CHEMICAL POLLUTION IN LOW- AND MIDDLE-INCOME COUNTRIES 1

components, sub-assemblies and consumables, which are

Pollutants (E- part of the product at the time of discarding.” (European

Parliament and Council of the European Union, 2012).
WEEE was divided into 10 categories (Widmer et al.,

Waste) 2005):

• large household appliances

Chemical characteristics and their
potential risks • small household appliances

• IT and telecommunications equipment

Introduction
In today’s throw-away society, the desire, for devices with faster • consumer equipment
and newer state-of-the art technology is leading to a continuous
expansion of the electronic market and to shortened innovation • lighting equipment
cycles for electrical and electronic equipment (EEE). Much of
this EEE has a short lifespan and fast turnover. Frequently, • electrical and electronic tools
obsolete or damaged EEE is not recycled or repaired, but, more
likely, is simply thrown away. Thus the amount of waste • toys and sports equipment
electrical and electronic equipment (WEEE), such as superseded
personal computers, mobile phones, entertainment equipment, • medical devices
and electronic consumer equipment has proliferated immensely
during the last decades. The increased production and disposal of
• monitoring and control instruments
EEE represents an emerging and growing problem that can
adversely affect environmental and human health. This holds
• automatic dispersers.
especially true, since WEEE is transported from high income
countries (HICs) to low- and middle-income countries
Although, presumably, this categorization system is
(LAMICs) such as Brazil, China, India, Mexico, Nigeria,
becoming a broadly accepted standard, there is no
Pakistan, and Thailand (International Labour Organization,
international standard definition for electronic waste (e-
2012; Lewis, 2011; Skinner et al., 2010; Silicon Valley Toxics
waste) available yet. There are several forms of WEEE
Coalition, 2014). Here, the waste is discarded or processed
which may or may not be normally considered as e-waste
(dismantled and re- cycled) under poor and inappropriate
compounds as shown in the literature (Robinson, 2009).
conditions, since this type of waste comprises a wide range of
This makes it even more difficult to assess the amounts of
hazardous compounds (these are discussed in more detail in the
ewaste that are produced, or shipped, at a global scale.
section E-waste pollutants of environmental concern; Widmer
There are international initiatives to prevent the export of
et al., 2005; Wong et al., 2007c; European Parliament and
and the trade in e-waste and other hazardous products.
Council of the European Union, 2012).
The amount of waste electrical The Basel Convention on the Control of Transboundary
and electronic equipment Movements of Hazardous Wastes and their Disposal
Today, the generation of WEEE is the fastest growing waste
(WEEE) has proliferated (which came into force in 1992) is a good exemplar
stream worldwide (about 4% growth per year; International
immensely during the last (United Nations Environment Programme, 2014).
Labour Organization, 2012) and accounts for up to 8% of all
decades. However, there is evidence that companies from
municipal waste (Streicher-Porte et al., 2005). In general, the
industrial countries are searching for loop holes in the
recent global production (data from 2006 and 2009) of WEEE is

Electron
regulations in order to ship e-waste to LAMICs for
estimated to be bet- ween 20 and 50 million tonne, a large
cheaper recycling and cheaper disposal, or to offer
portion of which, as has already been mentioned, is sent to
obsolete EEE as secondhand goods. In some cases,
LAMICs (United Nations Environment Programme, 2006a;
unusable EEE is disguised as secondhand goods and

ic
Robinson, 2009; Schluep et al., 2009). The production of WEEE
shipped to LAMICs although it is useless or never used in
in 2014/15 is predicted to be between 40 and 70 million tonne
the receiving countries (Jain, 2008; International Labour
(Jain, 2008). This high variation in the volume of WEEE to be
Organization, 2012). All in all, about 181 countries are

Industry
produced predicted in the literature underscores the difficulties in
supporting the Basel Convention and of these, 53 have
estimating the global generation of WEEE and the amounts of
signed it. Other countries – Angola, Fiji, Haiti, Myanmar,
environmentally friendly or unfriendly compounds in it.
Sierra Leone, Solomon Islands, South Sudan, Tajikistan,
Timor-Leste, United States of America, and Vanuatu –
According to the Directive 2002/96/EC of the European
have not even confirmed the Basel Convention, which
Parliament (revised at the end of 2011) and of the
suggests that they are probably not willing to stop their
Council (January 2003) on WEEE, this superseded EEE
exports of hazardous e-waste to LAMICs yet. For the
is defined as: “WEEE, which is waste, including all
 2 ELECTRONIC INDUSTRY POLLUTANTS (E-WASTE)

USA, one of the challenges elements, gold, silver, and copper (Wong et al., 2007a;
might be that all federal
Main Issues Robinson, 2009).
The main issues associated with the displacement,
states needs to fulfill the
disposal, and processing of e-waste in LAMICs are
requirements of the Basel Poor facilities and obsolete techniques
(International Labour Organization, 2012):
Convention to enable the Given the large amounts of e-waste imported by LAMICs – 20 to
• Regulations at international, national, and local
affiliation of the USA to 50 million tonne (United Nations Environment Programme,
level are still lacking or they are not observed
the Basel Convention. In 2006a; Robinson, 2009; Schluep et al., 2009) – these countries
• Often unsuitable facilities and obsolete techniques
addition, the are receiving disproportionate loads of e-waste without having
are used to process e-waste in LAMICs
implementation of the the knowledge, capacity, appropriate facilities, and techniques to
• E-waste contains a wide mixture and variety of
Basel Convention is handle them properly (International Labour Organization, 2012).
compounds making separation and treatment
mainly driven by the
complex
poorer countries affected
• Employees are working under bad labor
by it and not by the HICs conditions • The toxicological potential of pollutants, On a global scale, the controls for the shipping of e-waste
with strong economies. released through the disposal and recycling containers
This might be another processes, is high are still not efficient enough yet to control the trade
reason why the USA has completely.
not ratified the Basel
Convention, yet (Martin
Streicher-Porte (FHNW); of e-waste pollutants that needs to be handled by these countries
personal communication). (Jain, 2008).
However, the International
Labour Office Existing regulations and their enforcement
(International Labour Many international regulations exist. However, these are not
Organization, 2012) and followed or still not approved in every country. Hence, although
Smith et al. (2006) have there are several international initiatives, such as the Basel
shown that 80% of all e- Convention or the Basel Action Network Amendment, the trade Informal e-waste recyclers are using inappropriate, unsafe,
waste that is sent to and sale of e-waste, particularly from HICs to LAMICs and and obsolete treatment, disposal, and e-waste recycling
LAMICs for recycling informal recycling businesses, still represents a major issue. techno- logies and methods, which pose a risk to
ends up in informal e- Although the enforcement of these initiatives should help to environmental and human health.
waste recycling sites. In inhibit the trade in WEEE or to better understand the Often, the informal e-waste recyclers are using inappropriate,
addition to the e-waste transboundary movements of WEEE, the WEEE trade patterns unsafe, and obsolete treatment, disposal, and e- waste recycling
which is shipped into are still difficult to assess, especially in LAMICs (Widmer et al., technologies and methods, which are posing a risk to
LAMICs, domestically 2005; International Labour Organization, 2012; Lu et al., 2015). environmental and human health. For instance, in LAMICs,
produced WEEE is For instance, India has endorsed the Basel Convention, but it has pyro-, hydro- and bio-metallurgical processes are commonly
increasing as well as a not ratified the Basel Action Network (BAN) Amendment. Until used to recover valuable metals (Cui and Zhang, 2008). Pyro-
consequence of economic now, in India there are no specific laws or guidelines framed for metallurgical processing includes the incineration and smelting
development, especially in the trading and recycling of e-waste (International Labour of e-waste containing valuable target precious metals and non-
regions such as India, Organization, 2012). On a global scale, the controls for the ferrous metals, such as platinum, gold, silver, and copper. More
China, and Africa. This shipping of e-waste containers are still not efficient enough yet efficient processes are strongly linked with appropriate
further amplifies the to control the trade completely (International Labour investment. Therefore, because resources are scarce, especially
burden Organization, 2012). At the national and local levels, there is a in LAMICs, these obsolete pyro-metallurgical methods are
serious lack of governmental authorities and regulations. Where applied without using any emission filters or emission control
they do exist, the poor implementation of legal instruments, systems. This leads to a release of toxic compounds, such as
corruption, the absence of standards for the recycling of e-waste, polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs), heavy metals, and
and the poor participation of stakeholders in supporting/applying halogenated hydrocarbons, into the environment mainly as
sustainable and more environmentally-friendly recycling aerosol particles. It is the employees of these informal
methods, especially in LAMICs, further promote the informal businesses, the local community, and the environment in the
recycling of e- waste. These deficiencies make it even easier to vicinity of these e-waste recycling sites that are most affected
trade and deal in e-waste. In addition, the definition of and (Tue et al., 2010; International Labour Organization, 2012). In
legislation for controlling WEEE differ considerably from particular, the low-temperature, open burning in the fields of
country to country (International Labour Organization, 2012; Lu halogenated flame retardants and the incomplete combustion of
et al., 2015). the plastics and organic matter contained in the burned WEEE
are causing an aerial exposure to highly toxic and carcinogenic
One of the main incentives resulting in poor compliance with PAHs, such as benzo[a]pyrene, dioxins, and furans in particulate
international and national regulations and the informal form (Yu et al., 2006b; Cui and Zhang, 2008). In addition, the
collection, trade, and recycling of e-waste is the profitable emission of these compounds leads to the contamination of the
extraction and sale of valuable compounds – platinum group soil and water following dry and wet disposal methods.
 CHEMICAL POLLUTION IN LOW- AND MIDDLE-INCOME COUNTRIES 3

According to the investigations of acids, solvents, and heavy metals during the recycling and the 3. Refining of resources in the e-waste to recover the
the Blacksmith Institute, the extraction processes or the inappropriate disposal and dumping raw material with minimal environmental impact.
burning and melting of plastic- of e-waste can contaminate soils and drinking water resources in
sheathed cables to isolate and the vicinity. Mixture and variety of different compounds Heavy metals,
recover the copper is one of the The diverse composition of e-waste presented in Table 7, the metalloids, halogenated hydrocarbons, and other persistent and
main activities in Ghana that is of different materials which are blended, glued, fixed, or clamped hazardous pollutants are to be found within the e-waste. The
the highest concern from a public together, and the scarcity of financial resources are making the burning of e-waste at low temperatures produces PAHs, such as
health perspective. This is because efficient recycling of plastic and individual types of metals very dioxins and furans, or is causing the release of further
copper acts as a catalyst for dioxin difficult (Mundl, 2010). Today, sustainable and more halogenated flame retardants. These compounds are known to
formation during incineration environmentally-friendly recycling technologies, which enable a pose a high risk to environmental and human health (Robinson,
processes (Cui and Zhang, 2008; sound recycling of e-waste, are just as applicable and economic 2009). In addition to these toxic compounds, e-waste consists of
Sepúlveda et al., 2010; Blacksmith in larger middle- and higherincome countries. But they require a a broad range of other material, such as glass, ceramics, plastics
Institute and Green Cross, 2013). large capital investment, qualified and well educated employees, and rubber, rare earths, non-ferrous metals (aluminum, copper,
Hydro- and bio-metallurgical and high quantities of e-waste to be available. For these reasons, and lead), ferrous metals (steel and iron), and precious metals
processes are used to dissolve and in lower income countries and in most of the middle- income (platinum group metals, gold and silver; International Labour
recover the target metals. For ones, informal recycling business are more prevalent. The pyro- Organization, 2012; Lu et al., 2015). The composition of the e-
hydro-metallurgical processing, metallurgical, state-of-the-art recycling of ewaste comprises waste is strongly dependent on its type; there is high variation
acids and chemicals, like cyanide, three steps (Empa, 2009f): among the 10 different categories of WEEE of Directive
halide, thiourea, and thiosulphate, 2012/19/EU of the European Parliament (European Parliament
are used. For bio-metallurgical 1. Removal of critical components from the e-waste in and Council of the European Union, 2012). In addition, the EEE
processing, microbes, pyritic order to avoid dilution of and contamination with toxic industries, especially the ones located in higher-income
compounds, oxygen, and water are substances during the subsequent recycling processes countries, have been put recently under in- creased pressure to
used to accelerate the natural avoid or ban the use of highly toxic compounds, such as
leaching process of metals from e- 2. In large-scale operations, mechanical processing is cadmium and mercury. Such was not the case in the past. Hence,
waste heaps (Leung et al., 2008). used to further concentrate the specific components to be older e-waste often contains more hazardous compounds than
At hydro- and bio-metallurgical recovered from the e-waste and to further separate hazardous recently produ-
processing sites, the leakage of materials

ced waste (Mundl, 2010). Table 7 shows the composition of the health (Leung et al., 2008; Li et al., 2008c; Robinson, 2009; International Labour Organization,
different types of WEEE. ‘Large household appliances’ includes 2012).
refrigerators, freezers, and washing machines; ‘small household
appliances’ includes vacuum cleaners, clocks, fryers, and toasters; Elevated levels of contaminants associated with e-waste are measured in the blood, breast milk,
‘information and communication technologies’ includes personal hair, and placentas of people involved in collecting and processing e-waste or who are living in
computers, laptops, and telephones; and ‘consumer electronics’ the vicinity of e-waste storage or processing sites. In this latter instance uptake mainly happens
includes televisions, cameras, and audio amplifiers (Empa, 2009a). through the inhalation of contaminated air, dust, and fumes and the drinking or eating of
contaminated water and food – rice, eggs, milk, and meat (Darnerud, 2003; Zhao et al., 2006;
Inadequate labor conditions Chan et al., 2007; Leung et al., 2008, 2010; Robinson, 2009; Tue et al., 2010). Additionally
The use of obsolete and unsafe methods for e-waste collection and hazardous compounds are transmitted via people’s hands during eating because an adequate
recycling is posing a high risk to human health. The LAMIC workers system of running water for hand washing is lacking (International Labour Organization, 2012).
often are not aware of the toxic compounds contained in the e-waste The occupational and public exposure and the bioaccumulation of toxicants that are emitted and
they are collecting, dismantling, and disassembling. They are leached from e-waste, especially Table 7: Material composition of the four main e-waste
mechanically shredding electronic and electrical equipment for categories [%]
recycling without wearing any googles, gloves, masks, or protection
clothes. In LAMICs, children and women often may be involved in
collecting e-waste, such as plastic coated cables, cathode ray tubes, and
printed circuit boards and in manually separating out the desired
components. Sometimes, mainly because of financial constraints, they
are involved in the burning activities (Prakash et al., 2010). Children
and women constitute one of the most susceptible at-risk groups
exposed to the heavy metals, flame retardants, and PAHs, which are
contained in e-waste or which are released by open e-waste burning
activities. During the smelting, leaching, and other extraction processes
for the target metals, the informal workers often do not wear masks or
adequate protective clothing. In addition, often there are no emission
control devices or emission filters being used and hence they are
exposed to toxic fumes and solvents that continuously endanger their
 4 ELECTRONIC INDUSTRY POLLUTANTS (E-WASTE)

(Empa, 2009a)
neurotoxins, endocrine disruptors, allergens, or carcino- gens. Also many of them are slowly
Material Large household Small household ICTA and consumer degraded by natural processes and have a high potential for
appliances appliances electronics bioaccumulation (International Labour Organization, 2012). The adverse
Ferrous metal 43 29 36 effects caused by exposure to mixtures of these hazardous compounds has
Aluminum 14 9.3 5 not been sufficiently investigated at the present time. Since the
Copper 12 17 4 composition of e-waste varies enormously, not every substance that is
Lead 1.6 0.57 0.29 released into the environment from e-waste storage and processing can be
Cadmium 0.0014 0.0068 0.018 considered in this report. The major groups and main substances of
Mercury 0.000038 0.000018 0.00007
highest environmental concern that are contained in e-waste are
summarized below and in Table 8, Table 9, and Table 10.
Gold 0.00000067 0.00000061 0.00024
Silver 0.0000077 0.000007 0.0012
Palladium 0.0000003 0.00000024 0.00006
Indium 0 0 0.0005
Brominated plastics 0.29 0.75 18 E-waste pollutants of environmental concern
Plastics 19 37 12
Lead glass 0 0 19
Glass 0.017 0.16 0.3 A) Heavy metals and metalloids.
Other 10 6.9 5.7
Total 100 100 100 Antimony, arsenic, barium, beryllium, cadmium, cobalt, copper,
chromium VI, indium, lead, lithium, mercury, nickel, thallium, tin,
A
information and communication technologies rare earth elements (yttrium, euro- pium), and zinc sulfide are the
metals and metalloids contained in e-waste that are of the highest
environmen- tal concern (Empa, 2009b; International Labour
if they are stored and burned in the open Organi- zation, 2012; Table 8).
air, can lead to acute and chronic health
disorders. These disorders include skin
Use
and eye irritation, respiratory diseases
The amounts of the individual heavy metals and metalloids that are
(such as coughing, choking, pneumonitis
used for the production of EEE in the electronic industry is not
and lung cancer, tuberculosis, and
assessable. The amounts of the elements that are used in the
asthma), mental disorders, and diseases of
semiconductor or the electronic industry have increased significantly
the central nervous system (tremors,
– from the 12 elements that were used in 1980 to the 60 elements
convulsions, and cancer) (Yu et al.,
used in the 21th century (Appendix Figure 5; Theis, 2007). For
2006a). Moreover, increased incidences of
instance, information about specific agents and compounds that are
birth defects, infant mortality,
used in mobile phones and tablets and their specific purposes in
underdevelopment of the brains of
these electronic devices are not easily accessible and are generally
children, blood diseases, anomalies of the
unknown to the public. Often, these details are secret or this
immune system, and malfunction of the
information is not made available because of patent laws. In
kidneys were found in regions with high
addition, complex alloys of different chemical compounds, metals,
informal e-waste collection, storage, and
and metalloids are blended together, which makes it more difficult to
processing activities (Prakash et al., 2010).
get an overview of the chemicals used in EEE (Brunning, 2014).
Although data about compounds used in such EEE as mobile phones
Toxicological potential and tablets are limited, some necessary elements which constitute
parts of this EEE can be assumed. For instance, mobile phone and
As already mentioned, informal e-waste businesses in tablet screens often contain a mixture of indium and tin oxides
LAMICs are mostly associated with a considerable re- lease
which acts as an electrical conductor and enables users to control the
of a diverse cocktail of highly toxic compounds. In general,
about 1000 individual chemicals have been identified in e- devices using their hands. The glass of the screens often comprises
waste streams. These include heavy metals and metalloids aluminosilicates and potassium ions. In addition, several rare earth
(A), PAHs (B), and halogenated hydrocarbons and flame elements, such as yittrium, lantharium, terbium, praseodymium,
retardants (C). These pose high risks to environmental and europium, dysprosium, and gadolinium, are used to produce the
human health (Empa, 2009b; International Labour screen colors. In modern mobile phones, often lithium ion batteries
Organization, 2012). Currently, there are few studies and
are used. These often contain lithium cobalt oxides or manganese
limited data on the impacts on the environment of the
informal disposal and processing of e- waste. The adverse and carbon. The micro-electrical parts in the mobile phone often
effects on human health, especially after long-term exposure, consist of copper wires and gold, silver, and platinum group
have not been investigated either. Nevertheless, it is known elements. The microphone and the speaker often contain nickel,
that many of the single compounds that are found in e-waste, Currently, there are few praseodymium, gadolinium, neodymium, terbium, and dysprosium.
on their own, act as studies and limited data on
the impacts on the
environment of the informal
disposal and processing of e-
waste.
 CHEMICAL POLLUTION IN LOW- AND MIDDLE-INCOME COUNTRIES 5

Silicon is one of the main compound in their intended uses, human toxicity, their maximum contaminant
chips, while other compounds, such as levels (MCLs) for drinking water, and their acute (MAC-EQS) and
antimony, arsenic, and gallium, are used chronic (AA-EQS) environmental quality standard for aquatic
as well as electrical conductors. Often tin organisms in surface water bodies.
and lead solders are used, while lead-free
solder contains metals such as tin, copper, Environmental behavior and occurrence
and silver. The cases of the various The release and distribution of metals and metalloids into the environment depend on several
devices are mainly made of magnesium factors. The use of rudimentary e-waste recycling approaches, like incineration or the burning of
compounds or plastics with flame e-waste in open fires, or using acids (cyanides and halides) to leach and extract the desired
retardants. For example, more than 30 components in an open field without any controls and regulations, results in a serious release of
elements are used in the manufacture of hazardous metals and metalloids and other toxic substances into the environment (International
mobile phones and tablets. Additionally, Labour Organization, 2012).
data from Umicore Precious Metal
Refining showed that more than 40 In general, after low-temperature incineration processes in the absence of any filter systems, these
elements are used during the production compounds are emitted into the air mainly as fumes or as airborne particles bound to soot or other
of mobile phones (Schluep et al., 2009). organic matter. Subsequently, metals and metalloids can precipitate via dry or wet deposition after
These examples emphasize the large rain events and contaminate surface water systems, natural and agricultural soils, or they can
variety of compounds used in electrical adsorb to the cuticles of plants that are in the vicinity of e-waste processing sites. In addition,
devices. Table 8 details the major metals metals and metalloids can directly diffuse into soils and groundwater from
and metalloids that occur in EEE. It lists

landfills as a result of natural processes or rudimentary recycling of metals and metalloids through rudimentary recycling for aquatic organism. Li, Cd, Be,
techniques via chemical or biological seepage and thus businesses are posing a risk to environmental and human health Tl, Co, and Pb have acute MAC-
contaminate soils, agricultural crops, and drinking water and that they have a potential for bioaccumulation. Today, a EQS of between 0.344 and 14
resources. The distribution of metals and metalloids in soils and reference BLL of 50 µg/L is used to identify children with BLLs µg/L, while Be, Tl, Cd, Co, Li,
their uptake and incorporation by plants via roots is dependent on that are much higher than most children’s levels. If the BLL of a and Pb have chronic AA-EQS
water availability, soil and plant type, pH, redox potential, child between 1 and 5 years of age is equal to or higher than 450 ranging from 0.0092 to1.2 µg/L
organic content, and the metal species (Adriano, 2001; Steiner, µg/L, medical treatment is recommended (Centers for Disease (Table 8; European Parliament and
2004; Luo et al., 2011). Control and Prevention, 2014). Council of the European Union,
2008, 2013; van Vlaardingen and
The different solubilities and bioavailabilities of the individual Toxicity Verbruggen, 2009; European
metals and metalloids are highly variable. The environmental Several metals and metalloids are known or suspected to promote Chemicals Agency, 2015).
behaviors of Cd, Cr, Cu, Pb, Hg, Tl, As, and Sb – the most the formation of several forms of cancer. For instance, according Additional AAEQS and MAC-
serious and relevant metallic pollutants of environmental concern to the International Agency for Research on Cancer (IARC), As, EQS values of other relevant
– are described in more detail in the section Mining pollutants Be, Cd, and Cr(VI) are listed in group 1, carcinogenic to humans. compounds are presented in Table
of environmental concern (p. 70). In addition, Indium (In) and Pb are listed in group 2A, probably 8.
carcinogenic to humans. And antimony trioxides, Co, organic Hg
In south China, concentrations of Cd of 17 mg/kg, of Cu of compounds, and Ni are listed in group 2B, possibly carcinogenic
11,140 mg/kg, of Pb of 4500 mg/kg, and of Zn of 3690 mg/kg to humans (IARC classifications see Table 8). As determined by
were determined in soils of former e-waste incineration sites the US Environmental Protection Agency, the MCL for drinking
(mean values; Luo et al., 2011). The common background water for As is 0.001 mg/L, for Be and Cd 0.005 mg/L, for
concentration of Cd was from 0.11 to 0.5 mg/kg (Fassett, 1975; Cr(VI) 0.1 mg/L, for Pb 0.015 mg/L, and for Hg 0.002 mg/L. For
Salomons and Förstner, 1984; Giuffré de López Camelo et al., In and Co there are no MCLs available yet. The MCLs of other
1997), that of Cu was from 50 to 55mg/kg (Taylor, 1964; metals and metalloids are presented in Table 8 as well. Several
Salomons and Förstner, 1984), that of Pb was from 13 to 26 metals and metalloids act as neurotoxins and cause impairments
mg/kg (Zimdahl et al., 1973; Salomons and Förstner, 1984; of the nervous system. These include As, Cd, Hg, Li, Pb, and Tl.
World Health Organization, 2011; Thomas Jefferson National Other compounds, such as Co, Cr(VI), Cu, Li, and Ni, are known
Accelerator Facility, 2014) and that of Zn was from 52 to 79 to act as skin and eye irritants or as allergens. The inhalation of
mg/kg (Wedepohl, 1995). As, Be, Cd, Co, Cr(VI), and Ni provokes the formation of
pulmonary diseases affecting the respiratory system (Table 8).
Rice and vegetables, cultivated in the same region, showed
elevated heavy metal concentrations which exceed the maximum The toxic effects to plants and animals of the metals Cd, Cr, Cu,
level permitted in Chinese food (Leung et al., 2008). Children Pb, Hg, and Tl and the metalloids As and Sb, are presented in
living in Guiyu, China, had significantly elevated blood lead Table 8. These heavy metals and metalloids are able to affect
levels (BLL) and blood cadmium levels. Of the children aquatic organisms in surface water bodies even at low
surveyed, about 71% (109 of 154) had a BLL higher than 100 concentrations. The lower the EQS values (in µg/L) of each
µg/L (Zheng et al., 2008b). These values indicate that the release individual compound, the higher is its potential to pose a hazard
 6 ELECTRONIC INDUSTRY POLLUTANTS (E-WASTE)

The metals Cd, Cr, Cu, Pb, Hg, and Tl and the metalloids As
and Sb affect aquatic organisms in surface water bodies even
at low concentrations.
Table 8: Metals and metalloids that occur in WEEE and their risks to humans and aquatic systems (Empa, 2009b; International
Labour Organization, 2012)
Chemical Examples of the occurrence of Health concerns (humans) B Environmental quality standard (in
MCL
hazardous metals and metalloids in [mg/L] surface water bodies)
A C
WEEE AA-EQS/MAC-EQS [µg/L]

Antimony (antimony Sb2O3: flame retardant in EEE, cathode ray The IARC classifies Sb2O3 in group 2B, possibly carcinogenic to 0.006 7.2/NA
trioxide Sb2O3) tubes (old televisions and monitors) and humans (International Agency for Research on Cancer, 2015). Sb and (Marion Junghans (Ecotox Centre); personal
communication)
printed circuit boards Sb compounds are considered as priority pollutants (United States
Environmental Protection Agency, 2014c). Sb seems to give rise to
inducing disruption or breakages of chromosomes. Sb is toxic to blood,
kidneys, lungs, the nervous system, liver, and the mucous membranes
after inhalation or ingestion (Cooper and Harrison, 2009; Science Lab,
2013).

Arsenic (As) As is used to make transistors, while The IARC lists inorganic As in group I, carcinogenic to humans 0.01 50/NA
gallium arsenide is used in light emitting (International Agency for Research on Cancer, 2015). Acute uptake of (UK Technical Advisory Group on the Water
diodes As can cause a decrease in the production of red and white blood cells, Framework Directive, 2008)

cardiac arrhy thmias, blood-vessel damage resulting in bruising, and

impaired nerve function (Agency for Toxic Substances and Disease
Registry, 2007a).

Barium (Ba) Getters in cathode ray tubes No IARC classification. Short-term exposure leads to muscle weakness 2 9.3/220
and affects heart, liver, and spleen. It causes brain swelling after short- (van Vlaardingen and Verbruggen, 2009)
term exposure (Osuagwu and Ikerionwu, 2010).

Beryllium (Be) Motherboards of computers and power The IARC lists Be and its compounds in group I, carcinogenic to 0.004 0.0092/0.83
supply boxes which contain humans (International Agency for Research on Cancer, 2015). It can (van Vlaardingen and Verbruggen, 2009)
silicon-controlled rectifiers and x-ray cause lung cancer. Inhalation of fumes can cause chronic beryllium
lenses disease (beryllicosis) and skin diseases (Osuagwu and Ikerionwu,
2010).

Cadmium (Cd) Chip resistors and semiconductors, Cd is classified by the IARC in group I, carcinogenic to humans 0.005 Class 1: 0.08/0.45
rechargeable Ni-Cd batteries, fluorescent (International Agency for Research on Cancer, 1993). The uptake of Class 2: 0.09/0.6
layer (cathode ray tubes), Cd oxides by inhalation of smoke or occupational pollution causes Class 3: 0.15/0.9
printer inks and toners for photo- copying- acute respiratory distress syndrome or pulmonary edema. Long-term Class 4: 0.25/1.5 D
machines exposure leads to renal dysfunction, anemia, osteoporosis, and bone (European Parliament and Council of the
fractures (Friberg et al., 1985; Barbee Jr and Prince, 1999; Godt et al., European Union, 2008)
2006). In the human body, the kidney is the main target for
bioaccumulation. There, chronic Cd uptake leads to tubulus cell
necrosis (Orlowski and Piotrowski, 2003; Godt et al., 2006).

Chromium (VI) Corrosion protection of untreated and According to the IARC, Cr(VI) is classified in group 1 carcinogenic to 0.1 Cr(III): 4.7/32
(Cr(VI)) galvanized steel plates and as an alloy or humans (International Agency for Research on Cancer, Cr(VI): 3.4/NA
hardener for steel housings con- taining 2015). Occupational exposure of Cr(VI) in the long-term leads to (UK Technical Advisory Group on the Water
Framework Directive, 2008)
data tapes and floppy discs perforation of the nasal septum, asthma, bronchial inflammations, or
lung cancer, and inflammation of the larynx and liver. Skin contact
elicits allergies, dermatitis, dermal necrosis, and dermal corrosion (Lee
et al., 1989; Straif et al., 2009; Bedi et al., 2013).

Cobalt (Co) Rechargeable batteries and coatings for The IARC classifies cobalt and its compounds in group 2B, possibly - 0.089/1.6
hard disk drives carcinogenic to humans (International Agency for Research on Cancer, (van Vlaardingen and Verbruggen, 2009)
2015). It acts as a skin irritant. Uptake via inhalation or ingestion, if
repeated and prolonged, may have carcinogenic effects and is toxic to
the lungs (animal study), or it can affect other organs (LabChem, 2009;
International Labour Organization, 2012).

Copper (Cu) Used as a conductor in cables and wires The IARC classifies copper 8-hydroxyquinoline, in Group 3, not 1.3 1/NA (based on the bioavailable
classifiable as to carcinogenicity in humans. Excessive exposure to Cu concentration)
results in adverse health effects including liver and kidney damage, (UK Technical Advisory Group on the Water
Framework Directive, 2012)
anemia, immunotoxicity, and developmental toxicity. After ingestion of
a copper sulfate solution, adverse health effects, like gastrointestinal
distress, nausea, vomiting, and abdominal pain, were observed.
Occupational exposure to Cu acts as an irritant of the respiratory tract
(Agency for Toxic Substances and Disease Registry, 2004a).

A: (Empa, 2009b; International Labour Organization, 2012)

B: Maximum contaminant level (United States Environmental Protection Agency, 2015c)
C: The acute and the chronic environmental quality standards (EU-standard), AA-EQS (annual average concentration) and MAC-EQS
(maximum allowable concentration) represent chronic and acute environmental concentrations of chemical agents which affect water
 CHEMICAL POLLUTION IN LOW- AND MIDDLE-INCOME COUNTRIES 7

organisms significantly.
D: AA-EQS and MAC-EQS of cadmium are dependent on water hardness classes. Class 1: < 40 mg CaCO3/L;
Class 2: 40 to 50 mg CaCO3; /L; Class 3: 50 to 100 mg CaCO3/L; Class 4: 100 to 200 mg CaCO3. /L;

Chemical Examples of the occurrence of Health concerns MCL B Environmental quality standard (in
hazardous metals and metalloids (humans) in WEEE
A
[mg/L] surface water bodies)
AA-EQS/MAC-EQS [µg/L] C

Indium (In) Liquid crystal display screens, The IARC classifies indium and its compounds in group 2A, - 26/NA
semiconductors, injection lasers, solar probably carcinogenic to humans (International Agency for Re- (Ministry of the Environment Japan, 2014)

cells, photodiodes, and light emitting search on Cancer, 2015). The probably carcinogenic potential is
diodes (National Toxicology deduced from animal studies. Exposure to indium compounds caused
Program, 2001) extraordinarily high incidences of malignant neoplasms of the lungs
of rats and mice, increased incidences of pheo- chromocytomas in
rats, and increased incidences of hepato- cellular neoplasms in mice,
even at very low test doses and short exposure periods (International
Agency for Research on Cancer, 2006a).

Lead (Pb) Solder of printed circuit boards, glass The IARC classifies inorganic lead and its compounds in group 0.015 1.2 (based on the bioavailable
panels and gaskets in computer monitors, 2A, probably carcinogenic to humans (International Agency for concentration)/14
cathode ray tube screens, and batteries. Research on Cancer, 2015). Inorganic lead, especially, causes (European Parliament and Council of the
European Union 2013)
Lead-acid batteries used in vehicles damage to the central and peripheral nervous system, affects the
(Blacksmith Institute and Green Cross, blood system (increases blood pressure or anemia) and kidneys, and
2012) the brain development of children. The main target for lead toxicity
is the nervous system (Agency for Toxic Substances and Disease
Registry, 2007b; Osuagwu and Ikerionwu, 2010).

Lithium (Li) Lithium batteries and rechargeable No IARC classification (International Agency for Research on - 0.23/0.344 (adapted from a PNEC
batteries Cancer, 2015). Inorganic lithium compounds act as skin and eye value)
irritants. Short-term exposure causes sneezing, coughing, and severe (European Chemicals Agency, 2015)
irritation of the respiratory system. After ingestion, mouth, trachea,
and esophagus may be burned, or mental confusion, nausea, coma,
and death result. Long-term exposure can affect the nervous system
or it may affect the renal system
(National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health, 1978).
Moreover, there are assumptions that lithium exposure may affect
the development of unborn children. Lithium is used therapeutically
for the treatment of manic depression or bipolar disorders (Aral and
Vecchio-Sadus, 2008; McKnight et al., 2012).

Mercury (Hg) Relays, switches and printed circuit The IARC classifies mercury and inorganic mercury compounds in 0.002 NA/0.07 (biota standard of 20 µg/kg
boards, fluorescent lamps, in some group 3, not classifiable as to its carcinogenicity to humans, and wet weight)
batteries, old thermometers organic mercury compounds in group 2B, possibly carci- nogenic to (European Parliament and Council of the
European Union, 2013)
humans (International Agency for Research on Cancer, 2015).
Mercury is known as a neurotoxin. Even at low doses it causes
impairment of the nervous system. Typical symptoms of mercury
poisoning are malfunction of peripheral visions, numbness in hands,
feet, and around the mouth, extrapyramidal diseases and movement
disorders, impairment in writing, of speech, hearing, and walking,
mental degradation and kidney damage. Children, especially those
born to mothers exposed to mercury, are highly vulnerable to
mercury poisoning diseases e.g. ataxia, constriction of the visual
field, congenital cerebral palsy, or mental retardation (Agency for
Toxic Substan- ces and Disease Registry, 1999).

Nickel (Ni) Rechargeable batteries, electron gun in The IARC classifies metallic nickel and nickel alloys in group 2B, - 4/34 (based on the concentration which
cathode ray tubes possibly carcinogenic to humans and nickel compounds in group 1, is bioavailable)
carcinogenic to humans (International Agency for Research on (European Parliament and Council of the
European Union, 2013)
Cancer, 2015). Nickel and its compounds are known to cause
allergic reactions by promoting contact dermatitis. Chronic
exposure leads to lung fibrosis and cardiovascular and kidney
diseases. Nickel compounds are known for their carcinogenic
activity (Denkhaus and Salnikow, 2002).

Chemical Examples of the occurrence of Health concerns (humans) B Environmental quality standard (in
MCL
hazardous metals and metalloids in [mg/L] surface water bodies)
A C
WEEE AA-EQS/MAC-EQS [µg/L]

Thallium (Tl) Batteries, semiconductors, in No IARC classification although it is suspected to be more toxic 0.002 0.013/0.8
scintillation counters, laser than Cd, Hg, and Pb. Today, few studies about its carcinogenic (van Vlaardingen and Verbruggen, 2009)
equipment, fiber glass, and potential are available (Cheam, 2001). Because of its similarity in
photovoltaic cells ionic charge and its ion radius to potassium, Tl(I), especially, can be
absorbed and distributed easily throughout the entire body by
mimicking potassium in its movement patterns and intra- cellular
 8 ELECTRONIC INDUSTRY POLLUTANTS (E-WASTE)

accumulation in mammals. In the body, it accumulates easily in

bones, the renal medulla, and in the nervous system (Peter and
Viraraghavan, 2005). Amounts of from 0.7 to 1.1 g of soluble Tl
salts are determined to be the minimum lethal dose for an adult with
a body weight of 70 kg (Moeschlin, 1980). Symptoms of acute Tl
poisoning are alopecia, nausea, tachy- cardia, diarrhea, and
impairments of the lungs, heart, and gastro- intestinal system.
Impairments of the nervous system are more likely to result from
chronic exposure to Tl. However, there is a dearth of studies about
the regular chronic uptake of low doses of Tl (Saddique and
Peterson, 1983; Agency for Toxic Substances and Disease Registry,
2013; Frattini, 2005; Cvjetko et al., 2010).
Rare earth elements Fluorescent layer (cathode ray tube No IARC classification (International Agency for Research on - For fresh surface water the maximum
(REE) screen), screens of mobile phones, Cancer, 2015). Information about the toxicity of REE is rare, permissible addition of REE ranges
tablets, and other electronic devices, therefore more research is required. REEs seem to be very from 1.4 µg/L for neodymium to 22
catalysts, energy-efficient light bulbs, persistent in the environment (Tang and Johannesson, 2006; µg/L for cerium
magnets (Hirano and Suzuki, 1996; Brioschi et al., 2013). They have a potential for accumulation in (Sneller et al., 2000)
Casado, 2013) biota and humans (Tong et al., 2004; d'Aquino et al., 2009) and
there is evidence for their chronic toxicity (Hirano and Suzuki,
1996). For instance, a link was observed between occupational
REE exposure and the lung disease, pneumoconiosis (Sabbioni et
al., 1982) and REE exposure was related with the formation of
pulmonary fibrosis (McDonald et al., 1995). In refining REEs,
radioactive waste is produced which may affect human and
environmental health indirectly (El-Husaini and El-Hazek, 2005).

Zinc (Zn), (sulfide, Plating material, interior of cathode ray No IARC classification (International Agency for Research on - 10.9/NA
chromates) tube screens, mixed with REE Cancer, 2015). Excessive short-term exposure to ingesting zinc can (UK Technical Advisory Group on the Water
Framework Directive, 2012)
cause stomach cramps, nausea, and vomiting. Chronic ingestion of
Zn can cause anemia, damage the pancreas, and decrease levels of
high-density lipoprotein cholesterol (Agency for Toxic Substances
and Disease Registry, 2005).

A: (Empa, 2009b; International Labour Organization, 2012)

B: Maximum contaminant level (United States Environmental Protection Agency, 2015c)
C: The acute and the chronic environmental quality standards (EU-standard), AA-EQS (annual average concentration) and MAC-EQS (maximum
allowable concentration) represent chronic and acute environmental concentrations of chemical agents which affect water organisms significantly.

B) PAHs, dioxins, and furans and emission controls and the use of obsolete combustion methods (Shen et al.,
2013).
Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs), such as: benzo[b]fluoranthene,
benzo[k]fluoranthene, benzo[a] pyrene, dibenzo[a,h]anthracene, dibenzo[a,l]pyrene, In terms of e-waste, the unregulated burning of polyvinyl-sheathed (or other related
in- deno[1,2,3-cd]pyrene, etc., polyhalogenated dibenzodio- xins (PHDDs; for plastic coated) EEE, or the melting of halogenated polymer casings from electronic
instance, polychlorinated dibenzodioxins, PCDDs), and polyhalogenated devices or coated wires to recycle plastics or to extract valuable metals, such as
dibenzofurans (PHDFs) (for instance polychlorinated dibenzofurans, PCDFs) are the copper, are the most relevant processes involved in the formation of PAHs, PHDDs,
most toxic and carcinogenic compounds. They are produced by the incomplete and PHDF (Christmann et al., 1989; Söderström and Marklund, 2002; Wang et al.,
combustion of organic matter and rudimentary WEEE processing or obsolete 2002; Liu et al., 2008; International Labour Organization, 2012). It is known that
recycling methods (Yu et al., 2006b; Chan et al., 2007; Cui and Zhang, 2008; metals like Cu and Fe, which are contained in e-waste, act as catalysts for the
Sepúlveda et al., 2010; Blacksmith Institute and Green Cross, 2013). formation of PHDDs and PHDFs as shown in equations 1 to 7. In 1996, it was
calculated that about 13,100 ± 2000 kg/year of dioxins and furans were produced
Use unintentionally and deposited from the atmosphere worldwide (12,500 ± 1399
PAHs, dioxins, and furans are not intentionally manufactured and they have no kg/year from terrestrial deposition and 610 ± 1500 kg/year from oceanic deposition;
known commercial applications other than for research purposes (Empa, 2009b; Iida et al., 1974; Hagenmaier et al., 1987; Brzuzy and Hites, 1996; Wang et al.,
International Agency for Research on Cancer, 2012a). These compounds are 2002).
generally formed as unwanted by-products and they are subsequently released into
the environment through the incomplete combustion of organic matter during Through pyrolysis, PVC molecules cleave in HCl and organic
residential/commercial biomass burning. This is a process that happens during molecules (aromatic rings; equation 1). These mole- cules
cement production and other industrial combustion (production) processes, could possibly react to form halogenated organic molecules
combustion of fossil fuels, and the incineration or open air burning of biomass (equation 2), though this reaction will not happen under normal
(agricultural waste, deforestation, and wild fires), particularly if no soot particle conditions since it is thermodynamically inefficient (Gibbs free
filters are used. In 2007, it was estimated that the global annual atmospheric energy of formation: ΔG > 0 non-spontaneous, endergonic
emission of 16 PAHs ranged from 331 to 818 Gg (as the interquartile range). In reaction). If HCl is converted to Cl 2 with a catalyst such as
addition, it was shown that the proportion of emitted highly carcinogenic PAHs is copper chlo- ride, the formation of halogenated aromatic
higher in LAMICs (6.22%) than in HICs (5.73%) because of a lack of regulations compounds (chlorobenzenes, dichloropenzenes, chlorophenols,
etc.) and, therefore, the possible formation of halogenated
 CHEMICAL POLLUTION IN LOW- AND MIDDLE-INCOME COUNTRIES 9

aromatic hydrocarbons, such as dioxins and furans, is favored halogenated flame retardants can further induce the formation
(equation 3 and 4; ΔG < 0 spontaneous, exo- thermic of halogen- ated dibenzodioxins and dibenzofurans (Wang et
reaction; Wang et al., 2002). As already mentioned, the al., 2002; Weber and Kuch, 2003). In contrast, in the absence of
formation of polyhalogenated dioxins and furans is induced if metallic catalysts, PAHs are formed predominantly during e-
plastics, such as polyvinyl chlorides or other related polymers, waste incineration processes (Gullett et al., 1990; Wang et al.,
are burned at low temperatures, when the presence of 2002).

from the environmental and human toxicological perspectives. from 31 to 11,400 pg/g dry weight and in tree and shrub
Although PAHs, dioxins and their congeners, and the furans leaves the concentrations ranged between 3460 and 9820
differ in their physicochemical properties, they have in common pg/g dry weight. Workshop-floor dust and soils contained
that they are generally all poorly soluble in water (water PCDD/Fs at concentrations of from 2560 to 148,000 and
solubility: 2,3,7,8-TCDD = insoluble in water; 2,3,4,7,8-PCDF = 854 to 10,200 pg/g dry weight, respectively. Croplands in
0,00024 mg/L; Benzo[a]pyrene = 0.00162 mg/L). They show this region showed total PCDD/ Fs concentrations up to 17
high octanol-water coefficients (Log K ow: 2,3,7,8-TCDD = 6.8; times higher than the arithmetic average, measured at
2,3,4,7,8-PCDF = 6.9; benzo[a]pyrene = 6.35). They have a high reference sites. PAH levels in this region were up to 32
affinity to be adsorbed from organic matter and to geo- and times higher when compared to the arithmetic average
bioaccumulate in the environment and biota (Lohmann and measured at control sites (Shen et al., 2008). Elevated
Jones, 1998; International Agency for Re- search on Cancer, levels of 2,3,7,8-TCDD and 1,2,3,7,8-PeCDF ranging
2012a) and, therefore, they are all known as ubiquitous from 1.98 to 4.95 pg/g dry weight were found in hair
pollutants. In comparison to the metals and metalloids, the PAHs, samples of people living in the vicinity of an e-waste
dioxins, and furans formed are particularly environmentally processing site near Guiyu, China, proving that indeed
distributed just by the air as the constituents of fumes or as dioxin-like compounds have a potential for
molecules bound to fly ash, dust, and other organic particles. bioaccumulation (Luksemburg et al., 2002). In addition, in
They are less likely to be distributed by water, mainly because Jiangxi province, average concentrations of PCDD/Fs
they are formed and emitted during incomplete combustion ranging from 41.5 to 133.8 pg/g lipid were found in breast
processes and because of their partly semi-volatile and milk samples and from 177 to 843 pg/g lipid were
hydrophobic characteristics (Christmann et al., 1989; Lohmann quantified in blood samples (Zheng et al., 2008a). For
and Jones, 1998; Söderström and Marklund, 2002; Chan et al., comparison, similar average total concentrations of
2007). One exception is that during the extraction of metals at PCDD/Fs of 125 and 299 pg/g lipid were measured in
acid leaching sites, PCDD/Fs are significantly leached out into breast milk and blood samples of pregnant women living
soils and released into the environment as well (Leung et al., in the vicinity of an industrialized area in Duisburg,
2007). For PAHs, dioxins, and furans, the atmospheric residence Germany (Wittsiepe et al., 2007).
times range from several hours to several days before they
undergo photolysis, or, more likely, they are degraded by OH- Toxicity
radicals or move to sediments through dry or wet deposition Besides their high potential for bioaccumulation, PAHs
where they accumulate in the soils and biota (Lohmann and and PCDD/Fs are known for their toxic and carcinogenic
Although PAHs, dioxins Jones, 1998; Lohmann et al., 1999). potential. According to the IARC, PAHs such as diben-
and their congeners, and the zo[a,h]anthracene and dibenzo[a,l]pyrene or
furans differ in their As an example of the air pollution caused by these organic benzo[b]fluoranthene and benzo[k]fluoranthene are
physicochemical proper- compounds, in ambient air in remote areas in HICs, classified as 2A, probably carcinogenic to humans or 2B,
ties, they have in common that concentrations of tetra- to octa-CDD/Fs homologues from 0.5 to possibly carcinogenic to humans. The most hazardous
they are generally all poorly 4 pg/m3 are measured. In urban/industrial regions, concentrations PAH, benzo[a] pyrene, and the furan and dioxin 2,3,4,7,8-
soluble in water. of from 10 to 100 pg/m 3 were measured (Lohmann and Jones, Pentachlorodibenzofuran (PeCDF) and 2,3,7,8
1998). In soils in industrial countries, such as the USA, Canada, tetrachlorodibenzodioxin (TCDD) are classified according
Environmental behavior and Germany, South Korea, and Spain, PCDD/Fs concentrations of to the IARC in group 1, carcinogenic to humans as well
occurrence
from 1.7 to 1080 pg/g dry weight have been measured (Eljarrat et (International Agency for Research on Cancer, 2015). The
There are over 100 different
al., 2001; Hilscherova et al., 2003; Zheng et al., 2008a). low MCLs of PAHs of 0.002 mg/L and of dioxins of
PAHs, about 75 different PCDDs,
0.00000003 mg/L indicate that these compounds are
and 135 PCDFs with varying
Elevated concentrations of PCDD/Fs in shredded e-waste, posing a high risk to environmental and human health,
physicochemical properties
leaves of trees and shrubs, dust from workshop floors, and whereas for TCDD it has to be considered that it is not
between their homologue groups
in soils in the vicinity of a large e-waste recycling facility soluble in water (MCLs and IARC classification are
and their congeners. Of these,
in Taizhou, eastern China, indicate that e-waste processing presented in Table 9). At present, no MCL for PCDFs has
2,3,7,8 tetrachlorodibenzodioxin
and recycling facilities are significant input sources of been determined (United States Environmental Protection
(TCDD 2,3,4,7,8-
compounds such as PCDDs, PCDFs, and other dioxin-like Agency, 2009).
pentachlorodibenzofuran
compounds originating from incomplete combustion
(PeCDF), and the PAH,
processes, like PAHs (Shen et al., 2008; Ma et al., 2008). PCDD/Fs are known to cause adverse effects to human
benzo[a]pyrene (B[a]P) are the
There, in shredder waste, PCDD/Fs concentrations ranged and animal health. For instance, in humans, excess risks
ones of most con- cern (Table 9)
 10 ELECTRONIC INDUSTRY POLLUTANTS (E-WASTE)

for all types of cancer are The formation of different types of cancer, such as skin,
associated with exposure lung, and bladder cancer, in human and animals has
to TCDD and PeCDF. often been associated with exposure to PAHs as well
Moreover, after the (Boffetta et al., 1997). According to in-vitro and in-vivo
exposure to TCDD and animal tests, PAHs, and especially benzo[a]pyrene, are
dioxin-like compounds, known for eliciting carcinogenic, mutagenic and
changes in hormone genotoxic effects (Huberman et al., 1976; Szmigielski et
levels were observed in al., 1982; Grimmer et al., 1991; Goldstein et al., 1998;
humans and in animals. Miller and Ramos, 2001).
These changes result in
increases in endocrine, From the environmental toxicological point of view, the AA-EQS
reproductive and and the MAC-EQS of B[a]P, the most hazardous PAH, are
developmental defects, 0.00017 and 0.27 µg/L (Table 9). These indicate that even low
affecting the welfare and chronic and acute exposure to this compound poses a high risk to
development of humans aquatic organisms and aquatic ecosystems. For PCDD and other
and other animals. High dioxin-like compounds no AA-EQS and MAC-EQS were
levels of TCDD available. Nevertheless, the determined EQS of these compounds,
exposure cause the skin which should not be exceeded in biota to avoid poisoning water
disease referred to as surface organisms, is 0.0065 µg/kg TEQ (toxic equivalents
chloracne (Kogevinas, according to the World Health Organization 2005 Toxic
2001; International Equivalence Factors; European Parliament and Council of the
Agency for Research on European Union, 2013).
Cancer, 2012a; Energy
Justice Network, 2012). Besides their high potential for bioaccumulation PAHs,
PCDD/Fs are known for their toxic and carcinogenic
potential.
Table 9: PAHs and other hazardous compounds formed and released in the burning of EEE and their risks to human health and aquatic systems (Empa,
2009b; International Labour Organization, 2012)
Chemical Formation and occurrence of Health concerns (humans) B Environmental quality standard
MCL
hazardous PAHs and halogenated [mg/L] (in surface water bodies)
A C
hydrocarbons in WEEE AA-EQS/MAC-EQS [µg/L]

Polycyclic aromatic By-products of incomplete combustion According to the IARC, PAHs such as dibenzo[a,h]anthracene and 0.0002 0.00017/0.27 for B[a]P
hydrocarbons (PAH) of organic matter and polyvinyl chloride dibenzo[a,l]pyrene or benzo[b]fluoranthene and benzo[k] fluoranthene (European Parliament and Council of the
European Union, 2013)
(benzo[b]fluoranthene, (Wang et al., 2002). are classified in group 2A, probably carcinogenic to humans or group
benzo[k] fluoranthene, 2B, possibly carcinogenic to humans. The most hazardous PAH,
benzo[a]pyrene, benzo[a]pyrene is even listed in class 1, carcinogenic to humans,
dibenzo[a,h]anthra- posing a risk to environmental health (International Agency for
cene, dibenzo[a,l] Research on Cancer, 2015). The formation of different types of cancer,
pyrene, such as skin, lung, and bladder cancer in humans have often been
indeno[1,2,3cd]pyrene, associated with the exposure to PAHs (Boffetta et al., 1997).
etc.) According to in-vitro and in-vivo animal tests, PAHs, especially
benzo[a]pyrene, are known for their carcinogenic, mutagenic, and
their genotoxic effects (Huberman et al., 1976; Szmigielski et al.,
1982; Grim- mer et al., 1991; Goldstein et al., 1998; Miller and
Ramos, 2001).

Note: the formation of PCDD and PCDF are unwanted by- 2,3,4,7,8-Pentachlorodibenzofuran (PeCDF) and 2,3,7,8 0.00000003 No AA-EQS/MAC-EQS available.
polybrominated products of incineration, uncontrolled tetrachlorodibenzodioxin (TCDD) are classified according to IARC in for dioxin However, EQS of maximal tolerable
dibenzodioxins and burning and certain industrial processes. group 1, carcinogenic to humans (International Agency for Research concentrations of dioxinlike
dibenzofurans is The open burning of plastic (polyvinyl on Cancer, 2015). compounds in biota of 0.0065 μg/kg
possible as well if chloride) sheathed copper wires to These compounds are known to cause adverse effects to human and TEQ (toxic equi- valents according to
brominated hydro- recover copper is one of the main reason animal health. In humans, excess risks for all types of cancer are the World Health Organization 2005
carbons are burned for the formation of PCDDs and PCDFs associated with exposure of TCDD and PeCDF. Moreover, after Toxic
PCDD/PCDF poly- (Christmann et al., 1989; Söder- ström exposure to TCDD and dioxin-like compounds, changes in hormone Equivalence Factors) are
chlorinated dibenzo- and Marklund, 2002; Liu et al., 2008; levels were observed in humans and in animals. These increases in determined
Robinson, 2009). endocrine, reproductive, and developmental defects are of the highest (European Parliament and Council of the
dioxins and dibenzo- European Union, 2013).
There is an observed link between the concern. High levels of TCDD exposure cause the skin disease
furans
formation of PCDDs and PCDFs referred to as chloracne (Kogevinas, 2001; International Agency for
(Söderström and Marklund, 2002; Research on Cancer, 2012a; Energy Justice Network, 2012).
Weber and Kuch, 2003).

A: (Empa, 2009b; International Labour Organization, 2012)

B: Maximum contaminant level (United States Environmental Protection Agency, 2015c)
C: The acute and the chronic environmental quality standards (EU-standard), AA-EQS (annual average concentration) and MAC-EQS (maximum allowable
concentration) represent chronic and acute environmental concentrations of chemical agents which affect water organisms significantly.
 CHEMICAL POLLUTION IN LOW- AND MIDDLE-INCOME COUNTRIES 11

2011). All in all, between 1929 and 1984, between 1.3 and 1.7 1989). Because of these negative effects, the use of CFCs
million tonne of PCBs were produced (Breivik et al., 2007; was banned on global scale through the Montreal Protocol
Stockholm Convention, 2008). Today, equipment and machinery on substances that deplete the ozone, which was
which contain PCBs are still in use, obsolete equipment is negotiated in 1987 (Newman et al., 2009; Environmental
stockpiled, and PCB wastes are not yet managed in an News Network, 2012). Nevertheless, before they were
Polyvinyl chlorides (PVCs) are environmentally sound manner. According to the Stockholm banned, CFCs were used as cooling agents in refrigerators,
one of the most widely used Convention it is intended to securely remove all PCB stocks by freezers, air conditioners, and in cooling units in general.
plastics worldwide. 2028 (Stockholm Convention, 2008). Moreover, there is evidence They were also contained in insulation foam (Newman et
that PCBs can be produced as by- products and afterwards al., 2009).
released into the environment during industrial or waste
combustion processes as well (Müller and Dongmann, 1998; Perfluorooctane sulfonate (PFOS) is used in the
Ishikawa et al., 2007; Li et al., 2009). photographic industry and in photolithography. It is
contained in semiconductors, photo-resistant-, and anti-
Polychlorinated diphenyl ethers (PCDEs) were used as dielectric reflective coatings. Furthermore, it is a component of EEE,
Inappropriate production, insulating fluids or as hydraulic and heat transfer fluids, firefighting foam, hydraulic fluids, and textiles. Today, the
disposal, and incinerati- lubricants, plasticizers, and flame retardants. PCDEs were production and application of PFOS is restricted according
on of PVCs can lead to the applied as fungicides, slimicides, and wood preservatives to the requirements of the Stockholm Convention and
emission of highly carcinogenic, (Koistinen, 2000; Domingo, 2006). there are initiatives for a voluntary phasing out of PFOS
persistent organic pollutants production from several chemical production facilities
(POPs), such as dioxins, furans, The brominated hydrocarbons, PBB, PBDE, and tetrabromo- (Swedish Chemicals Inspectorate and Swedish
PAHs, and halogenated bisphenol A (TBBPA), are primarily used as fire retardants in Environmental Protection Agency, 2004; United Nations
biphenyls. plastics, as thermoplastic components, or cable insulation, and Environment Programme, 2013d).
they are contained in the plastic housings of EEE, printed circuit
C) Flame retardants and boards, etc. (International Labour Organization, 2012). TBBPA is Environmental behavior and occurrence
other halogenated used as reactive flame retardant (chemically bonded into the Most of these halogenated compounds, especially PCBs,
hydrocarbons. polymeric material, not volatile) or as an additive flame retardant PCDEs, PBBs, PBDEs, and PFOS, are fulfilling the persistent,
in plastics (volatile). Often, TBBPA additives were used as flame bioaccumulation, and toxicity (PBT) criteria of the Stockholm
Chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs), retardants in acrylonitrile-butadiene-styrene and phenolic resins Convention. All of these compounds are known to have long
perfluoroctane sulfonates or as an intermediate in the production of other additive flame environmental residence times and they remain unchanged in the
(PFOS), polychlorinated (or retardants (Institute for Health and Consumer Protection - environment for extended periods of time. They are ubiquitous
brominated) diphenyl ethers European Chemicals Bureau, 2006). Today, TBBPA additives are pollutants found in soil, water, and, notably, the air being
(PCDEs/PBDEs), polychlorinated the most widely used in the extensively produced and not yet distributed throughout the environment by natural processes. In
(or brominated) biphenyls (PCBs, regulated brominated flame retardants (He et al., 2010). addition, these compounds are known for their bioaccumulative
PBBs), polyvinyl chloride (PVC), potential. Thus, they are accumulating in the fatty tissue of living
and tetrabromo- bisphenol-A organisms and humans and they are enriched throughout the food
Polyvinyl chlorides (PVCs) are used ubiquitously – they
(TBBPA) are the most hazardous chain. Given their high toxicity, they are affecting humans and
are one of the most widely used plastics worldwide. They
flame retardants and halogenated wildlife. Because of their characteristics, their production and use
are contained in all kind of packaging and sheathing
hydrocarbons that are contained is restricted or even banned worldwide within the scope of the
material (for food, EEE, and other kind of goods), plastic
in e-waste (Empa, 2009b; Stockholm Convention (United Nations Environment
bottles, credit cards, and audio records. In the construction
International Labour Programme, 2013d).
industry, PVCs are used as imitation leather or in window
Organization, 2012).
frames, cables, pipes, floorings, wallpapers, and window
blinds (Greenpeace, 2005). As already mentioned, the Nevertheless, although the Stockholm Convention has
Use inappropriate production, disposal, and incineration of been implemented, elevated concentrations of those
Polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs) PVCs can lead to the emission of highly carcinogenic, halogenated compounds still can be found in the
were mainly produced and used persistent organic pollutants (POPs), such as dioxins, environment. For instance, in the breast milk of women
in the period 1929-1977 as furans, PAHs, and halogenated biphenyls. Therefore, living in the vicinity of an e-waste recycling site in Bui
electrical insulating fluids in environmentally unsound production, disposal, and Dau, Viet- nam, increased concentrations of 20-250 ng/g
transformers and capacitors and incineration can affect human and environmental health lipid weight of PBDE and its congeners were measured,
as hydraulic, heat transfer, and indirectly (Müller and Dongmann, 1998; Shen et al., 2008; indicating their potential for bioaccumulation. In
lubricating fluids in machinery. Ma et al., 2008). comparison, the breast milk of Swedish women showed
Furthermore, in combination with
lower mean concentrations of 4 ng PBDE/g lipid weight
other agents, they were added to while the maximum concentrations were 28.2 ng
The use of chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs) decreased when it
plastics as plasticizers and fire
was found that the release of these resulted in depletion of PBDE/lipid weight (Lind et al., 2003). In addition, in soil
retardants. They were contained and sediment samples next to an open e-waste disposal
the stratospheric ozone layer, which may result in an
also in products such as caulks,
increase of biologically harmful solar ultraviolet radiation and recycling site in Guiyu Guangdong, China, elevated
adhesives, and carbonless copy PBDE concentrations ranging from 0.26 to 824 ng/g dry
(Newman et al., 2009). It was also determined that CFCs
paper (Erickson and Kaley,
act as potent greenhouse gases (GHGs; Hansen et al., weight were detected (Wang et al., 2005). In this region,
 12 ELECTRONIC INDUSTRY POLLUTANTS (E-WASTE)

a monthly average PBDE been fed with food originating from an e-waste recycling region consequently results in an increase of bio- logically harmful
concentration of 16.8 in Qingyuan, South China (He et al., 2010). In this region, and aggressive solar ultraviolet radiation (Newman et al.,
ng/m3 was measured in TBBPA mean concentrations of 68 ng/L were found in water, 2009). At high concentrations, CFCs can be transformed to
particles with 295 ng/g dry weight in soil samples, and 8917 ng/g dry weight in even more toxic gases, such as chlorine and phosgene (New
aerodynamic diameters plant leaf samples. These results show that TBBPA has the Hampshire Department of Environ- mental Services, 2010).
smaller than 2.5 µm potential to accumulate primarily in soil plants and wildlife. Furthermore, CFCs are acting as potent GHGs (Hansen et
(PM2.5). These particles Maybe it would be appropriate to add this highly al., 1989). For humans, the inhalation of large volumes of
were detected in the air bioaccumulative product to the list of the restricted or banned CFCs affects the nervous system with symptoms of alcohol-
in the vicinity of a site brominated flame retardants along with PBB and PBDE. A like intoxication, reduced coordination, light-headedness,
with high e-waste summary of the fields of applications of these halogenated headaches, tremors and convulsion, and even cardiac
burning activities (Wong hydrocarbons is presented in Table 10. arrhythmia. Dermal contact can lead to skin damage referred
et al., 2007c). This to as frost bite (New Hampshire Department of
concentration exceeds Toxicity Environmental Services, 2010).
the industrial EPA air The polyhalogenated biphenyls and diphenyl ethers are known
screening level of 1.4 for their high toxicity and their carcinogenic potential. The IARC PFOS meet the requirements of the PBT criteria of the
ng/m3 (United States lists PCBs in group 1, carcinogenic to humans, and PBBs are Stockholm Convention. From a human health perspective,
Environmental included in group 2A, probably carcinogenic to humans. PCDE information about the health risks from exposure to PFOS is
Protection Agency, and PBDE have not been classified by the IARC but might be still lacking. Nevertheless, according to several
2014b). As a comparably toxic to humans due to their structural similarity to epidemiological studies, exposure to PFOS was assumed to
comparison, in Europe, PCBs and PBBs, respectively (International Agency for Research be linked with the formation of bladder cancer (Organisation
background levels of on Cancer, 2015). Exposure to PCBs causes impairment of the for Economic Co-operation and Development, 2015).
PBDE in soils range immune system because of their immune-sup- pressive effects. According to animals tests, it has been shown that exposure
between 0.065 to 12 ng/g After uptake of, or direct contact with PBCs, they can cause to PFOS is highly toxic and that these compounds have a
dry weight (Hassanin et damage to the liver, the skin – in form of chloracne – and the high affinity for bioaccumulation. In two mammalian
al., 2004). reproductive system by affecting the thyroid gland. In addition, species, rats and monkeys, sub-chronic exposure to PFOS
there is evidence that exposure to PCB promotes the formation of resulted in hepatotoxicity and mortality. In addition, the
PCB concentrations several types of cancer (Agency for Toxic Substances and exposure of mammals to PFOS was associated with causing
measured in soils at the Disease Registry, 2000; Stockholm Convention, 2008). impairments in reproduction as well. The half-life times in
open burning sites of e- rats is 100 days, in monkeys it is 200 days, and in humans it
waste recycling facilities Because of a lack of epidemiological studies, it is still not can be 1 year (Luebker et al., 2002; Seacat et al., 2002;
in Guiyu were up to 458 possible to find a significant correlation between exposure to 2003; Inoue et al., 2004; Organisation for Economic Co-
µg/kg (Wong et al., PBB and the formation of human cancer, though results from operation and Development, 2015).
2007c). In comparison, animal tests showed effects similar to those of PCBs. Exposure to
the maximum measured PBBs caused the formation of different types of cancers in rats According to the risk assessment report of the Institute for Health
environmental and mice. In other animal tests, skin diseases, such as chloracne, and Consumer Protection’s and the European Chemicals Bureau,
concentration of PCBs in impairments to the central nervous system, the liver, kidney, TBBPA is not currently classified for environmental or human
five European cities thyroid glands function, and the reproduction system were health effects (Institute for Health and Consumer Protection –
(Glasgow, Torino, observed as well (Agency for Toxic Substances and Disease European Chemicals Bureau, 2006). From the data available,
Aveiro, Ljubljana, and Registry, 2004b; National Toxicology Program, 2014c). TBBPA is not known as a skin, eye, or respiratory tract irritant.
Uppsala) was 172 µg/kg From animal tests with rats, no evidence was found that exposure
dry weight (Cachada et PVCs and other polyvinyl based compounds were, according to to TBBPA caused adverse effects to the endocrine and the
al., 2009). the IARC, listed in group 3, not classifiable as to Exposure to reproduction systems. Information about the carcinogenic
PCBs causes impairment of the immune system because of potential of TBBPA has not been found yet (Institute for Health
TBBPA concentrations of 25.2 ± their immune- suppressive effects. and Consumer Protection – European Chemicals Bureau, 2006).
2.7 ng/g were determined in soil Nevertheless, rudimentary plastic recycling and the low-
samples from China (Yu et al., its carcinogenicity to humans (International Agency for temperature burning processes for plastics containing TBBPA
2008). In Spanish soils from an Research on Cancer, 2015). Nevertheless, it has to be and other brominated or chlorinated flame retardants can lead to
industrial region, comparable considered that during the production, recycling, and the formation and emission of hazardous polybrominated
TBBPA concentrations were incineration of PVCs, hazardous compounds, such as PAHs, dibenzodioxins and polybrominated dibenzofurans or PCDDs and
measured ranging between 3.4 dioxins, furans, halogenated biphenyls, and polychlorinated PCDFs, respectively (Thies et al., 1990; Empa, 2009b).
and 32.2 ng/g dry weight diphenyl ethers, can be produced and released into the
(Sánchez-Brunete et al., 2009). environment (Gullett et al., 1990; Wang et al., 2002; 2005). For the halogenated hydrocarbons considered in this report, an
Elevated median TBBPA MCL standard level for PCB compounds in drinking water of
concentrations ranging between CFCs, PFOS, and TBBPA are not classified according to the 0.0005 mg/L and of 0.00000003 mg/L for dioxins were
28 to 173 ng/g lipid weight were IARC (International Agency for Research on Cancer, 2015). determined. For the other compounds no MCL is available yet
found in the muscles of six From the environmental and human health per- spectives, (Table 9 and Table 10; United States Environmental Protection
individual bird species that had CFCs are destroying the stratospheric ozone layer, which Agency, 2015c).
 CHEMICAL POLLUTION IN LOW- AND MIDDLE-INCOME COUNTRIES 13

For all the previously mentioned PFOS/Fs, the chronic environmental quality standard (AA-EQS) for PFOS, 36 µg/L (European Parliament and Council of the
flame retardants and halogenated of 0.00065 µg/L has been proposed. For PBDE, the proposed European Union, 2013).
hydrocarbons just as for acute environmental quality standards (MAC-EQS) was 0.14 and

Table 10: Flame retardants and halogenated hydrocarbons occurring in WEEE and their risks to humans and aquatic systems
(Empa, 2009b; International Labour Organization, 2012)
Chemical Formation and occurrence of Health concerns (humans) MCL B Environmental quality standard
hazardous PAHs and halogenated [mg/L] (in surface water bodies)
hydrocarbons in WEEE A
AA-EQS/MAC-EQS [µg/L] C

chlorofluorocarbon Contained in old refrigerators and Not classified according to the IARC (International Agency for Research – –
(CFC) freezers, cooling units, and insulation on Cancer, 2015). CFC uptake – inhaling high concen- trations – affects
foam. The use of CFC is decreasing the central nervous system with symptoms of alcohol-like intoxication,
because of global bans and restrictions reduced coordination, light-headedness, headaches, tremors, and
(Montreal Protocol on substances that convulsions. High concentrations can lead to cardiac arrhythmia. Skin
deplete the ozone which was negotiated contact with CFCs can cause frost bite. The exposure of CFCs to high
in 1987; Newman et al., 2009; En- temperatures can cause the formation of more toxic gases, such as
vironmental News Network, 2012). chlorine and phosgene (New Hampshire Department of Environmental
Services, 2010). In addition, CFCs are known to destroy the ozone layer,
which results in an increase of biologically harmful solar ultraviolet
radiation (Newman et al., 2009) and CFCs act as potent GHGs as well
(Hansen et al., 1989).

polychlorinated From 1929 to 1977, PCBs were PCBs are classified in group 1, carcinogenic to humans (Inter- national 0.0005 –
biphenyls and commercially used as insulation material Agency for Research on Cancer, 2015). PCB exposure causes damage to (PCBs)
polychlorinated or as dielectric insulating fluids in older the immune system (immuno-suppressive effects), liver, skin (chloracne),
diphenyl ethers electronic products, transformers, and reproductive system, gastro- intestinal and respiratory tract, and thyroid
(PCB/PCDE) capacitors. They were contained in inks gland, and promotes the formation of cancer (Agency for Toxic
and plastic (International Agency for Substances and Disease Registry, 2000; Stockholm Convention, 2008).
Research on Cancer, 2012a). PCDEs PCDEs have not been classified by the IARC but might be comparably
were used as fire retardants in plastics toxic to humans due to their structural similarity to PCBs (Inter- national
(thermoplastic com-ponents, cable Agency for Research on Cancer, 2015).
insulation) or as dielectric insulating
fluids, hydraulic and heat transfer fluids,
and lubricants and plasticizers. PCDEs
were contained as impurities in
chlorophenol-based compounds such as
fungicides, slimicides, wood
preservatives, etc.
(Koistinen, 2000; Domingo, 2006).

polybrominated PBB and PBDEs are used as fire According to the IARC the PBBs are classified as group 2A, prob- ably – NA/0.14 for PBDE (biota EQS
diphenyls and retardants in plastics (thermoplastic carcinogenic to humans. Similar to the effects of PCB (see above). 0.0085 μg/kg wet weight)
polybrominated components, cable insulation). They are According to animal tests PBBs are known to cause diffe- rent types of (European Parliament and Council of the
diphenyl ethers contained in the plastic housings of EEE, cancer in rats and mice, although because of a lack of epidemiological European Union, 2013)
(PBB/PBDE) printed circuit boards, etc. studies it is still not possible to find a significant correlation between the
exposure to PBB and the formation of human cancer (Agency for Toxic
Substances and Disease Registry, 2004b; National Toxicology Program,
2014c). During animal tests and unintentional exposure to PBBs, the
formation of chloracne or other forms of skin irritation were observed.
Significant evi- dence of damage to the central nervous system, liver,
kidneys, thyroid gland function, and reproduction system is available
from animal studies (Agency for Toxic Substances and Disease Regis-
try, 2004b). PBDEs have not been classified by the IARC but might be
comparably toxic to humans due to their structural simi- larity to PBBs
(International Agency for Research on Cancer, 2015). Impact of anthropogenic
chemical pollution is high-
perfluor octane Used in the photographic industry and in No IARC classification (International Agency for Research on – 0.00065/36er when the emissions
sulfonate (PFOS) photolithography. PFOS are also Cancer, 2015). According to several animal tests it has been de- are
contained in semiconductors and photo- monstrated that PFOSs are highly toxic and that they have a high (European Parliament and Council of the
resistant and anti-reflec- tive coatings. potential for bioaccumulation. The half-life times in rats, monkeys and in
humans are 100 days, 200 days or 1 year respectively. In both species,
inadequately regulated,
Now, PFOS produc- tion is being European Union, 2013)
voluntarily phased out (Swedish rats and monkeys, sub-chronic exposure to PFOS results in
Chemicals Inspectorate and Swedish hepatotoxicity and mortality. Impairments in the repro- ductive systems enforced, or controlled, or if
Environmental Pro- tection Agency, of mammals was linked to exposure to PFOS obsolete production or
2004). (Luebker et al., 2002; Seacat et al., 2002; 2003; Inoue et al., 2004;
Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development, 2015). From
treatment technologies are
a human toxicological point of view, adequate information about the applied
health risk from exposure to PFOS is not available. However, according
to some epidemiologic studies, exposure to PFOS was linked to the
formation of bladder cancer (Organisation for Economic Co-operation
and Development, 2015).

A: (Empa, 2009b; International Labour Organization, 2012)

B: Maximum contaminant level (United States Environmental Protection Agency, 2015c)
 14 ELECTRONIC INDUSTRY POLLUTANTS (E-WASTE)

C: The acute and the chronic environmental quality standards (EU-standard), AA-EQS (annual average concentration) and MAC-EQS (maximum allowable concentration)
represent chronic and acute environmental concentrations of chemical agents which affect water organisms significantly.

hemical Formation and occurrence of Health concerns (humans) MCL B Environmental quality standard
hazardous PAHs and halogenated [mg/L] (in surface water bodies)
hydrocarbons in WEEE A AA-EQS/MAC-EQS [µg/L] C

lyvinyl chloride PVC is used as cable insulation, According to the IARC, PVCs are classified as group 3, not clas- – –
computer housing or as housing sifiable as to its carcinogenicity to humans (International Agency for
VC)
material of other EEE because of its Research on Cancer, 2015). The burning of PVCs can cause the
fire-retardant properties. formation of hazardous and highly carcinogenic substances, such as
PAHs, PCDD and PCDFs, and other dioxin-like com- pounds (Gullett
et al., 1990; Wang et al., 2002; 2005).

rabromobisphenol A TBBPAs are used as flame retardants in No IARC classification (International Agency for Research on Cancer, – –
BBPA) plastics (thermoplastic compo- nents, 2015). TBBPA is not currently classified for environmen- tal or human
cable insulation). For ex- ample, health effects (Institute for Health and Consumer Protection -
TBBPA is most widely used in printed European Chemicals Bureau, 2006). TBBPA is not known as a skin,
wiring boards and casings of electronic eye, or respiratory tract irritant and according to animal tests with rats,
devices. It is used as a reactive flame no evidences were found that ex- posure to TBBPA caused adverse
retardant in epoxy and polycarbonate effects to the endocrine and the reproductive systems. Information
resins, or as an additive flame retardant about the carcinogenic potential of TBBPA has not been found yet
in acrylo- nitrile-butadiene-styrene (Institute for Health and Consumer Protection - European Chemicals
(ABS) resins and phenolic resins. Bureau, 2006). Nevertheless, rudimentary plastic recycling and low-
TBBPAs are used as intermediates to tempera- ture burning processes of plastics containing TBBPA and
pro- duce other flame retardants as well. other brominated flame retardants leads to the formation and emis-
(Institute for Health and Consumer sion of hazardous polybrominated-dibenzodioxins and poly-
Protection - European Chemicals brominated-dibenzofurans (Thies et al., 1990; Empa, 2009b).
Bureau, 2006).

A: (Empa, 2009b; International Labour Organization, 2012)

B: Maximum contaminant level (United States Environmental Protection Agency, 2015c)
C: The acute and the chronic environmental quality standards (EU-standard), AA-EQS (annual average concentration) and MAC-EQS
(maximum allowable concentration) represent chronic and acute environmental concentrations of chemical agents which affect water
organisms significantly. leached from e-waste using strong acids. These highly
toxic agents can leak from their containers and pollute
water systems and soils (Robinson, 2009).

Input pathways of e-waste pollutants Production and pollution trends of hazardous

compounds associated with e-waste

Generally, for e-waste pollutants there are two possible

main input pathways by which they can enter the Data availability
environment. If e-waste is disposed of inappropriately,
solvable toxicants, such as several heavy metals (for Data about e-waste production and particularly data about the transboundary
instance Pb and Sb) can be leached from e-waste movements of WEEE is difficult to assess. Mainly this is because of the illegal or
landfills especially after stronger rain events. They hidden export of e-waste from OECD countries to non-OECD countries to save on
then remain in the soil or they can be further the expenses of e-waste disposal, recycling, and labor costs. For instance, there is
transported via surface runoff into rivers or they can evidence from the US EPA that sending WEEE for disposal and/or recycling in Asia
drain into groundwater aquifers (Robinson, 2009). would cost one-tenth of the expense to process the materials in the USA
However, the main entry of e-waste pollutants happens (International Labour Organization, 2012). With the currently available data on the
through inappropriate recycling and e-waste production of EEE, the modelling of WEEE generation and its transboundary
processing practices. For example, open burning or movements are not possible. This is especially so since such data is more likely to
incineration of e-waste can lead to the formation and be available in higher-income countries than it is in LAMICs and data about the
emission of highly toxic compounds into the average lifespan and innovation cycles of individual items of EEE varies from
atmosphere. These can be distributed by air and region to region. (In higher-income countries the innovation cycles for and the
become sediments in soils and surface waters via dry lifespans of EEE are shorter than those in LAMICs. In these countries, older
or wet deposition. This seems to be especially the case equipment is used for longer periods of time; Robinson, 2009).
in LAMICs where, often, exhaust fumes are not
controlled or filtered and regulations are lacking
(Stewart and Lemieux, 2003; Leung et al., 2008;
International Labour Organization, 2012).
Additionally, precious and other valuable metals are
 CHEMICAL POLLUTION IN LOW- AND MIDDLE-INCOME COUNTRIES 15

In general, it can be assumed that information about the output figures for EEE and Pakistan, Singapore, and Thailand. Other suspected destinations for obsolete and
the generation of WEEE alone are not satisfactory to assess the extent of the inoperable EEE are Argentinia, Benin, Chile, Egypt, Eastern Europe, Haiti,
environmental burden caused by the inappropriate disposal of EEE. It is necessary Indonesia, Ivory Coast, Kenya, Malaysia, Phillippines, Russia, Senegal, Tanzania,
to get more details about the trade patterns of obsolete EEE because these are Ukraine, United Arab Emirates, Venezuela, and Vietnam. Unfortunately at present,
largely still not transparent and comprehensible. there is no system for tracking legal or illegal exports of WEEE. Therefore, no
direct quantitative data on the exported volumes of e-waste could be found and not
every destination for exported and dumped e-waste could be located (Lewis, 2011).
Future trends and hot spots Nevetheless, there is evidence that China is one of the main destinations for e-waste.
Although the amount of available data about e-waste is rare, several research groups Experts suspect that upto 70% of exported WEEE is probably sent to China –
and NGOs are trying to shed light on the output figures for EEE or to get primarily to southeast China near Bejing, the Yangtze River Delta, and the Pearl
information about the amounts of WEEE generated. These researchers are trying to River Delta (Tong and Wang, 2004; Bodeen, 2007).
determine their mass fluxes and gain information about the futures of obsolete and
inoperable EEE from a global perspective. They are also trying to assess the It can be assumed that there is a positive correlation
negative impacts on environmental and human health caused by the inappropriate between the demand and availability of PCs and other
disposals and recycling of WEEE (Widmer et al., 2005; United Nations potential e-waste items and the gross domestic product
Environment Programme, 2006a; Robinson, 2009; Empa, 2009e; Skinner et al., of a country. Therefore, at this time, the regions with
2010; Mundl, 2010; International Labour Organization, 2012; Silicon Valley Toxics the highest GDPs, such as Western Europe, the United
Coalition, 2014; United Nations Environment Programme, 2014). States and Australasia, are the most likely e-waste
producers. During the next 10 years, regions with high
Where the illegal export of WEEE is concerned, known and suspected routes of e- economic growth, such as China, Eastern Europe, and
waste dumping are presented in Figure 25 and Figure 26 (Lewis, 2010, 2011; Latin America will catch up with or even exceed the e-
International Labour Organization, 2012; Silicon Valley Toxics CoaKnown targets waste generation of the former (Robinson, 2009). Thus,
for illegal e-waste disposal seem to be Brazil, China, Ghana, India, Nigeria, Mexico, besides the loads of ewaste that are illegally exported to
LAMICs for disposal or

Figure 25: Known sources of e-waste and its known and suspected shipping routes (International Labour Organi- zation, 2012; Lewis, 2011; Silicon Valley Toxics
Coalition, 2014).
Figure 26: Export of e-waste from HICs to LAMICs (Lewis, 2010; International
Labour Organization, 2012)
e-waste pollutants in LAMICs experiencing an economic Contaminants in the e-waste processing region of
boom. In general, the recent global production (data from 2006 Guiyu, Guangdong Province, China
and 2009) of WEEE is suspected to range between 20 and 50
During the last decades, the people in Guiyu have changed
million tonne (United Nations Environment Programme,
over from a traditionally rice-growing community to an e-
2006a; Robinson, 2009; Schluep et al., 2009). In 2014/15 it is
waste recycling and processing center (Leung et al., 2006).
estimated that between 40 and 70 million tonne of WEEE
might be
generated
(Jain, 2008).

Issues of
special
concern

Today, Guiyu, with its surrounding towns in Guangdong

Province, probably has become one of the largest e-waste
 16 ELECTRONIC INDUSTRY POLLUTANTS (E-WASTE)

disposal and recycling sites in the world, receiving large For example, the sediments of a duck pond in the vicinity of an e-waste dumping
amounts of e-waste from domestic and international sources and open burning site showed elevated total PAH concentrations (of the 16 PAHs
(Wong et al., 2007a; Greenpeace, 2009). The major recycling banned by the US EPA) of up to 514 µg/kg. In rivers in Guiyu, the concentrations of
and processing activities in this region are toner sweeping, seven carcinogenic PAHs were from two to eight times higher (28-111 µg/kg) and
dismantling of EEE, recovering copper from wires and EEE, in duck ponds from seven to nine times higher (94-122 µg/kg) than the
chipping and melting plastic, heating printed circuit boards concentrations found in the reservoir (13.2 µg/kg). In this region, soil samples from
over honeycombed coal blocks, and to recover gold and other a printer roller dump site had total PAH concentrations of up to 593 µg/kg. These
valuable metals by using strong acids (cyanides, sulfuric acid, values are comparable with those found at another large-scale e-waste recycling site
and hydrochloric acid; Puckett et al., 2002; Leung et al., 2006). in Taizhou, China, where total PAH concentrations ranged from 488 to 764 µg/kg
The redundant e-waste is often dumped and openly burned dry weight (Tang et al., 2010). Currently, global guidelines and limit values for
without any controls or precautions, leaving behind an PAHs have not been established. However, although these values do not exceed the
environmental burden of high severity. For instance, according soil criteria for PAH concentrations of the ‘Dutch list’ (Environmental Protection
to the disposal and processing of e-waste, POPs (like PAHs, Department of Hong Kong, 2004) – 1000 µg/ kg, which implies that the soil is
dioxins, and furans) and halogenated hydrocarbons (like contaminated – the elevated PAH concentrations in Guiyu are of high environmental
PCDE/PBDEs, PCB, and PBB) or inorganic pollutants (like concern. This is especially so since the pollution from e-waste and the informal
heavy metals such as Cd, Cu, Ni, Pb and Zn) can be released in businesses is increasing and PAHs are known to accumulate via the food chain, be
the environment, affecting environmental and human health. persistent, and highly toxic even at low concentrations (Environmental Protection
Department of Hong Kong, 2004). In addition, sediments from the Lianjiang River
(Guiyu, China) show that this river is contaminated by PCB and its congeners. Total
PCB concentrations of up to

743 µg/kg were measured. This exceeds the Canadian Health consequences of disposal, dismantling, and recycling
Environmental Quality Guideline of 277 µg/kg (Leung et al., activities of WEEEs
2006). A high concentration of total mono-hepta PBDEs of A systematic review of epidemiological studies of the health
1140 µg/kg was found in soil samples at an informal dumping consequences of ingesting the chemicals released by e-waste
site for burned plastic in Guiyu, while in similar samples from disposal and/or e-waste processing activities shows that
a printer roller dumping site in the same area, the human exposure to e-waste is significantly associated with
concentration was found to be 1169 µg/kg. Serious levels of impairments in reproduction, neurodevelopment, and mental
contamination with PCDD/F and PBDEs were found in health. In addition, toxicants released during e-waste disposal
surface samples from the e-waste re- cycling area in Taizhou, and processing are known to increase the incidence of
China, as well. At this site, PBDE concentrations ranged from cancerous diseases by causing DNA damage, chromosomal
27.9 to 3128.4 µg/kg and PCDD/Fs concentrations from 218.3 aberrations, and changes in gene expression (Zhao et al.,
to 3122.2 µg/kg (Tang et al., 2014). Besides the organic 2009; Grant et al., 2013).
pollutants, e- waste processing and recycling is often
associated with the release of inorganic contaminants. For Grant et al. (2013) studied the health consequences of WEEE
instance, sediments of the Lianjiang River were considerably recycling and processing in southeast China, mainly in Guiyu
contaminated with Cd (mean value 4.09 ± 3.92 mg/kg), Cu and Taizhou. By reviewing the epidemiological studies they
(1070 ± 1210 mg/kg), Ni (181 ± 156 mg/kg), Pb (230 ± 169 showed the positive correlation between exposure to e-waste
mg/ kg), and Zn (324 ± 143 mg/kg; Wong et al., 2007b). and the negative impacts on human health.

Currently, there is a dearth of detailed information about the Their review revealed that halogenated hydrocarbons, such as
consequences of chronic e-waste pollutants to environmental PBDEs, PCDDs, PCDFs, and PCBs, which are released
health and their environmental risks, especially in LAMICs. during e-waste processing, caused variations in thyroid-
That is the main reason why it is difficult to give information stimulating hormone levels (Ju et al., 2008; Yuan et al., 2008;
about the severity of the pollution caused by informal e-waste Wang et al., 2010; Zhang et al., 2010; Han et al., 2011; Grant
activities. Nevertheless, as shown before, from the several et al., 2013). In the vicinity of an e-waste dismantling site in
environmental samples collected from e-waste disposal and Guiyu, China, the lung function of school children (8 to 9
processing sites, there is evidence concerning the years of age) was affected. They showed lower forced vital
concentrations of highly toxic POPs or inorganics (heavy capacity (FVC = the amount of air that can be forcibly
metals and metalloids). This despite the (intended or exhaled from the lungs after taking a deep breath). These
unintended) production, use, import, and export of POPs has impairments in lung function are linked with the exposure to
been banned or restricted globally since the Stockholm and the uptake of heavy metals, such as Cr, Mn, and Ni,
Convention came into force in 2004. These POPs are which are emitted by the e-waste processing sector. The
controlled by the Stockholm Convention to reduce their entry uptake of heavy metals was proven by the elevated blood
into environmental systems and to mitigate their impacts on levels of Mn of 374.92 nmol/L and of Ni of 5.3 mg/L: control Exposure to e-waste was
environmental and human health (Leung et al., 2006). For samples contained 271.18 nmol/L of Mn and 3 mg/L of Ni often accompanied by
instance, POPs, such as halogenated hydrocarbons, PCBs, (Zheng et al., 2013). In these regions with their high informal considerable increases in
PCDD/Fs, and PCDE and PBDE, are associated with such e-waste processing activities, reproductive health was affected spontaneous abortions,
adverse health effects as impairment of the reproduction as well. For instance, the exposure to e-waste was often stillbirths, premature births,
systems of humans and wildlife while acting as endocrine accompanied by considerable increases in spontaneous reduced birth weights, and
reduced birth length.
 CHEMICAL POLLUTION IN LOW- AND MIDDLE-INCOME COUNTRIES 17

disruptors and in the formation of several forms of cancer abortions (Wu et al., 2012b), stillbirths (Guo et al., 2012; Xu
(Table 10). They are known to bioaccumulate throughout the et al., 2012), premature births reduced birth weights (Guo et
food chain or to remain and accumulate in soil or sediments al., 2012; Wu et al., 2012b; Xu et al., 2012), and reduced birth
(Leung et al., 2006). In addition, the release of heavy metals length (Wu et al., 2011b, 2012b; Grant et al., 2013). Other
is affecting environmental and human health, the nervous studies showed that increased lead levels could be found in
systems, the mental development, the respiratory tracts, and the cord blood and meconium of neonates if their parents, and
the digestive tracts of wildlife and people (Leung et al., 2006). especially their mothers, were involved in e-waste recycling
activities or if they lived in the vicinity of e-waste processing
sites before and during their pregnancy (Li et al., 2008d; Liu
et al., 2011). The elevated lead concentrations and probably
the addi-

tional exposure to other contaminants released from Organization, 2012). Delhi is a favored site for
ewaste processing resulted in impairment of the children’s informal e- waste collection and processing (Sinha-
mental development. From neonatal behavioral Khetriwal et al., 2005; International Labour
neurological examinations, the Guiyu newborns with the Organization, 2012) given:
higher lead concentrations showed abnormalities in
temperament scores and low neonatal behavioral • The good infrastructure
neurological as-
sessment scores (Li et al., 2008d; Liu et al., 2011; Grant et al., • Its position as a nodal point in trade
2013). E-waste and its pollutants are known to cause
genetic mutations and cytogenetic damage. For instance, • India’s strong economics
mothers involved in e-waste recycling had elevated Cr
levels (median 94 µg/L) in umbilical cord blood. The
• The increase in domestic e-waste production
exposure to Cr, in combination with other pollutants from
the e-waste recycling, were correlated with DNA damage
• The additional loads of e-waste from shipments
(Li et al., 2008c). In Jinghai, China, workers involved in
from HICs which are the major sources of e-
ewaste processing had increased chromosomal aberration
waste.
levels 20 times higher than those who were not working
in the same sector (Liu et al., 2009). More evidence that
It is estimated that in 2005 in India, between
pollutants from the e-waste sector can cause damage to
146,180 and 360,000 tonne of WEEE was
DNA are mentioned in the comprehensive
generated domestically and it is estimated that
epidemiological study of Grant et al. (2013).
800,000 tonne of e-waste will be produced in India
by 2012 (Zoeteman et al., 2010; Wath et al., 2011).
In conclusion, there is a lot of evidence that pollutants
In addition, in 2005 up to 850,000 tonne of WEEE
from e-waste are indeed a health risk for workers involved
might have been imported into India for disposal
in e-waste businesses and for their families if they are
and further processing (more recent data have not
living in the vicinity of e-waste processing and dumping
been found; Zoeteman et al., 2010; Breivik et al.,
sites.
2014). It has to be considered that given the high
complexity of the WEEE production, trade, and
Lack of implementation of policies and regulations In
processing businesses, the high levels of informal
Delhi, the Indian capital, the informal e-waste recycling
and illegal e-waste transportation and disposal
sector has a high employment potential with an increasing
activities, and the increasing trend in global WEEE
trend. Especially for the urban poor, informal e-waste
generation, these numbers may well be significantly
businesses are a preferred opportunity to make a profit
underestimated.
(Sinha-Khetriwal et al., 2005; International Labour
 18 ELECTRONIC INDUSTRY POLLUTANTS (E-WASTE)

However, with the help of stricter governmental regulations in Delhi, a implementation of best practices and sound waste management, collaboration
crackdown on informal e-waste businesses has been initiated. There, the effort and communications between stakeholders from the electrical and electronic
was made to reduce the number of informal e-waste businesses, to improve industry, governments, customs authorities, regulatory and environmental
safety, and to mitigate the impacts on human and environ- mental health, which agencies, intergovernmental or non-governmental organizations and local
are associated with informal e- waste processing activities (Skinner et al., 2010). authorities need to be strengthened. In addition, purchasers of EEE and civil
Nevertheless, instead of stopping the informal businesses, these were just trans- society, in general, can support the production of greener and more sustainable
located to satellite towns, such as Saharanpur and Meerut, while the e-waste EEE by purchasing electronic products with less toxic compounds or which do
trade in the city continues (Waste Management World, 2011). not contain recycled material from informal e-waste businesses. Alternatively,
they can support internationally or locally certified e-waste campaigns (for
Figure 27 shows the possible formal, semi-formal, and informal paths of the e- instance the WorldLoop’s e-Resource Certificate Programme (WorldLoop, 2013)
waste trade within India. In addition, the graphic shows that while e-waste can or the Swiss e-waste program (Empa, 2009e) to promote the controlled and safe
originate from domestic e-waste production sources, such as private consumers, collection, processing, and recycling of e-waste (International Labour

Best practices
given/sold to informal informal
waste pickers dismantler recycler

The illegal trade on e-waste and the informal e-waste re-

cycling businesses are significant cross-cutting issues on given/sold
auctioned off or
sold to scrap
to vendors
a global scale. Of all countries, the LAMICs are those with traders or dealers

the highest e-waste burdens (Skinner et al., 2010; Lewis,

2010, 2011; International Labour Organization, 2012; Sili -
given to
con Valley Toxics Coalition, 2014). friends or donated to formal formal
relatives institutions dismantler recycler

private governmental industrial

manufacturers
consumers institutions consumers
Imported e-waste
are required at local and international levels. To facilitate Domestic e-waste (trend increasing) (major issue )

Organization, 2012). Details of already implemented and theoretical best

government institutions, industrial consumers, or manufactures, the largest practices for a more environmentally-friendly trade and processing of e-waste
amount of ewaste is imported from HICs. Furthermore, it can be seen that the follow.
different formal, semi-formal, and informal stakeholders involved in the trade
and processing of ewaste are interlinked (Skinner et al., 2010). First (green Implemented examples
path), the e-waste arising from formal sources is given to friends, donated to
institutions or sold to responsible formal dismantlers/recyclers. Second (blue Increased data transparency through the (Step) initiative
path), primarily for economic reasons, most semi-formal stakeholders act as a Solving the e-waste problem (Step) is an international initiative that was
link between the formal and informal e-waste businesses by sending e-waste to established in late 2004. To date, Step has over 60 members representing
informal dismantlers and recyclers. Third, the informal sector (orange path) is manufacturers, recyclers, academics, and government and non-governmental
dismantling and processing e-waste or they are even involved in the informal organizations committed to solving the increasing e-waste problem (Step
extraction of valuable materials from e-waste (Jain, 2009; Skinner et al., 2010). Initiative, 2016a). The main objectives of this initiative are to (Step Initiative,
It must be recognized that Figure 27 shows a simplified path of ewaste trades. In 2014): • conduct and share scientific research
practice, the flow of e-waste is much more complex and more elusive, which
makes it difficult to enact effective regulations and policies (Skinner et al., • set strategies and goals to overcome the e-waste problem
2010). As described in the section E-waste pollutants of environmental
concern (p.106), informal e-waste re- cycling is mostly responsible for causing Figure 27: The formal (green), semi-formal (blue), and informal (orange) paths
severe problems to environmental and human health. of e-waste flows within India (Skinner et al., 2010)

To mitigate the entry of highly toxic pollutants into the

environment through e-waste disposal and processing
initiatives, significant efforts are required to implement best
practices for e-waste treatment. The introduction of sound
management practices for e-waste businesses
 CHEMICAL POLLUTION IN LOW- AND MIDDLE-INCOME COUNTRIES 19

• provide training on e-waste issues may cause an underestimation of the amounts of e-waste accumulated and their
associated environmental risks, mainly in LAMICs. During Step’s editing of the
• communicate and raise awareness data it has defined EEE and WEEE according to the EU Waste Electrical and
Electronic Equip-
To fulfill their aims, the members of the Step
initiative they have to comply with five principles:

1. Their work is founded on scientific assessments

and integrates a comprehensive view of the
social, economic, and environmental aspects of e-
waste

2. They conduct research on the entire life cycle of

EEE by considering their global supply, processes
and material flows

3. Their research and pilot projects are feasible

approaches to the problems caused by e-waste

4. They reject all illegal activities related to e-waste,

including illegal exports (shipments) and reuse
and recycling practices that affect environmental
and human health

5. They are eager to promote safe, eco-, and energy-

efficient reuse and recycling practices on a global
scale in a socially responsible manner

Their five core theme areas, which are described in

more detail on the homepage of the Step initiative,
are (Step Initiative, 2016b):

• Policy to analyze existing approaches and e-waste

policies

• Redesign of EEE to promote design for better reuse,

repair, refurbishment, and recycling

• Reuse to develop replicable, sustainable, and globally

consistent reuse systems for EEE

• Recycle to enhance global recycling infrastructures

• Capacity-building to increase awareness of the growing

e-waste problem.

For instance, in respect of their commitments to mitigate the e-waste problem, the Step
initiative is compiling a world map with data about EEE that is put on the market. It
also provides information on the WEEE that is generated domestically in each country
in kg/inhabitant or in total kilotonne (Figure 28), although, in general, the e-waste
problem is hard to capture, mainly because of a lack of comprehensive data. These data
are available to the public and they are helping to localize hot spots with e-waste
problems. They are used internally and externally to find locations that generate large
volumes of e-waste and where disassembling and processing programs for e-waste, or
new state-of-the-art WEEE recycling facilities could be started. However, the amounts
of WEEE that are exported illegally are not considered in the Step calculations, which
 20 ELECTRONIC INDUSTRY POLLUTANTS (E-WASTE)

ment Directive categories and products. Nevertheless, although there may be some Action on Computing Equipment, the Swiss
uncertainties, its world map of e-waste production is unique and is the first data base to e-waste program, and Hewlett-Packard, are
provide such comprehensive and international data, thus increasing the transparency of pursuing similar goals and they all apply the
e-waste data (Step Initiative, 2015). e-waste assessment methodologies of Empa
and SOFIES SA (Schluep et al., 2012).
E-waste assessment methodology and implementation of dismantling programs
Since the 1990s, Switzerland was one of the first counties in the world to introduce a Improvements in WEEE collection and recycling practices
national e-waste management system. The Swiss Federal Laboratories for Materials Improvements in WEEE collection and
Science and Technology (Empa) has established a good reputation for assessing the recycling practices are urgently needed. The
serious health, socioeconomic, and environmental problems caused by inappropriate e- LIFE + WEEE Label of Excellence
waste disposal and rudimentary recycling practices. It has also developed solutions to (WEEELABEX) EU project was initiated to
mitigate these issues by finding and implementing an effective individualized ewaste protect the environment by promoting sound
management system. Since 2003, Empa, which has acted as one of the technical control e-waste trading and recycling practices in
bodies of the Swiss e-waste management system, is using and adapting the knowledge Europe. This project comprises the
gained in Switzerland to the needs of LAMICs. Empa has taken part in several e-waste enactment of European standards with
projects in Africa, Asia, and Latin and South America where they are trying to improve respect to WEEE collection, handling,
the living conditions of local residents, by helping to better manage e-waste streams storage, recycling, and disposal in
and protect resources. The projects seek to improve the economic situation in general compliance with EU health, safety, and
and to reduce the health risks to humans and the environment (Empa, 2009c). environmental legislation. According to
these standards, monitoring programs of
For instance, after a detailed e-waste country assessment in South Africa, an e-waste processing companies will be started. The
processing facility was implemented in Cape Town. From February to Novem- ber monitoring will be conducted by auditors,
2008, this facility was able to process around 60 tonne of WEEE, generated an income who are trained by the WEEELABEX office
about USD14,000, and provided direct employment for 19 people (Empa, 2009d). to ensure consistent monitoring approaches
Other projects on sound e-waste management where Empa has been engaged are and that the same sets of standards are used
described on the Empa (2009c) e-waste guide web page. Their latest pro- jects were for auditing. If the parties and companies
conducted in Brazil, China, Columbia, Kenya, Morocco, Peru, Senegal, South Africa, involved in WEEE operations comply with
and Uganda. the implemented standards of the
WEEELABEX initiative they are awarded
From their extensive experience, Schluep et al. (2012) explain that pure technical the project targeted conformity verification,
implementation alone is often insufficient to enable sound e-waste management. This is referred to as the WEEE label of excellence
the case, particularly, in LAMICs where legal and institutional frameworks and (WEEELABEX, 2013). With the help of this
infrastructure are lacking and, therefore, e-waste management requires a project, consistent and new standards for
comprehensive and well-structured approach. In order to understand the prevalent WEEE collection, storage, and processing,
framework of conditions, the current e-waste regulations and legislations need to be which are already becoming international
compiled and an assessment made of stakeholders, mass flow, and the environmental benchmarks, were successfully developed
and socioeconomic impacts. This requires a country-specific e-waste assessment to be within the EU. So far, about 30 companies
conducted. Along these lines, Schluep et al. (2012) have published a publicly available have been awarded the WEEELABEX
report, that explains their methodology of e-waste assessment. This report can be used conformity verification. More detailed
as a reference for organizations that are interested in e-waste assessment projects information about this initiative are available
enabling sound e-waste management. The report about their e-waste assessment on the webpage www.weeelabex.org/.
methodology shows how to get results about the legal frame- work conditions, how to
understand stakeholder inter- actions, the mass-flows of WEEE, and how to identify Development and implementation of greener
WEEE hotspots. This information will provide a comprehensive overview of the e- technologies
waste situation in a specific region for the relevant stakeholders. It will help to evaluate The development and implementation of greener
the potentials for employment or for possible improvements in the living condition of technologies leads to a reduction in the volume of
local people who are engaged in the e-waste business. The assessment of mass flow WEEE produced. For instance, use of the EPEAT ®
and other economic data are helpful when implementing appropriate business models global rating system, managed by the non-profit
for e-waste collection, processing, and recycling activities. In summary, their e-waste organization Green Electronics Council, Portland,
assessment methodology provides all the relevant information required for Oregon, USA, helps purchasers (businesses,
implementing a regiondependent e-waste management system (Schluep et al., 2012). schools, hotels, hospitals, and governments),
manufacturers, and others track down and offer
Besides Empa, other international organizations, environmentally preferable EEEs (Green
such as the United Nations Industrial Development Electronics Council, 2015). EPEAT ® registered
Organization (UNIDO), the United Nations electronics meet strict environmental criteria. For
Environment Programme (UNEP), the Basel instance, EPEAT® registered products use less
Convention, the StEP Initiative, the Partnership for environmentally sensitive materials in their
 CHEMICAL POLLUTION IN LOW- AND MIDDLE-INCOME COUNTRIES 21

manufacture, are designed for an increased lifecycle, such as informal e-waste dismantling and processing activities. It is
consume less energy, and disposal of their WEEE equally necessary to enable the environmentally sound management of
products is managed soundly. waste and chemicals and to guarantee improvements in occupational and
environmental health. In addition, guidance and training for informal e-
The Fairphone enterprise is another example how greener waste business to become more formal or to cooperate and integrate into
EEE can be supplied for end-users. Fairphone was started the formal sector are important (just as it is the case for informal and
in 2010 as a project of the Waag Society, Action Aid, and small scale mining businesses described in the section Theoretical
Schrijf-Schrijf to increase awareness about minerals and examples (p. 100). However, this will be challenging, especially as it is
the conflicts that are associated with the mining of these mostly uneducated people with low literacy levels, living in extreme
minerals in the Democratic Republic of Congo. Given the poverty who are involved in informal e-waste processing and recycling
omnipresence of mobile phones, Fairphone is focusing on businesses (Nimpuno et al., 2011; International Labour Organization,
producing mobile phones that are designed to have a 2012; Rockson et al., 2013). Actually, there is evidence that informal e-
longer life and increased reparability. The source material waste recycling activities, although using rudimentary methods, are
originates from local economies and conflict-free mining economically advantageous businesses and even out-compete formal
sites and not from mining sites controlled by armed recycling businesses mainly because of the lower costs of complying with
militias. In addition, properly recycled material is used in the legislation and the possibility to externalize environmental costs. In
the production of the mobile phones. Furthermore, comparison, recyclers of the formal e-waste sector have increased
Fairphone guarantees that during production, the operating costs since they are paying contributions for the treatment of the
employees worked under fair and safe working wastewater they produce (Skinner et al., 2010).
conditions. Currently, they have 31 employees and they
have sold about 50 thousand Fairphones (Fairphone, Introducing financial incentives, such as funding the best recycling practices or
2015). giving grants for the sound management of wastewater effluents and the disposal
of WEEE, could be a very effective method to reduce the use of informal e-waste
processing and recycling practices for domestic e-waste and imported e-waste
Theoretical examples from HICs (Williams et al., 2008). Another possibility would be to provide
Strengthening the regulatory framework and financial incentives for transferring hazardous WEEE, which cannot be easily
introducing attractive incentives and safely disassembled and processed by informal businesses, to formal state-
As described in the section Lack of implementation of of-theart businesses or, even better, to certificated end-processors using sound
policies and regulations (p. 122), implementing and controlled processing methods for e-waste. If the capacities for sustainable
regulations alone is not sufficiently effective to improve and sound ewaste processing techniques are available, such an integration of
occupational safety and to reduce the impacts on formal e-waste businesses at the international or national level would help to
environmental and human health. The example of the mitigate occupational and environmental health risks (Williams et al., 2008;
informal e-waste businesses in Delhi showed that International Labour Organization, 2012).
strengthening regulations and prohibitions alone are not
solving the e-waste problem. In the Delhi case, the Better production processes through extended producer responsibility
informal businesses simply shifted from the city center to (EPR) and the green production of EEE
remote places and the informal e-waste recyclers Eliminating informal e-waste businesses and the illegal trade in WEEE, and
continued their work using harmful and rudimentary establishing and launching state-of-the-art e-waste processing facilities alone are
recycling methods (Sinha-Khetriwal et al., 2005; Sinha et not sufficient to mitigate the environmental and human health risks from e-waste
al., 2010; International Labour Organization, 2012). As pollutants. Mitigating these risks needs additional steps taken by the EEE
long as informal e-waste businesses provide profit- production industry. For instance, during production, the use of highly toxic
yielding employment for many people in poverty, the chemicals could be reduced or limited voluntarily, by governmental restrictions,
informal activities will continue although such businesses or by finding substitutes that are less hazardous and easier to extract and recycle
are dangerous and life threatening ones. This is especially (International Labour Organization, 2012).
so when there are no attractive incentives available that
promote and support formal e-waste recycling activities. One approach in this direction is the Restriction on the use of certain hazardous
People who are involved in e-waste businesses should be substances (RoHS) Directive enacted in 2002 and modified in 2011 (European
informed and further educated about the perils of working Parliament and Council of the European Union, 2011). This bans or restricts
with e-waste and its impact on environmental and human hazardous material in EEE for all products brought to market in Europe. For
health. Efforts are needed to mitigate occupational instance, ac- cording to the RoHS Directive, the use of metals and substances
accidents and health risks by raising people’s awareness such as Pb, Hg, Cd, Cr(VI), polybrominated biphenyls (PBBs), and
about their work with hazardous compounds. Incentives polybrominated diphenyl ethers (PBDE) are restricted in the casing of EEE and
need to be provided that will urge them to seek safer and printed circuit boards. Nevertheless, despite the introduction of the RoHS
healthier working conditions (Wang et al., 2011). Directive, the generation and release of highly toxic and carcinogenic pollutants,
such as dioxins and furans, cannot be prevented (Williams et al., 2008).
In general in LAMICs, it is necessary to raise awareness of the environmental Electrical and electronic products produced in LAMICs, which contain recycled
and human health risks in businesses where hazardous chemicals are involved, material from informal e-waste businesses, or obsolete and secondhand EEE
 22 ELECTRONIC INDUSTRY POLLUTANTS (E-WASTE)

from HICs being reused in LAMICs, still may contain higher amounts of hazardous the RoHS Directive and the initiatives based
compounds, possibly because of the lack of controls and regulations in these countries on the EPR principles are promoting the
(Weidenhamer and Clement, 2007; Chi et al., 2011; International Labour Organization, production of ‘greener’ – more sustainable
2012). On a global scale, more efforts are necessary to reduce or abolish the use of and eco-friendly – EEE products. They also
highly toxic compounds like halogenated flame retardants and heavy metals such as promote the sound disposal and management
cadmium and mercury. In future, more focus is needed to reduce the amounts of of WEEE, but further agreements and
hazardous toxicants and compounds that are used in producing EEE. The production of approaches at the international level are
easy-to-disassemble and recycle EEE needs to be promoted to mitigate occupational required to enforce the greener pro-
risks and to close gaps in the material flow system to avoid the release of highly toxic duction and disposal of EEE globally.
substances into the environment (International Labour Organization, 2012).
Green production of EEE and increased data
Furthermore, increased responsibility needs to be transparency
placed on the EEE production industry. Firstly, in Over the last years with the continuous
the direction of sound waste management by the development of technology, the life span of EEE
industry having to pay fees for the disposal and has been showing a generally decreasing trend.
recycling of the products or wastes generated This, along with the growing population and
during their production. This would provide an increasing living standards has resulted in a global
incentive to produce EEE which contains less increase in WEEE. For instance, the life span of a
hazardous compounds and which is easier to PC decreased from 4.5 to 2 years during the period
recycle. Secondly, there should be increased 1992 to 2005 (Culver, 2005; Widmer et al., 2005).
responsibility for the EEE production sector for
recycling materials in EEE at the end of the Today, in the period of excessive informal e-waste
equipment’s useful life. The manufacturers can processing and recycling and the resulting
reduce the amounts of virgin (primary) metals occupational and environmental health risks, the
taken from the mining sector by initiating take- production of greener and more environmentally
back and collection programs for WEEE. They can friendly EEE is needed to mitigate the negative
achieve this by setting up trade agreements with impacts associated especially with these e-waste
formal state-of-the-art facilities that implement an businesses (International Labour Organization,
efficient, sustainable, and environmentally-friendly 2012). There are several criteria which have to be
recycling of WEEE. Such waste related policies fulfilled to design green EEE. For example, the
and initiatives are based on the EPR principles, products should be carbon neutral and the GHG
which shift the responsibility from municipalities production should be as low as possible. They
to producers by compelling producers to take should be easy to dismantle, easy to repair and
financial responsibility for the disposal and recycle, and their durability (lifespan) should be
recycling of their WEEE (Yu et al., 2006a). maximized. The use of toxic compounds and
Additionally, closing gaps in the material flow primary materials (e.g. metals and plastics) should
cycle by improving the recycling of WEEE and by be minimized or abandoned. In addition, efforts are
incorporating less hazardous compounds, needed to find solutions and technologies that go
secondary metals, or less scarce metals can lead to beyond our current dominant technologies.
a mitigation of the exposure to chemical pollutants Production should actively engage the aims of local
from both the e-waste processing and mining communities as well as those of the stakeholders,
sectors. and the reuse of EEE should be fostered.
Ultimately, initiatives for taking back obsolete
In summary, the introduction of the RoHS equipment, for sound approaches to the
Directive may help to reduce the amount of management of e-waste, and appropriate state-of-
hazardous pollutants and consequently the impacts the-art recycling technologies should be included to
of WEEE on environmental and human health even close the life cycle of EEE. Such initiatives would
before the WEEE is traded and disposed of help to prevent the negative impacts associated with
inappropriately into the environment or during its disposal and recycling practices for the end-of-life
recycling. Until now, this approach has been products of the EEE sector – much like a cradle to
enacted only within Europe and no international the grave principle (Greenpeace, 2011).
directives and legislation with this focus have been
developed yet. In general, the EPR approaches are Fortunately, because of several environmental
supporting sound waste management of WEEE and conventions, such as the Stockholm and the Basel
they give incentives to reduce the amounts of Conventions (United Nations Environment
WEEE produced and traded by the EEE industry. Programme, 2013d; 2014) and the Strategic
In conclusion, the regulations and approaches of Approach to International Chemicals Management
 CHEMICAL POLLUTION IN LOW- AND MIDDLE-INCOME COUNTRIES 23

(United Nations Environment Programme, 2006b), the easily, individual parts can be easily replaced and upgraded, and any broken
production industry is being put under pressure to elements can be exchanged easily by the consumer alone (Bhobe et al., 2010;
improve its performance and provide and promote greener International Labour Organization, 2012). Another idea is the vision of the
and more sustainable end-products to consumers mobile phone of the independent organization Phonebloks. Their idea is to
(Greenpeace, 2011). Along these lines, Greenpeace has design a mobile phone encouraging the development and production of EEE that
published a ‘Guide to Greener Electronics’ which produces less electronic waste, is easy to upgrade, is recyclable, and has,
includes the ranking of 15 companies according to their therefore, an increased life span (Phonebloks, 2016). Their phones will consist of
energy efficiency, the sustainability of their operations, individual blocks with different functions e.g. different cameras, processors,
and their compliance with several additional criteria for displays, and so on. The idea is that consumers can design their own phones
the production of greener EEE. These additional criteria according to their own wishes and needs. In addition, Phonebloks want to
include whether they give information regarding: provide a technology where consumers can upgrade or repair their phone by
themselves by replacing just individual parts (blocks) instead of buying a
• Their GHG production and if they have specific plans to reduce the emission of completely new phone. This reduces the amount of ewaste produced and
GHGs considerably increases the life span of these phones. While these are innovative
ideas and there is some interest in these products by electronic companies, these
• If they use clean energy and if their operations have a high product energy products are not likely to be adopted soon (Bhobe et al., 2010; Phonebloks,
efficiency 2016).

• If they avoid hazardous substances during their production

• If they use recycled plastics

• If their products have a sustainable product life cycle (high durability, easily
repaired).

• If they try to reduce energy consumption throughout the supply chain

• If they follow specific policies and practices for sustainably sourcing paper
fibers and using conflict- free minerals

• If they implement effective voluntary take-back initiatives of WEEE.

Greenpeace determined that, of the companies tested, Hewlett-Packard (HP)

best meets the criteria for greener electronics – the company scored 5.9 points
out of 10. However, HP was awarded a very low number of points for their
clean energy policy, for their product life cycle, and for the use of recycled
plastic. HP is followed by Dell (5.1 points), Nokia (4.9 points), and Apple (4.6
points). These results show that although some efforts, initiatives, and
improvements in production and in the provision of green technologies have
been taken, further steps towards the production of sustainable and
environmentally friendly EEE are required. In addition, data about energy
consumption, product life cycle, and production, in general, are not transparent
and difficult for the consumer to assess. Such data need to be more transparent
and make it easier for the consumers to make decisions as to whether they are
willing to support the development of green technologies or not.

At present, the main focus in the field of green technology is on reducing the use
of hazardous compounds, not on improving the efficiency of the product life cycle
or other aspects, such as ease of disassembly or facilitating the recycling of EEE.
The reason why green technologies are described in this chapter with the
theoretical examples of good practices is that the practices used by the main
companies are still not satisfactory (Greenpeace, 2011).

One innovative idea for end-products that are easy to assemble and upgrade is the
Bloom laptop which has been developed by a group of students from Stanford
University and Aalto University of Finland. This laptop can be disassembled by hand