Problem-Based Learning in

the College Music Classroom

Problem-Based Learning in the College Music Classroom explores the core te-
nets of Problem-Based Learning (PBL). PBL is an effective, student-centered
approach in which students learn higher-order thinking skills and integra-
tive strategies by solving real-world challenges – not often employed in music
classrooms. Yet such courses are uniquely situated to advance this innova-
tive pedagogical approach. This volume sheds light on PBL best practices in
survey- and topic-based music courses while integrating general education
content, discussing implementation, materials, methods, and challenges, and
encouraging readers to think creatively to develop flexible solutions for large-
scale issues.
Bookended by introductory and concluding chapters that delve into the his-
tory, theory, application, and assessment of PBL, the text collects ­classroom-
tested case studies from eleven contributing authors in the following categories:

• Music History and Appreciation

• Ethnomusicology
• Music and Movement
• Music Theory and Education

Problem-Based Learning in the College Music Classroom paves the way for
pedagogical discovery in this unexplored area, encouraging teachers and
graduate students to move curricula goals forward – and ultimately to move
students toward innovation and engagement.

Natalie Sarrazin is Associate Professor of Music at The College at Brockport,

State University of New York (SUNY), with a dual position in the Depart-
ment of Theatre and Music Studies and the Arts for Children Interdisciplinary
Program.
Problem-Based Learning
in the College Music
Classroom

Edited by Natalie Sarrazin

The College at Brockport, State University of New York
First published 2019
by Routledge
711 Third Avenue, New York, NY 10017
and by Routledge
2 Park Square, Milton Park, Abingdon, Oxon, OX14 4RN
Routledge is an imprint of the Taylor & Francis Group, an informa business
© 2019 Taylor & Francis
The right of Natalie Sarrazin to be identified as the author of the editorial material, and of the
authors for their individual chapters, has been asserted in accordance with sections 77 and 78 of
the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988.
All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reprinted or reproduced or utilised in any form
or by any electronic, mechanical, or other means, now known or hereafter invented, including
photocopying and recording, or in any information storage or retrieval system, without
permission in writing from the publishers.
Trademark notice: Product or corporate names may be trademarks or registered trademarks, and
are used only for identification and explanation without intent to infringe.
Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data
Names: Sarrazin, Natalie Rose, editor.
Title: Problem-based learning in the college
music classroom / edited by Natalie Sarrazin.
Description: New York: Routledge, 2018. | Includes index.
Identifiers: LCCN 2018013237 (print) | LCCN 2018016948 (ebook) |
ISBN 9781351265249 (ebook) | ISBN 9781138578166 (hardback) |
ISBN 9781138578173 (pbk.)
Subjects: LCSH: Music in universities and colleges. |
Music—Instruction and study. | Problem-based learning.
Classification: LCC MT18 (ebook) | LCC MT18 .P76 2018 (print) |
DDC 780.71/1—dc23
LC record available at https://lccn.loc.gov/2018013237

ISBN: 978-1-138-57816-6 (hbk)

ISBN: 978-1-138-57817-3 (pbk)
ISBN: 978-1-351-26524-9 (ebk)
Typeset in Minion Pro
by codeMantra
 Contents

Foreword ix
M e r ryl G oldbe rg

Preface xi

Introduction

1 The Essence of Problem-Based Learning and Music 3

Natalie S a r r a z in

2 Teaching and Learning in Higher Education Music

Classes: It Don’t Mean a Thing If It Ain’t Got That Swing 15
M e r ryl G oldbe rg

Part I
Music History and Appreciation

3 Open Classrooms, Problem-Based Learning, and

Adjunct Instructors 27
J o hn Tho me r s o n

4 Problem-Based Learning in the Music Appreciation Course 39

M a rga r e t L eenhou t s

5 Heightening Music Appreciation via Problem-Based

Learning 53
Ro dney G a r r is o n

Part II
Ethnomusicology

6 Toward Integrating Problem-Based Learning in an

Ethnomusicology Curriculum: Case Study with the
Music Traditions of Africa Course 69
G av in W ebb

v
vi  •  Contents

7 Diversity and Collaboration in Modern Africa and in

the (Mostly) Online Classroom 83
Tiffany N icely

8 Designing and Implementing Collaborative Student-

Driven Research Projects: A New Framework for
Learning in the Ethnomusicology Classroom 97
J ulie E . H un t e r

Appendix 111

Part III
Music and Movement

9 Kinesics and Music Performance in the Introductory

Music Class 117
S c o t t Ho r sing t o n

10 Using Movement as a Vehicle for Problem-Based

Learning in Introductory Music Courses 131
Tama r a W ilc ox

Part IV
Music Theory and Education

11 Problem-Based “Projects” in the Music Education Class 145

Natalie S a r r a z in

12 Using Problem-Based Learning to Address Behavior

and Curricular Issues in the Self-Contained
Music Classroom 157
T r acy S . Wanamake r

13 Problem-Based Learning and the Musician’s Role of

‘Educator’ in First-Semester Aural Skills 179
Ro dney G a r r is o n
 Contents  •  vii

Conclusion 193

14 Best Practices for Problem-Based Learning in the

College Music Classroom 195
Natalie S a r r a z in

List of Contributors 201

Index 203
 Foreword

I’ll never forget the preface to Arnold Schoenberg’s book Theory of Harmony
(1911/1978). It begins with the words, “This book I have learned from my stu-
dents.” He offered a strategy of teaching that was a precursor to what we now
call PBL. “Had I told [my students] merely what I know, then they would have
known just that and nothing more.” He continued by emphasizing that the
goal of his teaching was to encourage students to search because the search for
knowledge and understanding in and of itself was a process of learning. He
wrote, “I hope my pupils will commit themselves to searching! Because they
will know that one searches for the sake of searching. That finding, which is
indeed the goal, can easily put an end to striving.”
The collection of chapters in this book is about how a group of colleagues
across the SUNY system embarked on a journey of creating projects and cur-
riculum to move their students toward engagement. Their case studies range
from music history and appreciation, ethnomusicology, music and movement,
music theory to music education. I was in on this project from the beginning
when I traveled to New York from Southern California (in the winter mind
you!) to work with the SUNY professors on PBL techniques. The professors
jumped in head first, openly and enthusiastically. They already understood
that it was time to move away from pure lecturing. After all, in this day and
age, students really don't need anyone to tell them “things” since they can look
up any of the subject matter online via a simple Google search. After our mul-
tiday intensive workshops, each of the professors went back to their campuses
and began the process of inventing, refining, implementing, and reflecting on
their practices. As you’ll read in the delightful stories and case studies within
this book, each professor found a creative way to move their curricula goals
forward, all with their students clearly at the center of engaged learning.
As you read through the chapters, also keep in mind that this process
set the stage for collective impact. It brought together professors from across
the vast SUNY system and supported them in their pedagogy; and through
the publication of this book, connects their work for others to see as well. The
work in each of the classrooms served to awaken interest and participation.
Schoenberg also wrote in his preface to Theory of Harmony, “It should be
clear that the teacher’s first task is to shake up the pupil thoroughly.” This book
would make Schoenberg very happy. It certainly has that effect on me.
Merryl Goldberg
California State University San Marcos

ix
 Preface

This book was made possible by the support of two SUNY Innovative Instruc-
tional Technology Grants (IITG), which award proposals that offer fresh and
new approaches to pedagogy. The first grant supported training, and the sup-
plemental grant supported the publication of our work in this book. Given the
lack of research into how PBL can impact music classes, this project allows
pedagogical discovery and provides initial case studies in this area – work
which coincided with the IITG’s ideals and mission. Initial inspiration for the
project came from Dr. Tony Dumas, at the College at Brockport, as he sought
ways to innovate and engage students in his World Music course. From there,
the project developed into a statewide SUNY event in which ten colleagues
were invited to attend a weekend workshop on designing and implement-
ing PBL, run by myself, Dr. Dumas – with guest speakers Chris Price and
Dale Hartnett, from the Center for Excellence in Learning and Teaching at
­Brockport – Dr. Merryl Goldberg, an expert on Arts Integration, and other
types of innovative pedagogical instruction who helped guide us through the
nuances of applying this type of strategy in our classrooms.
Additional thanks go to Dr. Darwin Prioleau, Dean of the Arts Humanities
and Social Sciences at Brockport, and P. Gibson Ralph, Chair of Theatre and
Music Studies, for their institutional and moral support for the project.

xi
Introduction

1
 1
The Essence of Problem-Based
Learning and Music
Natalie Sarrazin

This chapter introduces readers to a general history and background of

­Problem-Based Learning (PBLs), defining it within the context of learning theory
in general. The chapter also gives an overview of the various types of PBLs, dis-
tinguishing between Project- and Problem-based learning and paying particular
attention to the application of this method in higher education music classroom.

To find out how to make knowledge when it is needed is the true end of the
acquisition of education in school, not the information itself.
J. and E. Dewey, Schools of Tomorrow (1915, p. 13)

Classrooms can be challenging places for both teachers and students, espe-
cially given the proliferation of technology in day-to-day life. In the context
of easy access to information, lecturing and note taking seem almost quaint
at this point. Videos and PowerPoint no longer effectively motivate or interest
students, and even the most entertaining and dynamic professors have trouble
holding a class’s full attention. Students, with the world at their fingertips, es-
chew learning discrete facts. Names, dates, places, narratives, and spelling are
readily available and no longer require student effort to retain these facts in
their brains, and many experts agree that they shouldn’t have to. Meanwhile,
educators, finding themselves struggling to satisfy an increased demand in in-
stitutional assessment, might be tempted to “lower the bar” by relaxing course
objectives or the number of assignments, hoping that students show measurable
progress. Perhaps students are ahead of the curve and sense that a dramatic
shift in pedagogical practice is needed. They often express resentment toward
courses that demand rote memorization or “busy work” that encroaches on
their time outside of class, as they try to balance their social lives and work

3
4  •  Natalie Sarrazin

responsibilities. Students also sense that devoting time to study outside of class
results in a diminishing lack of returns for them – their efforts appear to be re-
dundant considering pervasive information that duplicates the text or lectures,
answers readily available via the Internet, and, of course, instructors whose
pedagogical methods don’t seem in sync with their lifestyles or needs. The cy-
cle continues as professors sense this lack of learning enthusiasm and lament a
lost spark of student enthusiasm for learning in general. Quick-fix panaceas to
combat this curricular conundrum are hard to come by given the cataclysmic
changes wrought by technologically oriented lifestyles. Professors wrangle with
solutions – whether to include any and all technology and social media (e.g.
smartphones, iClickers, Twitter), go back to basics, or something in between.
Since students are not likely to give up their access to information, or their de-
sire for a more practical and applicable education to fit their lifestyles, any time
soon, the most effective educational practices will accommodate these things as
a way to enhance learning and not view them as an obstacle to learning. Effective
education, according to many education reformers, requires a drastic rewrite of
current practices which replaces what seems to be a trend toward superficial
learning with a highly in-depth level of learning. Dr. David Helfand, Columbia
University, for example, places an emphasis on the “process-based” nature of
education and has worked for years on such a hands-on approach to education,
where depth and process supersede breadth and product. He was instrumental
in successfully implementing this at Quest University in Canada, where stu-
dents take a single course every month in a curriculum that focuses on how
disciplines function in the world at large rather than within the confines of an
academic institution. Since most universities and colleges cannot accommodate
a curriculum that requires that students take only one course for three and a half
weeks, other methods that deliver the same experiential results are invaluable.
Problem-based Learning (PBL), therefore, might be a part of the solution.
PBL is a practical teaching and learning approach that allows a similar, intense,
hands-on experience within a traditional higher educational setting. One way
to think about this approach given by Ross (1997) in an examination of the
PBL curriculum is that “knowledge arises from working on a problem, rather
than, as with problem-solving, being a prerequisite for working on a problem”
(34–41). Rather than asking students to regurgitate facts, which would probably
send students directly to their phones for an answer, PBL allows students to use
their phones as sources of information in the process of problem-solving. In
other words, the phone is not going to give them the answers anymore, cannot
form the questions they need to ask, or can’t identify the process they need to
work through to find the solution. Students must divine this for themselves.
Despite the initial and prevalent use of the PBL approach in more profes-
sionally oriented disciplines such as medicine and science, the notion that there
are problems to be solved in music classes as well has not caught on. Perhaps
this is due to the territorial nature of people in music sub-specialty areas who
wish to retain their specialization or due to the deeply imbedded belief across
 Essence of Problem-Based Learning  •  5

the arts in its intrinsic value or, put more colloquially, arts for art’s sake. In this
philosophy, art is separated from its more mundane and utilitarian functions
and treated as worthy of study in and of itself. This approach remains a staunch
underpinning for all of the art forms that perhaps preempts an exploration of
the real-life application of PBL. After all, if students are appreciating music
for music’s sake, there is less of a need for further inquiry learning about the
real-world mechanisms it takes to produce that art in the first place.
As the case studies in this book will show, however, music courses are
uniquely situated to advance this effective pedagogical approach. It is possible
not only to include PBL in almost every type of music course, but it also allows
students in these courses to find a new level of interdisciplinarity for music – a
place where music curricula rarely ever go. For example, students in a music
theory class can analyze music performance at the level of gesture and nonver-
bal music behavior, or students in a music appreciation class become artistic
directors of orchestras to discover and solve problems faced on a day-to-day
basis by people in those positions.
PBL aims directly at the heart of student engagement. Even in music classes
such as applied, theory, and music education, which we perceive to be more
participatory than other courses, students can remain aloof and removed from
the material. As these case studies will demonstrate, PBLs encourage “outside
of the classroom” thinking, requiring them to connect academic learning to
real-life situations. PBL is based on high levels of student input, encouraging
them to draw on and integrate several knowledge-based content areas, thereby
becoming more active participants in their own education. PBL, when applied
in a general education curriculum, allows students to see the connections
across disciplines from their first year through to their capstone experiences.

PBL: From Memorization to Application

PBL is hailed as one of the most effective instructional methods conceived in
education, one in which an engaged learning approach addresses crucial ar-
eas of concern such as content retention, problem-solving skills, higher-­order
thinking, self-directed and life-long learning, and student self-perception
and confidence (Hung et al., 2008, 486). In the introduction of their book The
Challenge of Problem-based Learning, Boud and Feletti state that PBL is the
most significant innovation in education of the professions for many years
(1997, 1), while Maudsley notes its usefulness as a tool for epistemological re-
form in higher education (1999, 178).
PBL began in the medical field in the 1950s to train physicians (Barrows,
2009/1986). The thought behind its use was its effectiveness in clinical con-
texts, which would aid in future recall, and to encourage medical education
away from rote memorization and “fragmented biomedical knowledge” and
“equip students with clinical problem-solving and lifelong learning skills (Al-
banese and Mitchell, 1993; Barrows, 1996). Although initially geared toward
6  •  Natalie Sarrazin

this profession, PBL has expanded over the years to include others such as
architecture, social work, business, and legal training. For example, PBL usage
in fields such as law, engineering, and other professions occurred in the 1990s,
while Barrows and Kelson (1993) were instrumental in introducing PBL into
K-12 curricula as well (Hung et al., 2008).
The PBL approach has eventually made its way into higher and even sec-
ondary education as well. There are dozens of resources for PBL in elementary
and secondary education – sites like edutopia.org, bie.org (Buck Institute for
Education), and educationcloset.com. Bie.org is one of the largest and most
comprehensive websites for learning about PBL and is highly recommended.
The material in this book expands the core tenets of PBL to include the college
music classroom – exploring its design, implementation, materials, methods,
challenges, and outcomes in survey- and topic-based music courses that inte-
grate general education content while encouraging students to think creatively
and develop flexible solutions to large-scale issues and problems – skills essen-
tial for success in the 21st century.

An Exploration of Music Courses and PBL

PBL is described by Barrows as the “learning which results from the pro-
cess of working towards the understanding of, or resolution of a problem”
(Barrow and Tamblyn, 1980). Although the idea of PBL is implemented in
secondary (7–12) music education circles, music education’s use of PBL is at
a nascent stage of exploration and development. Currently, PBL advice and
tips appear on blogs and are presented as the latest new ideas in music edu-
cation, without much in the way of depth, literature, or training as to its im-
plementation. Additionally, the music education approach follows that of a
Dewey-inspired, student-centered learning (e.g. Hayden, 2015 “Personalized
Learning through Problem-based Music”; Miller, 2012 “Use PBL to innovate
in the Music Classroom”). While student-centered learning is certainly a
goal of any PBL strategy, models for implementing PBL in higher education
courses allow a much more intensive experience, not only at the individual
level but more importantly at the group/collaborative learning level where
college students who study different majors and minors can share their ex-
periences and expertise, thus allowing a richer and more varied learning
experience.
The book will address two main shortcomings in the existing literature on
PBL. First, until now, no book has directly focused on a music application of
PBL. The idea that music study can address the real world and contribute to
issues and problems is consistently overlooked. The case studies in this book
address a range of applications, from more abstract to concrete applications,
which may help to answer real-world questions and have real-world conse-
quences. This, above all, situates the study of music as a significant contributor
to seeing and understanding the world.
 Essence of Problem-Based Learning  •  7

Second, literature on the subject has concentrated on practical applications

while largely ignoring the challenges and complexities of the processes involved
in PBLs. The chapters in this book will address these complexities through
tested case studies in which instructors elaborate in detail on the curricular and
student learning outcomes (SLO) changes, timeline creation and execution, as-
sessment and rubric design, and numerous other details and adjustments. One
of the main questions each instructor asked themselves is how they could suc-
cessfully apply PBL to their current classroom without too much disruption or
change. Music as a subject and discipline has many facets – theoretical, applied,
historical, social, and performative, all of which require different teaching ap-
proaches and skill sets. Can PBL accommodate all of these areas?
In addition, not all of PBL projects are successful, and authors will focus on
the varying results of their successes and failures and thoughtfully reflect on
what might be improved along the way.

Book Outline
This volume demonstrates the application of PBL across many music disci-
plines such as theory, history, applied skills, and so forth, as well as in a range
of class types, from large survey courses to smaller, upper-division special
topics courses. The book begins with a general introduction to PBL, including
appropriate literature review and a general review of its use in other college
subjects. This introductory chapter will then present general strategies for us-
ing the PBL approach in various college music classrooms.
Nine case studies are then presented, each fitting into four subsections: Mu-
sic History and Appreciation, Ethnomusicology, Music and Movement, and
Music Theory and Education, with two to three case studies in each subsection.
Each case study addresses a different application of PBL in music courses, pro-
viding the reader with a wide range of instructional design, assessment, exam-
ples, and strategies. Finally, the book concludes with a chapter on best practices,
guidelines, and assessment, in which the editor reviews the outcomes of the case
studies and provides an overview on the efficacy of the different approaches.

Main Themes and Objectives

The major objective of this book is to provide examples of concrete, c­ lassroom-
tested PBL for use by music instructors across a range of higher education
music courses. The Objective of the book focuses on tailoring the following to
college music classes specifically:

• Introducing group work and collaboration in music

• Familiarizing the reader with Problem-based strategies and designs
• Including examples of useful materials
• Providing a means of assessment and evaluation of PBL work
8  •  Natalie Sarrazin

Since PBL in higher education music courses is relatively rare in the literature,
the book’s case studies will outline ideas for developing and implementing
different types of PBLs.

Sources for Problem-Based Learning

As of now, there are no books and few articles on the subject of PBL in a col-
lege music classroom, nor are there books on PBL in the music classroom at
any level. Although there may be a scattered article on music here and there,
no article focusing on PBL and music appears in The Interdisciplinary Journal
of Problem-Based Learning in the ten years since its inception.
Most texts on PBL can be separated into several categories; earlier ones
addressing its application in the medical field (1980s–2000) and later ones ad-
dressing PBL in general. The latter present PBL’s application and impact on
higher education, including descriptions, problem construction, obstacles to
implementation, and ventures into general higher education needs (e.g. ad-
ministration, facilitation, and evaluation).
Scattered throughout the years are texts that include forays into other subjects
areas, but most of these are still science related given the acceptance of the case
study in teaching and learning. A few of the relevant texts can be found below.
There are several general texts that introduce PBLs which are useful to un-
derstanding this subject. Duch, Groh, and Allen’s (Eds.) (2001) “The power
of Problem-Based learning: A practical ‘how to’ for teaching undergraduate
courses in any discipline” is an excellent introduction to the subject. Based
on a National Science Foundation grant to help revitalize undergraduate ed-
ucation in science, technology, engineering and mathematics (STEM) classes,
the book addresses some of the initial questions of implementation, including
obstacles, challenges, designing materials, and reflecting on how the process
can be developed, implements, and its effects on the subject. To that end, the
text includes pragmatic strategies for including administrative support, devel-
oping a structure to initiate PBL its facilitation and problem writing. The book
contains several case studies in a range of fields, but most, not surprisingly, are
STEM-based (e.g. nursing, biochemistry, physics, and technology). The hu-
manities are underrepresented, and music is not represented in this collection.
Another general text, Savin-Baden and Major’s “Foundations of ­Problem-
based Learning” (2004) fills in the history and learning theory gap in the
subject, providing the reader with definitions, background on PBL, imple-
mentation, further applications to include culture and diversity, and, most im-
portantly, assessment and evaluation of PBL. There are very few case studies
included, however, and no mention of implementation in a music classroom
or in any other arts-based curriculum.
Barrett and Moore’s “New Approaches to Problem-Based Learning: Revit-
alising Your Practice in Higher Education” (2011) is similar to Duch’s PBL
 Essence of Problem-Based Learning  •  9

listed above, and it focuses on PBL’s impact on higher education but provides
one of the most comprehensive texts on the subject. It includes an investiga-
tion of all of the participants involved, developing learning initiatives, how
PBL enhances student capabilities, and ways of sustaining PBL. In a creative
twist, the last chapter reveals the PBL process by which the book was written.
Again, this text is a general overview of the PBL process and does not focus on
any one particular subject.
In terms of specific music-related PBL studies, Yang’s 2014 article “Teach-
ing Music History at Hong Kong Baptist University: Problem-Based Learning
and Outcome-based Teaching and Learning” is one of the only music articles
published that presents the implementation of PBL in a college music class-
room. This very short paper is primarily Yang’s reflection on PBL in her class,
in which she shares several problems presented to a music history class, along
with the several issues and a general evaluation of the process. The problems
she presents to the class, however, are not all suitable for PBL. Out of the
three given, only one is problem-Based, while the other two are project-based.
­Problem- and Project-based learning are commonly confused by instructors
trying out this strategy. The definitions and distinctions are given below.

Problem-Based Learning as Inquiry: An Overview

PBL is a type of inquiry-based learning pedagogy. According to H. S. Barrows,
one of the leading scholars on PBL, the term itself does not refer to any one
type of teaching method but varies according to context (Barrows, 2009). An
inquiry approach to learning is certainly not new and, in fact, is thousands of
years old. More recent manifestations are rooted in constructivist theories of
education, primarily Vygotsky, Piaget, and Dewey, which stress active inquiry
and discovery as opposed to student memorization. The educational philoso-
pher John Dewey was highly critical of learning that did not emphasize pro-
cess and critical thinking and instead relied on fact memorization. One of the
most well-known works of PBL, rooted in Dewey’s 19th-century philosophy
and 18th-­century applications in architecture and engineering, and the early
20th-century progressive education movement, formed the basis for William
Kilpatrick’s essay entitled “The Project Method” (1918). Kilpatrick’s essay de-
scribes the basic features of PBL: child-centered in that students solve problems
with the teacher as facilitator. Savery looks at the constructivist roots of PBL and
credits Barrows’ contribution (1985, 1986, 1992) as one of the best examples of it.
In general, all types of PBLs are similar in that they, first and foremost,
involve a student-centered approach to learning and involve inquiry or dis-
covery learning. Often, two types of learning labels, which are often inter-
changed, are Project-based and Problem-Based. According to John Larmer
at the Buck Institute of Learning (bie.org), both Project- and Problem-Based
Learning as types of inquiry-based learning involve a central question as the
10  •  Natalie Sarrazin

prompt for student learning. PBL had its roots in the 1960s discovery learning
phase and emerged in medical science as a viable and primary method for
case-based student learning as mentioned above. PBL, therefore, is a type of
Project-based Learning, along with many other types of learning. Problem-
and Project-based Learning overlap, but there are several distinctions. Both
types of PBLs

• Are student-centered
• Focus on an open-ended question or task
• Provide authentic applications of content and skills
• Build 21st-century success skills
• Emphasis student independence and inquiry
• Are longer and more multifaceted than traditional lessons or assign-
ments (adapted from Edutopia.org).

The similarities after this point continue in that both can be multi-subject or
­single-subject, with Project-based lending itself more toward multi-subject. They
can be long or short, with Project-based tending toward a longer length. They
both follow prescribed steps toward the outcome, and both can utilize real-life
or fictitious scenarios, with Project-based focusing more on real-life problems.
The major difference is in the final outcome. Project-based Learning requires
the creation of a product or performance, whereas Problem-Based “products”
may be concrete or in the form of a proposed solution or presentation.

Jumping In: Designing a Music-Related PBL (Problem or Project)

In a sense, developing a driving question for a PBL is similar to the Socra-
tic method of inquiry-based education. It might be effective to think of the
project from the end point and work backward to that initial question. For
example, decide what you want students to end up knowing by the conclusion
of the class, and then deduce what they might need to do in order to get there.
There are several excellent sources that outline how to design a non-
course-specific PBL. Websites such as Edutopia and the Buck Institute for
Education (BIE) highlight the preparation process to create a PBL. Even if
they’re not directly dealing with music as a subject, the sites provide an ex-
cellent starting point for thinking about the scope, parameters, and assess-
ment of a PBL.

Essential Project Design Elements (Adapted from bie.org for use in

College Music Classes)
Table 1.1 includes the two significant components of the PBL process for teach-
ers and students found in Larmer et al., Setting the Standard for Project Based
 Essence of Problem-Based Learning  •  11

Learning: A Proven Approach to Rigorous Classroom Instruction (ASCD 2015).

The column on the left, Teaching Practices, concerns the teacher’s input and
creation efforts, including pedagogical scaffolding, and perspective on the
overall process and expectations. The column on the right, Design Elements,
concerns the student engagement with the project, including their expecta-
tions and input.
Teaching Practices also begins to address the change in control the instruc-
tor should expect. PBL requires that the teacher reconceptualize the standard
teaching role of lecturer and relinquish a fair amount of classroom control

Table 1.1 

PBL Teaching Practices PBL Design Elements

Design and Plan Challenging Problem or Question
Teacher-created project and Problem is meaningful and worth
implementation plan – may have some solving, appropriately challenging
degree of student input for the group, and fueled by a driving
question
Align to Standards Sustained Inquiry
Teachers use standards; addressing key Active process: Students generate their
areas of the subject to be included own questions and answers, seek and
use appropriate resources
Build the Culture Authenticity
Teacher promotes student independence, Project has real-world implications,
growth, open-ended inquiry, requires real-world tools and processes,
collaboration, and quality and is of interest to students concerns
and identities
Manage Activities Student Voice and Choice
Teacher organizes classes, schedules, Students have input into the project,
deadlines, and resources choices, work processes, and use of time
Scaffold Student Learning Reflection
Teacher employs a variety of lessons, Students take time to reflect on the
tools, and strategies to support project learning process itself and the project’s
goals design
Assess Student Learning Critique and Revision
Teachers assess understanding and Students give and receive feedback on
knowledge, including self- and peer their work
assessment
Engage and Coach Public Product
Teachers engage in learning and Students demonstrate what they learn
creating along with students and through a presented product (to people
identify student needs: skill-building, outside of the classroom)
redirection, encouragement, etc.
Source: Larmer et al., Setting the Standard for Project Based Learning: A Proven Approach to
Rigorous Classroom Instruction (ASCD 2015).
12  •  Natalie Sarrazin

over to the students. This is counterintuitive to traditional instructional be-

havior and does take some getting used to.
Regardless of the format and process of PBL, the essential goal is the de-
velopment of critical-thinking and problem-solving skills, collaboration, and
personal goal-setting and time management for students – in other words,
independent, self-, or group-directed learning.

How Do I Know If My Activity Is a PBL?

PBLs vary widely according to discipline, approach, student learning needs,
teacher preparation, and a host of other factors. It is easy to question whether
what you’ve developed falls under the category of PBL. To assess your pro-
posed activity, Charlin et al. developed a set of criteria to determine if it qual-
ifies as PBL through three core principles:

1. The problem acts as a stimulus for learning

2. It is an educational approach, not an isolated instructional technique
3. It is a student-centered approach, and the four criteria concerning
their effect on student learning are as follows:
• Active processing of information
• Activation of prior knowledge
• Meaningful context
• Opportunities for elaboration/organization of knowledge (2009)

Developing a Musically Driven Question

In a true- or open-inquiry approach, students would develop their own ques-
tions to answer. This is always an option for any educator. However, for pur-
poses of assessment and comparison, having one guiding question is also
helpful. What constitutes a good driving question for a music PBL?
Considering the list given above, the problem must act as a stimulus for
learning, where further learning is generated not only by the question itself
but also by the process of answering and investigating answers to the ques-
tion. If there is a direct answer available to the question, there is no room for
discovery and inquiry. For example, the question “what are ­cadences?” would
yield a very specific answer. Asking the question “how have c­ adences changed
over time?” allows much more room for exploration.
Instructional and performance techniques are highly prevalent in music
given its applied aspects, and it is easy to conflate an isolated skill building in-
structional technique with one that is considered part of a larger educational
approach. For example, asking students to create a harmonic progression us-
ing boom whackers is not a PBL activity, whereas asking the value of boom
whackers to teach music theory would be.
 Essence of Problem-Based Learning  •  13

Criteria for creating good PBL questions in music are the same as those for
any subject. Questions should be provocative and interesting, allow for rigor-
ous inquiry and debate, and be purposefully vague and open-ended.
The following might be some examples of non-course-specific PBL music
questions:

• What is music?
• What limits musical creativity?
• Can music be taught?
• Is music a universal language?
• What is improvisation?
• Should governments fund the arts?

More course-specific real-world questions might have students complete the

following:

• Produce a musical with no budget

• Create a concert series for a particular demographic or with a specific
repertoire
• Discover how musicians communicate (nonverbally) during
performance

One excellent online resource is Engaging Students: Essays in Music Pedagogy

Vol. 2 which focuses on student-centered learning approaches. The contribu-
tion by Phil Duker offers an engaging range of PBL examples for the College
music theory classroom, including analysis, composition and part-writing,
and improvisation. Some of the more engaging problems include being a fo-
rensic musicologist and handling an eccentric wedding request.
Many questions have an interdisciplinary aspect to them as well, some-
thing covered by Merryl Goldberg (see Chapter 2 in this volume).
Elements in the Teaching Practices list are self-explanatory and flexible in
that they can be used for any type of classroom from K-College. For higher
education, small adjustments in emphasis can be made in the “Align to Stan-
dards” section, which, in higher education speak, refers to student learning
outcomes rather than the Common Core Standards which are applicable to
primary and secondary education.
Scheduling class time for PBL is another concern, as it can usually take mul-
tiple classes or up to the whole semester. Relinquishing class time and deciding
how much class time requires pre-planning and thought. What is the balance
between time spent on lecture and problem-solving? How many classes or
weeks will be devoted to the activity itself? The assessment? Follow-up?
Although this text cannot answer all of these questions, case studies of
both types of PBLs and their solutions included in this volume demonstrate
14  •  Natalie Sarrazin

the great variety and flexibility in this type of inquiry-based education and its
possible application in the college music classroom.

Bibliography
Albanese, Mark, and Mitchell, Susan. “Problem-Based Learning: A Review of Literature on Its
Outcomes and Implementation Issues.” Academic Medicine 68, no. 1 (1993): 52–81.
Barrows, Howard S. “A Taxonomy of Problem-Based Learning Methods.” Medical Education 20,
no. 6 (1986): 481–86.
Barrows, Howard. S., and Kelson, A. “Problem-Based Learning in Secondary Education and the
Problem-Based Learning Institute” (Monograph). Springfield, IL: Southern Illinois Uni-
versity School of Medicine, 1995: 1–5.
Barrows, Howard S., and Kelson A. M. Problem-Based Learning: A Total Approach to Education.
Monograph. Springfield, IL: Southern Illinois University School of Medicine, 1993.
Barrows, Howard S., and Robyn M. Tamblyn. Problem-Based Learning: An Approach to MEDI-
CAL Education. New York, NY: Springer, 1980.
Boud, David, and Grahame Feletti. The Challenge of Problem-Based Learning. London: Kogan
Page, 1997.
Charlin, Bernard, Mann, Karen, and Hansen, Penny. “The Many Faces of Problem-Based Learning:
A Framework for Understanding and Comparison.” Medical Teacher 20, no. 4 (2009): 323–30.
Dewey, J. and Dewey, E. Schools of Tomorrow. Literary Licensing. Boston, MA: Dutton and Com-
pany, 2014 (1915).
Duch, Barbara J., Groh, Susan E., and Deborah E. Allen. The Power of Problem-Based Learning
a Practical “How To” for Teaching Undergraduate Courses in any Discipline. Vancouver:
Access and Diversity, Crane Library, University of British Columbia, 2001.
Hayden, Michael. Personalized Learning through Problem-Based Music. December 1, 2015.
https://nafme.org/personalized-learning-through-project-based-music/. Retrieved Feb-
ruary 28, 2017.
Hung, Woei, Johanssen, David, and Liu, Rude. “Problem Based Learning.” In J. M. Spector, J. G.
van Merrienboer, M. D. Merrill, and M. Driscoll (eds.) Handbook of Research on Educa-
tional Communications and Technology, 3rd ed. New York: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates,
2008, 485–506. Retrieved March 13, 2017.
Kilpatrick, W. H. The Project Method. Teachers College Record 19, (1918): 319–335.
Knoll, M. “I Had Made a Mistake: William H. Kilpatrick and the Project Method.” Teachers
College Record 112, (2012): 1–45.
Maudsley, G. “Do We All Mean the Same Thing by “Problem-Based Learning”? A Review of the Con-
cepts and a Formulation of the Ground Rules.” Academic Medicine 74, no. 2 (1999): 178–85.
Miller, Andrew. Use PBL to Innovate the Music Classroom, 2012. www.edutopia.org/blog/­
project-based-learning-music-andrew-miller. Retrieved February 25, 2017.
Ross, Bob. “Towards a Framework for Problem-Based Curricula,” In Boud, David, and Grahame
Feletti (eds.) The Challenge of Problem-Based Learning. London: Kogan Page, 1997 (1991),
28–35.
Savery, J., and Duffy, T. “Problem-Based Learning: An Instructional Model and its Constructivist
Framework.” Educational Technology, 35/5 (1995): 31–38.

Resources
Duker, Phil. Problem-Based Learning in Music Theory Classes. http://flipcamp.org/engaging
students2/essays/duker.html
Engaging Students: Essays in Music Pedagogy, Vol 2. http://flipcamp.org/engagingstudents2/
index.html
Edutopia. https://www.edutopia.org/blog/pbl-vs-pbl-vs-xbl-john-larmer
PBL Video Archive (primary and secondary education). http://archive.pbl-online.org/video/
video2.htm
The Essence of Problem-Based Learning and Music
Albanese, Mark , and Mitchell, Susan . Problem-Based Learning: A Review of Literature on
Its Outcomes and Implementation Issues. Academic Medicine 68, no. 1 (1993): 5281.
Barrows, Howard S. A Taxonomy of Problem-Based Learning Methods. Medical Education
20, no. 6 (1986): 481486.
Barrows, Howard. S. , and Kelson, A. Problem-Based Learning in Secondary Education and
the Problem-Based Learning Institute (Monograph). Springfield, IL: Southern Illinois
University School of Medicine, 1995: 15.
Barrows, Howard S. , and Kelson A. M. Problem-Based Learning: A Total Approach to
Education. Monograph. Springfield, IL: Southern Illinois University School of Medicine, 1993.
Barrows, Howard S. , and Robyn M. Tamblyn . Problem-Based Learning: An Approach to
MEDICAL Education. New York, NY: Springer, 1980.
Boud, David , and Grahame Feletti . The Challenge of Problem-Based Learning. London:
Kogan Page, 1997.
Charlin, Bernard , Mann, Karen , and Hansen, Penny . The Many Faces of Problem-Based
Learning: A Framework for Understanding and Comparison. Medical Teacher 20, no. 4
(2009): 323330.
Dewey, J. and Dewey, E. Schools of Tomorrow. Literary Licensing. Boston, MA: Dutton and
Company, 2014 (1915).
Duch, Barbara J. , Groh, Susan E. , and Deborah E. Allen . The Power of Problem-Based
Learning a Practical How To for Teaching Undergraduate Courses in any Discipline.
Vancouver: Access and Diversity, Crane Library, University of British Columbia, 2001.
Hayden, Michael . Personalized Learning through Problem-Based Music. December 1, 2015.
https://nafme.org/personalized-learning-through-project-based-music/. Retrieved February
28, 2017.
Hung, Woei , Johanssen, David , and Liu, Rude . Problem Based Learning. In J. M. Spector ,
J. G. van Merrienboer , M. D. Merrill , and M. Driscoll (eds.) Handbook of Research on
Educational Communications and Technology, 3rd ed. New York: Lawrence Erlbaum
Associates, 2008, 485506. Retrieved March 13, 2017.
Kilpatrick, W.H. . The Project Method. Teachers College Record 19, (1918): 319335.
Knoll, M. I Had Made a Mistake: William H. Kilpatrick and the Project Method. Teachers
College Record 112, (2012): 145.
Maudsley, G. Do We All Mean the Same Thing by Problem-Based Learning? A Review of the
Concepts and a Formulation of the Ground Rules. Academic Medicine 74, no. 2 (1999):
178185.
Miller, Andrew . Use PBL to Innovate the Music Classroom, 2012.
www.edutopia.org/blog/project-based-learning-music-andrew-miller. Retrieved February 25,
2017.
Ross, Bob . Towards a Framework for Problem-Based Curricula, In Boud, David , and
Grahame Feletti (eds.) The Challenge of Problem-Based Learning. London: Kogan Page,
1997 (1991), 2835.
Savery, J. , and Duffy, T. Problem-Based Learning: An Instructional Model and its
Constructivist Framework. Educational Technology, 35/5 (1995): 3138.
Duker, Phil . Problem-Based Learning in Music Theory Classes.
http://flipcamp.org/engagingstudents2/essays/duker.html
Engaging Students: Essays in Music Pedagogy, Vol 2 .
http://flipcamp.org/engagingstudents2/index.html
Edutopia . https://www.edutopia.org/blog/pbl-vs-pbl-vs-xbl-john-larmer
PBL Video Archive (primary and secondary education). http://archive.pbl-
online.org/video/video2.htm

Teaching and Learning in Higher Education Music Classes: It Dont

Mean a Thing If It Aint Got That Swing
Goldberg, Merryl Ruth . Arts Integration: Teaching Subject Matter Through the Arts in
Multicultural Settings. New York: Routledge, 2017.
Hawkins, David . The Informed Vision: Essays on Learning and Human Nature. New York:
Algora, 2002.
Piaget, Jean . The Origins of Intelligence in Children/Jean Piaget. Transl. by Margaret Cook.
New York: W. W. Norton & Company, 1963.
Scharmer, C. Otto . Theory U: Leading from the Future as it Emerges: The Social Technology
of Presencing. San Francisco, CA: Berrett-Koehler, 2016.
Vygotskij, Lev Semenovi. The Psychology of Art (Psychologija iskusstva, engl.) Lev
Semenovich Vygotsky. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, 1971. Also check out this website for arts
advocacy tools and tons of research: http://www.csusm.edu/artopp/.

Open Classrooms, Problem-Based Learning, and Adjunct Instructors

Allsup, Randall Everett . Remixing the Classroom: Toward an Open Philosophy of Music
Education. Bloomington and Indianapolis, IN: Indianapolis University Press, 2016.
Burkholder, J. Peter . The Value of a Music History Survey. Journal of Music History
Pedagogy 5 (2015): 5763.
Freire, Paulo . The Banking Concept of Education. In Ways of Reading, edited by David
Bartholomae and Anthony Petrosky, 242254. Boston, MA: Bedford-St. Martins, 2008.
Gibson, Don . The Curricular Standards of NASM and Their Impact on Local Decision
Making. Journal of Music History Pedagogy 5 (2015): 7376.
Hmelo-Silver, Cindy E. Problem-Based Learning: What and How Do Students Learn?
Educational Psychology Review 16 (2004): 235266.
Jonassen, David H. and Woei Hung . Problem-Based Learning. In Encyclopedia of the
Sciences of Learning, edited by Norbert M. Seel, 268790. New York: Springer, 2012.
Lowe, Melanie . Rethinking the Undergraduate Music History Sequence in the Information
Age. Journal of Music History Pedagogy 5 (2015): 6571.
Moore, Robin D. , ed. College Music Curricula for a New Century. New York: Oxford
University Press, 2017.
Nosich, Gerald . Learning to Think Things Through: A Guide to Critical Thinking Across the
Curriculum. Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice Hall, 2011.
38 Roust, Colin . The End of the Undergraduate Music History Sequence? Journal of Music
History Pedagogy 5 (2015): 4951.
Savery, John R. Overview of Problem-Based Learning: Definitions and Distinctions.
Interdisciplinary Journal of Problem-Based Learning 1 (2006): 920.
Seaton, Douglass . Reconsidering Undergraduate Music History: Some Introductory
Thoughts. Journal of Music History Pedagogy 5 (2015): 5356.
Tai, Gillian Xiao-Lian and May Chan Yuen , Authentic Assessment Strategies in Problem
Based Learning. In ICT: Providing Choices for Learners and LearningProceedings ascilite
Singapore 2007, 983993. Accessed August 24, 2016.
http://www.ascilite.org/conferences/singapore07/procs/.
Tough, Paul . Helping Children Succeed: What Works and Why. Boston, MA: Houghton
Mifflin, 2016.
Torp, Linda and Sara Sage . Problems as Possibilities: Problem-Based Learning for K16
Education. Alexandria, VA: Association for Supervision and Curriculum Development, 2002.
Walker, Andrew , Heather Leary , Cindy Hmelo-Silver , and Peggy A. Ertmer , eds. Essential
Readings in Problem-Based Learning: Exploring and Extending the Legacy of Howard S.
Barrows. West Lafayette, IN: Purdue University Press, 2015.
Walsh, Allyn . The Tutor in PBL: A Novices Guide. Hamilton, ON: McMaster University, 2005.
Weimer, Maryellen . Learner-Centered Teaching: Five Key Changes to Practice. San
Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass, 2002.
Woods, Donald R. Preparing for PBL. Third edition, 2006. Accessed September 27, 2016.
www.chemeng.mcmaster.ca/sites/default/files/media/Woods-Preparing-for-PBL.pdf.
Yang, Hon-Lun . Teaching Music History at Hong Kong Baptist University: Problem-Based
Learning and Outcome-Based Teaching and Learning. Journal of Music History Pedagogy 4
(2014): 329332.
Problem-Based Learning in the Music Appreciation Course
Bailey, Wayne . In Performance. Oxford University Press, 2015.

Toward Integrating Problem-Based Learning in an Ethnomusicology

Curriculum: Case Study with the Music Traditions of Africa Course
Agawu, Kofi . Representing African Music: Postcolonial Notes, Queries, Positions. New York:
Routledge, 2003.
Erlmann, Veit . Resisting Sameness: propos Kofi Agawus Representing African Music. Music
Theory Spectrum 26, no. 2 (2004): 291304.
Jonassen, David H. Toward a Design Theory of Problem Solving. Educational Technology
Research and Development 48, no. 4 (2000): 6385.
Jonassen, David H. and Woei Hung . All Problems are Not Equal: Implications for Problem-
Based Learning. Interdisciplinary Journal of Problem-Based Learning 2 no. 2 (2008): 628.
Meintjes, Louise . Representing African Music: Postcolonial Notes, Queries, Positions by Kofi
Agawu. Journal of the American Musicological Society 59, no. 3 (2006): 769777.
Smith, Thomas E. and Clifford E. Knapp , eds. Sourcebook of Experiential Education: Key
Thinkers and their Contributions. New York: Routledge, 2011.
Stone, Jon R. The Routledge Book of World Proverbs. New York: Routledge, 2006.

Diversity and Collaboration in Modern Africa and in the (Mostly)

Online Classroom
Khapoya, Vincent B. The African Experience, Fourth Edition. Upper Saddle River, NJ:
Pearson, 2013.
Savery, John R. Overview of Problem-based Learning: Definitions and Distinctions.
Interdisciplinary Journal of Problem-based Learning 1/I, 2006, 920.
Shelemay, Kay Kaufman . Soundscapes: Exploring Music in a Changing World, Third Edition.
New York: W.W. Norton, 2015.

Designing and Implementing Collaborative Student-Driven Research

Projects: A New Framework for Learning in the Ethnomusicology
Classroom
Adinkra Symbols: African Symbols from the Akans of Ghana . The 50 Most Important Akan
Proverbs. Accessed January 4, 2018. www.adinkrasymbols.org/the-50-most-important-akan-
proverbs/.
Afropop Worldwide . Accessed January 19, 2018. http://afropop.org/.
Beaudry, Nicole . The Challenges of Human Relations in Ethnographic Inquiry: Examples
from Arctic and Subarctic Fieldwork. In Shadows in the Field: New Perspectives for Fieldwork
in Ethnomusicology, edited by Gregory Barz and Timothy Cooley , 224245. 2nd Edition. New
York: Oxford University Press, 2008.
Brame, Cynthia J. and Rachel Biel . Setting Up and Facilitating Group Work: Using
Cooperative Learning Groups Effectively. 2015. Accessed January 3, 2018.
http://cft.vanderbilt.edu/guides-sub-pages/setting-up-and-facilitating-group-work-using-
cooperative-learning-groups-effectively/.
Burns, James . Female Voices from an Ewe Dance-Drumming Community in Ghana: Our
Music Has Become a Divine Spirit. Burlington, VT: Ashgate, 2009.
Campbell, Patricia Shehan . Teaching Music Globally. New York: Oxford University Press,
2004.
Collins, Caron L. and Danni Gilbert . Curious, Collaborative Creativity: A Guide for
Transforming Music Ensembles. E-book, 2017. www.curiouscollaborativecreativity.com/e-
book.html
Gilbert, Danni . Curious, Collaborative, Creativity: Applying Student-Centered Principles to
Performing Ensembles. Music Educators Journal 103, no. 2 (2016): 2734.
Hunter, Julie E. The Rise of Womens Drumming in Africa: Performing Gender and
Transforming Community in Southeastern Ghana. Ph.D., Brown University, 2012.
https://repository.library.brown.edu/studio/item/bdr:297686/.
Johnson, David W. and Roger T. Johnson . Making Cooperative Learning Work. Theory Into
Practice 38, no. 2 (1999): 6773.
Jonassen, David H. and Woei Hung . Problem-Based Learning. In Encyclopedia of the
Sciences of Learning, edited by Norbert M. Seel, 268790. New York: Springer, 2012.
My Adirondack Home . YouTube Video, 3:34. Posted by M Hibit, February, 2017. Accessed
January 1, 2018. www.youtube.com/watch?time_continue=2&v=kUocAvWgsHs.
Nettl, Bruno and Timothy Rommen . Excursions in World Music. 7th Edition. New York:
Routledge, 2017.
Ruch, David . Personal communication with author on January 2, 2018.
Savery, John . Overview of Problem-based Learning: Definitions and Distinctions.
International Journal of Problem-Based Learning 1, no. 1 (2006): 920.
Shelemay, Kay Kaufman . Soundscapes: Exploring Music in a Changing World. 3rd Edition.
New York: W.W. Norton & Company, 2015.
Smithsonian Folkways Recordings. Accessed January 19, 2018. https://folkways.si.edu
Songs to Keep: Treasures of an Adirondack Folk Collector . Directed by Paul Larson.
Mountain Lake PBS, 2013. DVD.
Songs to Keep: The Adirondack North Country Songs Reimagined . Canton, NY: Traditional
Arts of Upstate New York (TAUNY), 2013. Compact Disc.
Songs to Keep: Traditional Adirondack North Country Songs . Canton, NY: Traditional Arts of
Upstate New York (TAUNY), 2013.
Titon, Jeff Todd . Knowing Fieldwork. In Shadows in the Field: New Perspectives for
Fieldwork in Ethnomusicology, edited by Gregory Barz and Timothy Cooley , 2541. 2nd
Edition. New York: Oxford University Press, 2008.
114 Titon, Jeff Todd , ed. Worlds of Music: Music of the Worlds Peoples. 6th Edition.
Belmont, CA: Cengage Schirmer Learning, 2017.
TAUNY: Traditional Arts of Upstate New York . Accessed January 19, 2018. http://tauny.org.
What is Project Based Learning? . Accessed January 1, 2018. www.bie.org/about/what_pbl.
Yang, Hon-Lun . Teaching Music History at Hong Kong Baptist University: Problem-Based
Learning and Outcome Based Teaching and Learning. Journal of Music History Pedagogy 4,
no. 2 (2014): 329332.
Younge, Paschal Yao . Musical Traditions of Ghana, Volume 1: A Hand Book for Music
Teachers and Instructors of West African Drumming. Legon: University of Ghana School of
Performing Arts, 1992.
Younge, Paschal Yao . Music and Dance Traditions of Ghana: History, Performance and
Teaching. Jefferson, NC: McFarland & Company, 2011.

Kinesics and Music Performance in the Introductory Music Class

Birdwhistell, Ray L. Kinesics and Context: Essays on Body Motion Communication.
Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 2007 [1970].
Dalcroze Society of America - Welcome to the 2018 DSA National Conference! Dalcroze
Society of America - Welcome to the 2018 DSA National Conference!, http://dalcrozeusa.org/
Owens, Dewey . Carlos Salzedo, from Aeolian to Thunder: a Biography. Chiago, IL: Lyon &
Healy Harps, 1993.
Wurdinger, Scott D. and Julie Carlson . Teaching for Experiential Learning: Five Approaches
That Work. New York: Rowman and Littlefield, 2009.
Using Movement as a Vehicle for Problem-Based Learning in
Introductory Music Courses
Bruner, Jerome . On Knowing: Essays for the Left Hand, 2nd Edition. Cambridge, MA:
Harvard University Press, 1979.
Jacobson, Eric . Structural Integration: Origins and Development. The Journal of Alternative
and Complementary Medicine 17, no. 9 (2011): 775780.
Jaques-Dalcroze, Emile. Rhythm Music & Education. Burgess Hill : Burnetts Printing Works,
1921.
Klickstein, Gerald . The Musicians Way. New York: Oxford University Press, 2009.
McCutchen, Brenda Pugh . Teaching Dance as Art in Education. Champaign, IL: Human
Kinetics, 2006.
Morillon, Benjamin and Sylvain Baillet . Motor Origin of Temporal Predictions in Auditory
Attention. PNAS 114, no. 42 (October 2017): E8913E8921.
Olmstead, Mary . Yo-Yo Ma. Chicago, IL: Raintree, 2006.
Pierce, Alexandra . Deepening Musical Performance through Movement. Bloomington:
Indiana University Press, 2007.
Savery, John . Overview of Problem-based Learning: Definitions and Distinctions.
Interdisciplinary Journal of Problem-Based Learning 1, no. 1 (Spring 2006): 920.
Stevens, Daniel . Problem-Based Learning in the Music Classroom, a Rationale. Engaging
Students: An Unconference and Journal on Classroom Music Pedagogy 2, (2014): 16.
Studd, Karen and Laura Cox . Every Body Is A Body. Indianapolis, IN: Dog Ear Publishing,
2013.
Yang, Hon-Lun . Teaching Music History at Hong Kong Baptist University: Problem-Based
learning and Outcome-Based Teaching and Learning. Journal of Music History Pedagogy, 4
no. 2 (2014): 329332.

Problem-Based Projects in the Music Education Class

Vygotsky, L. Mind in Society: Development of Higher Psychological Processes. Cambridge,
MA: Harvard University Press, 1978.

Best Practices for Problem-Based Learning in the College Music

Classroom
For good introductions to PBL, see David H. Jonassen and Woei Hung , Problem-based
Learning, In Encyclopedia of the Sciences of Learning, edited by WHO. Heidelberg: Springer,
2012, 268790; Andrew Walker , Heather Leary , Cindy Hmelo-Silver , and Peggy A. Ertmer ,
eds., Essential Readings in Problem-Based Learning: Exploring and Extending the Legacy of
Howard S. Barrows. West Lafayette, IN: Purdue University Press, 2015; and Allyn Walsh,
The Tutor in PBL: A Novices Guide. Hamilton, ON: McMaster University, 2005.