GEOG

RAPHY
PROJECTEGR
APHY
Jasmine Kaur
01, 10A

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
I Mst. JASMINE KAUR am very grateful to the I.C.S.E Board for
introducing the project as a part of our syllabus.
This project on Agriculture gave us a chance to do research a
survey, to collect and organize material and make a good
 presentation .
I am very thankful to our school for providing me the required
research material and for allowing me to use school library in
completing my project successfully.
I would also like to express my gratitude to my teacher HARSH
BHAGAT for guiding me throughout this project.PR
OJECT
INDEX
1)Agriculture
2)Agricultural seasons
3)Various methods of seed sowing
4)Harvesting and Processing
5)How to incorporate solar energy in agriculture
6)Soil fertility
7)How vermicompost increases soil fertility
8)Irrigation
9)Case study(Rice cultivation)
10) Reference

AGRICULTURE
Agriculture is the art and science of cultivating the soil,
growing crops and raising livestock. It includes the preparation
of plant and animal products for people to use and their
distribution to markets.Agriculture provides most of the
world’s food and fabrics. Cotton, wool, and leather are all
agricultural products. Agriculture also provides wood for
construction and paper products. These products, as well as
the agricultural methods used, may vary from one part of the
world to another. Over centuries, the growth of agriculture
contributed to the rise of civilizations.
Agriculture produces most of the food that we consume .
Agriculture also produces raw materials for various industries.
Did you know ? India is second in the world in crop output,
next to China. 1.4 million square-kilometers of land in India is
under cultivation. Agriculture is India's biggest economic sector
and employs 52.1% of total work force .Before agriculture
became widespread, people spent most of their lives searching
for food—hunting wild animals and gathering wild plants.
About 11,500 years ago, people gradually learned how to grow
cereal and root crops, and settled When people began growing
crops, they also began herding and breeding wild animals.
Adapting wild plants and animals for people to use is
called domestication.The first domesticated plant was
probably rice or corn. down to a life based on farming. When
people began growing crops, they also began herding and
breeding wild animals. Adapting wild plants and animals for
people to use is called domestication. The first
domesticated plant was probably rice or corn.
Agriculture enabled people to produce surplus food. They
could use this extra food when crops failed or trade it for
other goods. Food surpluses allowed people to work at
other tasks unrelated to farming.

AGRICULTURAL
 SEASONS
There are three Agricultural seasons :--
Kharif Crops -- Kharif crops also have their origin in the
Arabic language which means the Autumn season.These
crops grow during the rainy season which is between June
and October. Thus, we also refer to them as Monsoon crops.
These crops require water in abundance in order to grow.
That is why the farmers sow them during the onset of
monsoon. Consequently, they harvest them at the end of
September or in October. However, these crops are totally
dependent on the rainfall’s pattern and timing. For instance,
Rice, Sugarcane, Cotton, Pulses, Bajra.
Rabi Crops -- Rabi crops are also referred to as Winter crops.
They grow during the winter season which is between
October and March. The term ‘Rabi’ means spring. Thus, as
you know, the harvesting time for Rabi crops happens during
the Spring season. Unlike Kharif crops, Rabi crops do not
need a lot of water. For instance, they include Wheat, Barley,
Pulses, Gram, and more. In addition, farmers also sow seeds
of Mustard, Cumin, Sunflower, Rapeseed, and more during
this season.
Zaid Crops – Zaid crops are summer season crops . They
grow in long time period mainly from March to June. These
crops are mainly grown in the summer season during a
period called the "Zaid crop season." They require warm dry
weather as major growth period and longer day length for
 flowering. The Zaid crop season comes between the Rabi
and Kharif crop seasons. It takes some months of summer
and some of rainy season. These crops also mature
early. Cucumber, pumpkin, bitter gourd, and watermelon are
zaid crops.

VARIOUS METHODS OF
SEED SOWING
Sowing is a process of planting seeds into the soil. During this
agricultural process, proper precautions should be taken, including the
appropriate depth, proper distance maintained, and soil should
be clean, healthy and free from disease and other pathogens including
fungus.
THERE ARE THREE METHODS OF SOWING SEEDS:--
1) BROADCASTING METHOD--  Broadcast seeding is a method
of seeding that involves scattering seed, by hand or mechanically ,
over a relatively large area. Broadcast seeding is of particular use in
establishing dense plant spacing, as for cover crops and lawns. It's
simpler, faster, and easier than traditional row sowing.
ADVANTAGES ---- The advantage of broadcast seeding is that it
permits large acreages to be sown in less time; the disadvantages
are poor soil to seed contact, uneven planting depths (some seed
too shallow for proper emergence of permanent root systems, and
other seed too deep for germination), and, often, poor plant
distribution. Broadcast seeding is successful when soil conditions
are optimal, the seedbed is prepared properly, and rainfall or
irrigation follows broadcasting and harrowing.
DISADVANTAGES ---- i) Nutrients cannot be fully utilized by plant
 roots as they move laterally over long distances.
ii) The weed growth is stimulated all over the field.
iii) Nutrients are fixed in the soil as they come in contact with a large
mass of soil.
Broadcast seeding works best for plants that do not require singular
spacing or that are more easily thinned later . After broadcasting, seed
is often lightly buried with some type of raking action, often done
using vertical tillage tools. Utilizing these tools increases the success
rate of germination by increasing seed-to-soil contact. Seeds sown in
this manner are distributed unevenly, which may result in
overcrowding. This method may not ensure that all seeds are sown at
the correct depth. Incorrect depth, if too deep, would result in
germination that would not allow the young plant to break the surface
of the soil and prevent sprouting. If they are not sown evenly then
there would be a lack of various nutrients from sunlight, oxygen and so
on in many crops or plants

2) DRILLING METHOD ---- Drilling consists of dropping the seeds in

furrow lines in a continuous flow and covering them with soil. Seed
metering may be done either manually or mechanically. The number of
rows planted may be one or more. This method is very helpful in
achieving proper depth, proper spacing and proper amount of seed to
be sown in the field .

ADVANTAGES ---
i)The seed rate becomes less.  
ii)Drilling facilitates thinning and roughing of weak and diseased plants.         
v)The drilled crops get light, air, nutrients equally as they are spaced at
uniform distance.       .

DISADVANTAGES ---
i)Drilling requires an implement such as a seed-drill which increases the cost
of cultivation.                 
ii)Drilling requires more time, energy and cost.
iv)Drilling needs more time in comparison to broadcasting. 

The continuous flow of dropping the seeds in-furrow lines made by the
seed drilling machine and covering them with soil is the drilling method
of sowing the seeds. The equipment used for drilling is known as a
driller. The driller may be either operated manually, mechanically or
automated. The setting of seed metering is done before sowing for
proper placement of the seeds in the furrow. We can use the driller for
placing the seeds in two to three rows at once. There also exists a
conventional method where one person make furrows and drops the
seed using driller and the other person covers the furrow with the soil
either manually or mechanically.

3) DIBBLING METHOD ----Dibbling is the process of placing seeds

in holes made in seedbed and covering them. In this method, seeds are
placed in holes made at definite depth at fixed spacing. The equipment
used for dibbling is called dibbler. It is a conical instrument used to
make proper holes in the field. Small hand dibblers are made with
several conical projections made in a frame. This is very time
consuming process, so it is not suitable for small seeds. Mostly
vegetables are sown in this way.

ADVANTAGES ---
i) It facilitates the practice of conservative tillage and reduces the
chances of soil erosion.
ii) It requires fewer seeds and it gives rapid and uniform germination
with good seedling vigour.
v)The maintenance of the crop becomes easy.

DISADVANTAGES ---
i)It is a more laborious, time consuming and expensive process
compared with broadcasting.
ii)If all seeds are not placed at a uniform depth, then it may result in
uneven germination and uneven growth of the plant.

Dibbling is the process of placing seeds in holes made at equal

predetermined distances and depths in the seedbed and covering
them. In this method, seeds are placed in holes made at definite depth
at fixed spacing. This is done by dibbler, planter or manually. Dibbler is
a conical instrument used to make proper holes in the field. This is a
very time-consuming process, so it is not suitable for small seeds. Most
vegetables are sown in this way.

HARVESTING AND
PROCESSING
Harvesting is the process of gathering a ripe crop from
the fields. Reaping is the cutting of grain or pulse for harvest,
typically using a scythe, sickle or reaper. On smaller farms with
minimal mechanization, harvesting is the most labor-intensive
activity of the growing season. On large mechanized farms,
harvesting utilizes the most expensive and sophisticated farm
machinery, such as the combine harvester. Process automation has
increased the efficiency of both the seeding and harvesting
processes. Specialized harvesting equipment utilizing conveyor
belts to mimic gentle gripping and mass transport replaces the
manual task of removing each seedling by hand. The term
"harvesting" in general usage may include immediate post
harvest handling, including cleaning, sorting, packing, and cooling.
Agricultural processing means the processing of crops or milk to
 produce a product primarily for wholesale or retail sale for human or
animal consumption, including but not limited to potato, fruit,
vegetable, and grain processing.
TYPES OF PROCESSES—
1) Threshing - Threshing is the process of loosening the edible part of
grain (or other crop) from the straw to which it is attached. It is the
step in grain preparation after reaping to separate the grain or seeds
from (a cereal plant or the like) by some mechanical means, as by
beating with a flail or by the action of a threshing machine. The
common method for manual threshing is hand beating against
an object, treading, or by holding the crop against a rotating drum
with spikes or rasp bars. Hand beating methods are normally used
for threshing rice that easily shatters . A threshing bee was
traditionally a bee in which local people gathered together to pitch
in and get the season's threshing done. Such bees were
sometimes festivals or events within larger harvest festivals.

2) Winnowing -- The process of separating heavier and lighter

components of a mixture by wind or by blowing air is
called winnowing. This method is used by farmers to separate lighter
husk particles from heavier seeds of grain. It is the simple method of
cleaning food materials from a mixture. Winnowing separate the grain
from the husk because one particle is light and the other is heavy . The
chaff from a heap at a little distance from the heap of grains . By the
use of winnowing, farmers no need to buy machines to separate grain
from chaff. Easier to teach- This method doesn't require high level
skills, it can be practice by anyone. Examples are paddy (rice) and
wheat .

3) Milling -- Milling is the process by which cereal grains are ground

into flour. Traditionally, and in some parts of the world to this day, this
would have been accomplished by grinding the grain between two
stones, a lower, stationary stone called the quern stone and an upper,
mobile stone called the handstone . There are various types of milling
processes, like flour The flour milling process begins with cleaning
the grain and tempering it by adding water. The tempered grain is
ground in a series of rollermills to remove the bran and to cut the
endosperm. Between each rollermill cycle, the ground grain is sifted
and separated into various sizes.

HOW TO INCORPORATE
SOLAR ENERGY IN
AGRICULTURE
Solar energy can supply and or supplement many farm energy
requirements. The following is a brief discussion of a few
applications of solar energy technologies in agriculture .
Using the sun to dry crops and grain is one of the oldest and mostly
widely used applications of solar energy. The simplest and least
expensive techniques is to allow crops to dry naturally in the field, or
to spread grain and fruit out in the sun after harvesting. The
disadvantage of these methods is that the crops and grains are
subject to damage by birds, rodents, wind, and rain, and
contamination by wind blown dust and dirt. More sophisticated
solar dryers protect grain and fruit, reduce losses, dry faster and
more uniformly, and produce a better quality product than open air
methods The basic components of a solar dryer are an enclosure or
shed, screened drying trays or racks, and a solar collector. In hot,
arid climates, the collector may not even be necessary. The southern
side of the enclosure itself can be glazed to allow sunlight to dry the
material. The collector can be as simple as a glazed box with a dark
 coloured interior to absorb the solar energy that heats air. The air
heated in the solar collector moves, either by natural convection or
forced by a fan, up through the material being dried. The size of the
collector and rate of airflow depends on the amount of material
being dried, the moisture content of the material, the humidity in
the air, and the average amount of solar radiation available during
the drying season There is a relatively small number of large solar
crop dryers around the world. This is because the cost of the solar
collector can be high, and drying rates are not as controllable as
they are with natural gas or propane powered dryers. Using the
collector at other times of the year, such as for heating farm
building, may make a solar dryer more cost effective. It is possible to
make small, very low cost dryers out of simple materials. These
systems can be useful for drying vegetables and fruit for home use

SOIL FERTILITY
DEFINITION -- Soil fertility is the ability of soil to sustain
plant growth and optimize crop yield. This can be enhanced
through organic and inorganic fertilizers to the soil. Nuclear
techniques provide data that enhances soil fertility and crop
production while minimizing the environmental impact

FACTORS AFFECTING SOIL FERTILITY –

FAVOURABLE ENVIRONMENT CONDITIONS - The suitable condition
for growth of plant depends on physical, chemical and biological
condition of soil. Soil contains 25 per cent water and 25 per cent air
by its volume and this condition is favourable for good aeration.
The bad aeration in the soil is not good for the growth of the crop.
SOIL EROSION - Erosion is the physical removal of top soil by water
and wind. As such it decreases the fertility of soil. Because the
nutrients remaining in upper layer of soil is lost by erosion and the
 fertility of soil decreases accordingly.
PARENTAL MATERIALS - The property of soil depends on the property
of parent rock. If the parent rock contains more nutrient, the soil
developed from rock contains more nutrient. The soil developed
from calcareous rock contains more phosphorus than the soil
which is developed from granite rock. The soil developed from
acid igneous rock (i.e. quartz) and basic igneous rock (i.e. norite
and dolerite etc.) become sandy and clayey in nature respectively .
CLIMATE AND VEGETATION - Plant kingdom is closely related with
climate. Rainfall and temperature has an effect on soil fertility. In
heavy rainfall areas, the nutrients are lost by leaching. As a result
of which the fertility of that soil becomes low. Besides these, the
upper layer is eroded which decreases the soil fertility. Organic
matter is oxidised in high temperature. For this, the fertility of soil
in temperate region becomes low.

HOW VERMICOMPOST
INCREASES SOIL FERTILITY?
Vermicompost can have a number of benefits for soils. As primary
consumers in the composting process, earthworms eat organic matter
such as food particles and plant debris which they then convert to
compost in which nutrients are more easily available to plants.
Vermicompost can improve soil structure and soil fertility by increasing
porosity and aeration and improving soil moisture-retention, all of which
can help increase crop yields. Adding vermicompost to soil can increase
microbial organism activity by up to 20 times higher than soil that has
not been amended.
Vermicomposting can be done both indoors and outdoors, which means it
can be done year-round, an advantage for home gardeners and small-
scale farmers. It requires few materials: just a container, worms, moist
 bedding, and organic matter such as food waste. Managing the process
does require some care in terms of providing worms the ideal amount of
organic matter and maintaining the ideal amount of moisture in the
compost pile. The end product can be used to amend potting soil, used
as mulch, as a lawn conditioner, or added to water, which is then used to
water plants. Vermicomposting also produces an excess liquid which can
be captured and used as a liquid plant fertilizer. The worms need to be
fed organic matter such as fruit and vegetable peels, eggs shells, tea
bags, and coffee grounds while avoiding harder-to-digest and vermin-
attracting matter such as meat, dairy, oily foods, and grains. They can
also process nitrogen-rich manures. According to the Cornell Waste
Management Institute “the matter passes out of the worm’s body in the
form of casts, which are the richest and finest quality of all humus
material. Fresh casts are markedly higher in bacteria, organic material,
and available nitrogen, calcium, magnesium, phosphorus and potassium
than soil itself.”
There are numerous types of worms which can be effective
vermicomposters , depending on local conditions. The scientific names
for two commonly used and effective species are Eisenia foetida and
Lumbricus rubellus. As vermicomposting has become more common,
the biotechnology field has invested more heavily in the research and
development of vermiculture , which is the breeding and propagation of
earthworms. By treating waste as a useful resource and simulating the
natural behavior of worms, “vermiculture provides for the use of
earthworms as natural bioreactors for cost-effective and
environmentally sound waste management.”

IRRIGATION
DEFINITION - irrigation is the process of applying water to the crops
artificially to fulfil their water requirements. Nutrients may also be
provided to the crops through irrigation. The various sources of water
for irrigation are wells, ponds, lakes, canals, tube-wells and even dams.
Irrigation offers moisture required for growth and development,
germination and other related functions.

MEANS OF IRRIGATION –
TANKS - Rain water collects in the low lands in the form of tanks and
ponds. This is perhaps the oldest means of irrigation in India. This
means of irrigation is used in the Deccan Plateau and in the States
of Andhra Pradesh, Karnataka and Tamil Nadu. The land is uneven
and rocky. It can store water for irrigation. Huge tanks have been
constructed for irrigating the land. About 12% of the agricultural
land is being irrigated by tanks in India\
WELLS - Most of the rain water flows down the rivers and streams.
Some of the water gets soaked by the soil. It goes on collecting on
the hard rocky bed under the soil. This underground water is
brought to the surface by wells and tube-wells. A large and deep
hole is made in the earth’s surface upto the water level. These are
known as artesian wells. The water collects in the wells . This water
is used for drinking as well as for irrigating the land. This water is
drawn out of the well by means of a pulley, wheel or lever.
TUBE WELLS - This is the means of irrigation of about 40% land in the
plain areas. A deep bore is made in the earth’s surface upto the
water table. A pipe or a tube is fixed in this bore. An electric pump-
set or a diesel pump-set is used to pump out water through this
tube or pipe. It is known as a tube-well. This is the most commonly
used means of irrigation in the Gangetic Plain or the Northern
Fertile Plain. The underground water is available there because the
land is even and soft. A bore hole can be made easily and
electricity is available. Tube-wells are mostly used for irrigation in
Punjab, Haryana, Uttar Pradesh, Bihar and West Bengal.
CANALS - Canals are a means of irrigation of almost 40% of
agricultural land in India. The rivers in the Northern parts of India
flow down the Himalayas and have water throughout the year.
This water is taken through canals to irrigate the land in far away
areas. Canals are used for irrigating the land in Punjab, Haryana,
 Delhi, Uttar Pradesh, Bihar and Northern – Rajasthan.

CASE STUDY(Rice
cultivation)
Rice is the most important food crop of India covering about one-
fourth of the total cropped area and providing food to about half of
the Indian population. This is the staple food of the people living in the
eastern and the southern parts of the country, particularly in the areas
having over 150 cm annual rainfall. There are about 10,000 varieties of
rice in the world out of which about 4,000 are grown in India.
CONDITIONS FOR GROWTH –Rice is grown under varying conditions
in India from 8° to 25° N latitude and from sea level to about 2,500
metre altitude. It is a tropical plant and requires high heat and high
humidity for its successful growth. The temperature should be fairly
high at mean monthly of 24°C. It should be 20°- 22°C at the time of
sowing, 23°-25°C during growth and 25°-30°C at the harvesting time.
The average annual rainfall required by rice is 150 cm. It is the
dominant crop in areas of over 200 cm annual rainfall and is still an
important crop in areas of 100-200 cm rainfall. The 100 cm isohyet
forms the limit of rice in rainfed areas. In areas receiving less than 100
cm annual rainfall, rice can be grown with the help of irrigation, as is
done in Punjab, Haryana and western U.P. About 40 per cent of rice
crop in India is raised under irrigation.

METHODS OF RICE CULTIVATION

Broadcasting method: Seeds are sown broadcast by hand. This
method is practised in those areas which are comparatively dry
and less fertile and do not have much labour to work in the fields.
It is the easiest method requiring minimum input but its yields
are also minimum.
Drilling method : Ploughing of land and sowing of seeds is done by
two persons. This method is mostly confined to peninsular India.
Transplantation method:This method is practised in areas of
fertile soil, abundant rainfall and plentiful supply of labour. To
begin with, seeds are sown in nursery and seedlings are
prepared. After 4-5 weeks the seedlings are uprooted and
planted in the field which has already been prepared for the
purpose. The entire process is done by hand. It is, therefore, a
very difficult method and requires heavy inputs. But at the
same time it gives some of the highest yields.
Furrow method - Furrow irrigated rice is an alternative method
for growing rice with less water and labor than conventional
flood irrigation.. Rice seed is planted in rows with a grain drill.
Water infiltration in furrows is two-dimensional through a
wetted perimeter with soil in the bottom of furrows and
sidewalls of beds. An ideal field for furrow irrigation has no
more than 0.1% slope with high clay content. No rice cultivars
have been developed specifically for furrow irrigation but tests
showed that some cultivars tolerate water stress better than
others. In field trials, rice yields with furrow irrigation were
lower than flooded rice with the greatest yield loss in the upper
part of fields. However, results indicated that rice yields can be
increased with proper timing of nitrogen fertilization and
irrigation and adaption of new rice herbicides for weed control.
 REFERENCE
• To complete this project , I have taken help from:
1. 1)www.Wikipedia.com2)www.brainly.com
3)www.topprlearning.com4)www.quora.com
5)www.vedantu.com6)www.pinterest.com