Introduction

The Iliad is one of the major epics that influenced the literary tradition of Europe. This

primary epic deals with the Trojan War between the Greeks and the Trojans which the Greek

poet Homer recounted to the audience in the 9 th Century BC and at a later time it was printed.

Based on the Greek mythology, Homer’s Iliad presents the concepts of heroism in the epic.

The greatest Greek warrior Achilles stands for self glorification while his opponent the

Trojan warrior Hector stands for the saviour of the nation. The theme of friendship is at the

centre of the plot. The death of Patroclaus, the greatest friend of Achilles, abruptly changes

the course of action. The proud and haughty Achilles returns from the battle field forgetting

his grievances against Agamemnon and out of a sense of revenge for his friend’s death, he

brutally kills Hector. Though the mythological episode ends with the destruction of the City

of Troy, Homer ends the epic with the death of Hector. As a Greek himself he avoids the

narration of the destruction of Troy as it was an act of brutal treachery.

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 Major Episodes in The Iliad: An Analysis

The word epic is derived from the Ancient Greek adjective, “epikos”, which means a poetic

story. In literature, an epic is a long narrative poem, which is usually related to heroic deeds

of a person of an unusual courage and unparalleled bravery. In order to depict this bravery

and courage, the epic uses grandiose style. The hero is usually the representative of the values

of a certain culture, race, nation or a religious group on whose victory or failure the destiny of

the whole nation or group depends. Therefore, certain supernatural forces help the hero who

comes out the victor at the end. An epic usually starts with an invocation to the muse, but

then picks up the threads of the story from the middle and moves on to the end. Homer’s The

Iliad written in the 8th Century BC belongs to the primary epic and written in oral tradition.

The Iliad which is usually considered to be the earliest work reveals the poetic genius of

Homer.

The Iliad is an epic that deals with the events of only a few weeks during the Trojan War. The

story begins in Troy with King Priam and his wife, Hecuba. Hecuba was pregnant and one

night she had a dream in which the child she was carrying was a firebrand, and the firebrand

set fire to the entire city. When Paris was born, he was a very handsome baby, and his parents

decided to leave them in the mountain shape in order to die. After the infant was left there,

some shepherds forced the baby and saved the baby to be grown up with old shepherds.

Many years later all the gods were excited about attending the wedding of Peleus, a mortal

with Thetis, a sea nymph. Peleus had distinguished himself as one of the Argonauts. Thetis

was a gorgeous and desirable sea goddess, but she was fated to give birth to a son who would

be stronger than his father. When Zeus and Poseidon, who were both very interested in her,

learned of this prophesy, they were suddenly very eager to marry her off to a mortal man. The

wedding was a splendid affair, attended by all the gods and goddess. Eris, the Goddess of

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Discord, was not invited because of her tendency to cause problems among the gods. Eris

was offended by the slight and was determined to cause as much strife as possible. She took a

golden apple and inscribed the words “for the fairest” upon it and threw it among the party

guests. There were three goddesses, each of whom believed that the apple was meant for her.

They included Hera and her two daughters, Athena and Aphrodite. They took their dispute to

Zeus, who wisely refused to judge the matter, knowing it would only cause trouble for him.

Zeus decided that the handsomest man on earth should decide the contest, and the

handsomest man on earth turned out to be none other than Paris, who was now about twenty

years of age. So all three goddesses went to Troy and asked Paris to decide which one of

them was the most beautiful and should deserve the golden apple. Each goddess secretly

promised a gift to Paris if he should pick her. Athena offered him wisdom to rule wisely,

Hera promised to make him the ruler of the world, and Aphrodite promised him the most

beautiful wife in the world. Paris naturally awarded the apple to Aphrodite. The most

beautiful wife in the world happened to be Helen of Sparta, and she was already married to

Menelaus, the king of Sparta, and had a daughter. Paris decided to take a trip to Sparta. Paris

was accepted into the house of Menelaus, most cordially in the Greek tradition. Because of

the laws of guest-host relationship, Paris was invited to stay as long as he wished. Soon after

Paris’ arrival, Menelaus had to journey to Crete for his grandfather’s funeral. He left his wife

and household, instructing them to make sure Paris was treated well. Paris eloped with Helen

and went home to Troy while Menelaus was still away. When Menelaus found his wife and

wealth gone, he was quite angry. In addition to his personal desire for vengeance, Menelaus

knew that Paris had violated the laws of guest-host relationship and Zeus punished those who

violated these laws. So Menelaus called upon his brother, Agamemnon, who was the king of

Mycenae and the richest and most powerful of all the Greek kings. He was also the husband

of Clytemnestra, Helen’s own sister. Together, Menelaus and Agamemnon called on all the

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other Greek kings to join an expedition to Troy. In order to honour their agreement to fight

for rescuing Helen in case she was abducted, they responded. When the Greek fleet finally

reached Troy, they found that the walls of Troy were very strong and the Trojans and their

allies were great warriors. So the Greeks beached their ships and built a camp on the shore,

and they settled in for a long war. The Iliad picks up in the ninth year of the war when

everyone is extremely tired and exhausted from the long, protracted struggle. The Greeks

fought at Troy for ten years without being able to conquer the great walled city. Then they hit

upon a plan to defeat the Greeks through an act of treachery. During the night, the Greeks

built a huge wooden horse, too big to fit inside the walls of Troy. They hid some of their best

warriors inside, and sailed off to the neighbouring island of Tenedos. When the Trojans

awoke to find that the Greek army left and there was a huge wooden horse in its place, they

were confused. Some of the Trojans wanted to take the horse inside the city, while others

objected to it and used abusive language. Just then a sea monster appeared and killed the

abusers. The incident terrified them so much that they thought, the horse must be sacred and

they took the horse inside the city with great honour. That night, while the Trojans slept

soundly after a day of feasting and celebrating, the Greek warriors crept out of the horse,

opened the city gates to allow the Greek soldiers, to enter, and the Greeks captured the city,

killing the inhabitants most brutally. However, Homer did not present the treacherous

incident in The Iliad. As he was a Greek himself, he could not deal with this act of treachery

of his compatriots.

Some scholars believe that the gods may have intervened in the mortal world because of

quarrels they may have had among each other. Homer interprets the world at this time by

using the passion and emotion of the gods to be determining factors of what happens on the

human level. An example of one of these relationships in The Iliad occurs between Athena,

Hera and Aphrodite. In the final book of the poem Homer writes, ‘He offended Athena and

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Hera both goddesses.’ Wolfgang Kullmann further says, ‘Hera and Athena’s disappointment

over the victory of Aphrodite in the Judgement of Paris determines the whole conduct of both

goddesses in The Iliad and is the cause of their hatred of Paris and his town Troy.’

(Kullmann)

The narrative of The Iliad begins nine years after the start of the war, as the Greeks capture a

Trojan- allied town and two beautiful maidens, Chryseis and Briseis. Agamemnon,

commander-in-chief of the Greek army, takes Chryseis as his prize. Achilles, one of the

Greeks’ most valuable warriors, claims Briseis. Chryseis’s father, a man named Chryses who

serves as a priest of the god Apollo, begs Agamemnon to return his daughter and offers to

pay an enormous ransom. When Agamemnon refuses, Chryses prays to Apollo for help.

Apollo sends a plague upon the Greek camp, causing the death of many soldiers. After ten

days of suffering, Achilles calls an assembly of the Greek army and asks for an oracle

toreveal the cause of the plague. Calchas, a powerful seer, stands up and offers his services.

Though he fears retribution from Agamemnon, Calchas reveals the plague as a vengeful and

strategic move by Chryses and Apollo. Agamemnon flies into a rage and says that he will

return Chryseis only if Achilles gives him Briseis as a compensation. Agamemnon’s demand

humiliates the pride of Achilles. The men argue, and Achilles threatens to withdraw from

battle and takes his troops back home. Agamemnon threatens to go to Achilles’ tent in the

army’s camp and take Briseis himself. That night, Agamemnon puts Chryseis on a ship back

to her father and sends heralds to have Briseis escorted from Achilles’ tent. Achilles prays to

his mother, the sea-nymph Thetis, to ask Zeus, king of the gods, to punish the Greeks. But the

end of the plague on the Greeks only marks the beginning of worse suffering. Ever since his

quarrel with Agamemnon, Achilles has refused to participate in the battle and after twelve

days Thetis makes her appeal to Zeus as promised. Zeus is reluctant to help the Trojans for

his wife Hera favours the Greeks but he finally agrees. Hera becomes enraged when she

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discovers that Zeus is helping the Trojans, but her son Hephaestus persuades her not to

plunge the gods into conflict over the mortals. Like other ancient epic poems, The

Iliad presents its subject clearly from the outset. Indeed, the poem puts its focus in its opening

word “rage.” Specifically, The Iliad deals with the rage of Achilles how it begins, cripples the

Greek army and finally becomes redirected toward the Trojans. Although the Trojan War as a

whole figures prominently in the work, this larger conflict ultimately provides the text with

background rather than subject matter. By the time Achilles and Agamemnon enter their

quarrel, the Trojan War has been going on for nearly ten years. Achilles’ absence from the

battle lasts only a matter of days, and the epic ends soon after his return. The poem describes

neither the origins nor the end of the war that frames Achilles’ wrath. Instead, it scrutinizes

the origins and the end of this wrath, thus narrowing the scope of the poem from a larger

conflict between warring peoples to a smaller one between warring individuals.

In a major development in Book III, the Trojan soldiers marches from the city gates and

advances to meet the Achaeans. Paris, the Trojan prince who precipitated the war by stealing

the beautiful Helen from her husband Menelaus, challenges the Achaeans to a single combat

with any of their warriors. When Menelaus steps forward, however, Paris loses heart and

shrinks back into the Trojan ranks. Hector, Paris’s brother and the leader of the Trojan forces,

rebukes Paris for his cowardice. Stung by Hector’s insult, Paris finally agrees to a duel with

Menelaus, declaring that the contest will establish peace between the Trojans and the

Achaeans by deciding once and for all which man shall have Helen as his wife. Hector

presents the terms to Menelaus, who accepts. Both armies look forward to ending the war at

last. Helen finds the city’s elders, including Priam, gathered there. Priam asks Helen about

the strapping young Achaeans he sees, and she identifies Agamemnon, Ajax, and Odysseus.

Priam marvels at their strength and brilliance but eventually leaves the scene. Paris and

Menelaus arm themselves and begin their duel. Menelaus breaks his sword over Paris’s

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helmet. He then grabs Paris by the helmet and begins dragging him through the dirt, but

Aphrodite, asupporter of the Trojans, snaps the strap of the helmet so that it breaks off in

Menelaus’s hands. Menelaus retrieves his spear and is about to drive it home into Paris when

Aphrodite whisks Paris away to his room in Priam’s palace. Back on the battlefield, both the

Trojans and the Greeks search for Paris, who seems to have magically disappeared.

Agamemnon insists that Menelaus has won the duel, and he demands Helen back.

In this Book, Priam, Hector, Paris, Helen and their personalities are depicted. In particular,

Paris’s glibness throws him into stark contrast with Hector and many of the Achaean leaders

whom the audience has already encountered. While the sight of Menelaus causes Paris to

flee, Hector devoted much to the ideal of heroic honour and criticizes him for the disgrace

that he has brought upon not only himself but also the entire Trojan army. Paris’ fight with

Menelaus proves embarrassing and he must be rescued not particularly fierce deity but rather

by Aphrodite, the goddess of love. Though Paris blames his misfortune in the fight on the

gods whom he claims aided Menelaus, Homer himself makes no mention of these gods, and

the suffering that Menelaus undergoes in the fight suggests that he had no divine help. But

perhaps the most outrageous is Paris’ retreatment to his marriage bed. While the rest of the

Trojan army is forced to fight for the woman whom he stole from the Achaeans, he sleeps

with her. The other Trojan characters emerge much more sympathetically and the poem

presents its first mortal female character Helen in a warm light. He was abducted by Paris and

her labelling of herself a hateful creature and her admission that she wishes that she had died

the day Paris brought her to Troy demonstrate her shame and self-loathing. Her remorseful

reflections upon the homeland that she left behind as she surveys the Achaean ranks arrayed

beneath the walls of Troy further reveal her regret. When the cease-fire does fail and open

conflict between the two armies erupts for the first time in the epic, the carnage consumes

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both sides with equally horrific intensity. Furthermore, the text does not unequivocally imply

the Trojans’ guilt in the breach, Pandarus shoots at Menelaus only under Athena’s

persuasion. Indeed, the gods seem to be the only ones who take pleasure in the conflict, and

the mortals, like toy soldiers, provide Hera and Athena an easy way to settle their

disagreement with Zeus.

In Book VI, Hector follows Helenus’s advice and gives his mother and the other women their

instructions. He then visits his brother Paris who has withdrawn from battle claiming he is too

tormented to participate. Hector and Helen shower contempt on him for not fighting and at

last he arms himself and returns to battle. Hector also prepares to return but first visits his

wife Andromache whom he finds nursing their son Astyanax by the walls of the city. As she

cradles the child, she anxiously watches the struggle in the plain below. Andromache begs

Hector not to go back but he insists that he cannot escape his fate whatever it may be. He

kisses Astyanax who although initially frightened by the crest on Hector’s helmet and greets

his father happily. Hector then departs and Andromache convinced that he would soon die

begins to mourn his death. Hector meets Paris on his way out of the city and the brothers

prepare to rejoin the battle. The fighting that began in Book V continues in Book VI. In the

overall structure of the epic, this fighting involves three large movements between the ships

and the city. The opening savagery is represented by Agamemnon who forces Menelaos to

kill the prisoner Adrestus saying there can be no human feelings for the enemy in

war.Agamemnon's brutality is immediately contrasted with the kinship discovered by

Glaukos and Diomedes. The two warriors discover that they have ties because of their

forebears. They not only pledge friendship but exchange armor as well. The exchange of

armor is especially significant because armor was associated with identity and the exchange

is a symbolic exchange of character. Homer shows that war can require more than bloodshed

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and that bonds of friendship can be established but Homer goes on to show even greater

humanity in wartime. As Hector returns to Troy, he first meets the wives of the Trojan

warriors. When Hector sees his mother, Hecuba, their meeting, too, is a reminder of the ties

of kinship and love that implicitly exist for every character in the story. Moreover, these ties

of love and kinship have all become disconnected by the war.

The scenes in Book VI remind the reader why the Greek soldiers rushed to their ships to

return home in Book II when they were offered the opportunity to return home. Before

Hector is reunited with Andromache, he encounters Paris and Helen. Paris and Helen are the

causes of the war that men such as Hector and the husbands of the Trojan wives are fighting,

while Paris himself lies in bed with Helen. The contrast between the responsible Hector and

the irresponsible Paris is obvious. This contrast is carried further when Helen makes an

oblique pass at Hector. Hector tactfully rejects her, saying, "Don't ask me to sit beside you

here, Helen." The end of Book VI is the famous scene between Hector and Andromache and

their infant son, Astyanax. Most commentators consider this scene to be the most moving in

the Iliad. It is a portrait of the warrior at home who has forgotten the war as he watches his

son play and talks with his wife. Hector's family becomes a symbol for all the soldier's

families, what their lives could be if there were no war. Once again, Hector is the perfect

contrast to Achilles. As Hector stands in the loving circle of his home and family, Achilles

was alone, full of anger in his tent. Achilles is more dangerous, Hector is more human. In

fact, with Hector and Achilles, Homer provides two different models. Both are great warriors,

both are destined to die, and yet they represent entirely different value systems. Achilles is

the warrior; Hector the family man. Achilles embodies the values of the individual who fights

only for glory and honor; Hector symbolizes the larger concerns of friends, of family, of

home and civilization itself. However, Homer makes it clear that both Hector and Achilles

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are alike in one respect that they will fight and die for honor over all else. Home, family,

peace all mean everything to Hector, yet he will return to the battle, knowing he will be

killed, because honor demands it. Similarly, Achilles goes into battle later, knowing he too

will die, but feeling that honor requires his presence. Hector and Achilles are worthy

counterparts with different values in most respects, but ultimately alike in their deepest

motivations. In the end both subscribe to the code that the ultimate honor for a hero is to die

in battle.

In Book IX, The routed Achaean army is completely demoralized. At an assembly of troops

that night even proud King Agamemnon bursts into tears. He says that the war is lost and he

suggests sailing home. His disappointed soldiers receive this speech in silence but Diomedes

leaps to his feet reminding the king of his responsibilities and reminding the troops of their

heroic heritage. He says they can all return home but Diomedes will remain alone if

necessary to continue fighting for it is fated that Troy will eventually fall. This brave

declaration restores the confidence of the army and on the recommendation of Nestor, guards

are posted at the wall and the troops disperse to their tents for dinner and sleep. At a meeting

of the council, old Nestor takes the floor and reminds Agamemnon that the absence of

Achilles is causing the present distress of the army. The king admits that he was unwise to

have insulted the great warrior. He decides to offer many valuable gifts as well as the return

of Briseis if Achilles will rejoin the army. Representatives are therefore sent to the tent of the

sulking hero with this message. Achilles welcomes Ajax and Odysseus with great honor but

he refuses to accept the terms offered by Agamemnon. Therefore, he will not join in the

battle, and in the morning, he and his men will sail for home. He is adamant in his decision.

Back in the Achaean camp, Agamemnon listens with great sorrow to the report of what

happened in Achilles' tent. Finally, Diomedes rises and tells the assembled warriors that it

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was an error to try to appeal to someone as conceited and headstrong as Achilles. He advises

them to make whatever preparations are possible to defend the ships against the Trojans the

next morning. All agree and after making libations to the gods, they retire to their quarters.

More than one commentator has referred to Book IX as a short manual of oratory. The

Greeks considered oratory as a skill on the same level as fighting ability. The long, taunting

battle speeches are an integral part of what a warrior should know. Phoenix reminds Achilles

of how important oratorical skill is and Odysseus is as highly regarded for his speaking as

Achilles is for his fighting. Odysseus, the great orator, makes the initial request to Achilles.

His speech follows the form of classical oratory though in a shortened form. He begins by

complimenting Achilles and attempting to make the great warrior receptive to the argument.

Odysseus explains the serious military situation of the Achaeansto Achilles. In presenting the

situation, Odysseus presents the patriotic argument for Achilles' returning to the battle.

Odysseus follows the narration with the conformation, or proof for his case. His proof

consists of the moral argument that Achilles' father, Peleus, had told his son to control his

temper and the material argument the many rewards that Agamemnon has offered. Odysseus

wisely leaves out Agamemnon's arrogant statement that he is Achilles' superior. Finally,

Odysseus reaches his conclusion by returning to the patriotic argument. He tells Achilles that

he can achieve personal honor and glory by saving the Achaeans. This event is one of the

major turning points in the story. Until now, it was possible to sympathize with Achilles

because Agamemnon had clearly been in the wrong; but with Achilles' refusal to accept the

honorable terms offered to him, he puts his injured pride above all other considerations, and

the moral balance begins to fall against him. Nothing will satisfy Achilles now except the

complete humbling of Agamemnon, an unreasonable and unwarranted demand. Achilles'

desire for revenge has begun to overwhelm his better judgment, his loyalty to his friends, and

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the very code of chivalric honor that he claims to hold so dear. In fact, Achilles openly

questions the validity of the entire heroic code of honor. Indeed, this is a defining moment for

Achilles, as he is a man of great passion and is a true fighter. Some critics interpret this

episode differently, however. They believe that Achilles' reasons for refusing the offer are

psychologically and morally valid because he does not need the gifts that Agamemnon offers

to him. He knows that he will die shortly after the reconciliation is effected; and most

importantly, he knows that if Agamemnon took away a gift earlier on a whim then nothing

will stop him from doing the same thing again. Whichever view is accepted, the death of

Patroclos, Achilles' warrior-companion follows directly from this incident, and whether

ultimately right or wrong, Achilles has freely chosen not to accept an honorable settlement,

and thus he is responsible for what follows that is, the death of Patroclos. The other speeches

in Book IX also follow the patterns of Greek classical oratory. Odysseus presents the

argument from reason. Phoenix follows with the moral argument. Finally, Aiax concludes

with the emotional argument. Only Aiax has any apparent effect on Achilles. Finally, in

Nestor's speech to Agamemnon early in Book IX, the old soldier argues that while a King

must make decisions, he also must listen to advice. Further Agamemnon's much-discussed

lines, in which he says that his madness caused him to take Briseis from Achilles, is parallel

to the reasoning of Hamlet in Act V when he apologizes to Laertes for killing Polonius.

Hamlet says that his "madness" caused him to kill Polonius, thereby absolving himself of

responsibility for his actions much the same way Agamemnon does. Poseidon takes

advantage of Zeus' lapse of attention to come to the aid of the Achaeans and he moves among

the Achaean ranks, encouraging them to continue fighting. While the violent battle continues,

old Nestor seeks out Agamemnon, Diomedes, and Odysseus, all three of whom are wounded.

Nestor wants to devise a plan of action. Agamemnon is certain that the defeat of the Achaean

army has been willed by heaven, and he can think only of having the troops retreat and board

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their ships, escaping by sea. Odysseus points out that this is not only dishonorable but that it

would be extremely dangerous. He says that it would be very difficult to launch and board

their ships while under attack and to do this may make a Trojan victory even easier. The

leaders then decide to go among the ranks and encourage their men. From Olympus, Hera

notices how Poseidon, the sea god, is trying to aid the Achaeans, and so she makes plans to

occupy Zeus so that Poseidon will have even more opportunity to help the besieged

Achaeans. Dressing in her finest garments and borrowing the magic girdle of Aphrodite, Hera

flies off to Mount Ida, where Zeus is sitting. Her husband is overwhelmed by her charms, and

Hera finds it easy to seduce him. As prearranged, the God of Sleep casts a spell over Zeus.

Book XIV continues the great battle near the Achaean ships but adds a new element that the

tricking of Zeus. Several commentators have suggested that this book prefigures later mock

epics such as ‘The Rape of the Lock.’ Unquestionably, Homer here introduces a comic

element as a break from the intense battle scenes that precede and follow the interlude

between Hera and Zeus. The seduction of Zeus by Hera subverts the will of the Father God in

attempting to allow Poseidon to attack the Trojans unchecked. The tie that Aphrodite gives

Hera is of some interest. It has both intimately provocative pictures and words. Zeus'

seduction speech to Hera must be one of the most unusual in the history of love and intimacy.

Zeus essentially woos his wife with a report on his intimate tactic conquests. After Hera

seduces Zeus and calms him to sleep, the story returns to the battle where the Greek warriors

exchange armor. At the end, Poseidon leads the Achaeans into battle, perhaps symbolically

showing that the Achaeans literally have the sea at their backs.

As Achilles says, ‘The same honor waits/ for the coward and the brave. They both go down

to Death.’ Here it is explained although Achilles has been mindful of his honor in the past,

when Agamemnon offers Achilles extravagant prizes to replace the one he took, Achilles

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makes a couple of statements, like this one, seeming to reject honor. Some think Achilles

realizes he does not need this honor because he is going to die soon. Others believe he is

rejecting the concept of honor altogether. (The Iliad, Study Guide)

One of the climatic episodes in The Iliad is the death of Patroclus, which brings Achilles to

the battlefield. While the battle around the ships continues, Patroclos pleads with Achilles to

be allowed to wear Achilles' armor and to lead the Myrmidons, his troops, into battle. While

Achilles is considering this request, flames are seen rising from among the ships, indicating

great success for the Trojans. Achilles consents, and Patroclus and the Myrmidons arm

themselves with great enthusiasm. After Achilles has addressed them and offered a potion to

Zeus, he warns Patroclos to do no more than rescue the ships for if he attacks Troy he may be

killed. The Trojans are panicked by the belief that Achilles has decided to release his fury

against them and in a short time the addition of Achilles' fresh and well-armed regiment of

Myrmidons to the Achaean army destroys the Trojan advantage. Hector and his men flee

toward Troy. Patroclus pursues Hector and his men all the way to the walls of Troy, doing

many heroic deeds on the way. However, Apollo decides to enter the fighting as an ally of

Hector and while Patroclus in an almost god-like manner, slaughters nine Trojans in a single

charge, Apollo slips up behind him and strikes him so fiercely on the back that Patroclus'

vapored helmet flies off. His spear is shattered and his armor falls to the ground. Then, while

Patroclus is standing in a daze, a Trojan soldier pierces him midway between the shoulders

with a weapon. Patroclus tries to hide, but Hector sees him and rams a spear through the

lower part of his belly. Patroclus falls with a thump and the entire Achaean army is stunned.

His voice failing, Patroclus tells Hector that it was not he who conquered him. It was the

gods, he says, the gods and deadly destiny. This episode is the second turning point in the

tragic story of Achilles. He has made a fatal decision, and the deaths of Patroclus, Hector,

Achilles himself, and the fall of Troy all inevitably follow. The death of Patroclus in this

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book introduces an elegiac tone into the last part of The Iliad, as the characters that the reader

sees as sympathetic are killed. Until now, Achilles has been torn by a conflict between the

noble elements of his soul which urge him to help his Achaean friends, and his obsessive

sense of honor, which demands the full humiliation of Agamemnon and a complete

recognition of Achilles' own worth by the other Achaean warriors. Achilles sees the disguise

scheme suggested by Patroclus as the perfect solution to his dilemma. It would allow him to

save his own ships and thus fulfill his moral obligation to the Achaeans. Yet at the same time,

he can protect his prestige because he himself would not have to interfere. This solution is the

cause of all the tragic events to come. Achilles tries to rationalize his consent to the plan by

claiming that he had sworn not to participate in the fighting unless his own ships were

threatened; but in fact, he never really said this. What has happened is that Achilles is

beginning to lose his ability to think clearly and weigh all the factors in this situation.

Achilles' horses, Roan Beauty and Dapple, are introduced, emphasizing the importance of

horses in ancient warfare. As with human characters, the lineage of the horses is given.

Achilles takes his wine cup to make a special prayer to Zeus. Like his shield and spear, the

wine cup is an object that only Achilles uses. Achilles' prayer is for the safe return and

success of Patroclus but Zeus will grant Patroclus only success but denies him safe and sound

return from battle.

In Book XVIII, when Achilles learns of the death of Patroclus he bursts into tears tearing his

hair and throwing himself on the ground. His sorrowful lament is heard by his mother Thetis

and she comes to comfort him. She points out that if Achilles avenges Patroclus, he himself

will be killed. Despite his mother's warning, however, Achilles chooses to undertake this risk

for his great love for Patroclus. Thetis therefore promises to procure new armor for her son to

replace the armor that was captured by Hector. Meanwhile, the Achaeans who are bearing

away the body of Patroclus, are given close pursuit by the Trojans so Achilles appears at the

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Achaean trench and shouts his furious war cry. The sound of this mighty war cry strikes

terror into the hearts of the Trojans and they retreat in panic. Achilles' sorrow is intensified by

the sight of his dead companion's body, and all of the Achaeans join Achilles in mourning.

Achilles vows to kill Hector and to slaughter twelve Trojan warriors on the funeral fire of

Patroclus. Meanwhile, Patroclus' dead body is washed clean and laid out in state in Achilles'

tent. At a Trojan council of war that night, Poulydamas suggests that the Trojan army remain

in the city and fight off any Achaean assault from the protection of the battlements. The

return of Achilles to the Achaean force makes it too dangerous to fight openly. Hector refuses

to heed this advice, however, and he insists that the Trojan army stay in the field. His opinion

prevails. Achilles is given his final chance to decide his fate, for Thetis tells him that he will

die if he avenges Patroclus. Despite this knowledge, Achilles chooses to continue his plan for

revenge. Patroclus was his closest friend, a lesser reflection of his own glory, and, in an

emotional sense, part of himself; so in every way, the killing of Patroclus was a direct blow to

Achilles himself. His determination to avenge his friend is so intense because he realizes that

he is responsible for Patroclus' death, and he is angry with himself as well as with the

Trojans. He hopes that by punishing the Trojans and, in particular, by uttering his fury on

Hector, their leader and the human symbol of Trojan resistance, he will be able to assuage his

sense of guilt and grief. In all things, Achilles has a greater capacity for feeling than other

men do. His wrath, his grief, and his exploits in the battle to come will now begin to take on a

superhuman quality, symbolized in part by the divine armor made for him by god Hephaistos,

as the climax of the tragedy draws near.

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Book XVIII of The Iliad deals with three major parts. First, after Achilles breaks down at the

news of Patroclos' death, Thetis comes to comfort her son. Much of this scene is a

foreshadowing of the later death of Achilles. Second, in a long middle section, Achilles goes

to the trench and recovers the body of Patroclos. Third, and finally, the new shield is created.

A number of commentators have suggested that the first part of Book XVIII is drawn from

descriptions of the death of Achilles. Achilles pours ashes on Patroclos' face and body.

Thetis, standing, cradles his head like a mother holding a dead son lying on a stand. The

entire scene seems drawn from, and simultaneously points to, the eventual death of Achilles.

A further fatalistic element in the scene is Achilles' statement, "I've lost the will to live,"

along with the overriding fact that he will be killed if he returns to the battle. Of course,

Achilles also ends his first wrath here and decides to have a reconciliation with Agamemnon.

Conversely, Achilles also initiates his second wrath at this point. This second wrath does not

end until he reaches reconciliation with Priam. In the middle section of the Book XVIII,

Achilles goes to recover Patroclus' body. Just as Achilles, through his actions, moves toward

his own death, so Hector, through his mistakes, moves toward his. There is a sense of

dreadful irony hanging over these two scenes and characters. The last section of the Book

describes the giant shield that Hephaistos, God of the Forge, made for Achilles. The

description of the shield is a digression justified by the fact that Hector now has Achilles'

armor. The description of the shield allows Homer to depict the world.

Achilles says, ‘If only strife could die…/and anger that drives the sanest man to flare in

outrage.’ Here it is commented by a writer, ‘When he learns of Patroclus’s death, Achilles

briefly curses the anger that kept him from protecting his greatest friend. He wishes anger and

strife could die from the world altogether. This is an impossible wish, and Achilles soon loses

himself in rage again, only redirected from Agamemnon to Hector. However, it represents a

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brief moment of self-awareness for this hero not otherwise given to self-reflection.’ (The

Iliad, Study Guide)

In Book XIX, after receiving his new armor, Achilles calls for an assembly of the Achaean

army. Then he announces that his quarrel with King Agamemnon has ended and that he is

ready to return to war. This speech is applauded with great joy by all the troops. Agamemnon

rises and welcomes Achilles back to the army. He says that at the time of their disagreement,

he had been blinded and robbed of his wits by Zeus. He states that in compensation to

Achilles, he will return Briseis to him, as well as present him many other gifts. Achilles

accepts the offer, but clearly he is more eager to attack the Trojans than collect gifts. He

demands that the army go into action at once. Odysseus sympathizes with Achilles' passion,

but he points out that the troops are tired and hungry and that they need some time to renew

themselves before fighting again. Achilles agrees to wait and announces that the troops may

eat if they wish, but he himself is going to fast until Patroclus is avenged. When the Achaean

troops are once more ready to fight, Achilles puts on his splendid new armor, and then,

mounting his chariot, he prepares to lead the army. But first he reproaches his horses for

allowing Patroclos to be killed. One of the horse’s answers was that Patroclus' death was not

their fault, but that it was caused by Apollo and Destiny. The horse then prophesies the

eventual death of Achilles on the battlefield. Achilles answers that he already knows about

his doom, but that nothing will prevent him from avenging Patroclos. With this, Achilles

shouts his mighty war cry and runs into battle.

A writer commented, ‘‘Homer has a clear vision of the fabric of life and the facts of human

nature, and he makes no effort to soften or distort this view. The reader is always presented

with the plain, unadorned, and sometimes crude or cold facts of life, and the poet makes no

attempt to soften the effect. For example, Homer describes the women mourning over the

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body of Patroclus by saying, ‘…they took up the lament, ostensibly for Patroclus, but each at

heart for her own unhappy lot’. This kind of truthful and perceptive observation is typical of

Homer, but it is also unusual.’’(Robert)

Throughout the Iliad, Achilles is presented as a man of absolute feelings and reactions. Now

that he is finally reconciled with Agamemnon, his passion to avenge Patroclus becomes as

intense and impatient as was his former, selfish desire for the satisfaction of his honor. No

longer concerned with such human trivialities as eating or resting, Achilles is transformed

into a kind of cosmic figure, an archetypal hero sweeping through all opposition, divine and

human, to achieve his ends. The reconciliation that ends the first wrath of Achilles and the

actions that initiate the second both occur in Book XIX. The book is made up of two main

sections that the reconciliation between Agamemnon and Achilles, and Achilles' preparation

for battle. The reconciliation between Agamemnon and Achilles concludes the chapter that

began The Iliad. In a sense, Achilles rejoins the ranks of the Achaeans, and Agamemnon once

again becomes the leader of the Greek forces. Moreover, blaming one's actions on an outside

force is similar to the recurring image in the Iliad of gods speaking directly to humans to

influence their actions. This idea adds to the psychological notion that the gods represent a

part of the human mind. Therefore, Agamemnon is perhaps blaming his irrationality on a

voice that led him astray. One other interesting facet of the Greek council of reconciliation is

the mild dispute between Odysseus and Achilles over food. Achilles rejects the suggestion

that the Greeks should feast before the battle. He says, "I have no taste for food." Odysseus

responds with the very practical idea that an army must have nourishment to fight. In terms of

characters in The Iliad, Odysseus is the logical one to appreciate the idea that soldiers need to

eat and refresh themselves before battle. The episodes points out the distinction between the

wrathful warrior, Achilles, and the practical tactician, Odysseus. Eventually, Achilles dies in

the battle while Odysseus makes his long but successful journey home. In the next section of

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Book XIX, Achilles arms for battle. As Achilles puts on his armor, Homer describes the

scene with images that emphasize the idea of loneliness. Achilles, even in reconciliation, is a

man apart from others. Finally, as Achilles prepares his horses and chariot for battle, his

horse, Roan Beauty, responds to the warrior's encouragement by reminding its master that

Achilles will soon die in battle himself. The horse's speech is totally unexpected and one of

the few supernatural moments in the epic besides the frequent interventions of the gods. The

speech of the horses foreshadows the impending death of Achilles and intensifies his own

fatalistic feelings. The horse's speech is followed by the war cry of Achilles and the second

wrath begins.

The encounter between Achilles and Hector and consequently the death of Hector is one of

the major episodes in The Iliad. Hector as the sole representative of the Trojan stands outside

the city gates and prepares to meet Achilles. His mother and father appeal to him to seek

safety behind the city walls, but their pleas are in vain. While waiting, Hector considers the

various courses of action open to him and decides that the only real possibility is to fight

Achilles. Yet, when Achilles arrives, Hector is overcome by fear and he flees. Achilles

pursues him around the city walls three times and as they run, Hector tries unsuccessfully to

draw Achilles within the range of the Trojan archers on the battlements. Finally, Athena

deludes Hector into believing that he will have assistance against Achilles. He turns and

stands his ground, but before the two heroes fight, Hector attempts to make Achilles promise

to treat his body with respect if he is killed. Achilles is so full of fury that he refuses and two

warriors engage in a decisive duel. Achilles casts his spear first and misses the mark but it is

returned to him by Athena. Hector throws his spear and hits the centre of Achilles' shield, but

the divine armour cannot be penetrated. The two men circle each other, slowly closing in.

Hector is armed with only a sword, while Achilles still has his spear. After several attempts,

Achilles finally stabs Hector in the throat. As the Trojan dies, he begs that his body be

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returned to his family for a proper funeral, but Achilles again refuses Hector's request. Hector

dies reminding Achilles that his own death is imminent. All the Achaeans run up to see the

corpse of the almost mythic, now the dead Trojan leader. Many of them jest and stab Hector's

corpse. Achilles strips off Hector's armour and fastens his naked body to his chariot by the

heels. Then he gallops off, dragging the corpse behind him in disgrace. When Priam and

Hecuba, Hector's parents, witness the vicious treatment of their dead son, they begin to wail

and mourn their fate and all of the citizens of Troy join in the piteous lamentations. The

sound of this weeping is heard by Andromache and when she learns of her husband's death,

she collapses.

The battle between Hector and Achilles brings about a reconsideration of two ideas that have

been implicit throughout The Iliad. The first idea is the conflict between the values

symbolized by the two warriors. The second idea is the nature of the relationship between the

gods and men. The duel between Hector and Achilles has been interpreted as a clash between

two diametrically opposed world views: Hector, the representative of hearth, home, and city-

state, is the defender of the principles of individual self-control and of a constructive, positive

way of life. Achilles is the personification of primitive brutality, anti-social destructiveness,

and undisciplined instinct. Thus, it is a fight where human civilization itself is at stake and

although the destructive forces triumph, Achilles is rehabilitated and rejuvenated in the final

book of the epic. The institutions represented by Hector are reborn in a new form during the

confrontation between Achilles and Hector's aged father, Priam. Two scenes explore the god

and human relationship in complementary fashion. Zeus considers saving Hector's life by

plucking the man from death. Athena counters that Zeus can do as he pleases but none of the

deathless gods will ever praise him. The first suggestion in this scene is that Zeus can

overcome fate but only in a way that brings turmoil to heaven and earth. The second

suggestion is that Zeus' intervention in human affairs in this instance is not justifiable because

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fate has decreed otherwise. Hector is preordained to die at the hands of Achilles, so there is

no justification for intervention. This second idea about the nature of the relationships

between gods and men is reinforced in the much discussed role of Athena in Hector's death.

Athena intervenes in the form of Deiphobus and convinces Hector to fight. Hector does so

and dies. Athena intervenes on the side of what must happen. Unlike Zeus' notion to save

Hector and avoid fate, Athena's goal is precisely to bring about what fate has decreed. She

does not cause Hector's death instead she ends his unseemly flight.

One of the climatic episodes in The Iliad is the meeting between Priam and Achilles. Nine

days pass after the funeral of Hector, and on everyday Achilles ties the body of Hector to his

chariot and drags it around the barrow of Patroclus. The gods, however, continue to preserve

the corpse so that it does not decline or rot. Zeus then holds a meeting of the gods where it is

decided that Hector’s body will be given for a suitable burial. To make this possible, the gods

order Thetis to explain to her son Achilles, that it is the will of Zeus that he restores Hector’s

body to Hector’s father Priam. Accompanied by the god Hermes, Priam and an old servant

enter the Achaean camp that night, unseen. Priam appeals to Achilles holding his two hands

to return the dead body of Hector. The sight of old Priam reminded Achilles of his own

father. Achilles is so moved by these reawakened memories of home and parents that he

agrees to accept Priam's offer of ransom for Hector’s body. The two men Achilles and Priam

each was having his own sorrow, weeping together. Then Achilles has dinner prepared and

provides Priam with a bed for the night. He even oversees the preparations of Hector’s body

and also grants the Trojans a twelve day break so that they have sufficient time to conduct

Hector’s funeral rites. All the people of Troy come out to mourn Hector’s body.

Andromache, Hecuba, and Helen praise Hector and describe their own reasons for regretting

his death. During the period of the break, the Trojans gather wood in the mountains and burn

Hector’s body on a large funeral fire. His bones are then placed in a golden chest, which is

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buried in a shallow grave. Over this, a barrow is erected. Afterward, a great funeral banquet is

served in Priam's palace.

The wrath of Achilles is finally assuaged in Book XXIV. Many people have noted

connections between the last Book and the first because both involve a father seeking the

return of a child. Agamemnon's rejection of Chryses in Book I leads to all of the events of

The Iliad. Achilles' kindness to Priam in Book XXIV ends the warrior's wrath and brings the

work full circle that the war situation is not essentially different from the way it was at the

start. With Hector’s burial accomplished and Achilles' death imminent, the great antagonists

of The Iliad are presented. The events here are the final resolution of the dramatic story of the

wrath, of Achilles and its aftermath. Until now, Achilles has undergone no real change of

heart and has learned no moral lesson from his experiences. His meeting with Hector’s father,

Priam, however, is a crucial stage in his moral development. In their conversation, Achilles

reveals the full depth of his affection for Patroclus and demonstrates his ability to understand

another man's sorrow; the more human and nobler side of his character begins to regain

influence as he learns to accept the reality and to have compassion for others. By finally

relenting and restoring hector’s body to Priam, Achilles obeys the will of gods and

experiences a partial moral restoration.

The final scene of the Iliad is one of the most impressive contributions Homer made to the

saga of Troy and Achilles. By concluding his poem with the rehabilitation of Achilles, rather

than with the death of Achilles or the fall of Troy, he wrote The Iliad as a poetic composition

with a high level of artistic balance and symbolic meaning. It begins with a wrong deed done

by Agamemnon to Chryses and ends with a right deed done by Achilles, another victim of

Agamemnon, to Priam. The opening and closing episodes of the poem thus focus on its

central theme of the personal development of Achilles.

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A writer commented, ‘‘Iliad opens with an unsuccessful effort at ransom that Agamemnon

does not accept Chryses’ gifts in exchange for the priest’s daughter, Chryseis. Midway in the

poem, Achilles refuses elaborate presents rather than return to battle and forgive

Agamemnon. The poem ends, however, with a successful ransom. Achilles has learned that

for mortals there are no absolutes that men must relent before a proper recompense.’’ (Sider)

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 Conclusion

In the concluding part, the meeting between Achilles and Priam involves a number of

psychological twists. The figure of Priam reminds Achilles of his own father and when Priam

holds the hands of Achilles to appeal for the return of Hector’s dead body, emotionally

Achilles is shaken and he does not only grant the appeal, but also treats Priam as an

honourable guest. He arranged a different room for Priam and did not put him in his own

room, because Greek leaders visited him often and if they knew about Priam, it might create

problems in the transfer of Hector’s dead body. The moral development of Achilles is

reflected in the scene when he wept embracing Priam. The obstinate Achilles is transformed

into a warrior of humanity and compassion.

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 Works Cited

Kullmann, Wolfgang. ‘Gods and Men in the Iliad and the Odyssey.’ 1985, Harvard Studies in

Classical Philology. Print.

Milch, Robert. ‘Cliff Notes on Homer’s The Iliad.’ 1962, C.K. Hillegass, U.S.A. Print.

Sider, David. ‘Monarch Notes, Review Notes and Study Guide to Homer’s Iliad.’ 1963, Thor

Publications, Inc, New York. Print.

‘The Iliad Study Guide.’ Course Hero, Inc 2019. Web.

https://www.coursehero.com/lit/The-iliad/quotes/

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