COOPERATIVE CASE STUDY ANALYSIS IN COOPERATIVE STUDIES
Case study is a research methodology, typically seen in our social and life
science. In a case study, nearly every aspect of the subject's life and history is
analyzed to seek patterns and causes of behaviour. Case studies are in-depth
investigations of a single person, group, event or community.
A case study can therefore be defined as an intensive study about a person, a
group of people or a unit, which is aimed to generalize over several units’. It is
also described as an intensive, systematic investigation of a single individual,
group, community or some other unit in which the researcher examines in-
depth data relating to several variables. The case study gives the story behind
the result by capturing what happened to bring about a situation, and can be a
good opportunity to highlight a project’s success, or to bring attention to a
particular challenge or difficulty in a project. Cases might be selected because
they are highly effective, not effective, representative, typical, or of special
interest.
Prospective case study methods are those in which an individual or group of
people is observed in order to determine outcomes. For example, farmers of rice
farmers’ cooperatives might be watched over an extended period of time to
observe how they adopt a new technology in rice cultivation. Typically, data are
gathered from a variety of sources and by using several different methods (e.g.
observations and interviews).
Case study research, is done through reports of past studies as it allows the
exploration and understanding of complex issues. It can be considered a
robust research method particularly when a holistic, in-depth investigation is
required. Recognised as a tool in many social science studies, the role of case
study method in research becomes more prominent when issues with regard to
agriculture, cooperatives, medicine, education, political science and community
based problems such as poverty, unemployment, drug addiction, illiteracy, etc.
One of the reasons for the recognition of case study as a research method is
that researchers were becoming more concerned about the limitations of
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quantitative methods in providing holistic and in-depth explanations of the
social and behavioural problems in question.
Through case study methods, a researcher is able to go beyond the quantitative
statistical results and understand the behavioural conditions through the
actor’s perspective. By including both quantitative and qualitative data, case
study helps to explain both the process and outcome of a phenomenon through
complete observation, reconstruction and analysis of the cases under
investigation. Case studies tend to be highly subjective and it is
sometimes difficult to generalize results to a larger population. Case studies, in
their true essence, explore and investigate contemporary real-life phenomenon
through detailed contextual analysis of a limited number of events or
conditions, and their relationships.
The general purpose of a case study is to: → describe an individual situation
(case), e.g. a person, business, organisation, or institution, in detail; → identify
the key issues of the case (what is the assignment and questions should tell
what to focus on); → analyse the case using relevant theoretical concepts from
the unit.
Merits and Demerits of Case Study
A case study has both merits and demerits which researchers must consider
before deciding on the method of study that would be appropriate. Among the
advantages of case studies are:
a. it deploys a multiple-case research study which allows for a more in-depth
understanding of the cases as a unit thereby allowing researchers to
investigate things that are often difficult or impossible to replicate.
b. it allows for variations in terms of using both quantitative and qualitative
analyses of the data. In other words, it gives researchers ample space to collect
a great deal of information from multiple methods (i.e., surveys, interviews,
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document review, and observation) to provide the complete story and for more
comprehensive exploration of research questions and theory development.
c. it give researchers the chance to collect information on rare or unusual
cases. There are also a number of case studies which seek evidence from both
numerical and categorical responses of individual subjects
d. it allows for examination of the data that is most often conducted within the
context of its use , that is, within the situation in which the activity takes
place, the researcher is able to develop hypotheses that can be explored in
experimental research.
e. it allows for the use of a qualitative accounts often produced in case studies
not only help to explore or describe the data in real-life environment, but also
help to explain the complexities of real life situations which may not be
captured through experimental or survey research. For instance, a case study
of mixed cropping farming strategies used by an individual subject, can give
access to not only the numerical information concerning the strategies used,
but also the reasons for strategy used, and how the strategies are used in
relation to other strategies. An adoption involves processes, and cannot be
examined in isolation but rather in relation to other stages of the adoption
process.
While the disadvantages are:
a. case studies provide very little basis for scientific generalization since they
use a small number of subjects, some conducted with only one subject. The
question commonly raised is “How can a researcher generalise from a single
case, thereby making reporting of findings from multiple-case research studies
very challenging as it cannot necessarily be generalized to the larger population
b. it cannot demonstrate cause and effect of a situation.
c. the volume of data available would make it scientifically rigorous and time
consuming. Case studies are often labeled as being too long, difficult to
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conduct and producing a massive amount of documentation . In particular,
case studies of ethnographic or longitudinal nature can elicit a great deal of
data over a period of time. The danger comes when the data are not managed
and organised systematically.
d. often times, the case study researcher gives room equivocal evidence or
biased views to influence the direction of the findings and conclusions. In other
words, it can lead the researcher into a biased outcome and the researcher is
tempted to move away from the focus of the study.
In summary, researchers may choose to perform a case study if they are
interested in exploring a unique or recently discovered phenomenon. The
insights gained from such research can help the researchers develop additional
ideas and study questions that might be further explored in future studies.
Case studies are considered useful in research as they enable researchers to
examine data at the micro level. As an alternative to quantitative or qualitative
research, case studies can be a practical solution when a big sample
population is difficult to obtain. Although case studies have various
advantages, in that they present data of real-life situations and they provide
better insights into the detailed behaviours of the subjects of interest, they are
also criticised for their inability to generalise their results. Case study method
has always been criticised for its lack of rigour and the tendency for a
mresearcher to have a biased interpretation of the data. Grounds for
establishing reliability and generality are also subjected to scepticism when a
small sampling is deployed. Often time, case study research is dismissed as
useful only as an exploratory tool. Despite these criticisms, researchers
continue to deploy the case study method particularly in studies of real-life
situations governing social issues and problems.
Types of Case Studies
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There are different types of case studies researchers may utilize in their studies
and the type of case study that should be used depends on the unique
characteristics of the situation as well as the case itself. The types of case
studies are:
a. Illustrative or Descriptive Case Studies: These are primarily descriptive
studies that involves starting with a descriptive theory. The subjects are
observed and the information gathered is compared to the pre-existing theory.
Descriptive case studies are set to describe the natural phenomena which
occur within the data in question, for instance, what different strategies are
used by a farmer to access credit and how the farmer utilizes the credit. The
goal set by the researcher is to describe the data as they occur and descriptive
case studies may be in a narrative form. An example of a descriptive case study
is the extension agents description of the effect of the swine flu disease
pandemic among livestock farmers. The challenge of a descriptive case study is
that the researcher must begin with a descriptive theory to support the
description of the phenomenon or story. If this fails, there is the possibility that
the description lacks rigour and problems may occur during the project.
b. Explanatory Case Studies: These are often used to do causal investigations.
It is condensed case study performed before implementing a large scale
investigation. In other words, researchers are interested in looking at factors
that may have actually caused certain things to occur. Explanatory case
studies examine the data closely both at a surface and deep level in order to
explain the phenomena in the data. For instance, a researcher may ask the
reason as to why a farmer uses mix cropping strategy in farming. On the basis
of the data, the researcher may then form a theory and set to test this theory.
Furthermore, explanatory cases are also deployed for causal studies where
pattern-matching can be used to investigate certain phenomena in very
complex and multivariate cases. These complex and multivariate cases can be
explained by three rival theories: a knowledge-driven theory, a problem-solving
theory, and a social-interaction theory. The knowledge-driven theory stipulates
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that eventual commercial products are the results of ideas and discoveries from
basic research. Similar notions can be said for the problem-solving theory.
However, in this theory, products are derived from external sources rather than
from research.
The social-interaction theory, on the other hand, suggests that overlapping
professional network causes researchers and users to communicate frequently
with each other.
c. Exploratory (Pilot) Case Studies: These are sometimes used as a prelude to
further, more in-depth research. This allows researchers to gather more
information before developing their research questions and hypotheses. A pilot
study is considered an example of an exploratory case study and is crucial in
determining the protocol that will be used. It is set to explore any phenomenon
in the data which serves as a point of interest to the researcher. For instance, a
researcher conducting an exploratory case study on farmer’s adoption process
may ask general questions, such as, “Does a farmer use any technology in
farming activity?” and “if so, how often?”. These general questions are meant to
open up the door for further examination of the phenomenon observed. In this
case study also, prior fieldwork and small scale data collection may be
conducted before the research questions and hypotheses are proposed. As a
prelude, this initial work helps prepare a framework of the study.
d. Instrumental Case Studies: In an instrumental case study, the researcher
selects a small group of subjects in order to examine a certain pattern of
behaviour, for instance, to see how members of marketing cooperative access
marketing strategies for their business. These occur when the individual or
group allows researchers to understand more than what is initially obvious to
observers.
e. Intrinsic Case Studies: In an intrinsic case study, a researcher examines
the case for its own sake. This type of case study is when the researcher has a
personal interest in the case. In other words, the researcher’s observation of
his own personal interest is a good example. For instance, why does farmer A,
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fail to use a technology when most farmers within the vicinity use the
technology?
f. Collective Case Studies: In a collective case study, the researcher
coordinates data from several different sources, such as cooperative societies or
individuals. Unlike intrinsic case studies which set to solve the specific
problems of an individual case, instrumental and collective case studies may
allow for the generalisation of findings to a bigger population. These involve
studying a group of individuals. Researchers might study a group of people in a
certain setting or look at an entire community of people.
Purpose of a Case Study
Case studies are designed to achieve purposes of to explain, describe and or
explore events or phenomena in the everyday contexts in which they occur.
These can help to understand and explain causal links and pathways resulting
from a new policy initiative or service development. While experimental designs,
seek to test a specific hypothesis through deliberately manipulating the
environment (like, for example, in a randomised controlled trial giving a new
poultry feed to randomly selected broiler birds and then comparing outcomes
with controls), the case study approach lends itself well to capturing
information on more explanatory 'how', 'what' and 'why' questions, such as
'how is the intervention being implemented and received on the ground?'. The
case study approach can offer additional insights into what gaps exist in its
delivery or why one implementation strategy might be chosen over another.
Key questions to consider when selecting the most appropriate study design
are whether it is desirable or indeed possible to undertake a formal
experimental investigation in which individuals and/or organisations are
allocated to an intervention or control arm? Or whether the wish is to obtain a
more naturalistic understanding of an issue? The former is ideally studied
using a controlled experimental design, whereas the latter is more
appropriately studied using a case study design.
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Case studies can be approached in different ways depending on the standpoint
of the researcher, that is, whether they take a critical (questioning one's own
and others' assumptions), interpretative (trying to understand individual and
shared social meanings) or positivist approach (orientating towards the criteria
of natural sciences, such as focusing on generalisability considerations).
Whilst such a schema can be conceptually helpful, it may be appropriate to
draw on more than one approach in any case study, particularly in the context
of conducting cooperative services research.
Approach Characteristics Criticisms
It can possibly neglect
other factors by focusing
Involves questioning one's own
only on power
assumptions taking into account the
Critical relationships and may
wider political and social
give the researcher a
environment.
position that is too
privileged.
Interprets the limiting conditions in
relation to power and control that are
thought to influence behaviour.
Involves understanding
Often difficult to explain
meanings/contexts and processes as
unintended consequences
perceived from different perspectives,
Interpretative and for neglecting
trying to understand individual and
surrounding historical
shared social meanings. Focus is on
contexts
theory building.
Positivist Involves establishing which variables It does not take into
one wishes to study in advance and account the role of the
seeing whether they fit in with the researcher in influencing
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Approach Characteristics Criticisms
findings. Focus is often on testing
and refining theory on the basis of findings.
case study findings.
Characteristics of Case Study
These characteristics or features of what a case study should be are:
i. The Case Study should be Focused: The number of unit to be studied
should be small. It should have a narrow focus, which makes them relevant to
a subject. The researcher can take one single social unit or situation to study
so as to do it comprehensively. It should have a clear heading on the feature
that it is being evaluated and this trend allows the reader to understand the
center of the work. Therefore, it should cover a single aspect of the case under
investigation.
ii. The Case Study has Boundaries: It must have boundaries so as to study a
social unit deeply and thoroughly. There should be specific situation that
needs to be researched on and should not involve diversions. Preparing a case
study helps to collect detailed descriptive data. For example, they gain skills to
evaluate features accurately. In this case, it becomes possible to identify
unique details in an event. Besides, the strategy lays down the foundation of
extensive research. In turn, researchers who complete case studies effectively
can carry out a comprehensive investigation of topics. Also, they gain the skills
to understand and analyze essential concepts. Therefore, writing a case study
enables the researcher to develop skills to collect data within its research area
study.
iii. Process-oriented or Logic-flow: The case study is process-oriented or a
logic-flow in nature. For example, students explore and describe the nature of a
process. In this case, it is prudent for learners to explain what happens over
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time in the aspect under analysis. Besides, this description allows readers to
understand how some characteristic came to existence. Therefore, case studies
should provide a clear description of the events that transpired in the aspect
under analysis. It should have a logic flow that communicates or teaches the
audience what the situation is, the solution and result or the challenge of a
situation, cause of the present situation, solution of the identified challenge
and the result or implementation.
iv. Objective and Subjective in Nature: The case study should be objective
and subjective in nature and covering all aspects of situation under
investigation. For instance, a researcher should identify valid data for
investigation. In this case, the primary aim is to develop a basis for inferences
that a scholar intends to make. Besides, one should make an objective
description of the features identified. Hence, writers should provide details of
the subjective aspects of the event. In turn, they should give sensory details.
This makes it possible for readers to develop an intrinsic understanding of the
event under analysis. Besides, it allows students to offer a means of expressing
how people should feel toward the incident under investigation.
iv. It is Continuity in Nature: Preparing the case study enables learners to
develop a hypothesis for a research paper. For instance, scholars who analyze
cases gain significant knowledge. Basically, these students develop a deeper
understanding of various concepts. Also, people can predict outcomes related
to the circumstances that they examine. In this case, hypotheses are useful in
research studies. Hence, experienced students postulate ideas before making
inquiries. Moreover, they engage in different research methods to validate their
proposals. Therefore, preparing case studies gives learners the experience to
make assertions that guide knowledge.
Process of Conducting a Case Study
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The process for conducting case study research follows the same general
process as is followed for other research which includes planning, collection of
data, analyzing data, and reporting the findings. The detailed process of
conducting a case study is enumerated below.
1. Planning: The case study should be able to plan by identifying stakeholders
who will be involved in the study. There would be the developing of a case
study topic that would consider the types of cases to be used and the relevance
to the interest of the study. Furthermore, the information needs and sources of
information would be identified. Lists of documents required for use would be
reviewed, relevant persons to be interviewed or surveyed and determine sample
population if necessary.
Develop interview/survey template that would guide the administration and
implementation of the interview/survey. These are the instructions that are
followed to ensure consistency across interviews/surveys, and thus increase
the reliability of the findings. The following instructions for the template should
include the following:
• What to say to interviewees when setting up the interview/survey;
• What to say to interviewees when beginning the interview/survey, including
ensuring informed consent of the respondent;
• What to say to respondent in concluding the interview;
• What to do during the interview (either taking of notes or audiotape recording
or both) and
• What to do following the interview.
• Develop an interview guide/survey that lists the questions or issues to be
explored and includes an informed consent form. There would also be need for
interview guides/surveys for each group of stakeholders, as questions may
differ.
• Where necessary, translate guides into local languages and test translation.
• Identify and train data collectors (if necessary).
2. Collect Data: All the relevant documents would be gathered.
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• Set up interviews/surveys with stakeholders (be sure to explain the purpose,
why the stakeholder has been chosen, and the expected duration).
• Seek informed consent of each respondent (written or documented oral). Re-
explain purpose of interview, why the stakeholder has been chosen, expected
duration of, whether and how the information will be kept confidential, and the
use of a note taker/tape recorder.
• If the respondent has consented, conduct the interview/survey.
3. Analyze Data
• Review all relevant documents.
• Review all interview/survey data.
4. Report Findings
• Write the report.
• Solicit feedback.
• Review and disseminate.
Sources of Information
Case studies typically rely on multiple sources of information and methods to
provide as complete a picture as possible. Information sources for case study
evidence may come from six sources which are documents, archival records,
interviews, direct observation, participant-observation, and physical artifacts.
a.Documentation
Documentary information is relevant to every case study topic. This type of
information can take many forms and should be the object of explicit data
collection plans. The following variety of documents are:
• letters, memoranda, e-mail correspondence, and other personal documents,
such as diaries, calendars, and notes;
• agendas, announcements and minutes of meetings, and other written reports
of events;
• administrative documents-proposals, progress reports, and other internal
records;
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• formal studies or evaluations of the same "case" that you are studying; and
• news clippings and other articles appearing in the mass media or in
community newspapers.
These and other types of documents are increasingly available through Internet
searches. The documents are useful even though they are not always accurate
and may not be lacking in bias.
b.Archival Records
For many case studies, archival records-often take the form of computer files
and records. Examples of archival records include:
• public use files such as the National census and other statistical data made
available by Federal, State, and Local Governments;
• service records, such as those showing the number of clients served over a
given period of time;
• organizational records, such as budget or personnel records;
• maps and charts of the geographical characteristics of a place; and
• survey data, such as data previously collected about a site's employees,
residents, or participants.
These and other archival records can be used in conjunction with other
sources of information in producing a case study. However, unlike
documentary evidence, the usefulness of these archival records will vary from
case study to case study. For some studies, the records can be so important
that they can become the object of extensive retrieval and quantitative analysis.
In other studies, they may be of only passing relevance. When archival
evidence has been deemed relevant, an investigator must be careful to
ascertain the conditions under which it was produced as well as its accuracy.
Sometimes, the archival records can be highly quantitative, but numbers alone
should not automatically be considered a sign of accuracy.
c. Interviews
One of the most important sources of case study information is the interview.
Such an observation may be surprising because of the usual association
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between interviews and the survey method. The interviews will be guided
conversations rather than structured queries. In other words, although the
interviewer will be pursuing a consistent line of inquiry, the actual stream of
questions in a case study interview is likely to be fluid rather than rigid. Note
that this means that, throughout the interview process, there are two jobs to
undertake: (a) to follow the line of inquiry, as reflected by the case study
protocol, and (b) to ask actual (conversational) questions in an unbiased
manner that also serves the needs of the line of inquiry. Thus, case study
interviews require operating on two levels at the same time: satisfying the
needs of the line of inquiry (Level 2 questions) while simultaneously putting
forth "friendly" and "nonthreatening" questions in the open-ended inter-views
(Level 1 questions).
d. Direct Observation
Because a case study should take place in the natural setting of the "case," the
researcher is creating the opportunity for direct observations. Assuming that
the phenomena of interest have not been purely historical, some relevant
behaviours or environmental conditions will be available for observation.
Such observations serve as yet another source of evidence in a case study. The
observations can range from formal to casual data collection activities. Most
formally, observational instruments can be developed as part of the case study
protocol, and the fieldworker may be asked to assess the occurrence of certain
types of behaviours during certain periods of time in the field. This can involve
observations of meetings, side-walk activities, factory work, classrooms, and
the like. Less formally, direct observations might be made throughout a field
visit, including those occasions during which other evidence, such as that from
interviews, is being collected.
A common procedure to increase the reliability of observational evidence is to
have more than a single observer making an observation-whether of the formal
or the casual variety. Thus, when resources permit, a case study investigation
should allow for the use of multiple observers.
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e. Participant-Observation
Participant-observation is a special mode of observation in which you are not
merely a passive observer. Instead, you may assume a variety of roles within a
case study situation and may actually participate in the events being studied.
In urban neighborhoods, for instance, these roles may range from having
casual social interactions with various residents to undertaking specific
functional activities within the neighborhood. The roles for different illustrative
studies in neighborhoods and organizations have included
• being a resident in a neighborhood that is the subject of a case study
• taking some other functional role in a neighborhood, such as serving as a
store- keeper's assistant;
• serving as a staff member in an organizational setting; and
• being a key decision maker in an organizational setting
Observational evidence is often useful in providing additional information
about the topic being studied. If a case study is about a new technology or a
school curriculum, for instance, observations of the technology or curriculum
at work are invaluable aids for understanding the actual uses of the technology
or curriculum or any potential problems being encountered. Similarly,
observations of a neighborhood or of an organizational unit add new
dimensions for understanding either the context or the phenomenon being
studied. The observations can be so valuable that the researcher may consider
taking photographs at the case study site. At a minimum, these photographs
will help to convey important case characteristics to outside observers. Note,
however, that in some situations-such as photographing students in public
schools-you will need written permission before proceeding. The participant-
observation technique has been most frequently used in anthropological
studies of different cultural or social groups. The technique also can be used in
more everyday settings, such as a large organization or informal small groups.
Participant-observation provides certain unusual opportunities for collecting
case study data, but it also involves major problems. The most distinctive
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opportunity is related to the ability to gain access to events or groups that are
otherwise inaccessible to a study. In other words, for some topics, there may be
no way of collecting evidence other than through participant-observation.
Another distinctive opportunity is the ability to perceive reality from the
viewpoint of someone "inside" the case study rather than external to it. Many
have argued that such a perspective is invaluable in producing an "accurate"
portrayal of a case study phenomenon. Finally, other opportunities may arise
because the researcher may have the ability to manipulate minor events-such
as convening a meeting of a group of persons in the case. Only through
participant-observation can such manipulation occur, as the use of
documents, archival records, and interviews, for instance, assumes a passive
investigator. The manipulations will not be as precise as those in experiments,
but they can produce a greater
variety of situations for the purposes of collecting data.
The major problems related to participant-observation have to do with the
potential biases produced. First, the investigator has less ability to work as an
external observer and may, at times, have to assume positions or advocacy
roles contrary to the interests of good social science prac- tice. Second, the
participant-observer is likely to follow a commonly known phenomenon and
become a supporter of the group or organization being studied, if such support
did not already exist. Third, the participant role may simply require too much
attention relative to the observer role. Thus, the participant-observer may not
have sufficient time to take notes or to raise questions about events from
different perspectives, as a good observer might.
Fourth, if the organization or social group being studied is physically
dispersed, the participant-observer may find it difficult to be at the right place
at the right time, either to participate in or to observe important events.
This trade-offs between the opportunities and the problems have to be
considered seriously in undertaking any participant-observation study. Under
some circumstances, this approach to case study evidence may be just the
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right approach; under other circumstances, the credibility of a whole case
study project can be threatened.
f. Physical Artifacts
The physical or cultural artifact is a technological device, a tool or instrument,
a work of art, or some other physical evidence. Such artifacts may be collected
or observed as part of a case study and have been used extensively in
anthropological research. Physical artifacts have less potential relevance in the
most typical kind of case study. However, when relevant, the artifacts can be
an important component in the overall case. For example, one case study of the
use of personal computers in the classroom needed to ascertain the nature of
the actual use of the machines. Although, usage could be directly observed, an
artifact-the computer printout-also was available. Students displayed these
printouts as the finished product of their work and maintained notebooks of
their print- outs. Each printout showed the type of schoolwork that had been
done as well as the date and amount of computer time used to do the work. By
examining the printouts, the case study investigators were able to develop a
broader perspective concerning all of the classroom applications over the
length of a semester, far beyond that which could be directly observed in the
limited time of a field visit
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