Introduction

to Law
and the
Legal System

Street Law
on line Unit 1, Introduction to Law and the Legal
Visit the Street Law Web
site at streetlaw.glencoe.co m for System, sets the stage for your study of Street
unit-based activities. Law. Chapters in this unit will help you learn
important basic information including:
• What is law?
• How are laws made in the various branches of
government?
• What roles can you play in influencing lawmakers?
• How is our legal system organized, including the
difference between trials and appeals and betv1een
the state and federal court systems?
• How do yo u find and get help from a lawyer?
This unit also contains two chapters that help you
develop skills you will need for the rest of yo ur life.
Chapter 3 discusses advocacy and will help you identify
problems in your community, state, and country. As
an effective advocate, you will be able to develop and
implement plans (including voting and lobbying) for
 The ph rase "equal justice under law" refers to the goal of the U.S. cou rt system to treat all persons fairly.

solving these problems. Your energy and insight If you are confronting a serious conflict, there
can- and should- make you a part of the solu- are powerful steps you can take before consid-
tions to the most pressing problems we face. ering a lawsuit- steps that are more helpful and
Chapter 4 focuses on settling d isputes out- more satisfying than fighting or running away.
side of court, and will help you make smart Equipped with advocacy and conflict resolu-
decisions when you encounter conflict. While tion skills from Street Law-along with all the
the law establishes who is right and who is practical legal information and other problem-
wrong in many (but certainly not all) situations solving skills you will get from this book-you
involving conflict, most conflicts are resolved will be able to improve your life and the life of
without lawyers and without the court system. your community.

3
 What ls Law?
T he question "What is law?" has troubled people for many years.
An entire field of study known as jurisprudence, or the study of
law and legal philosophy, is devoted to answering this question. Many
definitions of law exist. For our purposes, however, law can be defined
"The law as the rules and regulations made and enforced by government that
must be stable, regulate the conduct of people within a society.
but it must not As a child, you learned about rules first at home and later at school.
stand still." At home, your parents or guardians made and enforced rules con-
cerning issues like chores and bedtimes. Teachers and principals
- Roscoe Pound
established rules about classroom behavior. Rules made and enforced
by the government are called laws. The government makes laws that
affect almost every aspect of daily life.
One thing is certain: Every society that has ever existed has recog-
nized the need for laws. These laws ni.ay have been unwritten, but
even preindustrial societies had rules to regulate people's conduct.
Without laws, there would be confusion and disorder. This does not
Street Law mean that all laws are fair or even good, but imagine how people
on line might take advantage of one another without a set of rules.
Visit the Street Law Web
site at streetlaw.glencoe.com for
chapter-b ased information and
resources.
Congress passes laws
for everyone in the
United States to live by.
 A democratic system of government cannot function effectively
unless its laws are respected by the people the laws are intended to
govern. In other words, society must be based on the "rule of law."
The rule of law requires that the rules by which we are governed be
known in advance and created through democratic processes. Rules
should not be made up after the fact by arbitrary actions or decrees.
All members of society-average citizens and government officials
such as senators, judges, and even the president-are required to
support the legal system and obey its laws. No one is above the law.

Problem 1.1
List 10 of your daily activities (for examp le, waking up , eating, and go ing
to school). Next to each item, list a ny laws that affect that activity. What is
the purpose of each law that yo u identified? Would you chan ge any of these
laws? Why or why not?

Law and Values

Laws generally reflect and promote
a society's values. Our legal system is
influenced by our society's traditional
ideas of right and wrong. For example, WARNING
laws against murder reflect the moral
belief that killing another person is YO' ARE ENTERING A RARE OR
wrong. Most people would condemn ENOANGERED SPECIES HABITAT
murder regardless of what the law WILLFUL nESTRlJCTION OF A RARE OR
ENDANGERED SPECIES HA81TAT IS A
said. However, not everything that is VIOLATION or FE ERA LAW ANn
immoral is also illegal. For example, MAY BE PUN! HA LE y FINE OF U
lying to a friend may be immoral but $lO.OO AN VOR IMPRISONMENT
SIX MONTHS OR BOTH. (U.S.C. tS 4 0 )
F6JO
is usually not illegal.
?TAY ON DESIGNATED ROADWAYS.
We expect our legal system to
achieve many goals. These include
(1) protecting basic human rights,
(2) promoting fairness, (3) helping
resolve conflicts, (4) promoting order
and stability, (5) promoting desirable
social and economic behavior, (6) rep-
resenting the will of the majority, and
(7) protecting the rights of minorities.
Many of society's most difficult This sign reflects society's
problems involve conflicts among these goals. For example, some laws values about right and
give preference to minorities over whites. Critics of these laws argue wrong. What values are
that they discriminate against whites and create racial conflict. placed in conflict by laws
Proponents of such laws, however, argue that they protect the rights protecting the environment?
of minorities, promote fairness by leveling an uneven playing field,
and help reduce racial tension.

CHAPTER 1 What Is Law? s

 Achieving the goals just listed while trying to avoid conflict is a
difficult task for the U.S. legal system. Laws must balance rights with
responsibilities, the will of the majority with the rights of the minor-
ity, and the need for order with the need for basic human rights.
Reasonable people sometimes disagree over how the law can protect
the rights of some without violating the rights of others. However,
everyone must remember that laws are intended to protect people and
resolve conflicts in everyday life.

The Case of. • •

Shipwrecl~ed
However, Dudley and Stephens decided that
The Brooks would die soon anyway, so they might
Sailors as well get it over with. After thus agreeing,
they killed and ate Brooks.
Five days later, Dudley and Stephens were
T hree sailors on an ocean going freighter rescued by a passing ship and brought to
were cast adrift in a life raft after their ship port. They explained to authorities what had
sank during a storm in the Atlantic Ocean . The happened to Brooks. After recovering from
ship went down so suddenly that there was no their ordeal, they were placed on trial for
time to send out an SOS. As far as the three murder.
sailors knew, they were the only survivors. They The country in which they were tried had
had no food or water in the raft. And they had the following law: Any person who deliberately
no fishing gear or other equipment that might takes the life of another is guilty of murder.
be used to get food from the ocean.
After recovering from the shock of the ship- Problem 1.2
wreck, the three sailors began to discuss their
situation. Dudley, the ship's navigator, figured a. Should Dudley and Stephens be tried for
that they were at least one thousand miles murder?
from land and that the storm had blown them b. As an attorney for Dudley and Stephens,
far from where any ships would normally pass. what arguments would you make on their
Stephens, the ship's doctor, indicated that behalf? As an attorney for the government,
without food they could not live longer than what arguments would you make on the
30 days. The only nourishment they could government's behalf?
expect was from any rain that might fall from
c. If they are convicted, what should their pun-
time to time. He noted, however, that if one of
ishment be?
the three died before the others, the other two
could live a while longer by eating the body of d. What purpose would be served by convict-
the third. ing Dudley and Stephens?
On the twenty-fifth day, the third sailor, e. What is the relationship between law and
Brooks, who by this time was extremely weak, morality in this case? Was it morally wrong
suggested that they all draw lots and that the for Dudley and Stephens to kill Brooks?
loser be killed and eaten by the other two . Exp lain your answer.
Both Dudley and Stephens agreed. The next f. Can an act be legal but immoral? Can an
day, lots were drawn and Brooks lost. At this act be morally right but unlawful? Explain.
point, Brooks objected and refused to consent.

6 UNIT 1 Introduction to Law and the Legal System

 Laws can be based on moral,
economic, political, or social values.
As values change, so can laws.
Moral values deal with fundamental
questions of right and wrong. For
example, laws against killing promote
society's primary moral va lue-the
protection of life. However, even
this shared moral value-protection
of life-is not abso lute or universal
because in limited circumstances
such as self-defense or war, the law
allows intentional killing.
Economic values deal with the
accumulatio n, preservation, use,
and distribution of wealth . Many
laws promote economic values by
enco uraging certain economic deci-
sions and discouraging others. For
example, the law encourages home
ownership by giving tax benefits to
people who borrow money to pay
for a home. Laws aga inst shoplifting
protect property and discourage
stealing by providing a criminal
penalty.
Political values reflect the rela-
tionship between government and
individuals. Laws making it eas ier
to vote promote citizen participa-
tion in the political process, a basic
American political value.
Social values concern issues that
are important to society. For exam-
ple, it is an American social value
that all students are provided with
free public education at least Female participation in
through high school. Consequently, all states have laws provid ing for traditionally male activities
such education. Like other values, social values can change. In the is on the rise . How does this
past, for example, society believed that school sports were not as photo reflect society's chang-
important for girls as for boys. This value has changed. Today, laws ing laws and values?
require schools to provide females with sports opportunities similar
to those offered to males.
Many laws combine moral, economic, political, and social values.
For example, laws against theft deal with the moral iss ue of stealing,
the economic issue of protection of property, the political iss ue of
how government punishes those who violate criminal statutes, and
the social issue of respecting the property of others.

CHAPTER 1 What Is law? 7

 Americans tend to think that laws can be passed to solve all of their
problems. In 1919, the U.S. Constitution was amended to prohibit the
"Liberty manufacture and sale of alcoholic beverages in this country. The
means responsi- Eighteenth Amendment was passed in response to a significant
bility. That is national problem. However, prohibition of alcohol was extremely
why most men difficult to enforce, and 14 years later it was repealed by another
dread it." constitutional amendment. (The text of the entire Constitution is
provided on pages 570- 599.) Today, legislators try to deal with the
-George nation's devastating drug problem by passing a wide variety of laws.
Bernard Shaw Peo ple disagree on what role the law can play in solving this problem.
We know from experience, however, that there is a limit to what laws
can reasonably be expected to do.

Problem 1.3
For each of the following laws , indicate whether moral, econom ic,
political , or social valu es are involved . Explain your responses .
a. All drivers must stop at stop signs.
b. It is a crime to c heat on your t ax return.
c. All citizens may vote at age 18.
d. Special government programs lend money to minori ty-owned busi-
nesses at low interest rates .
e. Government officials may not accept gifts from people who want them
to pass certain laws.
f, Possession of marijuana is a crime.

Human Rights
Human rights are the rights all people have just because they are
human beings. To advocate human rights is to demand that the
dignity of all people be respected. Both government and private
individuals can violate human rights. Human rights app ly in people's
homes, schools, and workplaces. In fact they apply everywhere. We
have our human rights from the moment we are born until the
moment we die.
The Universal Declaration of Human Rights (UDHR) is a state-
ment of basic human rights and standards for government that has
been agreed to by almost every country in the world. (The text of the
entire UDHR is provided on pages 600-607.) First written and
adopted by the United N ations (UN) in 1948 under the leadership of
Eleanor Roosevelt, it proclaims that all people have the right to lib-
erty, education, political and religious freedom, and economic
well-being. The Declaration also bans torture and says that all people
have the right to participate in their government process. Today these
rights are promoted, recognized, and observed by every country that
belongs to the UN.

8 UNIT 1 Introduction to Law and the Legal System

 Eleanor Roosevelt believed
that her work on the
Universal Declaration of
Human Rights was her
greatest accomplishment.
How can human rights affect
the writing oflaws?

The Universal Declaration of Human Rights is not a binding treaty,

but the United Nations has established a system of international
treaties and other legal mechanisms to enforce human rights. These
include two major treaties: J
"The people's
• The International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights pro- good is the high-
tects rights such as freedoms of speech, religion, and press and est law."
the right to participate in government.
- Cicero
• The International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural
Rights provides for rights such as the right to adequate educa-
tion, food, housing, and health care.
The Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights also pro-
vides for the right to a job, safe working conditions, an adequate
salary, and the right to own property. Some believe the right to a clean
environment should be added to the Covenants, while others are call-
ing for a right to economic development for poor countries. The
United States has signed and ratified the Covenant on Civil and
Political Rights, and has signed but not ratified the Covenant on
Economic, Social and Cu ltural Rights.
There are other important human rights treaties covering specific
areas of human rights, including genocide, discrimination against
women, and the rights of children. Even when the United States signs
these human rights treaties, it often restricts their enforcement within
the country. This is done by announcing that the United States is

CHAPTER 1 What Is Law? 9

 taking reservations, which is a legal means for making a provision less
enforcea ble than it might otherwise be. The government gives a num-
ber of reasons for these reservations, including that under our system
of federa lism, the treaty would be taking away power of individual
states to make law and that other countries should not be imposing
their views on the states. For exa mple, the United States has taken a
reservation to treaties that prohibit the death penalty against juve-
niles. The basis for this idea is that such a decision should be made
by individual states.

Problem 1.4
You have been selected to join a group of space pioneers who w ill estab-
li s h a colony on a distant planet. In order to create the best possible society,
you and your group decide to make a li st of the human rights that all space
colonists should have.

a. Li st t he three most important human rights that you believe s ho uld be

guaranteed.
b. Compare your li st w ith those of others. Explain reasons for your
se lectio ns.
c. Why do you think some of the rights you listed are more important than
others?
d. Do any of the rights you li sted conflict with one another? If so, which
ones? Why?
e. Compare your list of rights with the rights li sted on pages 600-607, the
Universal Declaration of Human Rights . Which ones did you include?
Which ones did you not includ e?
f. Are all the human rights you listed also legal rights? When does a
human right becom e a legal right?

Human rights are standards countries can use when writing laws.
Sometimes human rights becon1e law in a country when the govern-
ment signs an international treaty guaranteeing such rights. Human
rights also can become law if they are included in a constitution or if
the legislature of a country passes laws protecting or guaranteeing
these rights. Even though they may not refer to them as human rights,
there are many provisions that protect human rights in our
Constitution and Bill of Rights and in federal, state, and local laws.
Many of the human rights documents-including the Universal
Declaration of Human Rights-mention cultural rights, and it is uni-
versally accepted that all people have a right to their own culture. But
what does this mean when culture comes into conflict with univer-
sally accepted human rights? The practice of female infanticide, or
killing female babies, might be accepted in one culture, but the world
community condemns it as a violation of human rights, the right to
life. So cultural rights, like many other rights, are not absolute.

10 UNIT 1 Introduction to Law and the Legal System

M any countries have more serious human
rights violations than the United States. This
may be one reason why some people in the
United States tend to use the term human
rights only when referring to violations hap-
pening in other countries. However, human
rights do apply to all people in all countries,
including the United States.
Each unit of Street Law contains a feature
called "Human Rights USA. " This feature
provides opportunities to look at an aspect
of human rights in the United States, and
will usually include some reference to the Muslim girls in hijabs
Universal Declaration of Human Rights
(UDHR) found on pages 600-607. 6. A woman is ill and is turned away
from a hospital because she does
Problem 1.5 not have health insurance or the
money to pay her medical bill.
a. Assume the following take place in the
7. A homeless man asks for money
United States. Decide if each is a human
from people passing by, but people
rights violation . lfit is, identify the article
do not give him any money.
of the UDHR that is at issue .
8. A Muslim high school girl wears a
1. Before class starts, the teacher says,
hijab (head scarf) to school. The
"You can't pray in school ."
teacher tells her to remove it during
2. A child goes to sleep hungry because class, as there is a rule against hats or
the parents have no money for food. other head coverings in the building.
3. A student receives a poor education 9. A family moves to the United States
in her high school and is rejected for from an African country where it is
every job for which she applies. part of their culture for the wife to
4 . A man is stopped before boarding stay at home and take care of the
an airplane and strip-searched household. The husband comes
because he has an Arab-sounding home from work and finds that his
name and a stamp on his passport wife has not done the laundry or
indicating that he has been to Iraq cooked dinner. He disciplines her by
in the past year. striking her three times, the usual
5 . A Spanish-speaking student speaks method of discipline in their culture.
Spanish to another student. The b. Did you find any human rights in conflict
principal tells the students that only within any of the above examples? What
English may be spoken in the school. should be done when this occurs?

CHAPTER 1 What Is Law? 11

 Balancing Rights
with Responsibilities
The emphasis on rights in the United States has led some people
to criticize the country for being too concerned with rights, while
neglecting responsibilities. Some say that "with every right there
comes a res ponsibility" and urge people to act more res ponsibly
toward one another, their families, and their communities.
Critics cite the United States's emphasis on individual rights as evi-
dence of "radical individualism," which has resulted in a self-centered
focus and the loss of a sense of community. Americans justifiably
have great respect for laws extending rights to women, minorities, and
persons with disabilities-all of whom were previously excluded from
full participation in society.
While individual rights are important, they must be matched by
social responsibilities, these critics say. For example, if people wish to
be tried by juries of their peers, they must be willing to serve on such
juries. If they want to be governed by elected officials who respond to
their values and needs, they must not only vote but also get involved
in other ways: attend election forums, work for candidates, and run for
positions on school boards, city councils, and community associations.
Many laws also require people to act responsibly. For example, parents
must provide their children with adequate food, shelter, and clothing;
drivers must obey traffic laws; and all workers must pay taxes.
Other critics of the emphasis on rights in the United States point
Leaders such as Cesar out that just "because you have a legal right to do (or not to do) some-
Chavez helped minority thing does not mean it is the right thing to do." For example, the
groups fight for civil rights. First Amendment sometimes gives peo ple the right to say hateful and
How have laws changed to abusive things to others, as its function is to protect freedom of
include women, minorities, speech. However, it does not make such speech right.
and persons with disabilities?
The Case of ...

to l<itty, s uch as calling the police or an ambu-

The Apathetic lance, all 38 bystanders chose to pull their
Bystanders shades, draw their blinds, and ignore Kitty's
urgent pleas for help as her life was taken by
the deranged attacker.
C atherine " l<itty" Genovese was attacked
and stabbed to death in 1964 in a hi gh ly Problem 1.6
populated area of Queens, New York. During
the half-hour ordeal, 38 people heard l<itty's a . Why do you think the bystanders took no
screams for help and watched from their action?
windows. Twice the killer was scared off by b. Did the bystanders commit a crime by not
the sound of voices and the realization that acting? Give your reasons.
he was being watched. However, both times,
c. Did the bystanders do the right thing?
when it became obvious that nobody was
going to call the police, the killer returned to d. Should the law hold citizens responsible for
finish off his victim. Rather than g ive any aid not he lping out in cases such as this one?

I{inds of Laws
Laws fall into two major groups: criminal and civil. Criminal laws
regulate public conduct and set out duties owed to society. A criminal
case is a legal action that can only be brought by the government
against a person charged with committing a crime. Criminal laws have
penalties, and offenders are imprisoned, fined, placed under supervi-
sion, or punished in some other way. In the U.S. legal system, criminal
offenses are divided into felonies and misdemeanors. The penalty
for a felony is a term of more than one year in prison. For a misde-
meanor, the penalty is a prison term of one year or less. Felonies, such
as murder or robbery, are more serious crimes. Less serious crimes,
such as simple assault or minor theft, are called misdemeanors.
Civil laws regulate relations between individuals or groups of indi-
viduals. A civil action is a lawsuit that can be brought by a person
who feels wronged or injured by another person. Courts may award
the injured person money for the loss, or they may order the person
who committed the wrong to make amends in some other way. An
example of a civil action is a lawsuit for recovery of damages suffered
in an automobile accident. Civil laws regulate many everyday situa-
tions, such as marriage, divorce, contracts, real estate, insurance,
consumer protection, and negligence.
Sometimes behavior can violate both civil and criminal laws and
can result in two court cases. A criminal case is brought by the gov-
ernment against a defendant, the person accused of committing the
crime. A civil case is brought by the plaintiff-the person or company
harmed-against the defendant.

CHAPTER 1 What Is Law? 13

 The O.J. Simpson trials In a famo us series of cases, former star football player OJ Simpson
attracted national and was prosecuted in connection with the deaths of his former wife,
international media Nicole Brown Simpson, and her friend, Ron Goldman. The Los
attention. Did the public
Angeles district attorney was the prosecutor in this criminal case. In
understand the difference
order to win a conviction, the district attorney had to prove that
between the civil and criminal
OJ Simpson was guilty beyond a reasonable doubt. This means
law in these cases?
that if the jury (or the judge in a case tried without a jury) has any
reasonable doubts about the defendant's guilt, then it must vote not
to convict. The jury verdict in Simpson's criminal case was not guilry.
Several months later, the parents of Ron Goldman brought a civil
suit against OJ Simpson to recover damages resulting from the
wrongful death of their son. In a civil case, the plaintiff wins by
convincing the jury (or the judge in a case tried witho ut a jury) by a
preponderance of the evidence. The jury (or judge) needs only to
decide if it is more likely than not that the plaintiff's complaint is true.
This is a lower requirement for proof than the beyond-a-reasonable-
"Reason is doubt standard used in criminal cases. The reason for the different
the life of law." standards of proof is that a defendant loses money in a civil case, but
can suffer lengthy imprisonment or even the death penalty as a result
- Sir Edward Coke of a criminal conviction. The Goldmans won their civil case against
OJ Simpson. Because the public tends not to understand the differ-
ence between civil and criminal cases, there was much confusion
about how a person could be found not guilty in a criminal case and
then responsible in a civil suit for damages for the same act.
You will learn much more about criminal law in Unit 2 of Street
Law and much more about civil law in Units 3 through 6.

14 UNIT 1 Introduction to Law and the Legal System

Problem 1.7
Matt and l<enj i decide to skip schoo l. They take l<enji's brother's car
wit hout telling him and drive to a loca l s hoppin g center. Ignorin g the sign
"Parki ng for Ha ndicapp ed Persons Only," they le ave the car and e nter a n
electronics shop.
After looking around, they buy a portable CD p laye r. Then they buy
some sandwic hes from a street vendor and walk to a nearby park. While
eating, they discover that the CD player does not work. In the ir hurry to
return it, they leave their trash on the park bench .
W hen Matt a nd l<enji get back to the shopp in g ce nter, they notice a large
dent in one side of their car. Th e dent appears to be the resu lt of a driver's
carelessness in backing out of the next space . They also notice that the car
has been broken into and that the car stereo has been removed.
They ca ll the police to report t he accident and theft. When the police
arrive, they seize a small , clear bag containing illegal drugs from behind the
car's back seat. Matt and l<enji are arrested.
a. List all the things you think Matt a nd l<enji did wrong.
b. What laws are involved in this story?
c. Which of these are crim in al laws? Which are civil laws?

Our Constitutional Frameworl'-

The U.S. Constitution is the highest law of the land. Drafted more
than two hundred years ago, this remarkable document is the
longest-lasting written constitution in the world. It sets forth the
basic framework of our government. It also lists the government's
powers, the limits on those powers, and the people's freedoms that
cannot be taken away by the government. (The text of the entire
Constitution is provided on pages 570-599.)
Integral to the Constitution is the principle oflimited government.
Before the U.S. Constitution was written and ratified, the individual
states were reluctant to give up power to the national government.
After all, a revolution had just been fought against the government of
the king of England to preserve individual liberty and the freedom to
govern without interference. As a result, the Constitution created a
national government of limited powers, with authority to pass laws
only in the areas specifically listed in Article I of the Constitution.
Those who criticize the power and reach of the federal government
today often cite these historic reasons for limiting its power.
Perhaps nothing is more important in the Constitution than the
division of lawmaking power among the three branches of govern-
ment: the executive, the legislative, and the judicial. This division is
known as the separation of powers. The executive branch, which
includes the president and federal agencies, is primarily responsible
for enforcing the law. However, the executive branch often issues

CHAPTER 1 What Is Law? 15

The Adoption of the Constitution
by J.B. Stearns depicts
the members of the
Constitutional..~onvention
formally endorsing their
new plan of government.
What is the purpose of the
U.S. Constitution?

rules and executive orders that have the force of law. The legislative
branch, or Congress, uses lawmaking power when it passes laws, or
statutes. The judicial branch, or judiciary-the courts-clarifies, and
in some instances establishes laws thro ugh its rulings. These rulings
may interpret a provision of the Constitution, a statute, or a rule
issued by an executive agency.
The three branches of government are ind ependent, but each has
the power to restrain the other branches in a system of checks and
balances. The system was designed to prevent one branch from
becoming too powerful and abusing its power. Examples of checks
and balances include congressional investigations of actions by the
president or other executive officials, the prosecution in court of
members of Congress or the executive branch for violating the law,
and impeachment. Another check is the president's power to veto
(refuse to approve) laws passed by Congress.
One of the most visible and important checks of one branch on
another is the co urts' power of judicial review. Judicial review
enables a court to declare unenforceable any law passed by Congress
or a state legislature that conflicts with the nation's highest law, the
Constitution. For example, Congress might pass a law prohibiting
media criticism of elected officials. If challenged in court, this law
would be declared invalid and unconstitutional because it violates the
freedom of press guaranteed in the First Amendment. In general, the
courts can declare a law unconstitutional either because (1) the gov-
ernment has passed a law which the Constitution does not give it the
power to pass or (2) the government has passed a law that violates
somebody's rights. Judicial review also gives the co urts the power to
declare an action of the executive or legislative branch to be uncon-
stitutional. For example, the courts can strike down a regulation
improperly issued by an executive branch agency. The co urts may
also prevent Congress from taking away the president's power to
grant pardons.

16 UNIT 1 Introduction to Law and the Legal System

 Just as the Constitution restricts the power of the branches, it also
reflects the view that the federal government as a whole should be
limited by the power of the states. This division of power between the
states and the federal government is known as federalism. The fed-
eral government's powers to make laws are listed in the Constitution,
and the remaining powers are reserved for the states. This is why most
civil and criminal laws are passed by state legislatures or local gov-
ernments. Consequently, many legal differences exist among the
states. For example, a 16-year-old boy can obtain a license to drive a
car in some states but not in others.
The principle of limited government is also reflected in the Bill
of Rights, the first 10 amendments to the Constitution. The Bill of
Rights defines and guarantees the fundamental rights and liberties
of all Americans, including the freedoms of religion, speech, and
press; the freedom from unreasonable search and seizure; and other
individual rights. Courts have decided that most provisions of the Bill
of Rights limit the power of state and local governments as well as the
federal government.
Every state has a constitution, and most state constitutions reflect
the major principles of the U.S. Constitution. All provide for different
branches of government, separation of powers, checks and balances,
and judicial review. Some state constitutions provide greater protec-
tion of rights than the U.S. Constitution. Our federal system allows
states to do this if they wish. For example, some state constitutions
have equal rights amendments guaranteeing women greater rights
than they have under the U.S. Constitution.

Federal troops enforce the

Constitution and forcibly
integrate Little Rock High
School in September 1957
after members of the
Arkansas National Guard
prevented Elizabeth Ann
Eckford from entering the
school. What is the role of
the federal government in
protecting individual rights?

CHAPTER 1 What Is Law? 17

 The U.S. Constitution and most state constitutions are difficult to
change. This is because they were drafted with the belief that they
should not be changed without careful thought, discussion, and
debate. The idea was to make these documents as permanent as
possible. However, allowances were made to accommodate necessary
changes. The U.S. Constitution may be changed in two ways. A pro-
posed amendment must be approved either by a two-thirds vote of
both houses of Congress or at a convention ca lled by two-thirds
of the states. In either case, it must then be ratified, or approved, by
three-fourths of the states.
''All religions, People try to change the Constitution for many reasons. One of the
laws, morals and most common reasons for change has been to extend rights that were
political systems not originally written into the Constitution. Although ratificatio n is
are but necessary difficult, 27 amendments have been added to the Constitution. These
means to preserve extensions of rights often reflect the changing viewpoints of citizens
and their elected representatives. For example, when the original
social order. "
Constitution was ratified in 1789, most states restricted voting to
- Chien white males who owned property. Since then, various amendments
Tu-Hsiu have extended voting rights to minorities, women, persons witho ut
property, and persons aged 18 to 20.
Amendments for a range of issues have been discussed and pro-
posed over the years. Some think there should be a constitutional
an1endment to extend statehood to the District of Columbia. Another
proposed amendment would require the federal government to adopt
a balanced budget. Other amendments have been proposed in recent
years to punish flag burning, protect victims of cri1ne, and ban abor-
tions. The Equal Rights Amendment passed Congress in 1972. It
prohibited discrimination on the basis of sex. However, it failed to be
ratified by the required 38 states, so it did not become a part of the
U.S. Constitution. In 1992, the Twenty-Seventh Amendment became
part of the Constitution. This amendment, first proposed by James
Madison in 1789, bans midterm congressional pay raises.

Problem 1.8
Examine each of the following situations and determine for eac h w heth er
it invo lves the principl e of se paration of powers, checks and balances, judi-
cial review, federali sm, or so m e combination of these principles . Specify the
prin cipl e or principl es invo lved a nd explain your a nswer.

a. A state law requires that a prayer be sai d eac h day in publi c schoo ls . The
courts rule that the law violates a First Amendment clause that pro-
hibits the government from establishing a reli gion .
b. Th e U.S. Congress p asses a law that restri cts t he import of ha nd guns
from other coun t ries. The legislature in o ne state allows the sale of
ha nd g un s to anyone over age 18.
c. Because a pri so n is ve ry old and overcrowded, a state court ord ers the
state legislature to spend $10 million on a new prison.

18 UNIT 1 Introduction to Law and the Legal System