Culture of India
Author(s): S. Radhakrishnan
Source: The Annals of the American Academy of Political and Social Science , May, 1944,
Vol. 233, India Speaking (May, 1944), pp. 18-21
Published by: Sage Publications, Inc. in association with the American Academy of
Political and Social Science
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Culture of India
By S. RADHAKRISHNAN
NDIAN culture, which has had an rived from very early primitive sources.
uninterrupted continuity from theSir John Marshall tells us that the god,
period of the Indus civilization and thewho is three-faced, is seated on a low
Vedas and the Upanishads, is marked by Indian throne in a typical attitude of
a fundamental loyalty to the truths ofyoga, with legs bent double beneath him,
spirit and a fine balance of individualheel to heel, with toes turned down-
desires and social demands. In spite ofwards, and hands extended above the
changes of fortune, social convulsions, knees. He has a deer throne and has the
and political upheavals, this character-elephant, the tiger, the rhinoceros, and
istic spirit of India has persisted. the buffalo grouped round him.' This
figure of Siva, the great yogi, has been
EMPHASIS ON SPIRITUALITY
there from nearly 3250 B.C. (if not
From the beginning of her history, earlier), the date which archaeologists
give to the Indus Valley civilization,
India has adored and idealized, not sol-
diers and statesmen, not men of sciencecalling upon all those who have ears to
hear, the native inhabitants of the land
and leaders of industry, not even poets
and philosophers, who influence theas well as the invaders from outside who
world by their deeds or by their words,frequently pass and repass, to be kings
but those rarer and more chastened not over others, but over themselves.
spirits whose greatness lies in whatPerfection
they can be achieved only through
are and not in what they do; menself-conquest,
who through courage and aus-
have stamped infinity on the thoughtterity, through unity and brotherhood in
and life of the country, men wholife.
have
The mystical tradition which runs
added to the invisible force of goodness
through
in the world. To a world given over to the whole religious history of
the country is set forth in the early
the pursuit of power and pleasure, wealth
and glory, they declare the reality ofUpanishads.
the Religion is a matter of ex-
perience. It is insight into reality, a
unseen world and the call of the spiritual
life. Their self-possession and self- direct awareness of the world of spirit,
command, their strange deep wisdom, Brahmadarsana. The men of experience
their exquisite courtesy, their humility feel the presence of God and do not ar-
and gentleness of soul, their abounding gue about it. The reality of God is re-
humanity, proclaim that the destiny of vealed in an immediate intuition of the
man is to know himself and thereby essential dependence of all finite things,
further the universal life of which he is of the priority of absolute being to rela-
an integral element. tive existence. The experience is an
If we turn to the Indus Valley civiliza-inward growth, not an external depend-
tion which archaeologists have unfolded ence. Tagore writes: "I am praying to
for us in recent times, we see that amongbe lighted from within, and not simply
the relics of a religious character found to hold a light in my hand." 2 Though
at Mohenjo-daro are not only figurinesthe experience is beyond reason, it is not
of the mother goddess but also figures
1 John Hubert Marshall (Ed.), Mohenjo-
of a male god, who is the prototype ofdaro and the Indus Civilization (London: A.
the historic Siva. Obviously, many ofProbsthain, 1931), Vol. 1, pp. 52-53.
the features of modern Hinduism are de- 2 Letters to a Friend, p. 47.
18
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CULTURE OF INDIA 19
opposed to reason. tionsEven
of the central
in theme that God is a
matters of
spirit, rationality is The
person. insisted on.
negative theology Brah-
makes
majijnasa or inquiry into Brahman, out that even personality is a symbol.
manana or reflectioni, pariprasna or ex- Brahman and Ishvara, Absolute and
amination, are essential prerequisites of God, are not contradictory but comple-
the knowledge of Brahman. mentary to each other. Each is the per-
spective offered to the special standpoint
NEGATIVE AND POSITIVE THEOLOGY
of the seeker.
Those who live in God do not care to Being a catholic religion, Hinduism
define. They have a peculiar confidence expresses itself in a variety of forms and
in the universe, a profound and peacefulcomprehends all the relations which exist
acceptance of life on all sides. Their re-between the divine reality and the hu-
sponse to ultimate Reality is not capableman individual. It provides enough free-
of a clear-cut, easily intelligible formu-dom for any man to go forward and de-
lation. The mystery of God's beingvelop along his own characteristic lines.
cannot be rationally determined. It re- It recognizes that the divine light pene-
mains outside the scope of logical con- trates only by degrees and is distorted
cepts. Its form does not lie in the field by the obscurity of the medium which
of vision, none can see it with the eye. receives it. In the face of the Eternal
There is no equal to it. An austere si-we are all children. Each of us needs a
lence is more adequate to the experiencepicture or a symbol to help us to grasp
of God than elaborate descriptions. the truth, and seen from the heights the
The Upanishads often give negativesymbols are all perhaps equally good,
accounts of the supreme Reality. Godas long as they suggest the infinite real-
is nothing that is. He is non-being.ity. A perfect and complete conception
Pagans like Plotinus and Christians like of the Divine is difficult to reach. If we
Nicholas of Cusa support the negative do reach it, our aspiration will reach its
theology of the Upanishads. This nega- limit and our progress come to a stop.
tive theology also gives us a knowledge The symbols, however, are employed by
of Divinity. It affirms that Divinity is religion to focus our faith; but when
not perceived by the categories of reason.they become more important than the
It is grasped by the revelations of spir- faith itself, we have idolatry. It is this
itual life. idolatry that stands in the way of reli-
When positive accounts are given, we gious fellowship and understanding.
abandon concepts in favor of symbolsDogmatic religions overlook the spiritual
and myths. They are better suited tofacts, and worship theological opinions.
life which is inexhaustible and unfathom- They are more anxious for the spread
able. God is regarded as father, friend, of the dogmas than for the spiritual edu-
lover. Infinite power and infinite love cation of the human race.
are both revelations of God. God is in-
APPLICATION TO DAILY LIFE
finite love that pours forth at every time
and every place its illimitable grace on Spiritual experience starts with the
all that ardently seek for it. The divine assumption that this world is unsatisfac-
solicitude for man is easy of comprehen- tory and human nature as it is, is un-
sion when we look upon the Divine as ideal. The destiny of man is not, how-
Mother. She wishes to possess us, and ever, to escape from this imperfection,
so will pursue and track us down in our but to use it as an urge for improve-
hiding places. God is in search of us. ment. There is no development without
The positive descriptions are varia- discontent, no growth without aspiration.
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20 THE ANNALS OF THE AMERICAN ACADEMY
Our limited consciousness is to be used ideas and emancipation from the effects
as an opening to a higher, infinite self- are the characteristics of the growth of
existence and beatitude. Contingent ex-dharma. No custom could be useful to
istence is to be raised to unconditioned all people at all times. If an organism
significance. The cosmos is working outloses the strength to excrete its own
waste, it perishes. Freedom belongs
the great possibility of reaching spiritual
only to the living. Life is not life unless
oneness through the exercise of spiritual
freedom, with all its consequences ofit is thrusting continually into new
forms. In these years when the tempo
danger and difficulty. While liberation
is the supreme end of life, it is to be
of life is quickened, when knowledge
grows and ambitions expand, we must
achieved here and now on earth through
human relations. If spiritual ideas are
effect the essential changes. Groups like
the Brahmo Samaj, the Arya Samaj,
to conquer, they can do so only by being
embodied in institutions. The solemn Ramakrishna mission, and men like
rites which hallow the achievement of Gandhi and Tagore combine fresh notes
adolescence, the blessings of marriage, with ancestral voices. They believe that
and care for the dead, are essentially India's light can show us the path to the
acts of worship. All life is holy. Every-goal of the unity of all mankind. They
thing in the visible world can become astrive for the social and ethical enlight-
revelation of invisible reality. enment of the people as well as their
The principles which we have to ob- political advancement which is essential
serve in our daily life and social rela- for the spread of India's mission.
tions are constituted by what is called
dharma. It is truth's embodiment in INDIA'S WORLD-WIDE CONTRIBUTION
life and power to refashion our nature. India has shown a glorious constancy
The forms and activities which shape in maintaining its ideals through long
and sustain human life are included in ages of oppression. Never has the flame
dharma. We have diverse interests, of hope been quenched. It burns most
various desires, and conflicting needs, brightly against the dark background of
which grow and change in the growing.alien rule.
To round them off into a whole is the The vastness and antiquity of Indian
purpose of dharma. It rouses us to acivilization point to its value and vital-
recognition of spiritual realities, not byity. Archaeologists have revealed to us
abstention from the world, but by bring- not only the great antiquity but also the
ing to its life, its business (artha), itsvast extent of the Hindu civilization.
pleasures (kama), the controlling power Hindu cities and temples were unearthed
of spiritual faith. While the supreme at Anuradhapura in Ceylon, at Boro-
aim of a social order is to train human budur in Java, and at Angkor in Cam-
beings for a state of spiritual perfection bodia. Hindu influence on Greece and
and sanctity, its essential aim is directedPalestine through Indian soldiers in Per-
by reason of its temporal ends towardssian armies and Asoka's missions is
such a development of social conditionsgradually being admitted. Sir Aurel
as will lead the mass of people to a level Stein has traced Indian settlements and
of moral, material, and intellectual lifecaravan routes through the desert of
in accord with the good and peace of all. central Asia right up to the Great Wall
While the principles of dharma are of China. Buddhism found its way
immutable, the rules and regulations in across the Indian borders into Mongo-
which the principles are embodied are lian countries about the second century
subject to change. Accessibility to newB.C. For six hundred years from the
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CULTURE OF INDIA 21
reign of Kaniska toin that
Islam and modern civilization becausecul-
of Harsha,
tural relationships between
they were soaked in thethe
spirit ofIndians
India.
and the Chinese were India seems to hold in herself some-
uninterrupted.
Chinese pilgrims who visited
thing significant for otherthe
lands asholy
well.
places of India have left power
The sustaining valuable rec-
of faiths to which
India has given
ords of their journeys, and birth, the warm hospi-
many Bud-
dhist works of whichtality withthewhichoriginals
she has welcomed are all
lost survive in Chinese, Japanese,
races and creeds, the temples, mosques,and
and churches
Tibetan versions. Even in which the dreamerstimes,
recent of
every faith have built
the names of Schopenhauer, to draw near to
Hartmann,
Nietzsche, Deussen, Keyserling,
the heaven of their imagining,Emer-
the sacred
son, Thoreau, Whitman, W. spirit
places of the human B. Yeats,
which con-
George Russell, and querorsRomain Rolland
from abroad sought to profane
remind us of the and sovereign
enslave, have made worth and
India hallowed
ground for for
validity of Indian culture us all. In the deeper
the modern fabric
world whose mind of isour obsessed
thoughts, a cross
by fertilization
science, of
skepticism, and the anguish
ideas of denial.
and insights behind which lie cen-
If the world with its
turies mixing
of cultured of
experience andcul-
earnest
tures and minglingendeavor
of races is taking
isplace.
to Respect
be re- for
built, the process of gradual
other points of view,integration
appreciation of the
of heterogeneous people
treasures ofdescribed in the
other creeds, confidence in
one another'sto
growth of India's culture, unselfish
which motives,
dif- are
ferent races and religions haveincon-
growing. A larger synthesis the spirit
tributed, may have'some lessons
of India's ancient culture is for us.
being worked
The representatives out, a of Indian
synthesis spirit,
which alone can give a
whether they are spiritual the avatars of
basis to a world Rams,
brought to-
Krishna, or Buddha, getherorintochastened
intimate oneness bysouls
man's
like Ramakrishna or Gandhi,
mechanical are
ingenuity. Letproph-
us hope and
ets of comprehension pray thatandIndia'snot of
wisdom, exclu-
patience, and
sion. In their life andzeal,
sacrificial teaching
which have guidedtheyher
stand for the organic throughunion
the darkof different
periods of suffering
races and creeds. The Indian
and chaos, spirit
may lead her af-
to her hour of
firms unity through differences
liberty, the dawn of a new ofperiod
mani-for
festation. Fear and weakness incline us humanity at large, a new dawn; for as
to exclusion; strength and humanitythe Vedic seer sings: "More numerous
lead us to acceptance. Nanak and forsooth are those dawns that have not
Kabir, Ram Mohan Roy and Rabindra- yet dawned." 3
nath Tagore accepted what is valuable3 Rig-Veda 11.28.9.
Sir Sarvapalli Radhakrishnan, Kt., LL.D., F.B.A.,
is vice-chancellor of the Benares Hindu University.
He is the only Indian to hold the Fellowship of the
British Academy, and in June 1940 he was appointed
Fellow for life of All Souls' College, Oxford. He is
author of many works, including Indian Philosophy
(2 vols.), Philosophy of Rabindranath Tagore, The
Hindu View of Life, Kalki or the Future of Civiliza-
tion, and The Philosophy of the Upanishads.
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