of
income and number of children).

e. Synthesis. The student is able to combine disparate ideas to create a new understanding.
Example: The field of geometry is replete with examples of synthetic lessons. From the
relationship of the parts of a triangle or instance, one can deduce that the sum of the angles
of a triangle is 180 degrees. (Padua, Roberto & Rosita G. Santos, 2007)

f. Evaluation. The student is able to understand a set of criteria and then use the criteria to
make judgements about an activity or idea.

Anderson and Krathwohl Revision Of Bloom’s Taxonomy

Anderson and Krathwohl (2001), with a team of contributors, recently published a major
revision of Bloom’s Taxonomy. This current revision is in response to a number of changes in
psychology and education since Bloom’s original taxonomy.

In contrast to Bloom’s original taxonomy, Anderson and Krathwohl’s Revision of Bloom’s

Taxonomy includes a 4 x 6 matrix consisting of two separate dimensions. One dimension is called
the Knowledge Dimension and contains four separate categories. The second dimension is
termed the Cognitive Process Dimension and has six separate processes.

1. Knowledge Dimension- As part of their revision to Bloom’s Taxonomy, Anderson and

Krathwohl (2001) transformed the Knowledge level from Bloom’s Taxonomy into one separate
dimension of the matrix. This transformed Knowledge Dimension has four categories:
a. Factual Knowledge. This is knowledge of the basic facts, terms, or details of an
area of study or of an academic discipline. There are two subcategories in this
aspect: knowledge of terminology and knowledge of details and elements.
b. Conceptual Knowledge. This is the knowledge of the ways that ideas or objects
can be classified, categorized, or developed into principles, models, or theories.
Essentially, it is the knowledge of relationships among objects or concepts.
Conceptual knowledge includes three subcategories: classifications and
categories, principles and generalizations, and theories, models and structures.
c. Procedural Knowledge. This is the knowledge of the process or procedure in
performing an activity. As noted by Anderson and Krathwohl (2001). “Procedural
Knowledge is the knowledge of how to do something”. The re are three
subcategories of procedural knowledge: subject-specific skills: subject-specific
techniques: and knowledge of when to use appropriate procedures.
d. M etacognitive Knowledge. This is knowledge about cognitive process and self-
awareness about one’s own thinking processes. There are three subcategories of
this aspects: strategic knowledge, cognitive task knowledge, and self-knowledge.
2. Cognitive Process Dimension- the second dimension of the matrix is the Cognitive Process
Dimension, which consists of six separate cognitive processes. These processes are
remember, understand, apply, analyze, evaluate, and create. A number of changes from
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Bloom’s Taxonomy also occurred with this dimension of the matrix. Each cognitive process
is presented as a verb in order to facilitate the writing of objectives and assessments
(Anderson & Krathwohl, 2001).
a. Remember. This cognitive process involves retrieving relevant knowledge from long-
term memory. There are two categories: recognizing and recalling.
b. Understand. These process includes the ability to derive meaning from varying types
of instructional activities. There are seven categories: interpreting, exemplifying,
classifying, summarizing, inferring, comparing, and explaining.
c. Apply. This is the cognitive process involve in using a procedure to perform a task. This
category is divided into executing and implementing.
d. Analyze. This process includes breaking down a problem or structure into separate
components and deriving a conclusion about how the parts fits together or reaching a
conclusion about the total structure. The three subcategories are differentiating,
organizing, and implementing.
e. Evaluate. This process requires the students to make judgements from a standard set
of criteria. There are two subcategories: checking and critiquing.44
f. Create. This process includes developing a unique product or idea, as well as making
a new synthesis of existing information. As noted by Anderson and Krathwohl (2001).
“Educators must define what is original or unique. It is important to note, however, that
many objectives in the Create category do not rely on originality or uniqueness”. The
three categories are generating, planning, & producing.

Comparing the revised taxonomy with Bloom’s original taxonomy

In certain respects, the Cognitive Process Dimension from the revise taxonomy is acknowledge
as somewhat similar to Bloom’s original work (Anderson & Krathwohl, 2001)

REVISED TAXONOM Y ORIGINAL TAXONOM Y

Remember Knowledge
Understand Comprehension
Apply Application
Analyze Analysis
Evaluate Synthesis
Create Evaluation

AFFECTIVE DOMAIN

The objectives in the affective domain reflect feelings, emotions and values. The
hierarchical levels in this domain are as follows:
1. Receiving 3. Valuing 5. Characterization
2. Responding 4. Organization

 Receiving . Objectives of this level include awareness of stimulus, willingness to receive

the stimulus, and awareness of some stimulus, willingness to receive the stimulus, and
controlled attention. The specific behaviors of this level may be stated in su ch terms as:
listen, observe, follow, accept, attend, and so on.
 Responding. At this level, students are required to demonstrate active participation more
than passive listening or attending. They acquiesce tom other person’s request, show
willingness to e ngage in an activity, and manifest satisfaction after engaging in a
response. The students at this level not only participate actively but show enjoyment in
doing the activity. Words like comply, perform, practice, and assist demonstrate behavior
at this level.
 Valuing. At this level, the following indicators are included: acceptance of a value,
preference of a value, and commitment. In writing objectives at this level, the following
words may be used: accept, prefer, appreciate, believe, commit, and so on.
 Organization. This level incudes conceptualization of a value and organization of a value
system. Words such as adhere, generalize, integrate and accept may be used.
 Characterization. At this level, students behave consistently with their value system.
What they say is what they do. Some of the words that may be used to measure this level
are: display, perform, practice, act, and so on.

PSYCHOMOTOR DOMAIN
The objectives in the psychomotor domain are categorized as follows:

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1. Reflex movements 3. Perceptual abilities 5. Skilled movements

2. Fundamental 4. Physical abilities 6. Non-discursive
movements communication

 Reflex Movements. Reflex movements are involuntary movements that include segmental
reflexes, intersegmental reflexes and suprasegmental reflexes.
Example are when head moves to the right, the eyes move to the left, amd vice versa.

Segmental reflexes involve one spinal movement.

Intersegmental reflexes involve more than one spinal movement.
Suprasegmental reflexes involve complex multineuronal channels to integrate and limb
musculature with fixed position or movement of the head.
 Basic Fundamental Movements. Basic Fundamental movements are those characterized
by more complex or skilled motor movements. They include locomotor movem, ents,
nonlocomotor movements, and manipulative movements. Examples are bending,
pushing, pulling, stretching, twisting and swinging.
 Perceptual Abilities. Perceptual abilities are those that send message to the brain for
interpretation and affect motor movements. They include kinesthetic, visual, auditory,
tactile discrimination, and coordinated abilities.
Examples of kinesthetic abilities are folding paper, moving fingers, moving legs, raising arms

Examples of visual abilities are reading instructions, watching television, examining graphs
and diagrams.

Example of auditory abilities are hearing words, listening to explanations, and listening to
classical music.

Examples of tactile discrimination are discriminating different textures of cloth and

identifying objects through touching.

 Physical Abilities. Physical abilities are those when developed properly enable smooth
and efficient movement. They include endurance, strength, flexibility, agility and
dexterity. Examples are exiting a vehicle, running 220 meters, completing an obstacle
course and placing an item in a trunk.
 Skilled Movements. Skilled movements are learned. They include simple, compound, and
complex adaptive skills. They are concerned with games, sports, dances and the arts.
Examples are tossing, kicking, bouncing, and catching.
 Nondiscursive Communication. Nondiscursive communication is expressed through body
movement. It includes expressive movement and interpretive movement. Examples are
facial expressions, postures and expressive dance routines.

B. Skills, Competencies, Abilities Targets

Skills refer to specific activities or task that a student can proficiently do, example, skills
in coloring, language skills. Related competencies characterize a student’s ability (Dacum,
2000). It is important to recognize a student’s ability in order that the program of study can be
designed as to optimize his/her innate abilities.

Abilities can be categorized into: cognitive, psychomotor abilities. For instance, the ability
to work well with others and to be trusted by every classmate (affective ability) is an indication
that the student can most likely succeed in work that requires leadership abilities. Some
students are better at doing things alone like programming and web designing (cognitive ability)
and, therefore, they would be good at highly technical and individualized work.

C. Products, Outputs and Projects Targets

Products, outputs and projects are tangible and concrete evidence of a students’ ability.
It needs to clearly specify the level of workmanship of a particular project like expert, skilled or
novice level. Here are some example of assessing workmanship, an expert output may be
characterized by the indicator “ at most two imperfections noted” while a skilled level output can
be characterized by the indicator “at most four imperfections noted”, etc.

D. Appropriateness of Assessment Methods

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The following are general categories of assessment methods:

1. Written-Response Instruments- this includes objective tests ( multiple choice, true -false,
matching or short answer tests), essays and checklists. Objective tests are appropriate in
assessing the various levels of hierarchy of educational objectives. Multiple choice tests in
particular can be constructed in such a way as to test h igher order thinking skills. Essays, when
properly planned, can test the students’ grasp of the higher level cognitive skills particular in the
areas of application, analysis, synthesis and judgment. However, when the essay question is not
sufficiently pre cise and when the parameters are not properly defined, there is a tendency for
the students to write irrelevant and unnecessary things just to fill in blank spaces

Example:
A. Write an essay about the first EDSA Revolution (Poor)
B. Write an essay about the first EDSA Revolution giving focus on the main
characters and their respective roles. (Better)
In the second question, the assessment are narrowed down to : (1) the main characters of the
event, and (2) the roles of each characters in the revolution lea ding to the ouster of the
incumbent President at that time. It becomes clear what the teacher wishes to see and what the
students are supposed to write.

E. Product rating Scales

A teacher is often tasked to rate products. Examples of products that are frequently rated
in education are books reports, maps, charts, diagrams, notebooks, essays and creative
endeavors of all sorts. An example of a product rating scale is the classic “handwriting” scale
used in the California Achievement Test, Form W (1975).
To develop a product rating scale for the various products in education, the teacher must
possess prototype products over his/her years of experience.

F. Performance Tests
A performance checklist consists of a list of behaviors that make up a certain ty pe of
performance (e.g. using a microscope, typing a letter, loving a mathematics performance and so
on). It is used to determine whether or not an individual behaves in a certain (usually desired)
way whne sked to complete a particular task.

G. Oral Questioning
Oral questioning is an appropriate assessment method when the objectives are:
a. to assess the student’s stock knowledge and/or
b. to determine the student’s ability to communicate ideas in coherent verbal sentences.
While oral questioning is indeed an option for assessment, several factors need to be
considered when using this option. Of particular significance are the student’s state of mind and
feelings, anxiety & nervousness in making oral presentations which c ould mask the student’s
true ability.

H. Observation and Self-Reports

A self-checklist is a list of several characteristics or activities presented to the subjects

of a study. The individuals are asked to study the list and then to place a mark opposi te the
characteristics which they possess or the activities which they are often employed by teachers
when they want to diagnose or to appraise the performance of students from the point of view of
the students themselves.
Observation and self-reports are useful supplementary assessments methods when used
in conjunction with oral questioning and performance tests.

I. Properties of Assessment Methods

1. Validity- refers to the appropriateness, correctness, meaningfulness and usefulness
of the specific conclusions that a teacher reaches regarding the teaching-learning situation.

Content validity refers to the content and format of the instrument.

Criteria for judging content validity:

1. Do students have adequate experience with the type of task posed by the item?
2. Did the teachers cover sufficient material for most students to be able to answer the item
correctly?
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3. Does the item reflect the degree of emphasis received during instruction?

Face validity refers to the outward appearance of the test. It is the lowest form of test validity.

Criterion validity, the test item is judged against a specific criterion , example, relevance to a
topic like the topic on conservation. It can also be measur ed by correlating the test with a
known valid test (as a criterion).

Construct validity, a construct is another term for a factor, and we already know that a group
of variables that correlate highly with each other form a factor. It follows that an item possesses
construct validity if it loads highly on a given construct or factor.

2. Reliability- the reliability of an assessment method refers to its consistency. It is synonyms

with dependability or stability.

Stability or internal consistency as reliability measures can be estimated in several ways.

The Split-half method involves scoring two halves (usually, odd items versus even
items) of a test separately for each person and then calculating a correlation coefficient
for the two sets of scores. The coefficient indicates the degree to which the two halves of
the test provide the same results and hence, describes the internal consistency of the
test. The reliability of the test is calculated using what is known as the Spearman-Brown
prophecy formula:
Reliability of test = (2 x rhalf) / (1+ rhalf)
Where rhalf = reliability of half of the test

The Kuder-Richardson is used in determining internal consistency particularly KR20 and

KR21.
KR21 = K/ (K-1) [1 - {n(K-M)}/K (Variance) ]

Where K= number of items on the test, M +mean of the test, Variance = variance of the test
scores.

The mean of a set of scores is simply the sum of the scroes divided by the number of scores; its
variance is given by:

Variance= sum of differences of individual scores and mean/n -1

Where n is the number of test takers.

Reliability of a test may also mean the consistency of test results when the same test is
administered at two different time periods. This is the test re -test method of estimating reliability.
The estimate of test reliability is then given by the correlation of the two test results.

3. Fairness
— Students need to know exactly what the learning targets are and what method of
assessment will be used. Likewise, students need to be informed how their progress will
be assessed in order to allow them to strategize and optimize their performance.
— Assessment have to be viewed as an opportunity to learn rather than an opportunity to
weed out poor and slow learners. The goal should be that of diagnosing the learning
process rather than the learning object.
— Fairness implies freedom from teacher-stereotyping.
4. Practicality and Efficiency
— An assessment procedure must be practical in the sense that the teacher should be
familiar with it, does not require too much time and is in fact.
5. Ethics in Assessment
— When teachers think about ethics, they need to ask themselves if it is right to assess a
specific knowledge or investigate a certain question.
Here are some situations in which assessment may not be called for:
 Requiring students to answer checklist of their sexual fantasies.
 Asking elementary pupils to answer sensitive questions without consent of their
parents
 Testing the mental abilities of pupils using an instrument whose validity &
reliability are unknown.
Ethical (behavior) conforms to the standards of conduct of a given profession or group (Webster).
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 Physical or psychological
It is the responsibility of the teacher to do all his/her power to ensure that
participants in an assessment program are protected from physical or psychological
harm, discomfort or danger that may arise due to the testing procedure.
 Confidentiality of test and assessment results
Test and assessment result are confide ntial, It should be known only by the student
concerned and the teacher. Results should be communicated to the students in such
a way that other students would not be in possession of information pertaining to any
specific member of the class.
 Issue on deception
Should students be deceived? In some instances, it is necessary to conceal the
objective of the assessment from the students in order to ensure fair and impartial
results. When tis is the case, the teacher has a special responsibility to:
a. determines whether the use of such techniques is justified by the educational value
of the assessment;
b. determines whether alternative procedures are available that do not make use of
concealment; and
c. ensure that students are provided with sufficient explan ation as soon as possible.
 Assisting students during examination
It is best if the teacher does not administer the test himself if he believes that such a
concern may, at a later time, be considered unethical.

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UNIT 2 EXERCISES

Exercise 1. Classify the cognitive objectives below in terms of Bloom’s taxonomy of objectives.
(Use intermediate paper. Write your answers.)

1. Identify the parts of a sewing machine.

2. Explain the process of circulation of the blood.
3. Predict the ending of the story.
4. Judge the worth of the literary piece according to the criteria previously discussed.
5. Compose a haiku about raindrops.
6. Draw the parts of the eye.
7. Point out the main characters of the story.
8. Define the process of digestion.
9. Compare the economic conditions of the country during the Spanish regime and the New
Republic.
10. Differentiate the real events from fanciful ones.

Exercise 2. Identify the level of the following verbs in affective domain.

1. comply 3. listen 5. generalize 7. accept 9. reject

2. integrate 4. display 6. practice 8. assist 10. attend

Exercise 3. Identify the level of the following verbs in psychomotor domain.

1. painting 3. walking 5. touching 7. stretching 9. pulling

exercises
2. serving 4. pantomime 6. scowling 8. jumping 10. lifting
weights

Exercise 4. For each of the lessons below, write three (3) learning targets for each item
following Bloom’s taxonomy in terms of cognitive, affective & psychomotor domain .
1. Construction of compound sentences.
2. The First Philippine Republic
3. Atom
4. Reading musical notes in key of A
5. Rules in playing basketball

Exercise 5. Write at least five (5) skills and three (3) competencies involved in baking a cake.

Exercise 6. Discuss the appropriateness of the following assessment methods:

1. Objective tests 3. Performance tests 5. Self-Reports 7. Product reports

2. Essay tests 4. Oral questioning 6. Observational reports

Exercise 7. In the cognitive domain, discuss the following hierarchy of educational targets
1. Knowledge 3. application 5. synthesis
2. comprehension 4. analysis 6. evaluation

Exercise 8. Suppose that you wish to teach the concept of “addition of similar fractions” in
elementary Mathematics, how do you express your learning objectives in terms of the cognitive
domain of learning to wit: (Give one objective per level)

1. Knowledge 3. application 5. synthesis

2. comprehension 4. analysis 6. evaluation
Give one objective per level

Exercise 9. Construct a performance checklist for assessing the performance of a student in

each of the following:

1. using MS word in typing 3. acting out a role in class 5. using a microscope

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2. portfolio in educational 4. basket weaving 6. choral recitation

technology

Exercise 10. Define the following words using a concept map, and how it is being used in
classroom assessment.

1. content validity 3. construct validity 5. stability

2. criterion-related validity 4. reliability 6. fairness

_____________________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________________
________________________

Exercise 11. Answer the following questions:

1. A test may be reliable but not necessarily valid. Is it possible for a test to be valid but not
reliable? Discuss.

2. A 50 item test was administered to a group of 20 students. The mean score was 35 while
standard deviation was 5.5. Compute for the KR21 index of reliability.

3. Compute the Spearman-Brown reliability index if the correlation between the odd and even
scores is 0.84.

4. How many items are needed to construct a KR21 index of 0.60 if the mean is 75 and the
standard deviation is 10.5 for a group of 30 students?

5. If the Spearman-Brown prophecy formula gave an index of 0.80, what is the correlation
coefficient derived from the split-half method?

6. Cite another example of a behavior considered not ethical in testing and assessment.
Explain why you thing such a behavior is not ethical.

7. Enumerate the three main concerns of ethics in testing and assessment. Discuss each major
ethical concern.

8. What is meant by predictive validity? Illustrate this concept.

9. Which of the following : content validity, criterion validity, construct validity, is the most
difficult to obtain? Explain why.

Exercise 12. In the following situations, identify the ethical issues that may be raised in terms
of :

a. possible harm to the b. confidentiality of c. presence of concealment or

participants assessment data deception

1. A teacher plans to rate the performance of students in a gymnastics class unobtrusively. He

does not let the students know that he is actually rating their gymnastics abilities. Instead, he
tells the students to use the gymnasium facilities for practice and then, he watches the students
practice on occasions that are unannounced.

2. A teacher is taking a graduate course in research and intends to use his students in English
1 as subjects of his study. His research deals with the effect of classical music on the learning of
grammar. One class is taught English grammar with subtle background music while the other
class is taught the same lesson without any background music.

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3. As part of the students’ portfolio assessment, the pupils are required to write every event that
happens in their homes at night which may have some bearing on their ability to complete their
homework. The teacher instructs the pupils to write one paragraph of such events once every
hour from 5:00PM to 9:00PM daily.

4. An arts and crafts teacher requires the students to submit their basket weaving projects to be
graded. He selects the best student outputs and brings these projects home.

5. In grading his students in Araling Panlipunan 4 , a high school teacher subjectively adds 5 or
more points to the grades of students who have performed poorly but who, he believes, deserve
better grades has they spent more time studying. In some instances, however, he does not add
any point to a poor performer because he also believes that such cases do not represent a case
of “just needing more time”.

6. In order to proceed with a final examination in swimming class, the teacher brings his students
to a nearby beach and individually rates his students’ swimming skills in the open sea. To ensure
that he is protected in the event of an untoward incident, the teacher also required the students
to submit a parental consent.

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