OSPREY Warrior Mongol Warrior 1200-1350‘STEPHEN TURNBULL is best known for his numerous books on samurai and Japanese military history, for which he is the recognised ‘expert outside Japan. More recently he has expanded his interests into China, Korea and Southeast Asia, particularly in relation to thoir military interaction with Japan. He has also published several books on the subject of warfare in medioval and early modern Europe, where he has developed a strong interest in eastern European armies such as the Hussites. WAYNE REYNOLDS was born in Leeds, UK, and attended {art college in Middlesborough. He has had a life-long passion {or illustration, and since 1991 has worked as a professional artist. Wayne thas provided illustrations. land source material for many ‘gaming companies, creating figures, landscapes and interiors, as well as providing core characterisation. He is. perhaps best known for is work on titles such as 20004D, Siaine, and Judge Dredd. Wayne is also a keen modeller and historical re-enactor.Warrior - 84 OSPREY Mongol Warrior 1200-1350 Stephen Turnbull - Illustrated by Wayne ReynoldsFret publned io Great rain in 2000 by Osprey Pubshing ms Cour, Chapel Way, Boley, Oxford OX2 LP, UK. Ema: ntoBospeeypubsshing.com (© 2008 Osprey Publishing Lic ‘nights reserved. Apart fam any far alin forthe purpose of pate study, researc, cris or eve, as permitted under the Copyright, Designs and Paton At, 1988, no part of ts publication may be reproduced, sored in a retvevaleyste or tanemited i ey form oF by any means, electronic, ‘ectrical,cherial, mechanical. optical, photocopying, recorng or otherwise! without th proewrtten parmision of the copyight owner. Erquries srould Be adorested tothe Pulchors |AGIP catalogue record for hs Books avatabe tm the Bish Library Ian 1 94176 589% Eto: Sally Rawtngs Design: Ken Vall Graph Desig, Cambridge, UK Index by lan Futter Originated by The Electronic Page Company, Cwmbran, UK Printed in Cina through Word rn Lid a 04 05 08 7 10987654321 Fora catalogue ofa books pubisned by Osprey Mitary and Aviation pease contact: (osprey Dect UK. RO. Box 140, Welingborough Northants, NN 2FA, UK Ema iflosospreydrect.co uk Osprey Dect USA, c/o MBI Publishing, 0. Box 1, 729 Prospect Ave, soecla, W 54020, USA E-mail ifosospreycrectusa com rww.ospreypublishing.com Artist’s note Readers may care to note that the original paintings from which the colour plates in this book were prepared are available for private sale. All reproduction copyright whatsoever is retained by the Publishers. All enquiries should be addressed to: Wayne Reynolds 20 Woodside Place Burley Leeds Ls24 20U. ‘The Publishers regret that they can enter into no ‘correspondence upon this matter. ation To Anne-Marie Arrowsmith Author’s Note ‘The illustrations used are many and varied, ranging from manuscript sources to modern ethnographical observations, of Mongols today. For the latter | would particularly like to ‘thank David Lambert, David Sneath and David Nicolle for supplying several of the fine pictures in this volume. | also acknowledge the administrative support provided by my daughter Kate in one of her first projects as my secretay.CONTENTS PREFACE INTRODUCTION: THE MONGOLS AND THEIR EMPIRE ‘The Mongol warrior in historical context CHRONOLOGY RECRUITMENT AND TRAINING OF THE MONGOL ARMY Numbers and recruitment of Mongol warriors + Army organisation, training and discipline APPEARANCE AND DRESS Mongol armour and costume * Mongol weapons * The Mongol horse THE DAILY LIFE OF THE MONGOL WARRIOR ‘The Monge! dwelling + Mongol food and drink * The Mongol wagons ‘The Mongol camel + Belief and belonging + The hunt MONGOL CAMPAIGN LIFE ‘A nation on campaign + Grazing practices on campaign * The Mongol warrior’s campaign rations ‘Mongo! strategic planning * Reconnaissance in force * Mongols on the march ‘The weapon of terror + The strategic false retreat THE MONGOL EXPERIENCE OF BATTLE: MONGOL STEPPE TACTICS ‘Scouting the enemy + The tactical false retreat * Mongol archery in battle Counter-attack + Pursuit + Retreat + Treatment of the wounded THE MONGOL EXPERIENCE OF BATTLE: MONGOL ADAPTATIONS TO TERRAIN AND SITUATION Weather conditions and Mongol campaigns * Seas and rivers, “The defended town + Siege crossbows * The use of trebuchets + Jungles and war elephants GLOSSARY BIBLIOGRAPHY COLOUR PLATE COMMENTARY INDEX 13 17 26 45 50 60 60 62 64MONGOL WARRIOR 1200-1350 PREFACE ‘The Mongol warrior was one of the great success stories of world military history. Under the leadership of Genghis Khan and_his successors Mongol armies conquered much of the known world. They fought on the frozen steppes of Russia, in the wilderness of Palestine, in the jungles of Java and on the great rivers of China. Throughout all this they showed. a remarkable ability to adopt, adapt and improve a vast range of military techniques and technology from siege weapons to naval warfare. Yet never did they leave their cultural heritage behind, nor were they ever more feared than when they swooped down upon some unsuspecting sedentary community like a horde of mounted demons The popular view has taken this image further to produce a caricature of the Mongol warrior galloping everywhere, as inseparable from his horse as a centaur. He eats in the saddle, having tenderised his meat between man and horse. He then fights in the saddle, despatching clouds of arrows with great accuracy, and then, when exhausted by these endeavours, he even sleeps in the saddle while his horse carries him towards his next battle. This may be an exaggeration, but on many occasions this superhuman, myth was deliberately fostered by the Mongols to increase terror among their victims. Yet, needless to say, the daily life of a real Mongol warrior peace and war was a great deal more complex and down to earth than A view of the steppes of Mongolia. (David Lambert)this, and the pages that follow will illustrate the richness of the systems and material culture that grew up to support him, This Warrior volume tells the story of the remarkable military organisation of the Mongol warriors that contributed to their success. It also gives full details of their weapons and equipment, their daily lives and the beliefs that motivated them, all based on the latest research, In keeping with the format and the scope of the series I have concentrated on the small-scale experience of the Mongol warrior in peace and in war, rather than larger themes such as the laws and government system of Khubilai Khan’s Yuan dynasty ‘This is a modern Mongol with his way the gun and substitute a bow and you have the perfect picture of a medieval ‘Mongol warrior. (David Sneath)‘Modern wooden statues of ‘Mongol warriors in armour at Ulan Bator. (David Lambert) INTRODUCTION: THE MONGOLS AND THEIR EMPIRE At its height, the world of the Mongol warrior encompassed a large proportion of the known world of the 13th century: Japan, Java, Syria, much of Russia and Eastern Europe had experienced the Mongol warriors as real foes, By contrast, Western Europe heard of them only through travellers’ tales or garbled accounts at second hand. The exception was the Papacy, because once the Mongols were revealed as a serious threat following the battle of Leignitz in Silesia in 1241, successive popes were kept well informed of Mongol conquests by a series of envoys. Their reports allowed consideration to be given to the question of whether to proclaim a crusade against the Mongols or enlist them as allies in the long struggle with Islam. It is from such reports that much of the first-hand detail that follows is taken. The Mongol warrior in historical context The daily life in peace and war of the Mongol warrior can only be properly understood in its correct historical context. As the context of normous one there is no space here to give anything other than a brief overview of the processes that took place. But two facts are p tin grasping the scale of the achievement of the Mongol warrior. First, the Mongol Empire was created within three generations, and second, for the first time in world history, Europe and Asia were both threatened by the same entity. We are therefore looking at a military phenomenon that was rapid both in its growth and its dissemination. ‘The rise of the Mongols from being just one among a number of rival nomadic tribes in Central Asia to becoming a force that shook the world origin in the unification brought about by a steppe warrior called the Mongol conquests is an‘Temujin, who then accepted the title of ‘universal ruler’ or ‘Genghis Khan’, He consolidated his position by conquering nearby foes, and the Mongol Empire grew from these operations. ‘The newly emergent Mongols were faced on all sides by potential enemies, of which the greatest was the Jin Dynasty of China. They had a glorious history, but the Jin had weakened their position by their constant rivalry with the Southern Song Dynasty whom they had failed to supplant completely. The Jin would be Genghis Khan's main enemy, but realising the need to protect his flanks, he first attacked the Xixia of north-west China who became the first foreign people to feel the impact of the Mongol warriors, Genghis Khan’s next major campaign was against the Muslim Khwarazm Empire of Central Asia. All the techniques of Mongol warfare ~ from cavalry battles to sieges, and from false retreats to the spread of terror — were tried and tested in this dramatic theatre of operations. (One remarkable feature of their early conquests is how quickly Mongol warriors developed expertise in siege warfare - hardly the first characteristic one would expect from steppe nomads! The biggest test of these skills came with the siege of the Jin capital of Zhongdu (Beijing). This victory enabled the Mongols to recruit skilled artisans as auxiliaries, and the Chinese prowess in siege warfare spread still further in Mongol service. A mixture of siege warfare and mounted activities, chiefly raiding, are found in the Mongol invasions of Korea during the 1230s. A similar pattern may also be noted for Russia and Eastern Europe, though this was on a much larger scale. The battle of the Kalka River in 1223, for example, was a reconnaissance in force that was preceded by a false withdrawal that lasted nine days. The sieges of Russian and European fortified cities also tended to be of much shorter duration than Chinese operations. Kiev and Riazan succumbed after quite brief operations, while the major actions of the Hungarian and Polish campaigns were not sieges at all but two major battles in 1241 at the Sajo River in Hungary and Leignitz in Silesia. The continuation of the campaign against southern China and the mighty Southern Song Dynasty required the Mongols to develop siege warfare techniques even further. One crucial introduction in 1272 was the first use in China of counterweight trebuchets that could deliver a larger payload than the traction-operated variety. The conquest of the Song also stimulated new expertise in naval techniques that were later transferred to a much wider canvas with the mounting of expeditions against Vietnam, Burma, Japan and Java, although in none of these cases was real ‘naval warfare’ involved. In all these operations the use of a fleet was primarily that of transporting an army on to further dry land. In both Japanese campaigns, however, their intended victims took the fight directly to the Mongol ships. When Khubilai Khan, Genghis Khan's grandson, became the first Yuan (Mongol) Emperor of China, that part of the Mongol world became identified with Chinese society. Elsewhere, the IIkhans of Persia and the Golden Horde of Russia developed their own military and cultural identities that arose from adaptation and sharing with the peoples they had. conquered. Yet throughout all these developments there was still a core — amucleus of the old Mongol spirit. It was not always expressed through the continuing prowess of the Mongol horsearcher, but it was constantlyreasserted as the archetypal definition of the Mongol warrior. So it was that, in referring to their own Mongol heritage, the annals of the Yuan (Mongol) Dynasty of China could make the following reasonable statement: ‘By nature they are good at rid took possession of the world through this advantage of bows and horse ig and archery. Therefore they ‘This famous scene from the ‘Japanese Mongo! Invasion Scroll shows samurai attacking a Mongol ship during the invasion ‘of Japan in 1274. (Imperial Household Collection, Tokyo) CHRONOLOGY 1167 Probable date of birth of Temuchin (Genghis Khan) 1234 Suicide of the last Jin emperor 1206 Temuchin is proclaimed universal Khan of all the 1235 The Great Kurita is held Mongol tribes. 1287 Invasion of northern Russian principalities begins 1206 Mongol raids are conducted against the Xixia 1238 Siege of Viadimir 1209 Xixia campaign begins 1239 Defeat of the Polovtsians (Cumans) 4210 Surrender of Yinchuan 1240 Siege of Kiev (Kyiv) 1211 _ Invasion of the Jin empire by Genghis Khan 1241 Battle of Liegnitz 4212 Siege of Datong Battle of the Sajo River (Mohi) 1213 Mongol attack on the Juyong Pass Death of Ogodel Khan 1214 Siege of Ningliang in Manchuria 1242 Mongols leave Europe 1218 Capture of Zhongdu (Beling) 1243 Submission of Prince laroslav Vsevolodich to the 4216 Mongols drive the Khitans into Korea Golden Horde 4218 Fall of Kashgar. Mongols defeat the Kara-Khitay 1248 Death of Kuyuk Khan 1219 Invasion of Khwarazm empire and the siege of Otrar_ 1251 Mongke Khan launches the Persian campaign Capture of Bukhara 1253 Siege of Ch’ungiu 1220 Capture of Samarkand Destruction of the Nanzhao kingdom at Dali 1221 Death of Shah Muhammad of Khwarazm 1254 Final Mongol invasion of Korea begins Genghis Khan's Afghan campaign begins 1255 Death of Batu, Khan of the Golden Horde Capture of Tirmiz, Balkh and Merv 1256. Hulegu defeats the Ismail (Assassins) Capture of Nishapur 1257 Invasion of Annam 1222 Visit of the sage Changchun to Genghis Khan 4258 Hulegu captures Baghdad 1223 Battle of the Kalka River 1259 Siege of Aleppo 4224 Siege of Shazhou Death of Mongke Khan 1227 Second Xixia campaign begins 4260 Accession of Khubilai Khan Siege of Ningxia ‘Mongols defeated by Mamluks at Ain Jalut Death of Genghis Khan 1265 Battle of Daioyu. Mongols acquire a fleet 4281 Death of Jalal-al-Din Death of Hulegu, likhan of Persia Siege of Hezhong 1268 Siege of Xiangyang begins Siege of Kuju begins 1273 Peace settlement with Korea 41232 Siege of Kaifeng begins 41274 First invasion of Japan Korean court moves to Kanghwa Island 1275 Bayan crosses the Yangtze1277 Battle of Ngasaungyyan 1293 Mongols land in Java 4278 King of Champa pays homage to the Mongols, 1294 Death of Khubilal Khan 1279 Fall of the Southern Song 1296 Mongol embassy to Cambodia 1281 Second invasion of Japan 1801 Mongol attack on Lan Na Invasion of Champa Death of Kaidu 1282 Mongol treaty of amity with Siam 1285 Battle of Siming 1286 Capture of Hanoi The ger is a mobile home built around a 1287 Capture of Pagan framework of wood covered in felt and secured 1288 Battle of the Bach Dang River by stout pegged ropes. (David Sneath) RECRUITMENT AND TRAINING OF THE MONGOL ARMY Numbers and recruitment of Mongol warriors The nucleus of the army that launched the Mongol conquests, and its core throughout the century that followed, was the nomadic tribal Mongol warrior horseman, born into Mongol society and at one with i traditions. To be a Mongol man was to be a Mongol warrior. There is no word in the Mongol language for ‘soldier’, and it is no exaggeration to say that the whole of a Mongol warrior's daily life was a preparation for war. The same techniques that were learnt for survival, for herding or for hunting had direct application in the Mongol campaigns. This is also true when approached from a different angle, because the Mongol army may alternatively be regarded as Mongol society arranged on a war footing. As the Persian historian Juvaini put it, “It is an army after the fashion of a peasantry, being liable to all manner of contributions and rendering it without complaint whatever is enjoined upon it... It is also a peasantry in the guise of an army, all of them, great or small, noble and base, in time of battle becoming swordsmen, archers and lancers and advancing in whatever manner the occasion requires’.10 ‘A Mongol heavy cavalryman. (Royal Armouries Museum, Leeds) ‘One reason for the impression of large numbers in the Mongol armies was that an individual warrior would typically have had ‘with him five or six horses used for remounts. Here we see modern Mongols crossing a river with spare horses. (David Lambert) Initially, all recruitment to the Mongol an from within Mongol society. All males between the ages of 15 and 60 were liable for military service. Mobilisation was speedy, and fresh training was hardly necessary, while logistical support was provided by the rest of the tribe. As so many people went along on campaign, virtually no one was left out from the great enterprise. Itis partly the factor of total support from within the tribe that has given rise to the belief that the Mongol armies were exceptionally large in number. Such exaggerations could benefit both sides. For example, one can read in the earliest historical sources that Genghis Khan invaded the Khwarazm Empire at the head of 700,000 troops. This is a considerable exaggeration from a more likely figure of 150,000, and those men had to march neatly a thousand miles from their last home base before coming to grips with the enemy. But similarly inflated figures w than one occasion by their victims as an excuse for a defeat at Mongol hands. For their part, on some campaigns the Mongols deliberately tried to give just such an impression of overwhelming numbers simply to intimidate their intended victims. If the enemy believed that resistance was hopeless, for whatever reason, then he would be more inclined to surrender. The Mongol numbers were indeed large when seen from the point of view of the proportion of fighting men taken from within their society, because the Mongols were able to mobilise a greater proportion of their people than comparable sedentary societies. But the impre of invariable huge numbers was often illusory, and in some cases th of the Mongol army was actually inferior to its enemies. In 1211 Genghis Khan began his campaign against the Jin Dynasty of China with about 110,000 men. This was less than a quarter of the manpower that could be mobilised by his opponents. ies was sed on more sion sizeOne reason for the impression of large mumbers was that an individual warrior would typically have had with him five or six horses used for remounts. Sometimes, the Mongols also mounted dummies on these spare horses. Yet even if we play safe and use the most conservative estimates, the numbers are still very large. However, as many campaigns were carried out far from the Mongol heartlands then the question of reinforcements arises. Recruits from Mongolia would reach the various armies from time to time, but they cannot have been great in number, and there would have been a certain time lapse before they joined up with the forces they were sent to augment. The alternative practice was for the Mongols to make good their losses on the spot. This happened in Persia, Afghanistan and southern Russia. The previous rulers had been destroyed, and the Mongols were able to recruit auxiliaries from among those of the population who led a pastoral or nomadic life. When Subadai continued his move towards Europe with only the smallest of reinforcements from Genghis Khan in 1221, his numbers were swollen by Kurds, Turks and Turcomans willing to share in the fighting and the loot. In such ways the growing Mongol army acquired an ‘imperialist’ appearance from quite early on in its activities. During the northern Chinese campaign auxiliaries like these provided Genghis Khan’s first foot soldiers, but even more important were the artisans and engineers recruited because of their skills in building and operating siege weapons. They were made very welcome in the Mongol ranks. The Mongol warrior who followed Genghis Khan was unpaid. His only ‘income’ on active service was booty, divided up according to fixed principles. In fact, the Mongol warriors themselves paid contributions in kind > called qubchur. It was only very late and probably under Persian influence that the Ikhan Ghazan decided to give a modest level of pay to low-ranking soldiers, while the high-ranking Mongol officers remained unpaid. One of them. was taken prisoner during Ghazan’s campaign against the Mamluks in Syria in 1303. When asked what his pay was he replied, ‘The Mongol is the slave of his sovereign, He is never free. His sovereign is his benefactor: he does not serve him for money. Although Twas the least of Ghazan’s servants T never needed anything’. Army organisation, training and discipline The Mongol army was the backbone of the empire. It was the creation of Genghis Khan, and was subdivided hierarchically by using a strict decimal system. A bond of personal loyalty linked the captains of tens (arban) with the captain of hundreds ‘A young Mongol horseman. The concept of the Mongol warrior Is inseparable from that of the ‘Mongol horse. A Mongol learned to ride almost as soon as he could walk. He was tied on to the saddle during infancy and spent his childhood in the company of hhis mount. (David Lambert) Ww(iaghun), thousands (mingghan) and ten thousands (twnen), a simple system that aided both delegation and communication. Although the actual round numbers may not always have been attained, the structure of communications that it sustained was always used. There was also an elite bodyguard for the Great Khan, formed ally from the most loyal companions of Genghis Khan and growing eventually from 150 to 10,000 men. Only nobles and freemen could enter its ranks, and the guard was magnificently equipped and armed. It was first mentioned in 1203 when 70 men were selected for the day guard (turghaut) and 80 men for the night guard (kabtaut). Besides these there were 400 archers (khorchin) and a personal guard of 1,000 brave men who formed the advance guard in battle. An ordinary soldier in the guard had precedence over a commander in the rest of the army. The elite guard soon assumed the role of a military academy, and the presence of so many future generals who had trained so close to the Khan made the prospect of future rebellion quite remote. In principle the Mongol army was divided into three wings of left, right and centre, plus reserves. The three win, Iso referred to in terms of cardinal points with the army facing south. At the time of the conquest of the Jin, the left wing (east) consisted of 62,000 men, while the right wing (west) held 38,000. In all, the Mongol army at about the time of the death of Genghis Khan consisted of about 129,000 men. At the head of each unit were placed men whom Genghis Khan trusted personally, usually kinsmen of his own tribe. The sign of authority given to a commander was a great drum that was sounded only in his presence. If the Khan was personally in command, the whole army marched under his white nine-tailed standard. In 1217 the same standard was given to Mukhali, with orders that everyone was to obey him as if Genghis Khan himself were there in person. All officers were responsible for the training of the men under them. While on active service they had to inspect their troops personally and supply them with everything they needed, right down to needle and thread. Ifa soldier lacked any necessary part of his equipment then the officer was punished. During battle, in attack or retreat, if anyone dropped his pack or bow or any equipment then the man advancing behind him was required to return the item to its owner immediately on pain of death. Also punishable by death were flight before the order to retire, plundering before permission was granted and desertion Discipline was strict in the Mongol army For minor misdemeanours, the first act of corporal punishment was three strokes of a cane, then seven, and ifa member transgressed a third time he received 37 blows. A sentry found asleep at his post was executed without question. Such rigour was accepted and helped to mould an esprit de corps that enabled the Mongols to overcome temporary setbacks such as a serious incident that occurred in 1303. A Mongol army was defeated in Syria, and 5,000 men who had lost their horses were obliged to make a two-month journey home on foot. At the end of it they immediately set out on another expedition without a word of protest. John of Piano Carpini, who was a friar and therefore understood what discipline meant, admired the Mongols in this regard. He wrote, ‘These men are more obedient to their masters than any other men in the world, be they religious or secular’. were‘This model of an armour, probably from 17th century Tibet, shows the lamellar construction of the armour used by the Mongols, and one style of helmet. (Royal Armouries ‘Musoum, Leeds) APPEARANCE AND DRESS Descriptions of the physical appearance of the Mongol warrior during the 13th century tend to be very similar from one chronicler to another A wypical account is: ‘They had broad faces, flat noses, prominent cheekbones, slit eyes, thick lips, sparse beards, and straight black hair; swarthy skins, tanned by sun, wind and frost, they were short of stature and their stocky heavy bodies were supported by bow legs’ The heavy coats, boots and hats added to the short and stocky appearance of the Mongol warrior. Whereas descriptions of the physical appearance of the Mongols have much in common, accounts of their prowess tend to differ only in the degree of exaggeration. Mongol armour and costume Considering the eventual extent of the Mongol conquests, it is remarkable how little was known for certain until comparatively recently about the appearance and equipment of the Mongol forces. For centuries the main sources of information were the descriptions left by visiting ambassadors, travellers and the like, who left accounts that are often highly detailed but which were not written by military men. As a result it was often was very simply and lightly attired, perhaps ) wearing no more than a sheepskin coat and fur hat over his ordinary clothes. This may have been tue for many light Mongol horse archers armies, but recent research (including some very valuable archaeological finds) has demonstrated that a Mongol army would have included a large number of heavy cavalrymen in addition to light cavalrymen. The basic costume of both types of warrior was essentially the normal daily wear of the Mongol. It consisted of a simple heavy coat fastened by a leather belt at the waist. The sword hung from this belt. A dagger was also carried, and perhaps an axe. Ina pocket of the coat would be carried, wrapped. a cloth, some dried meat and dried curds, together with a stone for sharpening his arrowheads. His boots were stout and comfortable, being made from felt and leather, On his head he wore the characteristic hat of felt and fur The armour that the heavy horsemen wore over his coat was made in the common Asiatic style of lamellar armour, whereby small scales of iron or leather were pierced with holes and sewn together with leather thongs to make a composite armour plate. A leather cuirass of this type weighed about 201b. Alternatively, a heavy coat could be reinforced using metal plates. The coat was worn under the su of armour, and the same heavy leather boots were worn on the feet. The helmet, which was made from | a number of larger iron pieces, was roughly in the 13