French cuisine

Basil salmon terrine Foie gras with mustard seeds and green onions in duck jus
French cuisine is a style of cooking originating from France, that has developed from
centuries of social and political change. In the Middle Ages, Guillaume
Tirel (a.k.a.Taillevent), a court chef, authored Le Viandier, one of the
earliest recipe collections ofMedieval France. In the 17th century, La Varenne and the
notable chef of Napoleon and other dignitaries, Marie-Antoine Carême, moved toward
fewer spices and more liberal usage ofherbs and creamy ingredients, signaling the
beginning of modern cuisine. Cheese and wineare a major part of the cuisine, playing
different roles regionally and nationally, with many variations and appellation d'origine
contrôlée (AOC) (regulated appellation) laws.
French cuisine was codified in the 20th century by Georges Auguste Escoffier to become
the modern version of haute cuisine; Escoffier, however, left out much of the regional
culinary character to be found in the regions of France. Gastro-tourism and the Guide
Michelin helped to acquaint people with the rich bourgeois and peasant cuisine of the
French countryside starting in the 20th century. Gascon cuisine has also had great
influence over the cuisine in the southwest of France. Many dishes that were once
regional have proliferated in variations across the country.

in November 2010 the French Gastronomy was added by UNESCO to its lists of the
world's "intangible cultural heritage".[1][2]

National cuisine
Main article: List of French dishes
There are many dishes that are considered part of the nation's national cuisine today.
Many come from haute cuisine in the fine-dining realm, but others are regional dishes
that have become a norm across the country.

History
French cuisine has evolved extensively over centuries. The national cuisine started
forming in the Middle Ages due to the influence of the work of skilled chefs and various
social and political movements. Over the years the styles of French cuisine have been
given different names, and have been modified by various master-chefs. During their
lifetimes, these chefs have been held in high regard for contributions to the culture of the
country. The national cuisine developed primarily in the city of Paris with the chefs to
French royalty, but eventually it spread throughout the country and was even exported
overseas.[3]

Middle Ages
John, Duke of Berry enjoying a grand meal. The Duke is
sitting with a cardinalat the high table, under a
luxuriousbaldaquin, in front of the fireplace, tended to
by several servants, including a carver. On the table to
the left of the Duke is a golden salt cellar, or nef, in the
shape of a ship; illustration from Très Riches Heures du
Duc de Berry, ca. 1410.
In French medieval cuisine, banquets were common
among the aristocracy. Multiple courses would be
prepared, but served in a style called service en
confusion, or all at once. Food was generally eaten by
hand, meats being sliced off large pieces held between
the thumb and two fingers. The sauces were highly
seasoned and thick, and heavily flavored mustards were used. Pies were a common
banquet item, with the crust serving primarily as a container, rather than as food itself,
and it was not until the very end of the Late Middle Ages that the shortcrust pie was
developed. Meals often ended with an issue de table, which later changed into the
modern dessert, and typically consisted ofdragées (in the Middle Ages, meaning spiced
lumps of hardened sugar or honey), aged cheese and spiced wine, such as hypocras.[4]:1-7
The ingredients of the time varied greatly according to the seasons and the church
calendar, and many items were preserved with salt, spices, honey, and other
preservatives. Late spring, summer, and fall afforded abundance, while winter meals
were more sparse. Livestock were slaughtered at the beginning of winter. Beef was often
salted, while pork was salted and smoked. Bacon and sausages would be smoked in the
chimney, while the tongue and hams were brined and dried. Cucumbers were brined as
well, while greens would be packed in jars with salt. Fruits, nuts and root vegetables
would be boiled in honey for preservation. Whale, dolphin and porpoise were considered
fish, so during Lent, the salted meats of these sea mammals were eaten.[4]:9-12

Artificial freshwater ponds (often called stews) held carp, pike, tench, bream, eel, and
other fish. Poultry was kept in special yards, with pigeon and squab being reserved for
the elite. Game was highly prized, but very rare, and included venison, wild boar, hare,
rabbit, and birds. Kitchen gardens provided herbs, including some, such
as tansy, rue, pennyroyal, and hyssop, which are rarely used today. Spices were treasured
and very expensive at that time — they included pepper, cinnamon, cloves, nutmeg,
and mace. Some spices used then, but no longer today in French cuisine are cubebs, long
pepper (both from vines similar to black pepper), grains of paradise, and galengale.
Sweet-sour flavors were commonly added to dishes with vinegars and verjus combined
with sugar (for the affluent) or honey. A common form of food preparation was to finely
cook, pound and strain mixtures into fine pastes and mushes, something believed to be
beneficial to make use of nutrients.[4]:13-15

Visual display was prized. Brilliant colors were obtained by the addition of, for example,
juices from spinach and the green part of leeks. Yellow came from saffron or egg yolk,
while red came from sunflower, and purple came from Crozophora
tinctoria or Heliotropium europaeum. Gold and silver leaf were placed on food surfaces
and brushed with egg whites. Elaborate and showy dishes were the result, such as tourte
parmerienne which was a pastry dish made to look like a castle with chicken-drumstick
turrets coated with gold leaf. One of the grandest showpieces of the time was
roast swan or peacock sewn back into its skin with feathers intact, the feet and beak
being gilded. Since both birds are stringy, and taste unpleasant, the skin and feathers
could be kept and filled with the cooked, minced and seasoned flesh of tastier birds, like
goose or chicken.[4]:15-16

The most well known French chef of the Middle Ages was Guillaume Tirel, also known
as Taillevent. Taillevent worked in numerous royal kitchens during the 14th century. His
first position was as a kitchen boy in 1326. He was chef to Philip VI, then
the Dauphin who was son ofJohn II. The Dauphin became King Charles V of France in
1364, with Taillevent as his chief cook. His career spanned sixty-six years, and upon his
death he was buried in grand style between his two wives. His tombstone represents him
in armor, holding a shield with three cooking pots, marmites, on it.[4]:18-21

[edit]Ancien régime
During the ancien régime, Paris was the central hub of culture and economic activity, and
as such, the most highly skilled culinary craftsmen were to be found there. Markets in
Paris such as Les Halles, la Mégisserie, those found along Rue Mouffetard, and similar
smaller versions in other cities were very important to the distribution of food. Those that
gave French produce its characteristic identity were regulated by theguild system, which
developed in the Middle Ages. In Paris, the guilds were regulated by city government as
well as by the French crown. A guild restricted those in a given branch of the culinary
industry to operate only within that field.[4]:71-72

There were two basic groups of guilds — first, those that supplied the raw materials;
butchers, fishmongers, grain merchants, and gardeners. The second group were those that
supplied prepared foods; bakers, pastry cooks, saucemakers, poulterers, and caterers.
There were also guilds that offered both raw materials and prepared food, such as
the charcutiers and rôtisseurs (purveyors of roasted meat dishes). They would supply
cooked meat pies and dishes as well as raw meat and poultry. This caused issues with
butchers and poulterers, who sold the same raw materials.[4]:72-73 The guilds served as a
training ground for those within the industry. The degrees of assistant-cook, full-fledged
cook and master chef were conferred. Those who reached the level of master chef were of
considerable rank in their individual industry, and enjoyed a high level of income as well
as economic and job security. At times, those in the royal kitchens did fall under the guild
hierarchy, but it was necessary to find them a parallel appointment based on their skills
after leaving the service of the royal kitchens. This was not uncommon as the Paris cooks'
guild regulations allowed for this movement.[4]:73

During the 15th and 16th centuries, French cuisine assimilated many new food items
from the New World. Although they were slow to be adopted, records of banquets
show Catherine de' Medici serving sixty-six turkeys at one dinner.[4]:81 The dish
called cassoulet has its roots in the New World discovery of haricot beans, which are
central to the dish's creation, but had not existed outside of the New World until its
exploration by Christopher Columbus.[4]:85
17th century - early 18th century
Haute cuisine ("high cuisine") has foundations during the 17th century with a chef
named La Varenne. As author of works such as Cvisinier françois, he is credited with
publishing the first true French cookbook. His book includes the earliest known reference
to roux using pork fat. The book contained two sections, one for meat days, and one
for fasting. His recipes marked a change from the style of cookery known in the Middle
Ages, to new techniques aimed at creating somewhat lighter dishes, and more modest
presentations of pies as individual pastries and turnovers. La Varenne also published a
book on pastry in 1667 entitled Le Parfait confitvrier (republished as Le Confiturier
françois) which similarly updated and codified the emerging haute cuisine standards for
desserts and pastries.[4]:114-120
Chef François Massialot wrote Le Cuisinier roïal et bourgeois in 1691, during the reign
of Louis XIV. The book contains menus served to the royal courts in 1690. Massialot
worked mostly as a freelance cook, and was not employed by any particular household.
Massialot and many other royal cooks received special privileges by association with the
French royalty. They were not subject to the regulation of the guilds; therefore, they
could cater weddings and banquets without restriction. His book is the first to list recipes
alphabetically, perhaps a forerunner of the first culinary dictionary. It is in this book that
a marinade is first seen in print, with one type for poultry and feathered game, while a
second is for fish and shellfish. No quantities are listed in the recipes, which suggests that
Massialot was writing for trained cooks.[4]:149-154
The successive updates of Le Cuisinier roïal et bourgeois include important refinements
such as adding a glass of wine to fish stock. Definitions were also added to the 1703
edition. The 1712 edition, retitled Le Nouveau cuisinier royal et bourgeois, was increased
to two volumes, and was written in a more elaborate style with extensive explanations of
technique. Additional smaller preparations are included in this edition as well, leading to
lighter preparations, and adding a third course to the meal. Ragout, a stew still central to
French cookery, makes its first appearance as a single dish in this edition as well; prior to
that, it was listed as a garnish.

Late 18th century - 19th century

The Revolution was integral to the expansion of French cuisine, because it effectively
abolished the guilds. This meant any one chef could now produce and sell any culinary
item he wished. Marie-Antoine Carême was born in 1784, five years before the onset of
the Revolution. He spent his younger years working at a pâtisserie until being discovered
by Charles Maurice de Talleyrand-Périgord, who would later cook for the French
emperor Napoleon Bonaparte. Prior to his employment with Talleyrand, Carême had
become known for his pièces montèes, which were extravagant constructions of pastry
and sugar architecture.[5]:144-145

More important to Carême's career was his contribution to the refinement of French
cuisine. The basis for his style of cooking came from his sauces, which he named mother
sauces. Often referred to asfonds, meaning "foundations", these base
sauces, espagnole, velouté, and béchamel, are still known today. Each of these sauces
would be made in large quantities in his kitchen, as they were then capable of forming the
basis of multiple derivatives. Carême had over one hundred sauces in his repertoire. In
his writings, soufflés appear for the first time. Although many of his preparations today
seem extravagant, he simplified and codified an even more complex cuisine that had
existed beforehand. Central to his codification of the cuisine were Le Maître d'hôtel
français (1822), Le Cuisinier parisien (1828) and L'Art de la cuisine française au dix-
neuvième siècle (1833-5).[5]:144-148
[edit]Late 19th century - early 20th century
Georges Auguste Escoffier is commonly acknowledged as the central figure to the
modernization of haute cuisine and organizing what would become the national cuisine of
France. His influence began with the rise of some of the great hotels in Europe and
America during the 1880s - 1890s. The Savoy Hotel managed by César Ritz was an early
hotel Escoffier worked at, but much of his influence came during his management of the
kitchens in the Carlton from 1898 until 1921. He created a system of "parties" called
the brigade system, which separated the professional kitchen into five separate stations.
These five stations included the "garde manger" that prepared cold dishes; the
"entremettier" prepared starches and vegetables, the "rôtisseur" prepared roasts, grilled
and fried dishes; the "saucier" prepared sauces and soups; and the "pâtissier" prepared all
pastry and desserts items. This system meant that instead of one person preparing a dish
on one's own, now multiple cooks would prepare the different components for the dish.
An example used is "oeufs au plat Meyerbeer", the prior system would take up to fifteen
minutes to prepare the dish, while in the new system, the eggs would be prepared by the
entremettier, kidney grilled by the rôtisseur, truffle sauce made by the saucier and thus
the dish could be prepared in a shorter time and served quickly in the popular restaurants.
[5]:157-159
Escoffier also simplified and organized the modern menu and structure of the meal. He
published a series of articles in professional journals which outlined the sequence, and
then he finally published his Livre des menus in 1912. This type of service embraced
the service à la russe(serving meals in separate courses on individual plates), which Félix
Urbain Dubois had made popular in the 1860s. Escoffier's largest contribution was the
publication of Le Guide Culinaire in 1903, which established the fundamentals of French
cookery. The book was a collaboration with Philéas Gilbert, E. Fetu, A. Suzanne, B.
Reboul, Ch. Dietrich, A. Caillat and others. The significance of this is to illustrate the
universal acceptance by multiple high-profile chefs to this new style of cooking.[5]:159-160

Le Guide Culinaire deemphasized the use of heavy sauces and leaned toward
lighter fumets, which are the essence of flavor taken from fish, meat and vegetables. This
style of cooking looked to create garnishes and sauces whose function is to add to the
flavor of the dish, rather than mask flavors like the heavy sauces and ornate garnishes of
the past. Escoffier took inspiration for his work from personal recipes in addition to
recipes from Carême, Dubois and ideas from Taillevent's Viander, which had a modern
version published in 1897. A second source for recipes came from existing peasant dishes
that were translated into the refined techniques of haute cuisine. Expensive ingredients
would replace the common ingredients, making the dishes much less humble. The third
source of recipes was Escoffier himself, who invented many new dishes, such as pêche
Melba and crêpes Suzette.[5]:160-162 Escoffier updated Le Guide Culinaire four times during
his lifetime, noting in the foreword to the book's first edition that even with its 5,000
recipes, the book should not be considered an "exhaustive" text, and that even if it were at
the point when he wrote the book, "it would no longer be so tomorrow, because progress
marches on each day."[6]
Mid 20th century - late 20th century
Paul Bocuse
The 1960s brought about innovative thought to the
French cuisine, especially because of the contribution of
Portuguese immigrants that had come to the country
fleeing the forced drafting to the Colonial Wars Portugal
was fighting in Africa. Many new dishes were
introduced, as well as techniques. This period is also
marked by the appearance of the "Nouvelle Cuisine".
The term nouvelle cuisine has been used many times in the history of French cuisine.
This description was seen in the 1740s of the cuisine from Vincent La Chapelle, François
Marin and Menon, and even during the 1880s and 1890s to describe Escoffier's cooking.
The term came up again, however, during the 1960s, when used by two authors, Henri
Gault and Christian Millau, to describe the cooking ofPaul Bocuse, Jean and Pierre
Troisgros, Michel Guérard, Roger Vergé and Raymond Oliver. These chefs were working
toward rebelling against the "orthodoxy" of Escoffier's cuisine. Some of the chefs were
students of Fernand Point at the Pyramide in Vienne, and had left to open their own
restaurants. Gault and Millau "discovered the formula" contained in ten characteristics of
this new style of cooking.[5]:163-164

The first characteristic was a rejection of excessive complication in cooking. Second, the
cooking times for most fish, seafood, game birds, veal, green vegetables and pâtés was
greatly reduced in an attempt to preserve the natural flavors. Steaming was an important
trend from this characteristic. The third characteristic was that the cuisine was made with
the freshest possible ingredients. Fourth, large menus were abandoned in favor of shorter
menus. Fifth, strong marinades for meat and game ceased to be used. Sixth, they stopped
using heavy sauces such as espagnoleand béchamel thickened with flour based "roux", in
favor of seasoning their dishes with fresh herbs, quality butter, lemon juice, and vinegar.
Seventh, they used regional dishes for inspiration instead of haute cuisine dishes. Eighth,
new techniques were embraced and modern equipment was often used; Bocuse even used
microwave ovens. Ninth, the chefs paid close attention to the dietary needs of their guests
through their dishes. Tenth and finally, the chefs were extremely inventive and created
new combinations and pairings.[5]:163-164

Some have speculated that a contributor to nouvelle cuisine was World War II when
animal protein was in short supply during the German occupation.[7] By the mid-1980s
food writers stated that the style of cuisine had reached exhaustion and many chefs began
returning to the haute cuisine style of cooking, although much of the lighter presentations
and new techniques remained.[5]:163-164
Regional cuisine

The 22 regions and

96 departments ofmetropolitan
France include Corsica (Corse, lower right).
Paris area is expanded (inset at left).
French regional cuisine is characterized by its
extreme diversity and style. Traditionally, each
region of France has its own distinctive cuisine
accepted by both its bourgeoisie and peasants
and other general citizenry of the regions.

Paris and Île-de-France

Paris and Île-de-France are central regions where almost anything from the country is
available, as all train lines meet in the city. Over 9,000 restaurants exist in Paris and
almost any cuisine can be had here. High-quality Michelin Guide rated restaurants
proliferate here.[8]
Champagne, Lorraine, and Alsace
Game and ham are popular in Champagne, as well as the special sparkling wine simply
known as Champagne. Fine fruit preserves are known from Lorraine as well as
the quicheLorraine. Alsace is heavily influenced by the German food culture; as such, the
wines and beers made in the area are similar to the style of bordering Germany.[8]:55
Nord--Pas-de-Calais, Picardy, Normandy, and Brittany
fleur de sel from Guérande
The coastline supplies many crustaceans, sea
bass, monkfishand herring. Normandy has top quality seafood,
such asscallops and sole, while Brittany has a supply of lobster,
crayfish and mussels. Normandy is home to a large population
of apple trees; apples are often used in dishes, as well as cider and Calvados. The
northern areas of this region, especially Nord, grow ample amounts of wheat, sugar beets
and chicory. Thick stews are found often in these northern areas as well. The produce of
these northern regions is also considered some of the best in the country, including
cauliflower and artichokes. Buckwheat grows widely in Brittany as well and is used in
the region's galettes, called jalet, which is where this dish originated.[8]:93
Loire Valley and central France
High quality fruits come from the Loire Valley and central France, including cherries
grown for the liqueur Guignolet and the Belle Angevinepears. The strawberries and
melons are also of high quality. Fish are seen in the cuisine, often served with a beurre
blanc sauce, as well as wild game, lamb, calves, Charolais cattle, Géline fowl, and high
quality goat cheeses. Young vegetables are used often in the cuisine as are the specialty
mushrooms of the region, champignons de Paris. Vinegars from Orléans are a specialty
ingredient used as well.[8]:129, 132
Burgundy and Franche-Comté
Burgundy is known for its wines. Pike, perch, river crabs, snails, poultry
from Bresse, Charolais beef or game, redcurrants, blackcurrants, honey
cake, Chaource and Epoisses cheese are all specialties of the local cuisine of both
Burgundy and Franche-Comté. Crème de Cassisis a popular liquor made from the
blackcurrants. Dijon mustard is also a specialty of Burgundy cuisine. Oils are used in the
cooking here, types include nut oils and rapeseed oil. Smoked meat and specialties are
produced in the Jura.[8]:153,156,166,185
Lyon-Rhône-Alpes
Fruit and young vegetables are popular in the cuisine from the Rhône valley. Poultry
from Bresse, guinea fowls from Drôme and fish from the Dombes lakes and mountain
in Rhône-Alpes streams are key to the cuisine as well. Lyon and Savoy supply high
quality sausages while theAlpine regions supply their specialty cheeses
like Beaufort, Abondance, Reblochon, Tomme and Vacherin. Mères lyonnaises are a
particular type of restaurateur relegated to this region that are the regions bistro.
Celebrated chefs from this region include Fernand Point, Paul Bocuse, the Troisgros
brothers and Alain Chapel. The Chartreuse Mountains are in this region, and the
liquor Chartreuse is produced in a monastery there.[8]:197,230
Poitou-Charentes and Limousin
Oysters come from the Oléron-Marennes basin, while mussels come from the Bay of
Aiguillon. High quality produce comes from the region's hinterland, especially goat
cheese. This region and in the Vendée is grazing ground for Parthenaise cattle, while
poultry is raised in Challans.Poitou and Charente purportedly produce the best butter and
cream in France. Cognac is also made in the region along the Charente River.Limousin is
home to the high quality Limousin cattle, as well as high quality sheep. The woodlands
offer game and high quality mushrooms. The southern area around Brive draws its
cooking influence from Périgord and Auvergne to produce a robust cuisine.[8]:237
Bordeaux, Périgord, Gascony, and Basque country

An entire foie gras (partly prepared for a terrine)

Bordeaux is known for its wine, as it is throughout the southwest of France, with certain
areas offering specialty grapes for its wines. Fishing is popular in the region for the
cuisine, sea fishing in the Bay of Biscay, trapping in the Garonne and stream fishing in
the Pyrenees. The Pyrenees also support top quality lamb, such as the "Agneau de
Pauillac", as well as high quality sheep cheeses. Beef cattle in the region include
theBlonde d'Aquitaine, Boeuf de Chalosse, Boeuf Gras de Bazas, and Garonnaise. High
quality free-range chicken, turkey, pigeon, capon, goose and duck prevail in the region as
well. Gascony and Périgord cuisines includes high
quality patés, terrines, confits and magrets. This is one of the regions notable for its
production of foie gras or fattened goose or duck liver. The cuisine of the region is often
heavy and farm based. Armagnac is also from this region, as are high quality prunes
from Agen.

Toulouse, Quercy, and Aveyron

Black Périgord Truffle
Gers in this region has high quality poultry, while La Montagne
Noire and Lacaune area offers high quality hams and dry
sausages. White corn is planted heavily in the area both for use
in fattening the ducks and geese for foie gras and for the
production of millas, a cornmeal porridge. Haricot beans are also grown in this area,
which are central to the dish cassoulet. The finest sausage in France is commonly
acknowledged to be the saucisse de Toulouse, which also finds its way into their version
of cassoulet of Toulouse. The Cahors area produces a high quality specialty "black wine"
as well as high-quality truffles and mushrooms. This region also produces milk-fed lamb.
Unpasteurized ewe's milk is used to produce the Roquefort in Aveyron, while Cantal is
produced in Laguiole. The Salers cattle produce quality milk for cheese, as well as beef
and veal products. The volcanic soils create flinty cheeses and superb lentils. Mineral
waters are produced in high volume in this region as well.[8]:313 Cabécou cheese is from
Rocamadour, a medieval settlement erected directly on a cliff, in the rich countryside of
Causses du Quercy. This area is one of the region’s oldest milk producers; it has chalky
soil, marked by history and human activity, and is favourable for the raising of goats.
Roussillon, Languedoc, and Cévennes
Restaurants are popular in the area known as Le Midi. Oysters come from the Etang de
Thau, to be served in the restaurants of Bouzigues, Meze, and Sète. Mussels are
commonly seen here in addition to fish specialties of Sète, Bourride, Tielles and Rouille
de seiche. In theLanguedoc jambon cru, sometimes known as jambon de montagne is
produced. High quality Roquefort comes from the brebis (sheep) on theLarzac plateau.
The Les Cévennes area offers mushrooms, chestnuts, berries, honey, lamb, game,
sausages, pâtés and goat cheeses.Catalan influence can be seen in the cuisine here with
dishes like brandade made from a purée of dried cod wrapped in mangold leaves. Snails
are plentiful and are prepared in a specific Catalan style known as a cargolade. Wild
boar can be found in the more mountainous regions of the Midi.[8]:349,360
Provence and Côte d'Azur
The Provence and Côte d'Azur region is rich in quality citrus, vegetables and fruits and
herbs – the region is one of the largest suppliers of all these ingredients in France. The
region also produces the largest amount of olives, and creates superb olive
oil. Lavender is used in many dishes found in Haute Provence. Other important herbs in
the cuisine
include thyme, sage, rosemary, basil, savory, fennel, marjoram,tarragon, oregano,
and bay leaf. Honey is a prized ingredient in the region. Seafood proliferates throughout
the coastal area. Goat cheeses, air-dried sausages, lamb, beef, and chicken are popular
here. Garlic* and anchovies are used in many of the region's sauces, as in Poulet
Provençal, which uses white wine, tomatoes, herbs, and sometimes anchovies,
and Pastis is found everywhere that alcohol is served. The cuisine uses a large amount of
vegetables for lighter preparations. Truffles are commonly seen in Provence during the
winter. Thirteen desserts in Provence are the traditional Christmas dessert,[9] e.g. quince
cheese, biscuits, almonds, nougat, apple, and fougasse.

Rice is grown in the Camargue, which is the most-northerly rice growing area in Europe,
with Camargue red rice being a specialty.[8]:387,403,404,410,416
  Anibal Camous, a Marseillais who lived to be 104, maintained that it was by
eating garlic daily that he kept his “youth” and brilliance. When his eighty-year-old
son died, the father mourned : “ I always told him he wouldn’t live long, poor boy. He
ate too little garlic !” (cited by chef Philippe Gion)

Corsica
Goats and sheep proliferate on the island of Corsica, and lamb are used to prepare dishes
such as "stufato", ragouts and roasts. Cheeses are also produced, with "brocciu" being the
most popular. Chestnuts, growing in the Castagniccia forest, are used to produce flour,
which is used in turn to make bread, cakes and polenta. The forest provides acorns used
to feed the pigs and boars that provide much of the protein for the island's cuisine. Fresh
fish and seafood are common. The island's pork is used to make fine hams, sausage and
other unique items includingcoppa (dried rib cut), lonzu (dried pork
fillet), figatella, salumu (a dried sausage) salcietta, Panzetta, bacon, figarettu (smoked
and dried liverwurst) and prisuttu (farmer's ham). Clementines (which hold an AOC
designation), lemons, nectarines and figs are grown there. Candiedcitron is used
in nougats and cakes, while and the aforementioned brocciu and chestnuts are also used
in desserts. Corsica offers a variety of wines and fruit liqueurs, including Cap
Corse, Patrimonio, Cédratine, Bonapartine, liqueur de myrte, vins de fruit, Rappu,
and eau-de-vie de châtaigne.[8]:435,441,442

Specialties by season

French cuisine varies according to the season. In summer, salads and fruit dishes are
popular because they are refreshing and produce is inexpensive and abundant.
Greengrocers prefer to sell their fruit and vegetables at lower prices if needed, rather than
see them rot in the heat. At the end of summer, mushrooms become plentiful and appear
in stews throughout France. The hunting season begins in September and runs through
February. Game of all kinds is eaten, often in elaborate dishes that celebrate the success
of the hunt. Shellfish are at their peak when winter turns to spring, and oysters appear in
restaurants in large quantities.

With the advent of deep-freeze and the air-conditioned hypermarché, these seasonal
variations are less marked than hitherto, but they are still observed, in some cases due to
legal restrictions. Crayfish, for example, have a short season and it is illegal to catch them
out of season.[10] Moreover, they do not freeze well.
Foods and ingredients
Escargot à la bourguignonne or "escargot cooked with garlic
and parsley butter in a shell" (with a €0.02 coin as scale)

Smoked and salted horse meat on a

sandwich

French regional cuisines use locally grown vegetables, such as pomme de

terre (potato), haricot verts (a type of French green
bean), carotte (carrot), poireau (leek), navet (turnip), aubergine (eggplant), courgette (zu
cchini), and échalotte (shallot).

French regional cuisines use locally grown fungi, such as truffe (truffle), champignon de
Paris (mushroom),chanterelle ou girolle (chanterelle), pleurote (en huître) (oyster
mushrooms), and cèpes (porcini).

Common fruits
include oranges, tomatoes, tangerines, peaches, apricots, apples, pears, plums, cherries,str
awberries, raspberries, redcurrant, blackberries, grapes, grapefruit, and blackcurrants.

Varieties of meat consumed

include poulet (chicken), pigeon (squab), dinde (turkey), canard (duck), oie (goose, the
source of foie
gras), bœuf (beef), veau (veal), porc (pork), agneau (lamb), mouton (mutton), lapin (rabbi
t),caille (quail), cheval (horse), grenouille (frog), and escargot (snails). Commonly
consumed fish and seafood include cod, canned sardines, fresh sardines, canned tuna,
fresh tuna, salmon, trout, mussels, herring, oysters,shrimp and calamari.

Eggs are fine quality and often eaten as:

 omelettes
 hard-boiled with mayonnaise
 scrambled plain
  scrambled haute cuisine preparation
 œuf à la coque

Herbs and seasonings vary by region, and include fleur de sel, herbes de
Provence, tarragon, rosemary, marjoram, lavender, thyme, fennel, and sage.

Fresh fruit and vegetables, as well as fish and meat, can be purchased either from
supermarkets or specialty shops. Street markets are held on certain days in most
localities; some towns have a more permanent covered market enclosing food shops,
especially meat and fish retailers. These have better shelter than the periodic street
markets.

Structure of meals
Breakfast

Cafés often offer Croissants for breakfast.

Le petit déjeuner (breakfast) is often a quick meal
consisting of tartines (slices) of French bread with
jelly or jam, croissants or pain au chocolat (a pastry
filled with chocolate) along with coffee or tea.
Children often drink hot chocolate in bowls along
with their breakfasts. Breakfast of some kind is
always served in cafés opening early in the day.
Lunch
Le déjeuner (lunch) was once a two hour mid-day meal, but it has recently seen a trend
towards the one hour lunch break. In some smaller towns, the two hour lunch may still be
customary. Sunday lunches are often longer and are taken with the family.[11] Restaurants
normally open for lunch at 12:00 noon and close at 2:30 pm. Many restaurants close on
Saturday and Monday during lunch.[12]

In large cities, a majority of working people and students eat their lunch at a corporate or
school cafeteria, which normally serve complete meals as described above; it is therefore
not usual for students to bring their own lunch food. It is common for white-collar
workers to be given lunch vouchers as part of their employee benefits. These can be used
in most restaurants, supermarkets and traiteurs; however, workers having lunch in this
way typically do not eat all three dishes of a traditional lunch due to price and time
considerations. In smaller cities and towns, some working people leave their workplaces
to return home for lunch, generating four rush hours during the day. Finally, an
alternative also popular, especially among blue-collar workers, is to lunch on a sandwich,
possibly followed with a dessert; both dishes can be found ready-made at bakeries and
supermarkets for budget prices.
Dinner
Le dîner (dinner) often consists of three courses, hors d'œuvre or entrée (introductory
course, often soup), plat principal (main course), and a cheese course or dessert,
sometimes with a salad offered before the cheese or dessert. Yogurt may replace the
cheese course, while a normal everyday dessert would be fresh fruit. The meal is often
accompanied by bread, wine and mineral water. Wine consumption has been dropping
recently amongst young people. Fruit juice consumption has risen from 25.6% in 1996 to
31.6% in 2002. Main meat courses are often served with vegetables, along with rice or
pasta.[11]:82 Restaurants often open at 7:30pm for dinner, and stop taking orders between
the hours of 10:00pm and 11:00 pm. Many restaurants close for dinner on Sundays. Some
restaurants open on Sundays, such as pizzerias.[12]:342
Beverages
In french cuisine beverages that start a meal are called apéritif (literally: that open the
meal). Those who end it are called digestif (and are vocated to end tenderly a meal, as an
equivalent of a dessert in beverages) During the meal wines and waters are welcomed.
from starters to main courses till cheese and dessert.

Apéritifs are generally dry and are perfect to open a meal: Suze, Calvados, Armagnac,
but also Kir, crémeux, Champagne and sometimes mild alcoholic drink like crèmes.

During the courses Wines and waters will perfectly mary with the diversity of french
cuisine. Rosé are tasty fruity and soft so that they can accompain many dishes, the dry
rosé will sustain salads at the beginning (e.g.: Tavel) and the mild Rosé may also
accompain fruits salads,tartes aux fruits and light sugared or subtiles dessert like a crême
brûlée (e.g.:Rosé de Loire). Dry whites wines commonly marry well with sea food
like Alsace, Sauvignon. Red wines are perfect with meats and moreover with red meats,
and also cheese.For examplesBordeaux, Bourgognes, Merlot, Anjou. Mild sugared wines
will be advantages with most of the desserts, among them Sauternes, Coteaux du Layon,
but also champagne brut.
Water will replace wines as for clearing the palais (palate) from tastes in between the
dishes. Sparkling waters are appreciated in big meal for their digestives
properties: Badoit is generally considered as a good eau de table.

To finish the meal liquors or liquorous wines are welcome (for example grand
Marnier, Noyau de Poissy, also Cognacs and why not champagne again as many will find
a way to bring a toast again. French cuisine celebrate the tastes but one concept of a meal
is also celebrating the joy of these tastes alone or with friends. And champagne accomods
so well with celebrating that no one will be confused to see it at any moment on a french
table. But commonly it is present at the beginning and the end.

It is also important to note that vin chaud is a recipe and a beverage too. Many wines will
enter in the composition of recipes not anymore as beverages but as ingredients
( examples : in sauces or as ingredients de cuisson)

Food establishments
History
The modern restaurant has its origins in French culture. Prior to the late 18th century,
diners who wished to "dine out" would visit their localguild member's kitchen and have
their meal prepared for them. However, guild members were limited to producing
whatever their guild registry delegated them to.[13]:8-10 These guild members offered food
in their own homes to steady clientele that appeared day-to-day but at set times. The
guest would be offered the meal table d'hôte, which is a meal offered at a set price with
very little choice of dishes, sometimes none at all.[13]:30-31
The first steps toward the modern restaurant were locations that
offered restorative bouillons, or restaurants — these words being the origin of the name
restaurant. This step took place during the 1760s - 1770's. These locations were open at
all times of the day, featuring ornate tableware and reasonable prices. These locations
were meant more as meal replacements for those who had "lost their appetites and
suffered from jaded palates and weak chests."[13]:34-35

In 1782 Antoine Beauvilliers, pastry chef to the future Louis XVIII, opened one of the
most popular restaurants of the time — the Grande Taverne de Londres — in the arcades
of the Palais-Royal. Other restaurants were opened by chefs of the time who were leaving
the failing monarchy of France, in the period leading up to the French Revolution. It was
these restaurants that expanded upon the limited menus of decades prior, and led to the
full restaurants that were completely legalized with the advent of the French Revolution
and abolition of the guilds. This and the substantial discretionary income of the French
Directory's nouveau riche helped keep these new restaurants in business.[13]:140-144

Categories

English French Description

More than 5,000 in Paris alone, with varying levels of prices and
menus. Open at certain times of the day, and normally closed one day
of the week. Patrons select items from a printed menu. Some offer
regional menus, while others offer a modern styled menu. By law, a
Restaurant
prix-fixe menu must be offered, although high-class restaurants may
try to conceal the fact. Few French restaurants cater to vegetarians.
The Guide Michelin rates many of the better restaurants in this
category.[8]:30

Often smaller than a restaurant and many times using chalk board or
verbal menus. Many feature a regional cuisine. Notable dishes
Bistro(t)
include coq au vin, pot-au-feu, confit de canard, calves' liver
and entrecôte.[8]:30

Similar to caberets or tavernes of the past in France. Some offer

inexpensive alcoholic drinks, while others take pride in offering a full
Bistrot à Vin range of vintage AOC wines. The foods in some are simple, including
sausages, ham and cheese, while others offer dishes similar to what
can be found in a bistro.[8]:30

Found in Lyon, they produce traditional Lyonnaise cuisine, such as

sausages, duck pâté or roast pork. The dishes can be quite fatty, and
Bouchon heavily oriented around meat. There are about twenty officially
certified traditional bouchons, but a larger number of establishments
describing themselves using the term.[14]

brewery Brasserie these establishments were created in the 1870s by refugees

from Alsace-Lorraine. These establishments serve beer, but most serve
wines from Alsace such as Riesling, Sylvaner, and Gewürztraminer.
The most popular dishes areSauerkraut and Seafood dishes.[8]:30 In
 general, a brasserie is open all day, offering the same menu.[15]

Primarily locations for coffee and alcoholic drinks. Tables and chairs
are usually set outside, and prices marked up somewhat en terrasse.
The limited foods sometimes offered include croque-monsieur,
Café
salads, moules-frites (musselsand pommes frites) when in
season. Cafés often open early in the morning and shut down around
nine at night.[8]:30

These locations are more similar to cafés in the rest of the world.
These tearooms often offer a selection of cakes and do not offer
alcoholic drinks. Many offer simple snacks, salads, and sandwiches.
Salon de Thé
Teas, hot chocolate, and chocolat à l'ancienne (a popular chocolate
drink) offered as well. These locations often open just prior to noon for
lunch and then close late afternoon.[8]:30

Based on the American style, many were built at the beginning of the
20th century (particularly around World War I, when young American
Bar expatriates were quite common in France, particularly Paris). These
locations serve cocktails, whiskey, pastis and other alcoholic drinks.
[8]:30

Typical of the Nord-Pas-de-Calais region, these small bars/restaurants

used to be a central place for farmers, mine or textile workers to meet
and socialize. Alongside the usual beverages (beers and liquors), one
Estaminet could order basic regional dishes, as well as play various indoor
games. These estaminets almost disappeared, but are now considered a
part of Nord-Pas-de-Calais history, and therefore preserved and
promoted.

A bouchon, Le tablier (the apron), in Vieux

Lyon

Restaurant staff
Larger restaurants and hotels in France employ
extensive staff and are commonly referred to as
either the kitchen brigade for the kitchen staff
 or dining room brigade system for the dining room
staff. This system was created by Georges Auguste
Escoffier. This structured team system delegates
responsibilities to different individuals that specialize
in certain tasks. The following is a list of positions
held both in the kitchen and dining rooms brigades in
France:[8]:32

Cooks at work

Staff

Section French English Duty

Kitchen Responsible for overall management of

brigade kitchen. They supervise staff, create menus
and new recipes with the assistance of the
Chef de
Head chef restaurant manager, make purchases of raw
cuisine
food items, trains apprentices and maintains a
sanitary and hygienic environment for the
preparation of food.[8]:32

Receives orders directly from the chef de

Sous-chef de cuisine for the management of the kitchen and
Deputy Head chef
cuisine often represents the chef de cuisine when he
or she is not present.[8]:32

Responsible for managing a given station in

Chef de the kitchen where they specialize in preparing
Senior chef
partie particular dishes. Those that work in a lesser
station are referred to as a demi-chef.[8]:32

Cuisinier Cook This position is an independent one where

 they usually prepare specific dishes in a
station. They may be referred to as a cuisinier
de partie.[8]:32

Also works in a specific station, but reports

Commis Junior cook directly to the chef de partie and takes care of
the tools for the station.[8]:32

Many times they are students gaining

theoretical and practical training in school and
Apprenti(e) Apprentice
work experience in the kitchen. They perform
preparatory work and/or cleaning work.[8]:30

Cleans dishes and utensils and may be

Plongeur Dishwasher
entrusted with basic preparatory job.[8]:32

In larger restaurants takes care of all the pots

Marmiton Pot and pan washer
and pans instead of the plongeur.[8]:33

Prepares sauces, warm hors d'œuvres,

completes meat dishes and in smaller
Saucemaker/Sauté restaurants may work on fish dishes and
Saucier
cook prepares sautéed items. This is one of the
most respected positions in the kitchen
brigade.[8]:32

Manages a team of cooks that roasts, broils

Rôtisseur Roast cook
and deep fries dishes.[8]:32

In a larger kitchen this person prepares the

Grillardin Grill cook
grilled foods instead of the rôtisseur.[16]:8

Friturier Fry cook In larger kitchens this person prepares fried

foods instead of the rôtisseur.[16]
Poissonnier Fish cook Prepares fish and seafood dishes.[8]:33

Prepares soups and other dishes not involving

Entremetier Entrée preparer meat or fish, including vegetable dishes and
egg dishes.[8]:32

In larger kitchens this person reports to

Potager soup cook
theentremetier and prepares the soups.[16]

In larger kitchen this person also reports to

Legumier Vegetable cook theentremetier and prepares the vegetable
dishes.[16]

responsible for preparation of cold hors

Garde d'œuvres, prepares salads, organizes large
Pantry supervisor
manger buffet displays and prepares charcuterieitems.
[8]:30

Spare hand/ Moves throughout kitchen assisting other

Tournant
roundsperson positions in kitchen

Prepares desserts and other meal end sweets

and for location without a boulanger also
Pâtissier Pastry cook
prepares breads and other baked items. They
may also prepare pasta for the restaurant.[8]:33

Prepares candies and petit fours in larger

Confiseur
restaurants instead of the pâtissier.[16]

Prepares frozen and cold desserts in larger

Glacier
restaurants instead of the pâtissier.[16]

Décorateur Prepares show pieces and specialty cakes in

larger restaurants instead of thepâtissier.[16]:8-9
 Prepares bread, cakes and breakfast pastries in
Boulanger Baker
larger restaurants instead of thepâtissier.[8]:33

butchers meats, poultry and sometimes fish.

Boucher Butcher May also be in charge of breading meat and
fish items.[16]

Takes orders from dining room and distributes

Announcer/ them to the various stations. This position
Aboyeur
expediter may also be performed by the sous-chef de
partie.[16]

Prepares the meal served to the restaurant

Communard
staff.[16]

Performs preparatory and auxiliary work for

Garçon de cuisine
support in larger restaurants.[8]:33

Dining Oversees economic and administrative duties

room Directeur de for all food related business in large hotels or
brigade la General manager similar facilities including multiple
restauration restaurants, bars, catering and other events.
[8]:33

Responsible for the operation of the restaurant

dining room which includes managing staff,
hiring and firing staff, training of staff and
Directeur de Restaurant
economic duties of the such matters. In larger
restaurant manager
establishments there may be an assistant to
this position who would replace this person in
their absence.[8]:33

Maître d'hotel Welcomes guests, and seats them at tables.

They also supervise the service staff. It is this
person that commonly deals with complaints
and verifies patron bills.[8]:33
 Commonly in charge of service for the full
dining room in larger establishments; this
Chef de salle
position can be combined into the maître
d'hotel position.[16]

The dining room is separated into sections

called rangs. Each rang is supervised by this
Chef de rang
person to coordinate service with the kitchen.
[8]:33

Demi-chef
de rang
Clears plates between courses if there is
Back server nocommis débarrasseur, fills water glasses
and assists the chef de rang.[16]
commis de
rang

Clears plates between courses and the table at

Commis débarrasseur
the end of the meal.[8]:33

In larger establishments, this person brings the

Commis de suite different courses from the kitchen to the table.
[8]:33

Explains the menu to the guest and answers

any questions. This person often performs the
Chef d'étage Captain tableside food preparations. This position may
be combined with the chef de rang in smaller
establishment.[16]

Chef de vin Manages wine cellar by purchasing and

organizing as well as preparing the wine list.
Wine server
This person also advises the guest on wine
Sommelier choices and serves it.[8]:33

chef sommelier In larger establishments, this person will

chef caviste manage a team of sommeliers.[8]:33

This position found in smaller establishments

Serveur de performs the multiple duties of various
Server
restaurant positions in the larger restaurants in the
service of food and drink to the guest.[8]:33

Responsable Manages the bar in a restaurant which

de bar includes ordering and creating drink menus;
Bar manager they also oversee the hiring, training and
firing of barmen. Also manages multiple bars
Chef de bar in a hotel or other similar establishment.[8]:33

Barman Bartender Serves alcoholic drinks to guests.[8]:33

Coat room attendant who receives and returns

Dame du vestiaire
guests coats and hats.[8]:33

Parks guests' cars and retrieves them upon the

Voituriers Valet
guests exiting the restaurant.[8]:33