Preface

The intent of this workbook is to assist facilitators in the design and delivery of
Tactical Decision Games (TDGS) and Sand Table Exercises (STEX). The first
part of this workbook focuses on the design of specific exercises, while the second
part focuses on delivery techniques that will enhance the success and effectiveness
of the exercises. TDGS/STEX properly designed and delivered, will allow
firefighters on your unit to practice situational assessment, to consider and select
courses of action, and to practice communicating those decisions.

This is a product of an ongoing training and information exchange between the

National Interagency Fire Center and the U.S. Marine Corps University. The
Leadership Committee of the NWCG Training Working Team sponsored this
project. Project team members were:

Rich Caballero Bureau of Land Management - NIFC

Jim Cook U.S. Forest Service - NIFC
Brian Eldredge Bureau of Land Management – NIFC
Curtis Heaton U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service
Ted Mason Bureau of Land Management - NIFC
Dennis Pratt U.S. Forest Service - Sawtooth National Forest
Larry Sutton Bureau of Land Management - NIFC
Greg Vergari U.S. Forest Service - Region 4

Based on “The How To of Tactical Decision Games” by Major John F. Schmitt,

United States Marine Corps, 1994. Marine Corps University publications.

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 Contents
Introduction ………. ……………………………………… 3

Part I – Design
Designing Tactical Decision Games………………..……… 6
How TDGS Work………………………………..…. 6
How to Design a TDGS…….…… …………..…… 9

Part II - Delivery
Delivering Tactical Decision Games …………………….. 11
The Facilitator Role……..….………….…….…….. 11
Facilitation Techniques….…………….…….....…. 13

Appendix A –
Example TDGS/STEX #1 ..…………..………….. 16
Example TDGS/STEX #2 ..…………..………….. 18
Example TDGS/STEX #3 ..…………..………….. 20
Example TDGS/STEX #4 ..…………..………….. 22
Example TDGS/STEX #5 ..…………..………….. 24

Appendix B - STEX Facilitator Guide …………...…..... 26

Appendix C – STEX Props & Accessories .……………. 28

Appendix D – STEX Table Plans ..……………………... 29

2
Introduction: Why Play When There's Work To Do?
Time: July 10, 1530 hours
Place: West facing, brush and grass covered slope in the foothill country near
Prescott, Arizona.
Weather: Temperature 92º; Winds are up-slope 5 to 8 mph; Sky is mostly clear with
some developing cumulus clouds.
Situation: You are the leader of a six-person squad tasked with patrolling and holding a
lined section of a 150 acre wildland fire that started three hours ago. Your
Crew Boss has expressed confidence in your ability to hold that section.
Squad members are hot and tired but remain enthusiastic after two hours of
initial attack hotline activity. The Squad has reassembled after containing
spot fires generated by embers from reburn activity within the original
containment line. You observe continued reburn activity. Your lookout
reports two and possibly three new spot fires 100' and 150' directly down
slope from your position.

What is your selected course of action? Make a decision within the next 10 seconds.

Did you make the call? Did you want more information? Did you look for the right
answers in the following paragraphs? Did you dismiss this as just another paper fire that
isn't the real thing because you've seen the real thing and you know what to do here?

Analytical Decision-making

Most of us are familiar and comfortable with the concept of making a well-reasoned
decision based on carefully gathered facts balanced with assigned values and weighed
against expected outcomes. We gain certainty that through methodical analysis we have
arrived at the best possible decision. This analytical decision-making model should work
well if the facts are not variable, the decision-making environment is held constant, there
are no time constraints, and human factors are limited to our personal values. The
essential factors in analytical decision-making are careful analysis and reasoning power.
If only you could get everyone to be quiet and you could get away for a while to make
that 10 second decision.

Intuitive Decision-making

If you were able to make a 10 second decision in the scenario presented above, chances
are you exercised your experience gained on the fireline and the skill of intuitive
decision-making. The essential factor in intuitive decision-making is experience. That
experience allows recognition of similarities to previous situations. A pattern of typical
cause and effect develops to allow a decision that does not require analysis or reason.
3
You simply know what to do. The more experience gained in applying a variety of
patterns, the more likely you'll know what to do, even if you've never seen the real thing.

Tactical Decision Games

There is no substitute for experience of the real thing, but it can be hard to come by and
tragically unforgiving. Fortunately there exists a supplement to the school of hard
knocks. Pattern recognition skills can be improved, and tactical decision-making can be
practiced and refined. Tactical decision games (TDGS) are basically role-playing paper
exercises and in the case of sand table exercises (STEX- see below) can incorporate three
dimensional terrain models. The reason for doing TDGS is to provide firefighters with
an opportunity to 1) practice the decision-making process, and 2) practice the proper
communication in regards to their decisions. TDGS provide a simple, adaptable, and
effective method of repeatedly challenging a firefighter with tactical situations that
include limitations of time and information. By requiring a solution to the situation and
the ability to communicate it in the form of clear instructions, the firefighter will gain
precious experience and skill in actual tactical decision-making.

Recent course development for wildland firefighter training has included, Lessons
Learned: Fatality Fire Case Studies, Human Factors on the Fireline, and Fireline
Leadership. These courses have appropriately focused attention on the variable that
traditional fire suppression courses have overlooked and the one variable that will always
determine the outcomes of fire suppression activity; human factors and the decisions they
influence. TDGS are a logical step in blending the skills and tactics taught in
conventional wildland fire courses and lessons learned from the newest body of human
factors coursework.

Because the purpose of TDGS is to build breadth of experience in decision-making and

communication, it is important to employ this process frequently at the crew level. In
addition to developing individual decision-making skills, the practice will allow
crewmembers to learn from each other and to gain an understanding of how each
crewmember makes decisions. Each game played, like every fire experienced, will add
to the collective reservoir of experience in the wildland fire community.

The Sand Table Exercise

The Sand Table Exercise (STEX) is a tactical decision game that employs a three-
dimensional terrain model with various props to represent either assets or liabilities.
Advantages of the STEX over the two-dimensional maps other exercises employ include:
enabling the learners to "experience" the terrain features of their problem; engaging
learners by engineering a learning environment that fosters proximity; eye contact; free
movement and presents the learner an almost irresistible attraction to get their hands on
4
the problem. Another benefit is the lesson of perspective that many fireline firefighters
don't have the opportunity to experience or learn. The sand table impresses the
importance of "top-sight", the ability to see how individual pieces of the problem fit into
and affect the whole, thus preparing squad and crew level firefighters for tactical and
strategic command. The sand table presents some challenge of portability but when
conditions and logistics allow, it is the medium of choice for TDGS.

5
 PART I
Designing Tactical Decision Games

How TDGS Work

1. TDGS are Simple…Keep them Simple.

• Role-Playing. The players are put in the role of a leader of a given unit in a given
situation with given resources and a given scenario.
• Limited Information. The players will not have as much information about the
scenario as they might like. This is an important feature of TDGS; uncertainty,
confusion and complications are basic characteristics of tactical decision-making.
• Limited Time. The players will have limited time to make a decision, since this is
also a feature of making tactical decisions.
• Face a Dilemma. The scenario puts the players in a tactical situation requiring
some sort of decision; a problem requiring a solution. Despite the above
limitations, the players must come up with a workable solution.
• After Action Review (AAR). The players analyze or discuss their solution as a
means of drawing out the lesson of the experience.

2. The Primary Objectives of TDGS

• Exercise decision-making skills in a tactical context. This is the fundamental

objective!
• Practice communicating decisions. Players must communicate decisions using
the standard briefing format outlined in the Incident Response Pocket Guide
(IRPG) and by giving clear text instructions.
• Provide vicarious experience to develop pattern recognition skills. Experience
is the only way to develop the pattern recognition skills that are essential for
effective decision-making. Since actual fire experience may be limited and
involves certain risk, TDGS provide a substitute.

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3. Additional Benefits

In addition to the primary objectives, TDGS offer several secondary benefits:

• Illustrate tactical concepts. Effective use of fire suppression methods and
techniques, resource capabilities and resource deployment, etc. can be explained as
part of the post scenario discussion.
• Develop implicit understanding. By building a sense of teamwork and a shared
way of thinking among members of a unit, TDGS become a way of working out
informal SOP’s or contingencies.

4. The "Rules" of TDGS

There are only three Rules:

• Time Limit. Since fireline tactics are usually a time-compressed activity, a time
limit is essential. Players should feel as though they have less time than they need
to make a decision.
• Decisions as Instructions. Briefings and clear text instructions are the correct
way to express tactical decisions, so TDGS solutions should take the same form.
Players will be expected to explain their decision afterward, but the rule is "decide
first, then discuss". The objective is to encourage decisiveness.
• No School or Facilitator Solutions. There are a number of ways to solve any
tactical problem, so there should not be any "school" answers. What decision a
player made is less important than why they made it. In fact, since creativity is a
prized trait in tacticians, unusual solutions should be encouraged and recognized.

5. Ways to Play TDGS

Three basic methods may be used:

• Solitaire. The player solves the problem like solving a crossword puzzle or
brainteaser.
• Seminar. A group of players, led by a designated facilitator, solve the problem (as
individuals) and then discuss and compare solutions. The ideal group is anywhere
from 4-12 players.
• Dynamic, Multi-Resource. A more advanced version where a fire situation
evolves along a timeline. Players represent adjoining forces and must respond to
changing situations. The facilitator uses their judgment to assess outcomes of
individual solutions and coordination of solutions. Facilitator controls evolution
with the purpose of generating new tactical challenges.

7
6. Workbook focus is on the Seminar Format.

There are several advantages to using TDGS in a seminar format:

• Interactive. The seminar format allows the opportunity for discussions about
tactical issues and concepts. Players get an immediate feedback on their solutions
from the facilitator and from peers.
• Sitting in the Hot Seat. Players feel the pressure of having their tactical skills on
public display. Most people are naturally competitive and will be motivated to
perform well in a group setting.
• Learn from Others. There are a number of ways to solve any tactical problem.
Players have the opportunity to see how others solved the same problem and can
incorporate those lessons into their own tactical repertoire.
• Practice Giving Instructions. During TDGS, as in real-life situations, tactical
decisions must be expressed in the form of clear instructions. Giving clear, concise
instructions is a skill that improves with practice. The seminar provides a setting
for practicing that skill under time pressure.
• More Fun. The seminar, if done properly, is simply a more interesting and
satisfying experience. The more interesting the experience, the better the learning.

7. Limitations

TDGS are a very useful training and education tool, but they have limitations to
be aware of:
• One Move. Except in the Dynamic version, TDGS represent a single "snapshot in
time" and require the players to make only one move. Therefore TDGS do not
capture the on-going interactive nature of tactics.
• Don't Have to Execute. TDGS and STEX are paper or sand box fires. What
matters in the end is execution, which is something TDGS don't require. It is
important to keep this in mind, because execution is one of the things that make
tactics so difficult.
• Works best at the Initial Attack/Extended Attack/Division level: That is not to
say they don’t work above or below those levels, but they are more difficult to
design. At higher levels, decision cycles tend to be longer, thus the scenario must
describe a situation developing over a long period of time. At lower levels, maps
tend to require micro-terrain details.
• Special Operations. Intricate firing plans, jump/rappel site selection, extensive
water shows, etc. generally require a lot of detailed, technical information and are
consequently difficult to design.

8
How to Design a TDGS
1. TDGS as a Story

• Think of TDGS as short action stories. Set the stage, introduce the characters,
add more and more info (some of it confusing) and build to a problem that begs for
a solution. Instead of telling how the story turns out, stop right at the climactic
moment and require the player to finish the story.
• Explore Different Techniques. There is no single best way to design good
TDGS. The trick is to find a technique that works for you as a facilitator.

2. Format the TDGS

• Tell the players who they are. When they read or hear the scenario, they'll know
what point of view to take. For example: "You are an Engine Captain assigned to
Strike Team 1721 with the Structure Protection Group."
• Describe the Scenario. Provide information on terrain, weather, fuels, fire
behavior (intensity, rate and direction of spread), and overall strategy set by
incident commander or other management guidance. Go from general to specific.
It is important to model good briefing procedures. For example: If the TDGS is a
squad leader level problem, describe the division situation, then the crew situation,
and then the squad's situation. Utilize the briefing checklist in the IRPG but omit
the information regarding the specific tactical mission and contingency plans. Tell
the players what resources they have available. Give the players the information
needed to make the necessary decisions for the given situation, but don’t make
their decision for them.
• Describe Events Chronologically. The last event described should be the event
that puts the finishing touches on the dilemma; it should be the thing that makes
clear that a decision should be made.

3. Potential Sources for TDGS

• History. Use historical fire case studies found in available training courses. Use
Incident Action Plans from previous fires. Use local fire history or evidence of
local fire scars as a basis for development.
• Own Experience. Caveat: with this and the above source, don't fall into the trap
that historical ending or personal solutions are the "right" solutions. Be prepared to
learn as much as the players. Remember the third rule of TDGS – “No School or
Facilitator Solutions”
• Create a Dilemma. Start with a basic problem common to fire operations. Fill in
the situational details.
9
 • Random Topographic Selection. Select a piece of terrain from local
surroundings or from topographical maps that represents a typical local fire
suppression challenge. Apply a situation to your chosen terrain. This can be
effective in familiarizing initial attack forces with local response areas, initial
attack SOP’s, and pre-attack planning.

4. Basic Types of TDGS

• "Here is the Mission." Format the TDGS. Provide the situational factors. The
object then becomes to come up with a plan for accomplishing the mission. This is
the simpler form of TDGS.
• "Now What?" This type of TDGS involves the above, plus more. As the player
begins to execute the plan some unforeseen event occurs which changes the whole
scenario. The object is to react to the new situation in a way that is consistent with
the higher commander's intent or established policy. One way to create a "Now
What?" TDGS is to create a "Here's the Mission" TDGS, solve it yourself, and then
have something go wrong with the execution of the solution.

5. Design a Problem, Not a Solution

• Start with a Problem in Mind. It is usually better to start with a problem and
allow the players to create solutions than it is to start with a solution and work
backward to create a scenario to support it. In the latter case, the scenario usually
turns out to be obvious and contrived - almost like a leading question for which
there is only one "right" answer. The problem you start with must lead players
directly to the decision-making and communication training objectives you have
identified for your TDGS session.
• Create Uncertainty.
o Lack of information. Some information is simply missing.
o Ambiguity. Information is unclear, inconclusive, or even contradictory.
• Create Friction. Things don’t always go as planned or expected. Challenging
TDGS incorporate a healthy dose of Murphy's Law. Units get lost,
communications break down, equipment fails, and/or fire behavior changes
dramatically. Consider the experience level of players when designing
complexities so that you don't set players up for failure.

6. Review and Evaluate

• Design Evaluation into TDGS. In addition to the After Action Review (AAR)
players use to analyze their solutions and draw tactical decision-making lessons,
consider an AAR of the TDGS process itself to derive lessons for designing and
facilitating future games.
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 PART II
Delivering Tactical Decision Games
The Facilitator Role
1. The Facilitator’s Responsibilities

• Prepare for the Exercise. The facilitator must have a thorough knowledge of the
scenario being presented and be prepared to address a variety of possible decisions
made by the players.
• Present the Scenario. First, the facilitator presents the scenario to the group.
Orient the group to the map or sand table and explain the scenario. Answer
questions the players may have about the situation. The facilitator should answer
questions about the scenario which the players would reasonably have knowledge
of, but the facilitator should not eliminate all uncertainties. "Sorry, I don't know
the answer to that" is a reasonable answer to many questions.
• Choose Player(s) to Present Solutions. Generally, it is better to select a player to
present solutions than to ask for volunteers. Players should not feel like they can
escape the challenge by simply not volunteering. They should feel like they have
as much chance as anybody else does, since this adds to the stress. The facilitator
should attempt to identify players who try to make excuses or actively try to avoid
presenting a solution and ensure their involvement.
• Enforce the “Time Limit” rule. Time compression creates stress.
• Enforce the “Decisions as Instructions” rule. Assign other players roles as the
recipients of instructions or communications. Players must simulate giving their
instructions either face-to-face or over the radio. Do not allow “I would of done
this…” statements. Use the Briefing Checklist format found in the IRPG.
• Question the Thought Process. One of the most important things the facilitator
does is probe the player's thought process in order to get the player to explain their
rationale. Useful questions include:
o "Why did you do this or that?"
o "What was your overall assessment of the situation?"
o "What would you have done if...?"
o "What were your assumptions about the situation?"
o "What is your biggest concern about your plan?"
o “What information from the briefing was critical to you and why?”
o “What risks are you taking? Explain your Risk vs. Benefit analysis?

11
 • Draw-out Lessons. Finally, the facilitator should summarize the lessons that the
session has illustrated. Use the After Action Review format found in the IRPG to
increase player familiarity with that reference.

2. The Traits of a Good Facilitator

• Enthusiastic Delivery. This is perhaps the most important trait. If the facilitator
is enthusiastic about the subject, enjoys TDGS, and believes in the value of TDGS
as a learning tool, their feelings will be contagious to the players.
• Prepared and Tactically Knowledgeable. In order to lead the discussion and
provide a useful review, the facilitator must know the subject matter. This skill is
especially important since there is no single correct “school” solution to these
problems. The facilitator should be familiar with the particular scenario and be
able to discuss it intelligently. Usually, the best ways to gain that familiarity are to
have designed the scenario or to have played it. The facilitator should not have a
“correct” tactical answer to the problem in mind. There should, in fact, be no real
right answer. By the facilitator endorsing one tactic over another, we run the risk
of inadvertently giving the players a “school” solution to a problem. This may lead
the player into thinking that given a similar situation, certain tactics are the only
possible solution for that particular scenario. The facilitator needs to remember
that we are not teaching tactics but rather a decision making process. The
facilitator needs to reinforce the process, not the tactics, so the players will gain
ownership in the process. While recognizing that there may be several right
answers that could actually work on the ground, facilitators must be able to
identify plans that would obviously fail or are not safe or tactically sound.
Preparing discussion points for common solutions and for obviously unsound or
unsafe solutions is recommended.
• Adapt to the Unexpected. Since there is no “school” solution to TDGS, the
facilitator must be able to think on his/her feet. No two seminars (even using the
same TDGS) will turn out remotely the same. Players will invariably come up
with unexpected questions or solutions. The discussion will present unexpected
opportunities to provide impromptu lessons about key tactical concepts. The
facilitator must be able to adapt quickly to unforeseen circumstances resulting from
player developed plans or contingencies. For example, in an initial attack scenario
the player IC resolves the scenario by calling for retardant instead of calling for
additional engines identified in the scenario briefing. The facilitator must be
prepared to provide additional inputs (either constraints or additional objectives) if
necessary to involve these additional resources.
• Keep it Interesting. The facilitator keeps the session interesting by keeping the
discussion moving briskly, by involving as many of the players as possible, and by
making relevant and useful points. Without trivializing the subject matter, it is
generally a good idea to "leave them wanting more". In other words, not to beat
12
 each point to death but to break off discussion before saturation point. A good sign
is when the players are still debating as they leave the TDGS.
• Don't Dominate the Discussion. A good facilitator does not lecture, but has the
ability to help the players recognize the lessons themselves, facilitating learning
rather than trying to impart it. In general, the less talking the facilitator must do
the better the session is going.
• Review Without Being Critical. Offering constructive criticism is essential.
While there may be no absolute right or wrong answers, some solutions have more
merit than others and the facilitator must be able to make those judgments. At the
same time, the facilitator should offer reviews in ways that do not embarrass any
player in front of the group. A blend of candor and tact is required.
• Manage the Group. This means the ability to get as many people involved in the
discussion as possible. The facilitator should prevent individuals from dominating
the discussion. This is especially important when the group consists of widely
different experience levels. It is important to set a tone of open candor, regardless
of seniority.

Facilitation Techniques
1. The Art of Asking Questions

• Active Listening. It is important that a facilitator knows when to ask questions,

how to ask and answer questions, and how to defer questions or bounce them off
the rest of the group. In essence the facilitator must combine appropriate questions
with active listening.
• Socratic Teaching Method. The Socratic method of teaching is an effective
technique to consider when delivering TDGS/STEX. This method is effective
because one of the most important things the facilitator does is probe the player's
thought process in order to get the player to explain their rationale. The Webster’s
Dictionary defines Socratic as:

Socratic: of or relating to Socrates, his followers, or his philosophical method of

systematic doubt and questioning of another to elicit a clear expression of something
supposed to be implicitly known by all rational beings.

13
 • Avoid Leading Questions. This will cause the player to believe there is a
“textbook” answer you are looking for. Examples of questions to avoid:
o "Wouldn’t this have been a more effective course of action?"
Suggested change: “Did you evaluate any other alternatives?”
o "Do you really think that will work?"
Suggested change: “On a scale of 1 to 10, what do you think is your
probability of success? Explain?”
o “So by using airtankers, you really think you can still use direct attack on
this flank?”
Suggested change: “What would you do if the airtanker drops missed the
target?”
o “Don’t you think that hill is too steep for a dozer?”
Suggested change: “What information did you use in choosing a dozer for
this assignment? Is there anything else you should consider before using a
dozer?”
• It’s About Decision-making. Remember that TDGS are exercises in decision-
making, not an academic test on choosing a predetermined “correct” tactic from a
list of alternatives. Your questions should help the players focus on their decision-
making thought process. They should help the players clarify what information
inputs are consciously and subconsciously important to them and how that
information was used in the decision-making process.

2. Teaching to the Objective

• Specific Objectives. It is essential that TDGS are set-up with specific learning
objectives in mind. It is the facilitator’s responsibility to ensure that the exercise
and discussions do not stray away from the purpose of the training. The facilitator
should refrain from lecturing and allow the participants to teach each other.
Remember, the main purpose of TDGS is to understand and exercise the decision-
making process in a tactical context and to properly communicate their decisions.
Be prepared to ask thought provoking questions when the discussion slows down
and to cut discussion when the point has been made and requires no additional
discussion. Guide the discussion, keeping the focus on the objectives in a logical
sequence. Avoid detailed examination of events not directly related to major
training objectives.

14
3. Briefing & Clear Instructions

• Communication Using the Briefing Checklist. The briefing format outlined in the
IRPG and clear text instructions are the means by which fireline leaders should
convey their decisions to others. Although this standard format helps to organize
information, the content and substance are what is important in giving clear
instructions. Clear instructions should convey the following essential information:
.
o Overview of the situation including elements or anticipated changes in the
situation that could significantly influence the actions of the unit.

o The mission and commander's intent – what the task is, why it needs to be done,
how to do it, and what the intended end result of the action is.

o Coordinating instructions - what each unit is to do and when.

o Communication methods to be used between individuals and between adjoining

forces.

o Identification of known hazards and planned controls for those hazards.

15
Appendix A
EXAMPLE TDGS/STEX #1
OBJECTIVE:
Players must decide how the fire can be safely approached and then verbally communicate their decision
to the appropriate individuals. The objective should not be revealed to experienced players.

SCENARIO:
You are the leader of an initial attack module (SELECT: Engine, IHC squad, Helitack crew, SMJ Sticks,
etc.) being activated for a dry lightning storm that has ignited several fires in your response area. The
module has not worked together for very long but you know they have been trained well…you did it
yourself. This is the module’s first fire and everyone is excited about getting out and throwing some
dirt. The module consists of four firefighters – yourself, one second season firefighter, and two rookie
firefighters. You are equipped with one chainsaw, two backpack pumps, a full compliment of hand
tools, and a two-way radio.

The Fire Management Officer is swamped; several of the new fires appear to be growing larger. He
calls you in and gives you the specific location information for the fire. His instructions are to “Keep
this one small, I’ll try to get you some help if you need it, but for now you are on your own. Call the
dispatcher with a size-up and keep me posted. Hey! Let’s be careful out there.”

As you travel to the fire (SELECT: Mode of travel consistent with module type) you note the weather
and fuel conditions (DESCRIBE: Typical local conditions for mid-season and map distance scale).
Also during your travel out to the fire you hear the Aerial Recon tell dispatch that your fire looks to be
about a ½ acre in size with some flame showing. After walking about ½ mile from your drop off point
traveling south through a saddle, you and your module are finally able to see the smoke from the fire, it
is below you and to your right (DESCRIBE: How the smoke column looks). The time is 1000.

EXECUTION:
Allow 5 minutes for the players to decide on their course of action.

Select player(s) to communicate their decisions to their subordinates (other players assuming the roles of
crewmembers).

The “Murphy’s Law Suggestions” listed below can be added as “What Ifs” at any time during the
scenario to raise the stress level of the leader or use one of your own:
• The fuels make foot travel difficult or fuels are continuous cured grass
• Time of day is late in the burning period
• Cannot see any sign of the fire during the approach
• Wind shifts or increases
• Other crewmembers voice differing opinions
• The facilitator role plays a concerned Dispatcher or FMO demanding feedback

16
17
 EXAMPLE TDGS/STEX #2
OBJECTIVE: Players must decide between an offensive strategy or a defensive strategy and how to
assign their resources…and then verbally communicate their decisions to the appropriate individuals.
The objective should not be revealed to experienced players

SCENARIO:
You are a Task Force Leader in charge of severity Task Force Alpha. The task force was formed
yesterday and is a real mixed bag of experience. These resources have never worked together before
and you think this may be a tough assignment. The task force is made up of three Type 3 Engines; one
Type 2 Water Tender; one Hotshot Crew; and one Type 2 Handcrew.

The ordering unit has been experiencing new fire starts from lightning over the previous two days. The
local FMO meets you first thing in the morning giving you travel and communication instructions and
the run down on the fire situation: “My I.A. forces are shot. I had to pull my folks off the Fish Creek
Fire due to fatigue. I want to turn it over to you as the Incident Commander with Task Force Alpha as
your resources. We caught several of the new starts last night but this Fish Creek Fire worries me. I’m
getting concerned about those structures. I’ve ordered air tankers but who knows when we’ll see them.
I’ll try to get out to the fire this afternoon, keep me informed on your progress and good luck.”

As you travel to the fire you note the weather and fuel conditions (DESCRIBE: Typical local conditions
for mid-season and map distance scale). As you get near the location given to you by the FMO you see
smoke at the top of a hill south of the road (DESCRIBE: How the smoke column looks). An individual
alongside the road flags you down. It is the Initial Attack IC. She tells you the following: the fire is
about 30 acres with a couple of small spot fires; the fire settled down real well after midnight; they got
line around about 25% of the fire’s edge; the fuels in front of the fire provide good spread potential; and
there is a small community north of the fire. Your task force has followed you out to the fire and they
are impatiently awaiting your orders. The time is 1000.

EXECUTION:
Allow 5 minutes for the players to decide on their course of action.

Select player(s) to communicate their decisions to their subordinates (other players assuming the roles of
crewmembers).

The “Murphy’s Law Suggestions” listed below can be added as “What Ifs” at any time during the
scenario to raise the stress level of the leader or use one of your own:
• Engine breaks down
• Time of day is later in the burning period
• A new fire start is discovered nearby
• Wind shifts or increases
• Two of the engine crews are very inexperienced
• Hotshot Superintendent is adamant about burning out the road immediately

18
19
 EXAMPLE TDGS/STEX #3
OBJECTIVE: Players must decide if the situation is defensible and how to assign their resources…and
then verbally communicate their decisions to the appropriate individuals. The objective should not be
revealed to experienced players

SCENARIO:
You are a Division/Group Supervisor assigned to Division A of the Fish Creek Fire. Your division has
the following resources assigned: one Strike Team of Type 3 Engines with a Strike Team Leader; two
Type 2 Water Tenders; one Hotshot crew; one Type 2 Handcrew without chainsaws; one Type 2 Dozer;
a Safety Officer; a Field Observer; and your division has been given top priority for water drop support
from a Type 1 Helicopter.

Several large fires have resulted from last week’s lightning storm. The Fish Creek Fire is one of those
fires. The fire is threatening a small community and resources are stretched thin throughout the region.
The Operations Section Chief picked you up for a recon flight. It was quick and Ops seemed very
concerned about your division, “You’ve got to hold Division A! We’ve got some strong south winds
predicted today. If we lose that road…well I don’t think I need to say anything more. I’m really
counting on you to hold that road and protect those structures and the community farther to the north. I
can get you a little time with the air tankers but we have to release them to initial attack at 1200. That
Type I helicopter is yours to use.” Ops looked you in the eye and said, “You and your folks are the only
chance we have to hold this thing, I will try to get you whatever resources you need.”

As you travel to the fire in your vehicle you note the weather and fuel conditions (DESCRIBE: Typical
local conditions for mid-season and map distance scale). From the transition meeting you know the fire
is 3000 acres. The fire displayed minimal spread during the previous night. It is 10% contained with
good spread potential as Red Flag conditions are forecast for that afternoon for winds exceeding 25
m.p.h. out of the south. The fire is threatening the small community just north of your division and
another large and affluent community, two miles north of the fire (INDICATE LOCATION: Off
table/map). You have just arrived in the vicinity of the small community just north of the fire about 10
minutes ahead of the rest of your division resources. You can see the fire edge south and upslope from
your location (DESCRIBE: How the smoke column looks). As far as you can tell, you are the only one
around. The time is 1000.

EXECUTION:
Allow 5 minutes for the players to decide on their course of action.

Select player(s) to communicate their decisions to their subordinates (other players assuming the roles of
crewmembers).

The “Murphy’s Law Suggestions” listed below can be added as “What Ifs” at any time during the
scenario to raise the stress level of the leader or use one of your own:
• The route in is a narrow winding dirt road
• Time of day is later in the burning period
• You get a flat tire and cannot drive around
• The Red Flag Warning is canceled
• Water tender operators have no PPE
• Nervous homeowner
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21
 EXAMPLE TDGS/STEX #4
OBJECTIVE: Players must decide if their priority is to manage the entire incident or initiate
immediate suppression action…and then verbally communicate their decision to the appropriate
individuals. The objective should not be revealed to experienced players

SCENARIO:
You are an Incident Commander Type 3 responding to the Round Mountain Fire. This is a new fire start
in your local response area. The fire is 7 miles southwest of a small town. You are enroute in an agency
contract helicopter and have two other helitack firefighters on board. You fly toward the fire along a
dirt road that departs the main highway near the town and leads to the southwest into the bottom of a
valley below where the fire is located. The road continues on past the fire. A Strike Team of Type 4
Engines has been ordered and is on the way, E.T.A. is 15 minutes to the main highway turnoff. From
the air you see there is a narrow bridge on the dirt road between the main highway and the fire. You
have questions about the bridge’s load limit and its ability to support fire engines loaded with water.

As you approach the fire you see there is a wide valley bottom with ample safe places to land the
helicopter. Being a local firefighter, you are aware of the weather and fuel conditions (DESCRIBE:
Typical local conditions for mid-season and map distance scale). In your recon over the fire, you
estimate the fire to be about 10 acres. You can see an active flame front on about half of the fire
perimeter (DESCRIBE: How the smoke column looks). You see there is a Rural Fire Department
engine company on-scene, two of the individuals from this engine company are wearing short pants and
no boots. They are fighting the fire. You also notice what appear to be soldiers attempting to put out the
fire. Various military vehicles are parked near the fire. You are circling over the fire and have no radio
communication with anyone currently on the fire. The time is 1000.

EXECUTION:
Allow 5 minutes for the players to decide on their course of action.

Select player(s) to communicate their decisions to various fire personnel (other players assuming the
roles of crewmembers and/or other personnel on the fire).

The “Murphy’s Law Suggestions” listed below can be added as “What Ifs” at any time during the
scenario to raise the stress level of the leader or use one of your own:
• You are advised by the locals that the bridge can barely support a pickup truck
• Time of day is later in the burning period
• An ambulance appears on-scene with lights and siren running
• There are no air tankers available
• A squad of soldiers is working directly upslope of an active spot fire
• A civilian vehicle is scene driving rapidly away from the fire area

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23
 EXAMPLE TDGS/STEX #5
OBJECTIVE: Players must decide how to handle a downhill line construction assignment and how to
assign their resources…and then communicate their decisions to the appropriate individuals. The
objective should not be revealed to experienced players

SCENARIO:
You are the Strike Team Leader for two Type 1 Handcrews. The Strike Team is made up of two crews
that frequently work together and you are the Crew Superintendent of one of the crews. Your identifier
is Strike Team 6501G. You have been dispatched to the Peak Fire.

When your Strike Team arrived at the ICP you were sent directly out to the fireline with instructions to
report to Division A at Drop Point 3. The fire escaped initial attack yesterday afternoon and this is the
first operational period on the incident for both your Strike Team and the Incident Management Team
that has taken over the fire. When you link up with the Division Alpha Supervisor, you find out that the
fire is about 1500 acres and broken into four divisions. At this time you also get a briefing on the
weather and fuel conditions (DESCRIBE: Typical local conditions for mid-season and map distance
scale). Your instructions from Division Alpha are as follows: “Division A is the priority on the fire. By
holding this side of the fire we think we can keep it out of some country where it would become very
difficult to catch the fire. I need you to drive your crews up to the top of the Division in your crew
buggies, tie into the end of the completed dozer line on the ridgetop, and start punching handline down
the ridge from the radio tower site. Only handcrews can work that upper section below the main ridge.
There are two dozers due here anytime now at Drop Point 3. When they arrive I will have them start
working up from the bottom, it is good dozer ground there. There is plenty of parking at the radio tower
site and it should be a good safety zone. I’d like to have this line tied together by the end of the shift, I
think the fire will allow us that much time. Give me a call when you start in on your line construction.”

As you drive up toward the radio tower site you see the fire has laid down (DESCRIBE: How the smoke
column looks). Arriving at the radio tower site, you get the vehicles parked and size up the area as a
safety zone. You walk over and locate the ridge and looking down you are unable to see any fire
activity, but visibility is very obscured by lots of drift smoke. The time is 1000.

EXECUTION:
Allow 5 minutes for the players to decide on their course of action.

Select player(s) to communicate their decisions to various fire personnel (other players assuming the
roles of crewmembers and/or other personnel on the fire).

The “Murphy’s Law Suggestions” listed below can be added as “What Ifs” at any time during the
scenario to raise the stress level of the leader or use one of your own:
• The parking area is small and marginal for a safety zone
• Time of day is later in the burning period
• The fire approaches Division A faster than expected
• The dozers never arrive on Division A
• Technicians for one of the radio stations are on-site a very anxious about the fire
• Loss of radio communication with Division A Supervisor

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25
 Appendix B

STEX Facilitator Guide

(Print and laminate this guide)
Prior to Exercise
Design STEX with clear objectives in mind.
Develop and prepare STEX scenario briefing.
Prepare Sand Table with desired terrain features, oriented to actual compass
points. Designate directions and the scale of the table width and length.
Provide sufficient props to represent scenario and allow players to demonstrate
solutions through resource movement.
Ensure players have note taking materials and the Incident Response Pocket Guide
Introduce players to STEX objectives and format.
Define "Rules" of the STEX
• Time Limit
• Decisions issued as clear instructions (briefings, radio commo, etc)
• No "School" Solution

During Exercise
Introduce the scenario. Avoid reading, issue as a briefing. Maintain eye contact
with players.
Anticipate and answer reasonable additional questions, but do not prolong
scenario briefing.
Signal start of time limit.
Are you still answering questions or "coaching"? Stop it!
Signal time is up.
Select a player to provide a solution, do not rely on volunteers.
Direct selected player to issue decision as instructions to other players assigned to
"subordinate roles".
Is the decision being delivered as instructions? No theoretical or conceptual "would
have" "should have" or "could have" discussions allowed!
After instructions have been issued, check role-playing subordinates' feedback to
ensure instructions were understood.
Select players for additional solutions, repeating process.

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After Action Review
Question the thought process. Ask:
• Why did you do this or that?
• What was your situational assessment?
• What would you have done if…?
• What were your assumptions about the situation?
• What is your biggest concern about your plan?
Are you dominating the discussion? Stop it!
Are you managing the entire group? Make sure all players are engaged!
Draw out lessons. Summarize and accentuate them. Facilitate and moderate
constructive criticism and encourage debate.
Resist offering “Your Solution” unless that is the best avenue for a positive
lesson. Your influence could wrongly infer there is only one right answer and
inhibit independent solutions.

Post Exercise
After-Action Review of the STEX objectives:
• Exercise decision-making skills in a tactical context.
• Practice communicating decisions.
• Provide experience to develop pattern recognition skills.
• Illustrate tactical concepts.
• Develop implicit understanding within the group.
Reinforce lessons learned by offering an historical account of a similar scenario.
Encourage evaluation of your performance as facilitator.
Solicit suggestions for future STEX.
Encourage continued debate and re-play. Make the Sand Table accessible for
free-play.

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Appendix C

STEX Props & Accessories

A number of props and accessories may be used for Sand Table Exercises. The
possibilities are unlimited. The short list provided below will get you started:

• Spray paint (various colors to represent fuel types, water,

roads, fire edges, etc - blue, black, brown, yellow, green, red) 6 cans

• Small wood blocks (to represent structures) 6

• Polyester or cotton batting (to represent smoke) Small bag

• Toy plastic figures (to represent firefighters/crews) 12

• Toy fire trucks (matchbox size or maybe a little bigger) 3-5

• Toy dozers (matchbox size or maybe a little bigger) 1-2

• Toy helicopters and airplanes 1-2 of each

• Yarn or Pcord (white, red, black) 10 ft. each color

• “Will-be-back” clock (to show time elapsing) 1

• 12” x 3” Arrow (to indicate wind direction) 1

• Spotlight (to show solar heating on various slope aspects) 1

• Tarp (to cover sand from varmint/cat use during storage) 1

• String or cord to create map grid overlay 15 ft.

Another option is to develop paper icons for various resources and adhere them to a
set of poker chips using various colors of the chips to denote air, personnel, and fire
equipment type resources.

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Appendix D

STEX Table Plans

Bottom Frame (figure 1)

(a) Bottom frame sides (2) 2 x 4 x 82 ½”

(b) Bottom frame cross members (4) 2 x 4 x 38”

Top Frame (figure 2)

(c) Top frame sides (2) 2 x 4 x 92”

(d) Top frame cross members (4) 2 x 4 x 41”

Legs (figure 3)

(e) Legs (4) 4 x 4 x 26 ½”

(f) Bottom frame supports 2 x 4 x 5”
Heavy-duty 4” wheels (4)

Sand Box

(g) Long sides (2) 2 x 6 x 98”

(h) Shorts sides (2) 2 x 6 x 47 ½”
(i) Bottom 4’ x 8’ x ¾”

Directions:

Build the frame on which the sand box rests:

Cut bottom frame sides (a) and bottom frame cross members (b). Attach sides to cross
members as depicted in figure (1) using 2 ½” wood screws (counter sink all screws
throughout construction).

Cut top frame sides (c) and top frame cross members (d). Attach sides to cross members
as depicted in figure (2) using 2 ½” wood screws.

Cut legs (e) and bottom frame supports (f). Attach bottom frame supports to legs as
depicted in figure (3).

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Attach bottom and top frame to legs. The bottom frame should rest inside the legs while
the top frame fits snugly outside the legs. Attach wheels to bottom of legs.

Use a router to shape the edges of the box sides (g and h). The bottom inside edge should
have at least ¼ inch of material removed to form a lap joint with the bottom of the box.
Another option is to use a tongue in groove joint. The remaining edges should be
rounded, except where the sides meet. See figure (4). Assemble the sides using 2 ½”
wood screws and then attach the bottom of the box (i). Use plenty of glue to ensure that
sand does not leak out of the bottom of the box. Use 1 ½” wood screws, spaced 8” apart
to strengthen the bond between the bottom of the box and the sides. This will also help to
squeeze out excess glue.

Position the box on top of the frame and secure the box to the cross members of the top
frame using 1 ½” wood screws.

Fill the box with sand. Avoid overly fine sand that will create too much dust.

NOTE: Individual users may want to consider winter storage in their design. Although
the legs can be readily removed by detaching the appropriate wood screws, the use of
foldable legs may another option. Consultation with a qualified carpenter may be
necessary for such modifications.

Figure 1 Figure 2

(a) (c)

(b) (d)

Figure 3 Figure 4- (side view)

2”
Bottom frame will rest here

(e)

6”

(f) Remove at least ¼” material to

form joint with bottom of box
Attach wheel here Round remaining corners.

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