M.

Sc / BS Pakistan Studies

Study Guide
POLITICAL PARTIES AND PRESSURE
GROUPS IN PAKISTAN
PS- 545 / 9371

Department of Pakistan Studies

Faculty of Social Sciences and Humanities

ALLAMA IQBAL OPEN UNIVERSITY, ISLAMABAD

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 Code No. 545 / 9371
(All Rights Reserved with the Publisher)

Edition ........................................................................................................... 2nd

Printing ......................................................................................................... 2020

Quantity .................................................................................................................

Price ..................................................................................................... Rs.150/

Printer ............................................. Allama Iqbal Open University, Islamabad

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 Course Development Team
Chairman Javed Iqbal Syed
Professor of Sociology
Dean, Faculty of Social Science and Humanities,
A.I.O.U. Islamabad.

Writer and Reviewers Dr. Saeed Shafqat

Professor of Pakistan Studies,
Chief Instructor, Civil Services Academy.
Lahore

Shandana Zahid Lecturer, Department of

Pakistan Studies, A.I.O.U., Islamabad.

Course Coordinator Mrs Samina Aman

Editor Shahida Shah

Course Development Coordinator Shandana Zahid

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 Table of Contents
Part One: Organization of the Course
1. Structure of the Course ..................................................................................... 7
2. How to use Reading Material ............................................................................ 8
3. Study Chart ....................................................................................................... 9
4. Time Table ....................................................................................................... 10
5. How to Attend a Tutorial .................................................................................. 11
6. Assessment ....................................................................................................... 12
7. Course Description ........................................................................................... 13

Part Two: Blocks 1-9 ...................................................................................... 17

1. Block One: Concepts-I ...................................................................................... 18
1.1 Introduction ....................................................................................................... 18
1.2 What is a Political Party? ................................................................................. 19
1.3 Required Readings ........................................................................................... 19
1.4 Self Learning Questions with Points to Note .................................................... 20

2. Block Two Concepts-II ...................................................................... 22

2.1 Introduction ...................................................................................................... 23
2.2 What is a Pressure Group? ............................................................................... 25
2.3 Required Readings ........................................................................................... 25
2.4 Self Learning Questions with Points to Note ................................................... 25
2.5 Public Opinion and Propaganda ....................................................................... 26
2.6 Required Readings ........................................................................................... 26
2.7 Self Learning Questions with points to Note .................................................... 26

3. Block Three Political Parties & Pressure Groups. .................................... 27

Interaction & Interrelationship ............................................. 27
3.1 Introduction ....................................................................................................... 28
3.2 Interaction and interrelationship between ......................................................... 30
Political Parties and Pressure Groups
3.3 Required Readings ........................................................................................... 30
3.4 Self Learning Questions with Points to Note ................................................... 30
3.5 What is party strength? ..................................................................................... 30
3.6 Required Readings ........................................................................................... 30
3.7 Self Learning Questions with Points to Note ................................................... 31
3.8 How does the making and breaking of coalition or alliance occur with-in or
among political parties?..................................................................................... 32
3.9 Required Readings ........................................................................................... 32
3.10 Self Learning Questions with Points to Note ..................................................... 32
3.11 Impact of Political Parties on Political Development ........................................ 32
3.12 Required Readings ............................................................................................. 32
3.13 Self Learning Questions with Points to Note ..................................................... 32

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4. Block Four & Five Party systems and political stability ..................................... 33
4.1 Introduction ...................................................................................................... 34
4.2 Traditional Political System and Political Change ............................................ 36
4.3 Required Readings ........................................................................................... 36
4.4 Self Learning Questions with Points to Note ................................................... 36
4.5 Single Party System ......................................................................................... 37
4.6 Required Readings ........................................................................................... 37
4.7 Self Learning Questions with Points to Note .................................................... 37
4.8 Two-Party Systems .......................................................................................... 38
4.9 Required Readings ........................................................................................... 38
4.10 Self Learning’s Questions with Points to Note ................................................ 38
4.11 Multi-Partism ................................................................................................... 39
4.12 Required Readings ........................................................................................... 39
4.13 Self Learning Questions with Points to Note .................................................... 39
4.14 Political Stability .............................................................................................. 39
4.15 Required Readings ........................................................................................... 39
4.16 Self Learning Questions with Points to Note. .................................................. 39

5. Black Six Party system in Pakistan .................................................. 41

5.1 Introduction ...................................................................................................... 42
5.2 1947-58.............................................................................................................. 44
5.3 Required Readings ........................................................................................... 44
5.4 Self learning Questions with Points to Note ..................................................... 44
5.5 1958-69 ............................................................................................................. 44
5.6 Required Readings ........................................................................................... 44
5.7 Self Learning Questions with Points to Note ................................................... 45
5.8 1969-71 ............................................................................................................. 46
5.9 Required Readings ........................................................................................... 46
5.10 Self Learning Questions with Points to Note ................................................... 46
5.11 1971-77 ............................................................................................................. 48
5.12 Required Readings ........................................................................................... 48
5.13 Self Learning Questions with Points to Note. .................................................. 48
5.14 1977-88 ............................................................................................................. 49
5.15 Required Readings ........................................................................................... 49
5.16 Self Learning Questions with Points to Note ................................................... 49
5.17 1988-to date ...................................................................................................... 50
5.18 Required Readings ........................................................................................... 50
5.19 Self Learning Questions with Points to Note ................................................... 50

6. Block Seven & Eight Role of Political parties .................................................... 51

6.1 Introduction ...................................................................................................... 52
6.2 Pakistan Muslim League .................................................................................. 53
6.3 Required Reading .............................................................................................. 53
6.4 Self Learning Questions with Points to Not ..................................................... 53
6.5 Pakistan People's Party ..................................................................................... 54
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 6.6 Required Readings ........................................................................................... 54
6.7 Self Learning Questions with Points to Note ................................................... 54
6.8 National Awami Party ...................................................................................... 55
5.9 Required Readings ........................................................................................... 55
6.10 Self Learning Questions with Points to Note ................................................... 55
6.11 Jamiat-I-Ulam-i-Islam ...................................................................................... 56
6.12 Required Readings ........................................................................................... 56
6.13 Self Learning Questions with Points to Note ................................................... 56
6.14 Republican Party .............................................................................................. 56
6.15 Required Readings ........................................................................................... 56
6.16 Self Learning Questions with Points to Note ................................................... 57
6.17 Jamat-i-Islamai ................................................................................................. 57
6.18 Required Readings ........................................................................................... 57
6.19 Self Learning Question with Points to Note ..................................................... 57
6.20 Jamiat-al-Ulama-i-Pakistan .............................................................................. 58
6.21 Required Readings ........................................................................................... 58
6.22 Self Learning Questions with Points to Note ................................................... 58
6.23 Mohajir Qaumi Movement ............................................................................... 58
6.24 Required Readings ........................................................................................... 58
6.25 Self Learning Questions ................................................................................... 58

Block Nine Pressure groups in Pakistan ............................................. 60

7.1 Introduction ...................................................................................................... 61
7.2 Role of Major Pressure/Interest Groups in Pakistani Politics .......................... 61
7.3 Required Readings ........................................................................................... 61
7.4 Self Learning Questions with Points to Note ................................................... 61

Prescribed Reading List ....................................................................................................... 63

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PART ONE ORGANISATION OF THE COURSE
1. STRUCTURE OF THE COURSE
• The course has been structured to make it as easy as possible for you to do
the required work. Like a half credit course this course consists of nine
blocks but of unequal length. Ideally one block is a student work of 12-16
hours. Since the course work of one block will include studying the
prescribed reading material and carrying out the various self-learning
questions and as the length of the blocks is unequal, we have calculated the
length of time you are required to o spend on each block which is given in
the time table. We expect you to finish the work within the allocated time.
(See section 4)

• We have organized this course to enable you to acquire the skill of self-
learning. Your will find a course description at the end of this part which will
provide you an overall view of the course. For each block an introduction is
given to help you develop an objective analysis of the major and sub-themes
discussed in the prescribed reading material. Major and sub- themes are
listed along with the prescribed reading material.

• Each prescribed reading is compulsory for successful completion of course.

• We expect you to do your study in the suggested manner given in "how to

use reading material" (for details please see section 2)

• For this course, ‘Forth nightly Tutorials' are arranged in University's

Regional Study Centers. They provide facilities to meet with one another for
mutual help and individual discussion with the 'Course Guide'. These
tutorials are not formal 'lectures' given in any formal University; rather these
are meant for group and individual discussion with the Course Guide to
facilitate you to undertake part of your learning together. So before going to
attend a tutorial prepare you self to discuss course material with your
colleagues and course guide. (For detail see section 5 How to Attend the
Tutorial).

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2. HOW TO USE READING MATERIAL

• As this is a ‘distance education’ course we have organized the required

course work in the following manner to help you in evolving a self-learning
process in absence of formal class room teaching.

i) A detailed course description.

ii) Introduction to each Block.

iii) The major theme of the block is divided into sub-themes, which are
listed along with Required Readings. Unlike other courses, Required
Readings are not classified as compulsory and suggested, each
prescribed reading is compulsory for successful completion of the
course.
iv) After listing 'Required Readings' we have given you few self learning
questions for each topic or theme. These questions are not only meant
to facilitate you in understanding the required readings but also to
provide you an opportunity to assess yourself how far have you learnt.
v) To help you in answering the questions, points to note arc given. These
points will not only lead you to a better understanding but will also
suggest a direction in which we expect you to think and analyse. You
can of source think or many more points.
vi) Although you choose your own way of studying the required reading
material, you are advised to follow the steps which are shown in the
study chart that follows (Section 3)

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3. STUDY CHART

STEP 1 For clear identification of your reading materials thoroughly read the Course
Description and introductions to the Blocks.

STEP 2 Read carefully the way the reading material is to be used (2)

STEP 3 Complete the first quick reading of your required study material,

STEP 4 Carefully make the 2nd reading and note down some of the points you were
not able to fully understand.

STEP 5 Carry out the self-learning questions with the help of your study material.

STEP 6 Revise your notes. There is every likelihood that many of those points which
you did not previously understand become clearer to you now during the
process of carrying our self-learning questions.

STEP 7 Preparation for the tutorial meeting i.e. note down the point for discussion
with other members of your group and with your Course Guide.

STEP 8 Make a third and final reading of your study material. At this stage, students
are advised to also keep in view the home work assignments which they
supposed to complete in relation to each block.

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4. TIME TABLE
(Course Description == 2 hours
Block-1 Block-2 Block-3 Block-4 & 5 Block-6 Block 7& 8 Block-9
Reading 30 Minutes 30 Minutes 30 Minutes 45 Minutes 30 Minutes 45 Minutes 30 Minutes
Instrucation
Studying 5-6 Hours 4-6 Hours 6-8 Hours 14-15 Hours 5-7 Hours 14-15 Hours 6-8 Hours
Required
Reading
Self Learning 4-6 Hours 4-6 Hours 4-6 Hours 7-9 Hours 4-6 Hours 10-12 Hours 5-6 Hours
Activities &
Questions
Preparation 1-2 Hours 1-2 Hours 1-2 Hours 2-4 Hours 1-2 Hours 3-4 Hours 2-3 Hours
for Tutorials
Total Hours of Study: Maximum= 140 Hours
Minimum = 108 Hours

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5. HOW TO ATTEND A TUTORIAL

Before attending a tutorial you are required to prepare yourself in the following manner
to get maximum benefit.
The first tutorial is Introductory Tutorial for which you are required to do the following
work.
STET 1 Go through first part of the Study Guide which includes:

i) Organization of the course

ii) Structure of the Programme
iii) How to use Reading material
iv) Assessment

STEP 2 Read carefully Course Description 2.3 times to have a better understanding
of the course. It will give you an overview of the whole course. Make notes
of those point which you cannot fully understand or wish to discuss with
your Course Guide.
In tutorial 2-9, you will complete course work consisting of 9 Study Blocks.
The way we have arranged these tutorials, will give you an opportunity to
discuss one block in one tutorial.
Please see schedule of the semester.

STEP 3 Read Introduction to ‘the block’, and make notes of the themes, around
which, the block is constructed.

STEP 4 Study "Required Readings", in the manner, these are prescribed in how to
Use Reading Material, and make notes of the points you are not able to fully
understand and wish to discuss with your Course Guide.

6. ASSESSMENT
For each course the registered student will be assessed as following:
• Assignments (continuous assessment) see details as given below. Final
Examination three hours written examination will take place at the end of the
semester).

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The conditions to qualify each component arc given below:
i) A minimum of 40% for MSc and 50% for BS in each assignment (Total
number of assignments for this course is 2)
ii) A minimum of 40% for MSc and 50% for BS in the final written
examination.
iii) An aggregate 40% for MSc and 50% for BS of both the components i.e.
assignments and final examination.
iv) To take final examination the student has to pass the Assignment component
The grade will be determined as following:

40% - 54% C
55% - 69% B
70% - Above A
Assignments
• Assignments are those written exercises which you are required to complete
at your own home or place of work after having studied different parts of the
prescribed reading material; within the scheduled period of study. (Please see
the schedule). For this course you will receive two assignments- which we
expect you to complete within the study period.

• This compulsory course work and its successful completion will make you
eligible to take final examination at the end of the semester.
• To complete your course work successfully, you are provided with tutorial
support, so that you can discuss you 'academic problems in tutorial meetings.
(See section 5)

• After completing the assignment you will send it to the Tutor/Course Guide,
whose name is already notified to you for assessment Aril necessary
guidance. Your Tutor/Course Guide will return it after marking and
providing you academic guidance and supervision.

• To qualify each assignment, you have to obtain a minimum marks.

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7. COURSE DESCRIPTION
There is a considerable confusion about the nature and functioning of political parties -
particularly in Pakistan and generally in the third world countries. This course will aim to
clarify confusion with regard to political parties. The effort will be made to provide a
theoretical and conceptual basis of political parties as well as pressure groups.
Once we have provided the theoretical and conceptual foundations of what constitute a
political party and a pressure group, then we would like to see, to what degree these
concepts help to facilitate our understanding about political parties and pressure groups in
Pakistan.
To achieve these twin objectives we will focus on the following topics.
i) What is a political party?
ii) What is a pressure group?
iii) What is public opinion and propaganda?
iv) Interaction and interrelationship between political parties and pressure
groups.
v) How the making breaking of coalition occurs within or among political
parties.
vi) An understating of various party systems, such as, one party system, two
party systems; Multi party system and No party system.
vii) Party system in Pakistan: Its strengths and weaknesses.
viii) Political parties and their role in Pakistani politics. Case studies of major
political parties in Pakistan.
ix) Major pressure groups and their role in Pakistani politics.

This course will be divided into two parts. The first part will focus on providing
theoretical and conceptual foundations of a political party and a pressure group. Once we
have laid down the foundations of theoretical perspective we will concentrate on
explaining the evolution, growth, development and the decay of political parties in
Pakistan.

Theoretical literature on political parties is enormous. Political parties have been defined
by the scholars in various ways. For example, according to leading American political
Scientist, a political party can he defined as a, "relatively stable, organized, label
providing group". However, while analyzing political party factors like continuity of its
leadership, ideology, organization, sources of funding, social class of members must be
taken into account. For the purposes of this course and with reference to the problems and
prospects of the political parties in the third world countries, we will focus on the
contributions made by o scholars, such as Huntignton, Apter, Duverger and La
Palombara.

During the various phases of nationalist movements in the third world countries, political
parties have played a significant role in the creation of new nation-states. However, in
most of these developing countries once independence was achieved political parties
have invariably failed to sustain the momentum that they created during the phase of
nationalist movements. It can be appreciated that political parties performed a
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modernizing role. These parties were agents of mobilization and change and were able to
integrate diverse interest groups during the phase of national movements, while
explaining the evolution and development of political parties: Apter has identified two
types of political parties: Parties of Solidarity and Parties of Representation.

Parties of Solidarity
According to Apter parties of Solidarity emerged invariably in the form of a
movement. Such parties promote group affinity and fellow-feeling. In these types
of parties ideology plays an important binding role for the diverse groups. Such
parties aim at mobilizing the masses and are in general, mass-based. In the parties
of solidarity the organizational component is relatively weak. As these parties are
amorphous in size, organization remains their problem. Furthermore, Apter
suggests that in the third world countries most of the nationalist movements were
led by such parties of Solidarity. Since the organizational component was weak in
parties of solidarity, therefore after independence these parties invariably began to
disintegrate. Thus if political parties are weak in developing countries, according to
Apter one need to understand the circumstances of their origin and the process of
evolution and development that these underwent. This of course led him to
conclude that parties of solidarity were born in mobilization systems.
Parties of Representation
According to Apter, Parties of Representation are born in an environment of
competition and pluralism. Such parties in their origin are elite based. However, as
the competition increased, they began to incorporate and represent the interests of
the various groups. Parties of representation promote consensus building,
compromise and bargain. Such parties minimize the significance of ideology. In
such parties interests are given preference over ideology. However, parties of
representation are well financed by those whose interests they represent. In such
parties "party machine" plays an important role thereby making these political
parties relatively better organized and stable. Given these characteristics, Apter
suggests that such political parties are associated with reconciliation system.
According to Huntington, a political party is an important modernizer. He argues
that the evolution and development of a political party can be seen in four phases.
In the first phase the political party emerges as a faction, which basically promotes
organizational activity. In the second phase as polarization increases in the society
as a consequence of modernization, this associational activity consolidates the
development of a political party. In the third phase expansion of political process
increases the number of participants. This in turn, facilitates the development of a
political party. However, it is not until the final and fourth phase which Huntington
describes "institutionalization", that a political party really acquires according to
Huntington the institutional strength of a political party to be measured by taking
into consideration the following factors.
• The ability to survive its founder or charismatic leader.
• Adaptive capacity of the party.
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 • Its organizational structure i.e. how stable and strong arc the linkages
between the party and the socio-economic organizations that support it
e.g labour unions, interest groups, etc.
• Loyalty to the party given by its members.

Huntington however suggests that in traditional societies the relatively conservative

elements obstruct the modernizing role of a political party. He argues that since in
the developing societies life is disorganized in general, a political party performs
the role of an organizer. According to him, whosoever is able to organize, has the
potential to organize society and acquire power. He asserts that the need is to
institutionalize the process of party development. Party is considered as performing
a pivotal role in promoting political stability in a given society. According to
Huntington, disorganization is way of life in developing societies, therefore, as a
policy choice he has recommended the creation of Leninist type of political party
which has a stable organization, consistent ideology, and mass membership. Such a
party would promote political order in these countries.

In addition to political parties we will focus on pressure groups. A pressure group

can he based on class, ethnicity, religion, or shared interest. Its basic function is to
promote the interests of those who form the group. Pressure groups form an
important component of political parties. More than one type of pressure groups
may exist and operate in a political party. Inter-relationship between pressure
groups and political parties is complex one. However, an important point of
distinction between a pressure group and a political party is that a pressure group
operates behind the scenes, within a political party, to advance the interests of that
group. It is interesting to note that in American political parties pressure groups
play pivotal role. They have legitimate position and influence the party's ideology
and programmes. On the contrary, in developing countries pressure groups
invariably compete with political parties. Pressure groups operate outside the
domain of a Political party. However, in recent years they have begun to clamour
for a place in the political parties.

The second part of the course will focus on the evolution, development and of
political parties in Pakistan. Most of the literature, i.e. appearing on political parties
in Pakistan is either historical or descriptive in nature. In most of the writings it is
argued that political parties have failed in Pakistan because either the leadership
was faction ridden or the political parties were unable to organize themselves and
discipline their members. Consequently, political parties failed to develop a
competitive party system. The failure of political parties facilitated praetorianism
i.e. intervention of military into politics. It will be interesting to explore that if the
political parties failed to develop a stable political system what were the causes of
this? To explore and analyze this problem we will focus on the evolution and
development of political parties in Pakistan. It will be suggested that in order to
have a better comprehension of how political parties came into being and how they
function in Pakistani polity? We should focus on the following factors:
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 i) Type and continuity in leadership
ii) Organization
iii) Ideology
iv) Sources of funding
v) Membership i.e. is it class based, region based or a mass membership.

Keeping these factors in view we will adopt the framework provided by Huntington and
Apter, and see to what degree it explains the development of political parties in Pakistan.
Furthermore the effort will be made to identify some of the major pressure and the kind
of role these play with reference to party development or the lack of it in Pakistan.

On the basis of above mentioned factors the effort will be made to analyse the evolution
and development of political parties and the role that these have played in the politics of
Pakistan. We will focus on the following political parties.

i) Pakistan Muslim League (i.e. all the factions that have emerged or decayed
since its creation to contemporary times)
ii) Pakistan People's Party
iii) National Awami Party (alongwith their various factions that have emerged or
decayed in this party from its inception to present times)
iv) Jamat-i-Islami of Pakistan
v) Jamiat-ulma-e-Islam
vi) Jamiat-Ulma-e-Pakistan (along with their various factions from their
inception till contemporary times)
vii) Mohajir Qaumi Movement / Mutahida Qaumi Movement (MQM)

To analyze the role and contribution of these parties in Pakistani politics, we will look at
their manifestoes, speeches and statements made by the leaders of the parties and spacific
position that these parties have taken on important social, political and economic issues.

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PART TWO BLOCKS 1-9
BLOCK ONE
CONCEPTS-I

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Introduction
This is the first block of this course and the theme in the block revolves around the
pivotal question:

What is a political party?

There is a common misperception that any group of individuals that acquires a label can
he considered a political party. This is misleading. We would like to see how various
scholars have defined a political party.

A leading American political scientist has defined a political party as a "relatively stable,
organized, label providing group". However for political party factors like ideology,
social foundations, structure, organization, participation, strategy, continuity of
leadership, sources of funding must be taken into account. According to Maurice
Duverger "in the first half of the nineteenth century when people referred to parties they
were thinking primarily of ideologies rather than the men who subscribed them" With
Lenin & Marx the emphasis was placed on the underlying social foundations i.e. "parties
were viewed as the expression of social classes in a nation's political life.

Duverger has identified three types of parties: the elitist or traditional parties that include
the European and the American type and which are not concerned with recruiting large
membership but are more concerned with quality than with the quantity. Then there are
the mass parties that came into existence more than half a century ago by the socialist
movements and this technique of organizing mass parties was later on adopted by
communist and fascist parties and also by parties in the developing countries. In between
these elitist and mass parties are the indirect parties e.g. the British Labour Party in its
original organization. Its main committees were formed by union representatives, mutual
aid societies, cooperatives and intellectual groups that agreed to take common action an
political issues.

David Apter has identified two types of political parties of Solidarity and parties of
Representation. The former, according to him, are born in the mobilization system. They
invariably emerge in the form of a mass movement and are thus mass based. They
promote group affinity but due to their size are weakly organized. Ideology plays an
important role in such parties. After has suggested that in the third world countries most
of the independence movements were led by such parties of solidarity. These began to
disintegrate after they had achieved their goal i.e. independence. Parties or
Representation according to Apter minimize the role of ideology and are elite based
interest groups play an important role and they promote consensus building compromise
and bargain. These parties are financed by those whose interests they represent. The
parties arc organized and stable, therefore, Apter has suggested, they are born in
reconciliation system.


Durverger. Party politics and pressure groups, 1972

Italies
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Huntington discusses the evolution and development of a political party in four phases.
According to him a political party is an important modernizer. In the first phase the
political party emerges as a faction and it promotes organizational activity. In the second
phase as a result of polarization which is due to modernization, this organizational
activity helps consolidate the development of a political party. The third phase is that of
expansion - increase in the number of participants and the final phase is stability which
Huntington calls "institutionalization'. Which is stability in terms of membership and
continuity of leadership.

Joseph La Palombara and Myron Weiner argue, that political party emerges when the
“….activities of a political system reach a certain degree of complexity or whenever the
motion of political power comes to include the idea that mass public must participate or
be controlled”. Thus they suggest that just as bureaucracy emerged when public
administration could not be controlled by the princes, the political party emerged when
recruitment of political leadership and making of public policies could not be handled by
a clique of men unconcerned with the sentiments of the public.

Thus political party can be viewed as dependent variable -- outgrowth of a process of

development or an independent variable - as an institutional force affecting the political
develop at itself e.g. role of parties in communist countries can be taken as an example of
independent variable.

Broadly speaking a political party may be defined as consisting of individuals and

associations who share similar interests and ideology which give them a sense of
identification. These individuals and associations while developing an organization work
voluntarily to pursue the above defined common goals.

1.2 What is a political party?

1.3 Required readings

Reading 1 Party politics and Pressure groups

(Maurice Duverger)
PP 3-18
Reading 2 Political Parties
(Maurice Duverger)
PP 1-60
Reading 3 “The origin and development of political parties.”
(Joseph La Palombara and Myron Weiner) in Political Parties and
Political development edited by Joseph La Palombara and Myron
Weiner:
PP 3-42


La Palombara and Weiner, Political parties and political development. 1966
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Reading 4 Political Order in Changing Societies
(S.P, Huntington)
PP 412-20
Reading 5 Politics of Modernization
(David E. Apter)
PP 179-216
1.4 Self learning Questions

Question-1
What is meant by the term 'basic element'? What are the basic elements that can be
related to most of the existing Political parties according to Duverger? Discuss.

Points to note
⎯ Basic elements' are the component units of party organization, such as
branches or local organizations that are dispersed throughout the country.

⎯ These ‘basic elements’ are linked by coordinating institutions, like trade

unions or cooperaties that are not political by nature.

⎯ These elements are the caucus, the branch, the cell and the militia.

⎯ Caucus is a committee or a limited closed group that yieds great power and
forms the normal organization of parties under a property system of universal
suffrage that is still in its beginning.

⎯ Universal suffrage and techniques directly adapted to masses (e.g. the

branch) have brought decline of caucus. A branch is much less decentralized
than a caucus.
⎯ A cell is an even smaller group. It is different from the branch on the basis of
group which is mostly occupational rather than geographical and on an even
smaller number of members than of a branch.
Militia is a kind of a private army whose members are subjected to same discipline
as soldiers. Parties with militia as their basis have a more definite breach between
electoral and parliamentary action. These members are neither mobilized nor
maintained by the organization and are of two categories: active and reserve e.g.
National Socialist Storm Troops of Hilter. However, no political party has ever
been exclusively formed on the basis of militia.
Question-2
What are the Common Functions performed by a political party according to Joseph La
Palombara and Myron Weiner? What are the conditions that give rise to a political party?

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Points to note
⎯ Organization of public opinion and communication of demands to the central
power or the government, which ever the case may be.

⎯ To articulate the meaning of broader community to its followers and the

selection of political leadership.

⎯ Political parties emerge when there is a degree of complexity in the activities

of a political system or when the idea emerges that public must participate or
be controlled.

Question-3
Differentiate between the elitist or traditional parties and the mass parties.

Points to note
⎯ Elitist parties are not mass based and are more concerned with quality than
with the quantity.

⎯ Elitist parties are of two different types -- the European and the American
type.

⎯ Mass parties were organized by socialist movements more than half a century
ago. This technique was later adopted by Communist and Fascist parties and
much later by parties in the developing countries. Mass parties are broadly
based but because of their amorphous size their organization is not that
strong.

Question-4
Is the emergence of political parties related to modernization process? If so, is their
creation a continuous process? Elaborate.

Points to note
⎯ Political parties emerge when a political crisis of systematic magnitude
occurs at such a time when sufficient modernization has taken place and
conditions for party development are present.

⎯ Process of creation of political parties is continuous.

⎯ Origin of parties can be surveyed by theories concerning origin of parties that

are:

i) Institutional theories
ii) Historical situation theories
iii) Development theories
21
BLOCK TWO
CONCEPTS-II

22
2.1 Introduction
In this block we will focus our attention on pressure groups, public opinion and
propaganda. If one were to ask a question 'what is a pressure group' a simple answer
would be a group that may be based on class, ethnicity, religion or shared interest.
However the basic functions of a pressure group would be to promote the interests of
those who form the group.

Political parties strive to acquire power and to exercise it by electing local officials,
mayors, senators, head of the state etc., while pressure groups do not strive directly either
to acquire power or to exercise it. They influence power, i.e. they exert `pressure' while
remaining behind formal structures of power. Pressure groups form an important
component of a political party. More than one pressure groups may operate and exist in a
political party. Pressure group may not necessarily be political in nature on the contrary
they are usually non political organizations whose primary activity is anything but
political. According to Maurice Duverger "any group, association, organization, even
those whose normal concerns are far removed from politics, can act as a pressure group
in certain areas and under certain circumstances.”

Duverger further proceeds to distinguish between the genuine and pseudo pressure
groups. While defining pressure groups two problems seem to arise. Could organization
with fewer activities in the area of political pressure be considered pressure groups. Are
governmental groups pressure groups? A pressure group is "exclusive", Duverger argues,
if its activities are solely in the political domain with bringing pressure to bear upon
public power e.g. the French Parliamentary Association for the Defence of Educational
freedom. Whereas a group would be "partial" if political pressure is one of the facets of
its activities and whose normal concerns may be far removed from politics e.g. a Labour
Union.

However, this distinction is not very clear in application because certain "exclusive
groups" could be technical agencies acting on behalf of other "partial" groups.

Then there are private and public groups. At first only the former were taken into account
as pressure groups, however there is a growing tendency to include governmental bodies
and public agencies as 'public' groups. Even public groups are of two kinds -- one, the
governmental bodies that act to defend the interest of their agencies which they tend to
identify with public interest. While the second is made up of government officials who
tend to monopolize the top positions of influence. In this case also, the distinction
between the two is not clear. On the contrary, it tends to blur. There is yet another
important pressure group and it is the 'foreign' group. As is clear from its name these
groups do not belong to the countries in which they influence or exert pressure e.g.
intelligence agencies of the super powers and ex-colonial powers at times have been
found influential in creating such groups to influence the politics in the third world


Duverger, op, cit
23
countries. These groups may be public or private in their country of origin but would
invariably be private groups since they are foreign to the government of the nation that is
subjected to such pressure. The pseudo pressure groups include such organization that do
not constitute a pressure group but exercise political pressure. This category includes the
technical pressure group such as fund raising organization. In America where pressure
groups have a legitimate position and are called lobbies - which is an organization of
experts e.g. lawyers, that extend its services -- in other words it is a commercial
organization that pressure groups use to promote their own ends. The other kind of
pseudo pressure group is the newspaper and the information media.

The different kinds of pressure groups include professional organization e.g. Employer's
associations in business and industry form organization, of salaried workers etc. Other
kinds may include specialized political organization, intellectual groups partial pressure
groups like veteran's association. In addition public pressure groups like governmental
agencies and civil service cadres. Finally military can also act as pressure group, it
attempts to influence the decision makers, and uses intervention as a threat.

Public opinion deals with making or breaking of opinion on specific issues. “…opinions
held by groups of individuals on a particular issue can be described as public opinion.
V.O. Key has applied the term to those "opinions held by private persons which
governments find prudent to heed.” Family, occupation and additional background are
important in forming ones ideas and opinions and can be taken as primary group. Other
important influences are the mass media, political parties, pressure groups and the
government especially in democratic states. Public opinion polls are carried out to
estimate public opinion whereby the opinion of a large group of people is predicted by
asking the opinion of a smaller group which is called as a sample group. Public opinion
has been accused of being erratic, inconsistent and conservative. However in the modern
times it is felt that man is capable and has the qualities to undertake important decisions--
public opinion helps him take one.

Propaganda on the other hand, is any attempt to influence the opinion of others-- by the
manipulation of facts, one sided presentation of information or the use of non rational
appeal. It plays an important role in all systems of governments well as for political
paities, pressure groups and individuals.

Factors like a crisis situation censorship, degree of accuracy and appeal to certain groups
contribute to the success of propaganda.


Leeds Politics 1968
24
2.2 What is Pressure group?
2.3 Required readings

Reading 6 Party Politics and Pressure groups (Maurice Duverger) PP 216-18

Reading 7 The politics of Modernization (David E. Apter) –PP 101- 17, 121-58
Reading; 8 Comparative Politics (Gabriel A. Almond and G. Bingham Powell Jr.)
PP 169-77

2.4 Self Learning Questions

Question-5
Are pressure groups always political? If not how do they exert political pressure?
Explain.
Points to note
⎯ Definition of a pressure group.
⎯ Definition of a pressure group with respect to a non-political organization.
⎯ Difference between an Exclusive and Partial group.
Question-6
What arc pseudo pressure groups? How do they exert political pressure? Discuss.
Points to note
⎯ Definition of pseudo pressure groups.

⎯ Types of pseudo pressure groups-- technical pressure groups and information

media.

⎯ Election campaigns, lobbies, newspaper and information media, private

propaganda bureaus are a few modes of exerting political pressures by the
pseudo pressure groups.

Question-7
What is meant by public pressure groups? Distinguish between pressure from civil
organization and pressure from military.

Points to note
⎯ Definition of public pressure groups.
⎯ Role of civil organization-government agencies and civil service cadres.
⎯ Role of military as a pressure group--through intervention force and political
pressure.
25
2.5 Public opinion and propaganda
2.6 Required readings
Reading 9 Politics (C.A. Leeds) PP-155-65
2.7 Self Learning Questions
Question-8
Public Opinion can be described as 'opinions held by groups of individuals on a particular
issue. Discuss the formation of public opinion. Explain how can it he measured.

Points to note

⎯ Personal experiences, mass media, pressure groups, political parties and role
of government help in the formation or public opinion.

⎯ Old methods of measuring public opinion included polls through ballots

printed in newspapers.

⎯ Modern methods include public opinion polls through quota sampling and
random sampling.

Question-9
Define propaganda. Briefly explain the various methods and strategies which can be
employed for a successful campaign.

Points to note
⎯ Definition of public opinion.
⎯ Techniques include
⎯ timing of the campaign,
⎯ choice of medium of communication, presentation of information,
⎯ Selection of specific devices.

26
 BLOCK THREE
POLITICAL PARTIES & PRESSURE
GROUPS: INTERACTION &
INTERRELATIONSHIP.

27
3.1 Introduction
In the previous blocks we have familiarized you with the concepts of a political party, a
pressure group, public opinion and propaganda. How ever our aim is not to discuss these
concepts separately, rather, our purpose is to establish and understand the
interrelationship between these concepts.
In this block we would try to analyze:-
⎯ The interaction and interrelationship between political parties and pressure groups.
⎯ Processes of party development.
⎯ Relationship between party development and political stability or the lack of it.
⎯ What is the impact of political parties on political development?
⎯ Making and breaking of alliances among political parties.
We can identify three possible relationships between political parties and pressure
groups:

• Some political parties may be subordinate to pressure groups;

• Some pressure groups may be subordinate to political parties; and
• There could be cooperation on equal basis between a political parry and a pressure
group.
By focusing these relationships we can analyze the nature of interaction between pressure
groups and political parties. Some criteria is required to measure the strength of a party.
According to Duverger there are three different yardsticks, the members, the voters and
the parliamentary seats. Three types of parties can be distinguished on the basis of
strength --

i) parties with a majority bent,

ii) major parties and
iii) minor parties.
The first term is used for those parties which command a majority in the parliament or
likely to command such a status. Major parties are those that have no hope of ever
obtaining a majority except in exceptional circumstances which do not correspond with
the nature of the system. Even if they are alone in office they exercise power with the
support and agreement of other parties. Normally they govern inside a coalition
government -- their strength o allowing them to play an important role inside the alliance
like having key posts and ministries. Even in opposition they are influential and cannot
be ignored.

Minor parties, on the other hand are merely makeweights whether on office or in
opposition, unless the gap between the majority and minority is insignificant. In such a
case they are in a position of holding a balance, their importance thus increases. In the
given reading Duverger discusses the theory of minor parties' in detail.
28
The principal types, Duverger argues, in the development of party strength are
alternation, stable distribution, domination and leftism. Alternation exists mainly in
dualist countries and has been defined as ‘pendulum movement’ each party moving from
opposition to office and from office to opposition’. Britain is the classic example.

Stable distribution is in direct contrast with alternation, it corresponds to greatest

immobility “…The absence of any serious variation among the parties over a long period
of time”. In every period some doctrine has provided the basic intellectual framework,
the general organization of thought with the result that even its adversaries have been
able to criticize it or destroy it only by adopting its methods of reasoning. Christianity in
the Middle Ages and Liberalism in the nineteenth century serve as example. When Marx
constructed his theory he made use of arguments taken from Liberalism. He turned its
own logic against it: he was the last of the Liberals today Marxism tends itself to assume
the position of dominant doctrine: it can only be contested within the bounds of its own
dialectic. Similar phenomena of domination arc sometimes encountered in the evolution
of parties”. Leftism is the birth of new parties on the 'left' of the old parties which
causes the latter to slide to the 'Right' or may bring disappearance or fusion amongst
them. There are certain other patterns of leftism, "... the weakening of all right-wing
parties to the advantage of left-wing parties without either disappearance or new creation
(e.g. France, 1924 - 39), the preservation of an overall balance between two blocks with
internal evolution inside one of them, ... the replacement of an old left party by a new
more energetic and intransigent one ..., the rise of the party furthest left at the expense of
all others”... so on and so forth.

The idea of strength is inseparable from that of alliance. Duverger argues, that alliance
between parties varies in form and degree. Some are unorganized temporary coalitions
which may take place in order to benefit the parties concerned in elections, or in order to
overthrow the government or to support one. Other are more strongly organized and
therefore lasting. So they are sometimes, as Duverger calls them, like super-parties. In the
given reading factors in alliances such as the number of parties, national traditions,
governmental interference, historical circumstances, influence of electoral regimes are
discussed. Types of alliances and relations between the allies are also dealt with. The
impact of parties on political development has been discussed at length by Joseph
Lapalombara and Myron Weiner. They have talked in detail about some selected
problems in the development of a party namely “…national integration political
participation, legitimacy and the management of conflict”+ and parties as instruments of
political socialization.


Duverger, Political Parties 1967

ibid

ibid

ibid
+
Joseph La Palomber and Myron weiner (eds) Political Parties and Political development, 1972 p-399
29
3.2 Interaction and interrelationship between political parties and pressure
groups.

3.3 Required readings

Reading 10 Party Politics and Pressure Groups (Maurice Duverger) P....117-21

3.4 Sell Learning Questions

Question-10
Political parties strive to acquire power while pressure groups attempt to influence those
who acquire power. If so, what sort of relationship is possible between political parties
and pressure groups? Discuss.

Points to note
Pressure groups normally seek to influence men who wield power rather than
replacing their own men in power officially.

⎯ A Pressure group can be subordinate to a political party

⎯ A Political party can be subordinate to a pressure group.

⎯ Cooperation on equal basis.

3.5 What is party strength?

3.6 Required readings

Reading 11 Political Parties (Maurice Duverger) PP 281-324

3.7 Self Learning Questions

Question-11
What is a minor party? Discuss the role of 'personality parties' and 'permanent minority
parties.

Points to note
⎯ The concept of minor party.

⎯ Types of minor parties.

⎯ Personality parties are parliamentary groups and have no social substructure.

They may be composed of the retinue of influential persons for reasons of
prestige or favor. Other types are more egaliarian.

30
 Then there are independent parties not linked with any major party and the
satellites that are strongly attached to a major party. They are riot generally
based on any precise doctrine and correspond to caucus parties with weak
organization, high degree of decentralization and complete lack of discipline
(except in retinue parties and in some satellites).

⎯ Permanent minority parties do not exist solely on parliamentary level. They

may dispose of an organization, either national or local, in the country. Some
are based upon caucus or branch, others on cell or even militia but they are
mass parties by structure, having a social or a political substructure,

⎯ Personality parties tend to be for the government while minority parties are
usually against it.

Question-12
Discuss the criteria or principles through which a party's strength may be measured.

Points to note
⎯ Broadly speaking there are four principle types, namely;
alternation
stable distribution
domination and
leftism.

⎯ Alternation means movement of each party from opposition to office and

vice versa. This pendulum movement is due to two fundamental factors. First
of all the exercise of power compels a party to rarefy its programme so the
promises made to the electors are not fulfilled completely. This leads to the
transferring of votes by a certain proportion to the opposing party. Secondly
the activities of the government also give rise to opposition and
disagreements within the majority party. Alternation of power mainly occurs
in two party systems.

⎯ Stable distribution is the absence of serious variation among parties over a

long period of time. It corresponds to immobility and is in direct contrast
with alternation. Slightness of variation between elections and rareness of
long term trends are the two main elements of stable distribution.

⎯ Domination is the intellectual frame work or general organization of thought

during any period that can only be criticized or destroyed by using its
methods of reasoning while leftism is the birth of new parties on the left of
the old parties, causing the latter to disappear or fuse together or slide to the
right,
31
3.8 How does the making and breaking of coalition or alliance occur
within or among political partite?

3.9 Required Reading

Reading 12 Political Parties (Maurice Duverger) PP....324-51

3.10 Self learning Questions

Question-13
Critically analyse the factors that play a determining role in the formation of alliances.

Points to note
⎯ How and why are alliance formed
⎯ The number of parties
⎯ National traditions
⎯ Governmental influences
⎯ Historical circumstances
⎯ Influences of electoral regimes

3.11 Impact of political parties on political development

3.12 Required readings

Reading 13 Political Parties and Political Development (Joseph La Palombara and

Myron Weiner, eds.) PP 399-435

Reading 14 Politics of Modernization (David E. Apter) PP 218-22

3.13 Self Learning Questions

Question-14
Critically examine the role of political participation in the development of a political
party.

Points to note
⎯ the meaning of political participation
⎯ Different patterns of response to the demand for political participation by
party government: repression, mobilization, limited and full admission into
the party system.

32
 BLOCKS FOUR AND FIVE
PARTY SYSTEMS AND POLITICAL
STABILITY

33
4.1 Introduction

After working through the previous blocks we hope that you have not only understood
the basic concepts but also their interrelationship. We hope that you have got some idea
about the working of a political party, pressure group, the influence of public opinion and
its interrelationship with a political party. How does a political party acquire stability and
what is the politics of coalition or alliance.

Since a political party does not exist in isolation but is the creature of modern and
modernizing political systems, we would try, in these blocks, to understand and analyze
the various types of political systems. In Addition, we shall see what is political stability,
what are the forces that bring about stability, what is the role of political parties in this
context and how do they affect political development. In this context we would focus our
attention on three types of political system': the single party, the multi- party and the two-
party systems. However before we analyze these system we have included a reading by
Huntington in which he talks about the traditional political systems. The idea is to give
you a background of how power existed in the traditional systems. Huntington suggests
that traditional political systems have existed in different shapes from city-states, tribal
kingdoms, absolute monarchies to bureaucratic empires, aristocracies, theocracies etc.
Traditionally, two patterns have exited as political structure; centralized or the
bureaucratic states and the dispersed or feudal state (the role of the monarch in each type
either active or passive.) In the former case the monarch has more authority than in the
latter where power and office are hereditary in an aristocratic class.

Therefore, one finds a considerable degree of political and social mobility in case of a
bureaucratic state while a dispersed feudal state is highly stratified. Legitimacy and
authority lie with the monarch in the former political structure while in the latter, he
shares legitimacy with the nobility whose authority over the subjects is independent of
the monarch's authority over then. In other words, the monarch shares legitimacy but
sources of authority of the nobility over their subjects are not dependence upon the
monarch but independent. In both political structures, the role of the monarch can be
different, i.e. active or passive. Huntington has given a table citing examples and for your
convenience we are reproducing it below.

34
Table 1: Traditional political systems

Political Structure Role of Monarch

ACTIVE PASSIVE
(Ruling) (OLIGARCHICAL)
Centralized Roman Empire Korea
(Bureaucratic) Ethiopia Meiji Japan
Dispersed China Thailand
(Feudal) Medieval Europe Tokugawa Japan

Both monarchies-ruling and oligarchical are different from the modern parliamentary
monarchies. A comparison between the traditional and the modern is clearly evident from
the table produced below:

Table2: Types of contemporary monarchies

Traditional Modern

RULING OLIGARCHICAL PARLIAMENTARY

Principal function Rule and reign Reign Reign
of Monarch
Principal source of Monarchy Monarchy People
legitimacy
Principle efficient Monarchy Army and Cabinet Parties and
authorities bureaucracy bureaucracy Parliament
Army and perhaps
parties
Scope of political Narrow to medium Narrow Broad
participation

In contrast to bureaucratic system the feudal politics manifest fewer political institutions,
less complicated administrative structure, lesser specialization and division of labour,
inequality of opportunity, less social mobility. In short, a lower level of political
modernization is found in dispersed or feudal politics than in the bureaucrat is system.

Now that a background has been established, we would try to analyze the various types of
party systems,, viz-a-viz. One party, Multi-party and Two-party system.

In a political system, if at least two parties co-exist with no single party enjoying
overwhelming superiority over other or others, then the system is a pluralistic party
system. If on the other hand, one predominates then it becomes a `dominant' party


Huntington, Political Order in Changing Societies, 1968

ibid
35
system. Within pluralistic system exist 'two party' and 'multi party' systems that are based
upon functional differences in democratic institutions. However a flexible two-party
system is closer to multi party system. Similarly the notion of a 'dominant' party system
serves as kind of connection or a bridge between one party and pluratistic party systems.
The fundamental difference between the two-party and the multiparty system is the
number of parties. In the former case for practical purposes two parties share the
parliamentary seats one assuming the entire charge of government, the other taking the
responsibility of free expression of criticism or the opposition. In case of multi-party
system, there is a coalition among various parties who may differ in their programmes
and supporters. Coalitions are inherently unstable, therefore, in multi party systems
sustaining a coalition and ensuring parliamentary majority remains a constant problem.
Since majority of one party regimes that existed prior to World War II were either
communist or fascist, there is a general tendency to believe that their structures are
inherent in the one party system. You will find out when you go through the prescribed
readings that there are differences between the dictatorial regimes in general and one-
party system in particular. Moreover the one-party situation differs from country to
country in term of its ideology and the level of party development in the country. It
would be clear to you by now that whether it is one-party, two-party or multi-party
system, the basic function of political parries operating in these systems is to promote
political stability and ensure peaceful succession/transfer of power from one party to
another or from one set of individuals to another.
4.2 Traditional political systems and political change
4.3 Required readings
Reading 15 Political Order in Changing Societies (S.P. Huntington) PP .104-53
4.4 Self Learning Questions
Question-15
Analyze the Political structure in the traditional political systems.
Points to note
⎯ Types of political structure -- centralized or bureaucratic state and dispersed
or feudal state.
⎯ In a centralized or bureaucratic state the monarch has more authority, there is
a considerable degree of social and political mobility and authority and
legitimacy both lie with the monarch.
⎯ The monarch shares legitimacy with the nobility in dispersed or feudal state,
since power and office arc hereditary in an aristocratic class. The sources of
authority of the nobility over their subjects are independent of the monarch.
A feudal state is highly stratified i.e. there is less social and political
mobility.
⎯ Monarchies are of two types in traditional systems -- ruling and oligarchical.
36
Question-16
See table 2 in the introduction to bocks four and five. Make a comparative analysis of
traditional and modern monarchies.

Points to note
⎯ The principal function of the monarch and the principal source of legitimacy.

⎯ The principle efficient authorities and the scope of political participation.

⎯ Comparison between the modern and traditional monarchies.

4.5 Single party system

4.6 Required readings

Reading 16 Political Parties (Maurice Duverger) PP 255-80

4.7 Self Learning Questions

Question-17
Practice has preceded theory in case of the single party. Critically analyze.

Points to note
⎯ Evolution of the single party.

⎯ Structural similarity between the single parties and the parties of democratic
regimes.

⎯ Internal structure and variations in single party systems.

⎯ General characteristics of the single party.

Question-18
Discuss the fundamental differences between the fascist and communist single parties.

Point to note
⎯ Doctrinal difference between fascism and communism -- the former having a
pessimistic approach attains; the optimistic approach of the latter.

⎯ On the whole, the fact that from the social point of view the definition of
communist parties as the tools of the proletariat to overthrow the authority of
the middle classes and the fascist parties as 'tools of the middle classes to
retain their power and prevent its falling into the hands of the proletariat'
37
 corresponds to reality. The former enlists working class to overthrow the
middle class state while fascism works to oppose this overthrow. Thus for the
birth and development of the latter the presence of a communist party is
important.

⎯ Similarities between fascism: and communism in terms of relying more on

working class, general framework and structure.

⎯ Communist party adopts elections for the appointment of leaders while

fascist parties rely on a system of nomination. Other differences are e.g. in
terms of 'basic elements' of the parties, the admission or recruitment policy,
membership, system of expulsion, and the differences in conception and
extent of the role of the single parties and their aims.

4.8 Two party system

4.9 Required readings

Reading 17 Political Parties (Maurice Duverger) PP 207-28

4.10 Self Learning Questions

Question-19
Is two party system specifically an Anglo-Saxon phenomenon? Discuss

Points to note
⎯ Some Anglo-Saxon countries have a multiparty system e.g. Australia,
Canada, while a number of Latin American countries have two-party system
and there is an evolution towards it in some continental European states. e.g.
Germany and Italy.

⎯ Within the Anglo-Saxon two party system a clear distinction should be made
between Britain and America in terms of survival of two party system,
structure of parties, roles and aims of the American and the British parties.

⎯ Evolution towards a two party system in Latin American and continental

European states. This dualist trend has been a result of the suppression of the
single party.

Question-20
According to Maurice Duverger three types of two-party systems have succeeded one
another since the nineteenth century. Why is it so? Discuss.

38
Points to note
⎯ a bourgeois two party system due to 'property franchise'
⎯ the development of Radicalism
⎯ the development of Socialism - the establishment of universal suffrage and
the appearance of socialist parties at the parliamentary level.

4.11 Multi-partism

4.12 Required readings

Reading 18 Political Parties (Maurice Duverger) pp 228-54

4.13 Self Learning Questions

Question-21
How would you describe the multi-party system? What is meant by tri-partism’ quadri-
partism and poly-parties? Discuss.

Points to note
What is meant by the multi-Party system and how is it formed.
Descrption of tri-Partism quadri-partism and poly- partism with examples.

Question-22

Discuss proportional representation with reference to the multi- party system.

4.14 Political stability

4.15 Required readings

Reading 19 Political Order in Changing Societies (S.P. Huntington) PP 1-92
397-461
Reading 20 Comparative Politics (Gabriel A. Almond) (G. Bingham. Powell, Jr.)
PP 71-76

4.16 Self Learning Questions

Question-23
"1 do know that there is no greater necessity for men who live in communities than that
they be governed, self governed if possible well governed if they are fortunate, but in any
event, governed".

Do you think that a political community is fragmented where political institutions have
little power? Critically analyze.

39
Points to note

⎯ Difference between the developed and the developing/modernizing countries.

⎯ What are political institutions

⎯ Social forces and political institutions.

⎯ Strength of political organization and scope of support.

⎯ Level of institutionalization.

Question 24

Discuss the impact of modernization on politics.

Points to note

⎯ What is meant by modernization?

⎯ Aspects of modernization more relevant to politics-- social mobilization and

economic development

⎯ Different stages of political modernization.

Questions-25

Stability of a modernizing political system depends upon the strength of its political
parties. Elaborate.

Point to note

⎯ Strength of political parties depends upon the level of institutionalization i.e.

institutionalized mass support.

⎯ This strength is inversely proportional to the susceptibility of military

intervention in a political system.

⎯ Measurement of the institutional strength of a party.

⎯ Its ability to survive its founder
⎯ Its organizational complexity and depth
⎯ party loyalty.

40
 BLOCK SIX
PARTY SYSTEM IN PAKISTAN

41
5.1 Introduction
The purpose of this course as is evident from its title Political parties and pressure groups
in Pakistan is to analyze their role in Pakistani polities. As you have been familiarized
with these concepts and their working in the previous blocks, in this block we would
briefly discuss the party system in Pakistan during the last forty one years with particular
reference to the role of political parties. For convenience we have divided the block into
several phases namely: From independence till the imposition of martial law in 1958,
Ayub Khan era, the Yahya period, the period of civilian rule i.e. the Z.A Bhutto period
till the imposition of the third and the longest martial law in 1977, 1977-88 i.e. Zia's
military regime and Junejo period 1985-88 and finally 1988 elections with PPP emerging
victorious and Benazir Bhutto assuming the office of the Prime Minister. Pakistan is one
of the countries that came into being after the second World War. The political elite of
the new country were familiar with the British parliamentary system. Therefore these
elites showed preference for adopting the parliamentary democracy as a form of a
government. The period from 1947-58 can be described as the dominant party system
with Muslim League as the dominant party. The other political parties were weak.
Muslim League, however, was unable to sustain its dominance for long. The elections in
East Bengal in 1954 saw Muslim League defeated. It never regained the former footing in
East Bengal. Between 1954-58. Muslim League support began to decrease. Making and
breaking of coalitions became a frequent phenomenon leading to the decline of the
dominant party system. A number of smaller parties emerged leading to a drift towards
multiparty system. Distrust and political insights among the religions and political elites
facilitated the ascendency of civilian bureaucracy supported by the military.

The political process was suspended in a coup d’état and Martial Law was imposed in
October 1958. The period between 1958-62 hampered the development of party system
in Pakistan. Political parties had almost no role to play in the political order that ensued
the Martial Law. They remained under a formal ban till June 1962 and even after the ban
was lifted their role was greatly restricted in decision making.

The 1962, constitution introduced Presidential form of government. The powers of the
president were immense. Election to the office of the president were not to be held
directly, rather an indirect system was introduced known as the Basic Democracies.
80,000 Basic Democrats were to be elected (40,000 from East & 40,000 from West.
Pakistan). These elected members were to act as the electoral college for the presidential
elections.

In 1963 .Ayub Khan formally joined the Convention Muslim League. The presidential
elections between Ayuh Khan and Fatima Jinnah were held under the Basic Democracy
(BD) system of indirect elections in 1965. Thus it signifies, as Huntington suggests,"that
in Modernizing, systems it is difficult to do away with political parties”. However the
system allowed to develop was the dominant party system and Convention Muslim
League emerged as the dominant party. After the 1964-65 presidential elections through
Basic Democrats ,Convention. Muslim League remained the dominant party in the
country."
42
The second Martial Law was imposed in 1969 after Ayub Khan resigned as a result of
mass agitation. However, the period between 1969-71 saw the emergence of competitive
politics and facilitated the process of party development. The election results of 1970
brought to the forefront the two-party system as Pakistan People's Party from West and
the Awami League (AL) from East Pakistan emerged as strong parties, still both were
regionally based. However, the system could not be described clearly as the two-party
system as we see in the advanced industrialised countries. Besides PPP and AL that
emerged as strong leading parties, there were other minor parties. Once again we find that
the political system in Pakistan did not exactly correspond with multi-party system that
we see in some of the European countries. The period from 1971 after the
dismemberment of Pakistan, to 1977, is a classic example of the earliest period i.e. 1947-
58. This was also a period of dominant party system in which the smaller parties either
decayed or made coalitions. However, due to government patronage PPP was able to
acquire stability and strength.

Once again the political process was overthrown in coup d'etat by the military in July
1977. During the period of Martial Law (1977-85) political parties and political
associations were banned and political parties were excluded from the political process. It
is interesting to note that 1983 MRD movement indicated that despite military rule and its
efforts to do away with the party system, political parties were not totally eliminated from
the political scene. In order to minimize the significance of political parties, non-party
based elections were held in 1985. However, once the parliaments were instituted and the
government was installed it was realized that in modernizing countries where even
restricted participatory process is restored, it becomes difficult to do away with the
political parties. The interesting change of 1985 electoral process was that despite non-
party based elections, with the parliament two parties emerged the ruling party, new
Muslim League called the Official Parliamentary Group (OPG) and the opposition group.
From a period of 1985 to May 1988 under non-party system, Pakistan began to see the
revival of political parties. This clearly indicates that political activity how-so-ever
restricted, necessitates the emergence of a party system.

In August, 1988, through sheer accident of history the death of president Zia, led to the
holding of party based elections. In November 1988, the elections were held. The results
of 1988 elections reveal that political parties are a pivot for participatory politics. Without
political parties individual freedom, competitive politics and route to democracy cannot
occur. It is pre-mature to give any label to the kind of direction that Pakistani party
system will grow in the post '88 period. However, one thing is evident that in
modernizing societies like Pakistan, political parties cannot be completely eliminated
even though their development may be hampered and their growth delayed by the
interventionist regimes. Political parties and their development is imperative for a country
like ours.

43
5.2 1947-58

5.3 Required readings

Reading 21 Political System of Pakistan (Khalid Bin Sayeed) .,PP 60-93
Reading 22 Polities in. Pakistan (Khalid Bin Sayeed) PP 32-53
Reading 23 Political Parties in Pakistan (1947-1958) (M. Rafique Afzal) PP 240-45

5.4 Self Learning Questions

Question-26
Discuss the emergence of civil-military dominance during 1947-58, with reference to
social and ethnic conflicts.

Points to note
⎯ West Pakistan was dominated by land lords and religious clashes that was
different from East Pakistan where despite economic backwardness the lower
middle class groups were emerging against the domination of land owning
classes and urban based leaders.

⎯ Emergence of growing conflict between Punjabis and Bengalis and within

West Pakistan.

⎯ Ineffectiveness of Muslim League to run such a geographically and

ethnically split country.

5.5 1958-69

5.6 Required readings

Reading 24 Political Parties in Pakistan 1958-1969 (M. Rafique Afzal) PP1-21 and 38-52

Reading 25 Pakistan: the Enigma of Political Development (Lawrence. Ziring) PP

75-87

Reading 26 Political Order in Changing Societies (S.P. Huntington) PP 251-55

Reading 27 The Ayub Khan Era (Lawrence Ziring) PP 23-43

Reading 28 A Political System of Pakistan (Khalid Bin Sayeed) PP 101-26

44
5.7 Self Learning Questions

Question-27

Do you think that the first Martial Law was imposed to exclude political parties from the
political system? Explain it in the light of measures taken by the Ayub regime during
1958-62. Did he succeed in terminating their activities? Comment

Points to note

⎯ From the time of the imposition of martial law till June 1962 political parties
remained under a formal ban.

⎯ Various short term and long ranged policies in various sectors to justify the
continuance of martial law and the banning of party politics.

⎯ Activities of the politicians were highly restricted and many were arrested

⎯ Prumalgation of PRODA (Public Representatives Officers Disqualification

Act) followed by PODO (Public Offices Disqualification Order) and EBDO
(Elective Bodies Disqualification Order).

⎯ Political Parties struggled to survive the period of ban under martial law, and
the politicians used every opportunity to assert themselves and mobilize
public opinion.

⎯ In June 1962, a political parties bill was drafted and passed by the national
assembly and the president in July. Thus political parties were revived and
political activity restored signifying the fact that it is difficult to do away
with political parties in modernizing systems.

Question-28
Do you agree that the constitution of 1962 established 'constitutional autocracy'?

Points to note

⎯ Ayub's arguments about the non-suitability of parliamentary democracy.

⎯ Elections to the office of the president indirectly through eighty thousand

'basic democrats.

⎯ Wide range of presidential powers especially financial powers and powers of

legislation. Moreover his removal from the office became almost an
impossibility.
45
 ⎯ Limited provincial autonomy with the provincial executive who was
completely subservient to the president since the governor who appointed the
provincial executive was appointed by the president and held office during
his pleasure.

⎯ Judiciary was not only kept under control, its powers were restricted. e.g. the
president had the power to appoint the Chief justice of the Supreme Court
without. reference to any body and other judges in consultation with him.
Similarly the president could appoint a judge in case of a High Court in
consultation with the Chief Justice of the Supreme Court and the governor of
the province.

⎯ Fundamental Rights were not provided, legal protection and mostly listed
under "Principles of Law-Making".

5.8 1969-71

5.9 Required readings

Reading 29 The military and politics in Pakistan: 1947-86 (Hasan Askari Rizvi)
PP 161-93
Reading 30 Pakistan: The enigma of political development (Lawrence Ziring)
PP 97-100 and 87-89

5.10 Self Learning Questions

Question-29
Analyse the circumstances under which Ayub Khan handed over the reigns of the country
to Yahya Khan. Why did he not hand over power according to constitution of 1962?
Discuss.

Points to note
⎯ Ineffectiveness of civil administration and constitutional authority.

⎯ Withdrawal of support for Ayub Khan by the army itself, mainly due to
Taskent Declaration and withdrawl of Agartala conspiracy case.

⎯ Serious political implications in transfer of power in accordance with 1962

constitution. This was possible in theory but is practice meant serious
political crisis and law and order situation.

⎯ Rise of oppositions against Ayub in both provinces and countrywide political

agitation.
46
Question-30

Critically analyse the results of the election of 1970 with reference to the emergence of
competitive politics.

Points to note
⎯ Emergency of Awami League and People's Party as the main victorious
parties in East and West Pakistan respectively.

⎯ Nearly twenty percent of seats secured by other parties and independents.

⎯ Elections results also brought to the fore front the extent of regionalism in the
country.

Question-31
Critically analyze the turn of events in the wake of 1970 elections that ultimately led to
the dismemberment of Pakistan.

Points to note
⎯ Results of 1970 election strengthening the extent of political alienation and
frustration which had developed in many parts of Pakistan and Particularly in
East Pakistan.

⎯ Awami League's stand on six-point formula as the only basis for a

constitution.

⎯ Postponement of the session of the national assembly.

⎯ Military action in East Pakistan to assert the power of the central government
the beginning of an all out civil war between Pakistan military and its
supporters and Awami League and the supporters of Bangladesh movement.

⎯ India’s role both political and indirect military intervention as well as an all
out invasion on East Pakistan.

⎯ Other developments e.g. Kissinger's visit to China creating apprehensions in

India about a U.S.-Pakistan-China axis against India and Soviet Union. As
well as the statement by Yahya Khan about Chinese intervention in case
India attacked, after the vague promise of Chinese support brought back by
the delegation headed by Bhutto that visited China in the first week of
November. Since the Chinese did not contradict the statement it caused
Indians serious anguish. This also led to Indo-Sovict Treaty of friendship and
co-operation.

47
Question 32
Why was transferring of power to the political representatives delayed? Was it delibrate?
Comment.

Points to Note
⎯ Results of 1970 elections fully reflected the existing polarisation of the
electrorate along regional lines.
⎯ Role of the military regime.
⎯ Role of People's Party and Awami League.
5.11 1971-1977
5.12 Required readings
Reading 31 The Military and Politics in Pakistan 1947-86 (Hasan-Askari Rizvi)
PP 194-217
Reading 32 1973 Constitution of the Islamic Republic of Pakistan.

Reading 33 Problems of Contemprory Pakistan (J. Henry Korson) PP 30-50

Reading 34 Contemprory Pakistan (Manzoor ud din Ahmad) PP 13-27

5.13 Self Learning Questions

Question-33
Disscuss the steps taken by the Bhutto government in the post'71 period to limit military's
political role and reassert civilian supremacy.

Point to note
⎯ Bhutto assumed power amidst grave crisis and confusion. The separation of
East Pakistan had caused unprecedented grief and anguish.

⎯ Bhutto not only enjoyed mass appeal, he was the leader of the majority party
in the national assembly. Moreover the supreme court of Pakistan
unanimously held Yahya Khan's act of assuming power as usurpation and
declared it "illegal and unconstitutional". Despite the fact that the judgment
came four months later, nevertheless it did help in strengthening the civilian-
government against the military. Finally military's status and reputation as a
nation building force suffered greatly due to the fall of East Pakistan.

⎯ Initial steps towards asserting civilian supremacy over military, included

criticism of military involvement in politics. In addition various decisions
were taken for the removal of several officers, setting up of a commission to
look into the 1971 military debacle, restructuring of military high command,
48
 reduction of chief of staff's tenure and services chiefs were not to be granted
extensions.

⎯ The 1973 constitution introduced major changes in the administrative set up

of the military high command.

Question-34
Discuss parliamentary democracy as envisaged in the constitution of 1973

Points to note
⎯ Parliamentary from Government enshrined in the constitution.

⎯ Power of the Prime Minister in the constitution.

⎯ Balance of power between the President and the Prime Minister.

5.14 1977-88

5.15 Required readings

Reading 35 Pakistan under Martial Law 1977-85 (Mohammad Waseem) PP 1-10,
22-27, 33-93
Reading 36 Military and Politics in Pakistan 1947-86 (Hasan Askari Rizvi)
PP - 225-62

5.16 Self Learning Questions

Question-35
Discuss Zia's Martial Law regime in the light of Mohammad Waseem's reading. Do you
agree that during this period various new phenomena emerged to give the period a
specific identity different from the previous Martial Laws?

Points to note
⎯ Zia's regime can be divided into three phases namely:
the period of adjustment'
the 'period of stabilization'
the 'period of change, movement and transition'.

⎯ The Bhutto phenomenon and the problems of legitimacy of the Martial Law
regime.
⎯ The Afghanistan factor
⎯ The MRD movement
⎯ The non party based elections of 1985 and RCO 1985.
⎯ Comparison with the previous Martial Law regimes.

49
Question-36
Critically analyze the Revival of Constitutional Order (RCO) 1985.

Points to Note
⎯ Concentration of power in the hands of the president.

⎯ Shift of the government authority from the parliament which is the traditional
source of the powers of the prime minister. Parliament is not the source of
presidential powers in RCO 1985.

⎯ The constitution of 1973 envisaged a parliamentary system; therefore the

prime minister was committed to the continuation of parliament since his
own fate was tied with it. The president does not lose anything according to
RCO 1985 by abrogating it as happened on May 29, 1988.

⎯ Problems in the maintenance of rule of law.

Question 37
Critically analyze the failures and successes of the 1983 MRD movements.

Points to Note:
⎯ Political' character of the MRD movement

⎯ The Dubai factor

⎯ MRD unity

⎯ Government's reaction to the movement.

5.17 1988 to date

5.18 Required readings

Readings 37 Monthly 'Herald' November, 1988 Election '88 issue and December,
1988 PP 20-91
3.19 Self Learning Questions
Question-38
Critically analyse the election results of November 16, 1988.

Points to Note
⎯ Number of seat won by various parties in the assembly.

⎯ PPP emerging as the single majority Party in the national assembly.

50
 6. BLOCKS SEVEN & EIGHT
ROLE OF POLITICAL PARTIES

51
6.1 Introduction
According to Huntington a political party is an important modernizer. He has discussed
its evolution and development in four phases: We have talking about these phases in
detail in block one. Our focus in these blocks will be on the constitution, development
and decay of political parties in Pakistan. In most of the literature appearing on political
parties in Pakistan it is generally argued that political parties have failed to develop a
party system in Pakistan. The reasons for the failure are many--factional nature of
leadership, lack of discipline, weak organization, changing loyalties -- i.e. failure to
develop a competitive party system. This failure of the political parties, it is argued,
facilitated the intervention of military into politics. Practorianism or military intervention
is perceived as resulting from the weakness of political parties.

We shall see whether political parties have failed to develop a viable and competitive
party system, or there are some other factors. We shall try to analyze the origin evolution
and development of political parties in Pakistan. In this context we shall study all the
factions that have emerged or decayed as a political party came into being.

In order to have some understanding of the problems of party development in Pakistan,

we shall try to focus on the following Factors.

(a) Type and continuity in leadership

(b) Organization
(c) Ideology
(d) Source of funding
(e) Membership

We shall concentrate on following major and minor parties and alliances.

i) Pakistan Muslim League,

ii) Pakistan People's Partly
iii) National Awami Party
iv) Jiamiat-i-Ulama-i-lslam
v) Republican Party
vi) Jamiat-i-Islami
vii) Jamiat-al-Ulama-i-Pakistan
viii) Mohijir Qaumi Movement

52
6.2 Pakistan Muslim League

6.3 Required reading.

Reading 38 Pakistan: A Political Stud (Keith Cllard) PP 39-76

Reading 39 Party Politics in Pakistan (K.K. Aziz) PP 70-94

Reading 40 Political Parties in Pakistan. 1958-1969 Vol: II (M. RaFique Afzal)

PP 53-78

Reading 41 Pakistan under Martial Law, 1977-1985 (Muhammad Waseeni)

PP 46-53, 74-88

Reading 42 Sec Reading 37

6.4 Self Learning Questions

Question 39
Did Muslim League enjoy absolute power during the first seven years of independence
Comment.

Points to note

⎯ Identification of Muslim League with the country and the state by the people.

⎯ Absence of substantial opposition parties.

⎯ Absence of general elections to test the popularity of Muslim League.

Question 40
Critically examine the role of Muslim League during 1947-58. How far does the
responsibility for the failure of parliamentary system rest on Muslim League. Discuss.

Points to note
⎯ Due to the credit for leading the Pakistan movement, Muslim League
continued to dominate even after independence.

⎯ However, it suffered from a number of problems, such as;

A complete lack of leadership. After the Quaid and Liaqat Ali, no leaders
from the League could create confidence to lead the party that was in the grip
of conflicts.

53
 ⎯ The organizational structure was not attended to. It did not receive the much
needed attention and therefore constantly declined. In this respect local
conflicts which led provincial conflicts, combining of the office of president
of Muslim League and Prime Minister of Pakistan and the same at provincial
level played an important part in further declining the organizational base of
the party.

⎯ Muslim League failed to provide a meaningful programme for the basic

problems of the country e.g. In effective attempts for the implementation of
land reforms. These attempts were easily failed by the strong opposition of
vested interests which not only led to frustration but left the party without
strong supporters who could mobilize public opinion.

⎯ Absence of strong opposition - a much needed ingredient for smooth running

of parliamentary government.

6.5 Pakistan People's Party

6.6 Required readings

Reading 43 The Pakistan People's Party: Phases one and two (Anwar H. Syed),
in Pakistan: The Long View, edited by Lawrence Ziring, Ralph
Braibanti and W: Howiad WFigging: PP 70-116
Reading, 44 Changing Party Structures in Pakistan: From Muslim League to
People's Party" (Philip E. Jones) in Contemporary Pakistan, edited by
Manzoor -ud- din Ahmad PP 114-39
Reading 45 See Reading 37

6.7 Self Learning Questions

Question-41
Discuss the circumstances under which PPP emerged on the political scene of Pakistan.

Points to note
⎯ Deepening political crisis during Ayub era
⎯ Exit of Ayub Khan.

Question-42
Identify and examine some of the major problems faced by PPP after it came to power in
1971.

Points to note
⎯ Crisis, of integration
⎯ Problems of factionalism
Question- 43
54
What type of economic and social policies were spelled out of the PPP in the Foundation
Documents'? Discuss

Point to note
⎯ Social justice and establishment of a classless society

⎯ A constitutional democratic order based on universal adult franchise

⎯ Civil rights and liberties

⎯ Full remuneration to workers for their labour, elimination of feudalism, self-

help projects unions, fixation of minimum wage rates, free health care for
peasants, educational facilities etc.

6.8 National Awami Party

6.9 Required readings

Reading 46 Political Parties in Pakistan 1947-58 (M. Rafiquc Afzal) PP 219-22

Reading 47 Political Parties in Pakistan 1958-69 (M. Rafique. Afzal) PP 108-115

Reading 48 In Afghanistan's Shadow: Baluch Nationalism and Soviet_

Temptations, Selig S. Harrison PP 41-69 83-91

Reading 49 Interest Groups in South Asia (Talukdar Muneer us Zaman) PP

Reading 50 The NAP Challenge (L.F. Rushbrooke Williams) PP

6.10 Self Learning Questions

Question 44
Discuss the origin of National Awami Party.

Points to note
⎯ Pakistan National Party joined hands with Bhashani led Awam League
dissidents and Ganatantri Dal. The new party emerged at Dacca on 25th July
1957 at the Democratic workers convention.

Question 45
Discuss the role of NAP during and after the first Martial Law.

55
Points to note
⎯ NAP suffered more than any other party for its views.
⎯ Its top leaders were under detention for a long time.
⎯ NAP was formally revived at Dacca in Feb, 1964 and immediately
compaigned for adult franchise and direct elections.

⎯ In 1964-65 elections NAP did not follow a uniform policy but joined the
Combined Opposition Parties (COP) on July 24, 1964.

6.11 Jamiat-i-Ulama-i-Islam

6.12 Required readings

Reading 51 Political Parties in Pakistan 1947-58 (M. Rafique Afzal) PP 33.-37
Reading 52 Political Parties in Pakistan 1958-69 Vol: (M. Rafique Afzal)
PI' 84-91
Reading 53 See Reading 37

6.13 Self Learning Questions

Question-46
Discuss the origin of Jamiat-i-Ulama-i-Islam.

Points to note
⎯ Background of jamiat-i-Ulama-i-Hind.
⎯ Elections of 1945-46 moved the pro-League ulama to organize them selves
into a separate party in order to counter the propaganda of the pro-Congress
Jamiat.
⎯ The inauguration of the new party Jamiat-i-Ulama-i-Islam was formally
announced in Calcutta during October 26-29, 1945, and Maulana Shabbir
Ahmed Usmani was elected its president in absentia.

6.14 Republican Party

6.15 Required readings

Reading 54 Party Politics in Pakistan 1947-58 (K.K. Aziz) PP 105-10

Reading 55 Political Parties in' Pakistan 1947-58 (M. Rafique Afzal) PP 195-98

56
6.16 Self Learning Questions

Question-47
Discuss the origin and rise of the Republican Party.

Points to note
⎯ Political situation in the country,
⎯ The Party was formed with Dr. Khan Sahib as its convener, Among the
Muslim Leaguers who joined the Republican party were those who were
opposed Daultana as well as those who were opposed Khuhro.
⎯ The party had the blessings of President Iskandar Mirza and Governor
Gurmani.

6.17 Jamat-i-Islami of Pakistan

6.18 Required readings

Reading 56 Jamat-i-Islami of Pakistan (Kalim Bahadur) PP 139-211

Reading 57 Political Parties in Pakistan 1947-58 (M. Rafique Afzal) PP 37-39

Reading 58 Political Parties in Pakistan 1958-69 Vol: H (M. Rafique Afzal)

PP 91-100

Reading 59 See Reading 37

6.19 Self Learning Questions

Question-48

Discuss the Organizational structure of Jamiat-i-islami of Pakistan.

Points to note
⎯ According to its constitution the foremost position is held by the Arnir
elected through direct ballot by the members.

⎯ Afterwards are the Majlis.i.Shura (Consultative Council) Majlis.i.Amla

(Executive Council) Qaiyyum (Secretary General) and seven departments
directly under the Amir’.

Question-49
Discuss the ideology of Jamat-i-Islami. Is the political philosophy of Mawdudi the
ideology of Jama’at?

57
Points to note
⎯ Freedom of will and predestination.

⎯ Islamic Ethics and Islamic Economics

⎯ Social Justice

⎯ Individual and Society

⎯ Socialism, Communism, Capitalism and Islam.

6.20 Jamiat-al-Ulma-e-Pakistan

6.21 Required readings

Reading 60 Political Parties in Pakistan 1958-69 Vol:II (M. Rafique Afzal)

PP 79-80
Reading 61 See Reading 37

6.22 Self Learning Questions

Question 50
Discuss the organisation of Jmiat-al-Ulma-i-Pakistan.

Points to note
⎯ JUP was organized by the ulama and mashaikh of the Brelvi school of
thought in 1948.

6.23 Mohajir Qaumi Movement

6.24 Required readings

Reading 62 Sec Reading 37

Reading 63 MQM's Charter in daily, Dawn Nov. 1988.

6.25 Self Learning Questions

Question 51
Analys the factors that led to the creation of Mohajir Qaurni Movement (MQM) in
Pakistan.

58
Points to note
⎯ MQM was created in 1983 but the foundations of the party were laid in 1978
with the formation of All Pakistan Mohajir Students Organization (APMSO)
at the Karachi University. Altaf Hussain was the founder Chairman and
Azim Tariq its General Secretary.

⎯ MQM has completely changed the complexion of Sindh’s urban politics.

⎯ The 25-point charter of Resolutions acts as the basic document and manifesto
of MQM.

59
 7. BLOCK NINE
INTEREST/PRESSURE GROUPS IN
PAKISTAN

60
7.1 Introduction
In block two we have studied the formation and types of pressure/interest groups. Not
only that we also learnt that pressure/interest groups may not be political in nature. On
the contrary, they are usually non-political organization whose primary visible activity is
not political but social or economic.

In this block we shall try and analyze the organization and mobilization of pressure
interest groups. In addition, we shall also study how systematic changes affect group
development and how are these groups mobilized and organized in Pakistan. We shall see
the main pressure/interest groups that operate in Pakistani politics e.g. the business and
industrial communities, labour unions, teachers associations, etc. The role of military and
bureaucracy as pressure groups shall also be considered.

7.2 Role of major pressure/interest groups in Pakistani politics.

7.3 Required readings

Reading 64 Interest Groups and Development (Stanley Kochanek) PP175-90, 292-311

Reading 65 Elite Politics in an Ideological State:
The Case of Pakistan (Asaf Hussian) PP 61-110, 120-45
Reading 66 "Public Policy, Financial-industrial groups and development of
Economic Institutions in Pakistan: The experience of 1960's"
(Saeed Shafqat) in Pakistan Studies (Book of Reading) PP 206-39

7.4 Self Learning Questions

Question-52
Discuss the characteristics of the business community in Pakistani as an interest/pressure
groups.

Points to note
⎯ Though business community is the most highly organised social group in
Pakistan, still it suffers from social diversities and uneven patterns of the
growth of business.

⎯ Collective action has tended to be usually formal and ceremonial.

Question-53
Critically analyze the factors that have hampered the business community in Pakistan to
mobilize public support. What has been the role of press in this context?

61
Points to note
⎯ Characteristics of business and character of the political system have resulted in
the emergence of a business-government relationship based on individual rather
than collective action.

⎯ Business associations lack independent analytical and research capabilities.

⎯ They have failed to establish a permanent foothold as owners or managers of

major newspaper or financial journals.

Question 54
How do Interest Groups operate in Pakistani politics or the governmental process? What
are its consequences? Analyze.

Points to note
⎯ Participation of interest groups has been limited and confined to individuals.

⎯ It has led to lack of governmental accountability as well as government's

difficulty in gaining public support for its actions eventually leaving the
government isolated when pressures began to build up against a regime and a
system.

Question 55
Critically examine the role of the bureaucratic elite in Pakistani politics.

Points to note
⎯ Dominance of bureaucratic and military elite has been the consequence of the
absence of effective political system and vice- versa.

⎯ Power became highly centralized.

⎯ Therefore public policy took two distinguished characteristics; restricted

participation and distributive benefits.

Question 56
Do you agree that failure to develop a competitive party system has led to the
intervention of military into politics? Discuss.

Points to note
⎯ Absence of well organized political parties.
⎯ Personality cult in political parties.
⎯ Military interference in political affairs.

62
PRESCRIBED READINGS LIST

Afzal M. Rafique, 1976, Political Parties in Pakistan 1947-58, National Commission on

Historical, and Cultural Research, Islamabad.

, 1987, Political Parties in Pakistan 1958-1969, - Vol. II, National

Institute of Historical and Cultural Research. Islamabad.

Ahmad, Manzoor ud din, (ed), 1980, Contemprory Pakistan, Royal Book Company,
Karachi.

Almond, Gabriel A., and Powell Jr., G.Bingharn, 1978, Comparative Politics, Little,
Brown and Company (Inc).

Apter, David E., 3965, The Politics of Modernization, University of Chicago Press,
Chicago.

Aziz K.K., 1976, Party Politics in Pakistan, National Commission on Historical and
Cultural Research, Islamabad.

Bahadur, Kalim, 1978, Jamat-i-Islami of Pakistan, Progressive Books, Lahore.

Callard, Keith, 1957. Pakistan: A Political Study, George Allen & Unwin Ltd, London.

Duverger, Maurice, 1964, (Third edition), Political Parties, translated by Barbara and
Robert North with a foreword by D.W.Brogan, Methuen & Co. Ltd, London.
1972, Party Politics and Pressure Groups:

A Comparative introduction, translated by Robert Wagover, London.

Harrison, Selig S., 1981, In Afghanistan's Shadow: Baluch Nationalism and Soviet

Temptations, Carnegie Endowment for International Peace, New York.

Huntington, S.P., 1968, Political Order in Changing Societies, Yale University Press,
New Haven.

Hussain, Asaf,1979, Elite Politics in an Ideological State: The Case of Pakistan,

W,k1.Dawson &Sons Ltd, Kent England.

Jones, Philip, E., 1980, "Changing Party Structure:, in Pakistan: From Muslim League to
People's Party': in Contemprory Pakistan edited by Manzoor-ud-din Ahmad.'

Kochunek Stanley A., 1983 Interest Groups and Political .Development,

63
Kosson, .J. Henry, 1974, Prohlems of Contaniprory Pakistan, P. Brill, Leiden, The
Netherlands,

La Pulombara, Joseph, and Weiner. Myron 1966, "The Origin and Development of
Political Parties" in Political Parties and Political Development edited hyJoseph La
Palombara and Myron Weiner. eds. 1966, Political Parties and Political Development,
Princeton University Press, Princeton. New York.
Leeds, CA., 1968, Politics, Macdonald & Evans Ltd. London.

Rizvi, Hassan Askari, 1968, The Military and Politics. in Pakistan, Procressive
Publishers, Lahore.

Sayecd, Khalid Bin, 1967, The • Political System of Pakistan Honginton Mifflin
Company, Boston.

, 1980, Politics in Pakistan, Praeger Publishers, New York.

Shafqat, Saeed, 1988, "Public Policy, Financial-Inthistrical Groups and Development of

Economics Institution in Pakistan: The Case of 1960's' in Pakistan Studies (Book of
Reading), Civil Services Academy, Lahore.

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