Table of contents

Slno. Contents Page no.

001 Translation: introduction 03
002 Translation: etymology 03
003 Translation: definitions 03
004 John. Cunnison "Ian" Catford’s definition 03
005 Peter Newmark’s definition 03
006 Else R.P Vieira’s definition 04
007 Edwin Gentzler’s definitions 04
008 Walter Bendix Schönflies Benjamin’s definition 04
009 Jacques derrida’s definition 04
010 Emily Susan Apter’s definition 05
011 Nils Göran david Malmqvist’s definition 05
012 Francis George Steiner’s definition 05
013 Prof. Dr. H.C Hans Josef Vermeer’s definition 05
014 Lawrence Venuti’s definition 05
015 Gideon Toury’s definition 06
016 Definition according to collier's encyclopedia 06
017 Mildred l. Larson’s definition 06
018 Reinhard Rudolf Karl Hartmann’s definition  06
019 Wolfram Wilss’s definition 07
020 Anton Popovic ‘s definition 07
021 Andrey Venediktovich Fyodorov ‘s definition 07
022 Viktor Vladimirovich Vinogradov’s definition  07
023 Jean Delisle’s definition 08
024 Theodore Horace savory’s definition 08
025 Roger t. Bell’s definition 08
026 Roman Osipovich Jakobson’s definition 08
027 Susan Edna Bassnett’s definition 09
028 André Alphons Lefevere’s definition 09
029 Susan Edna Bassnett and André Alphons Lefevere’s definition 09
030 Eugene albert Nida and Charles Russell taber’s definition   09
031 Basil Hatim and Jeremy Munday’s definition 10
032 Translation: definitions conclusion 10
033 Translation: types 11
034 Newmark (1988) mention translation types 11
035 Translation emphasis on the target language 11
036 Jakobson in Bassnet (2002) distinguishes three types of translation 11
037 Larson (1984) classified translation types into two main types 11
037 Nida (1964) in Munday (2009) described two types of translations 12
038 Brislin (1976) in Choliludin (2009) classified the types of translation into: 12
039 Larson (1984) and Newmark (1988) back translation 12
040 Translation: types conclusion 13
041 TRANSLATION: TYPES 14
042 General Translation 14
043 Technical Translation 14
044 Scientific Translation 14
045 Medical Translation 14
046 Economic Translations 14
047 Legal Translation 14

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048 Juridical Translation 14
049 Judicial Translation 14
050 Patent Translation 15
051 Literary Translation 15
052 Commercial Translation/Business Translations 15
053 Administrative Translations 15
054 Marketing Translations 15
055 Document Translations / Text Translations 16
056 Subtitle Translations 16
057 Audio Translations 16
058 Machine Translation (MT) 16
059 Word-for-word Translation `17
060 Literal Translation 17
061 Faithful Translation 17
062 Semantic Translation 17
063 Communicative Translation 17
064 Free Translation 17
065 Adaptation 17
066 Idiomatic Translation 17
067 Back translation 17
068 TRANSLATION: TYPES CONCLUSION 17
069 WORK CITED 18
070 NAME INDEX 18
071 ABBREVIATIONS 18

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TRANSLATION: INTRODUCTION

Translation is a meaningful intellectual activity. It has a wide-ranging multidimensional significance in our daily
lives. In a multilingual multicultural context, translation becomes an extremely useful activity as it helps one to
understand the emotions, viewpoints and literary and cultural traditions of diverse speech communities living across
one’s geographical setting. In the era of globalization and greater outreach communication among people of
different speech communities is feasible only through translation activity. Translation is useful in everyday
interaction, and even for understanding and negotiation between heterogeneous cultures. Translation has paved the
way for global interactions, also advancements in diverse fields of knowledge and the effective dissemination of
ideas etc. Translation has a vital impact on social and political consciousness. It expands cultural understanding.

TRANSLATION: ETYMOLOGY

The English word "translation" derives from the Latin word translatio, which comes from trans, "across" + ferre, "to
carry" or "to bring" (-latio in turn coming from latus, the past participle of ferre). Thus translatio is "a carrying
across" or "a bringing across" – in this case, of a text from one language to another.

The Greek term for translation is “metaphrasis” which means "speaking across". This word has supplied English
with the word “metaphrase," meaning a literal, or word-for-word, translation, as contrasted with "paraphrase" (a
"saying in other words," from the Greek paraphrasis).

TRANSLATION: DEFINITIONS

JOHN. CUNNISON "IAN" CATFORD’S DEFINITION

(26 March 1917 – 6 October 2009) was a Scottish linguist and phonetician of worldwide renown.
Defines translation as “the replacement of textual material in one language (SL) by equivalent
textual material in another language (TL)” (CATFORD 20)
“Translation is an operation performed on languages: a process of substituting a text in one
language for a text in another. (CATFORD 01)

PETER NEWMARK’S DEFINITION

Peter Newmark (12 April 1916 – 9 July 2011) was an English professor of translation at

the University of Surrey.
Translation is rendering the meaning of a text into another language in the way that the author
intended the text” (NEWMARK 05)

Translation is "a craft consisting in the attempt to replace a written message and/or statement in
one language by the same message and/or statement in another language". (NEWMARK 07)

ELSE R P VIEIRA’S DEFINITION

Professor of Brazilian and Comparative Latin American Studies, Director of Graduate Studies
in Modern Language and Cultures and Coordinator of Lusophone Studies, Queen Mary
University of London (2002- ).

Translation as a creative activity. Translator is never invisible, on the contrary, always visible
through his translation, writing himself into the text. (LONG 112)

EDWIN GENTZLER’S DEFINITIONS

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 Born 16 June 1951 (age 70 years)  is a Professor of Comparative Literature and former Director of
the Translation Center at the University of Massachusetts Amherst.
Translation blending together with fiction and theory offers a new perspective for us to see the
world. Different understanding of a work can be all called translation. (LONG 112)
Translation not as “form reproduction or opposition but rather as a form of productive writing in
and of itself, meshed or interconnected with ‘original’ writing, thus making such secondary status
or such legal contracts unnecessary.” . (LONG 112)

WALTER BENDIX SCHÖNFLIES BENJAMIN’S DEFINITION

(15 July 1892 – 26 September 1940)

Was a German Jewish philosopher, cultural critic and essayist. Author of famous essay ‘The
Task of the Translator’ (1923).

Translation is "a life-force that ensures a literary text's survival".

Translation is part of the ‘afterlife’ of a text and the interpretation of the latter should be informed
by a history of reception. (LIB 20)

JACQUES DERRIDA’S DEFINITION

(15 July 1930 – 9 October 2004), born in Algeria, was a French philosopher best known for
developing a form of semiotic analysis known as deconstruction, which he analyzed in numerous
texts, and developed in the context of phenomenology.

“The relation of the letter to the spirit, of the body of literalness to the ideal interiority of sense is
also the site of the passage of translation, of this conversion that is called translation” (DERRIDA
112)

EMILY SUSAN APTER’S DEFINITION

(Born 1954) is an American academic, translator, editor and professor.

Translation is “a means of repositioning the subject in the world and in the history”(APTER 06)

NILS GÖRAN DAVID MALMQVIST’S DEFINITION

(6 June 1924 – 17 October 2019) was a Swedish linguist, literary historian, sinologist and translator.

He was also a member of the Swedish Academy between 1985 and 2019.

‘Beautiful translations are like beautiful women, that is to say, they are not always the most
faithful ones’ (MALMQVIST 19)

FRANCIS GEORGE STEINER’S DEFINITION

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 (April 23, 1929 – February 3, 2020) was a Franco-American literary critic, essayist,
philosopher, novelist, and educator. He wrote extensively about the relationship between
languages.
“The interpretation of verbal signs in one language by means of verbal signs in another”
(STEINER 54).

PROF. DR. H.C HANS JOSEF VERMEER’S DEFINITION

  (24 September 1930 – 4 February 2010), was a German linguist and translation scholar.

“To produce a text in the target setting for a target purpose and a target addressee in the target
circumstances” (VERMEER 29)

LAWRENCE VENUTI’S DEFINITION

(Born 1953) is an American translation theorist, translation historian, and a translator

from Italian, French, and Catalan.

“A process by which the chain of signifiers that constitutes the source-language text is
replaced by a chain of signifiers in the target language which the translator provides on the
strength of an interpretation” (VENUTI 17)

GIDEON TOURY’S DEFINITION

(6 June 1942 – 4 October 2016) was an Israeli translation scholar and professor of Poetics,
Comparative Literature and Translation Studies at Tel Aviv University, Gideon Toury was a
pioneer of Descriptive Translation Studies.

“A kind of activity which inevitably involves at least two languages and two cultural
traditions” (TOURY 56).

Translations themselves have no "fixed" identity because they are always subjected to different socio-literary
contextual factors, so they must be viewed as having multiple identities, dependent upon the forces of history and
the semiotic web called culture.(LIB 18)

DEFINITION ACCORDING TO COLLIER'S ENCYCLOPEDIA

Collier's Encyclopedia 

Is a discontinued general encyclopedia first published in 1949 by P.F. Collier and Son.

Peter Fenelon Collier 

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(December 12, 1849 – April 23, 1909) was an Irish-American publisher, the founder of the publishing company P.
F. Collier & Son, and in 1888 founded Collier's weekly.

According to Collier's Encyclopedia (1960, 452), translation is: "... the art of converting written or spoken
communication from one language into another". (LIB 17)

MILDRED L. LARSON’S DEFINITION

(1925–2014) Mildred L Larson is the author of books such as Meaning-Based Translation.

Treasure in Clay Pots, and Meaning-Based Translation Workbook.

Translation consists of studying the lexicon, grammatical structure, communication

situation and cultural context language text, analyzing of the source in order to determine its
meaning, and then reconstructing this same meaning using the lexicon and grammatical structure
which appropriate in the receptor language and its cultural context. (LARSON 03)

REINHARD RUDOLF KARL HARTMANN’S DEFINITION 

(Born 8 April 1938) is an Austrian and English lexicographer and applied linguist. Until the

1970s, lexicographers worked in relative isolation, and Hartmann is credited with making a
major contribution to lexicography and fostering interdisciplinary consultation between
reference specialists. R. R. K. Hartmann is co-author of the standard texts Dictionary of
Language and Linguistics (1972) and the Dictionary of Lexicography (1998).

According to the Dictionary of Language and Linguistics, it is: "the process or result of converting
information from one language or language variety into another. In translating written or recorded material of
natural languages, the aim is to reproduce as accurately as possible all grammatical and lexical features of the
"source language" original by finding equivalents in the "target language", (HARTMAN 242).

WOLFRAM WILSS’S DEFINITION

(Born July 25, 1925 in Ravensburg; August 3, 2012 in Saarbrucken) was a German linguist and
translation scholar.

Translation is "a text oriented event". Based on that, translation, to him, is "a procedure which
leads from a written SLT (source language text) to an optimally equivalent TLT (target
language text) and requires the syntactic, semantic, stylistic and text-pragmatic comprehension
by the translator of the original text".(CHOLILUDIN 03)

ANTON POPOVIC‘S DEFINITION

(27 July 1933 – 24 June 1984) was a fundamental Slovak translation scientist and text
theoretician. He is recognized for his important contributions to the modern development
of translation studies.

Translation is recoding of a linguistic text, accompanied by the creation of its new linguistic
appearance and stylistic shape. (KHALIFA 23)

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ANDREY VENEDIKTOVICH FYODOROV‘S DEFINITION

(April 19, 1906 – November 24, 1997) was a Soviet philologist, translator, literary translation
theorist, one of the founders of Soviet translation theory, and professor. For 15 years (1963–
1979), he was the chairman of the Department of German Philology at Saint Petersburg State
University (formerly Leningrad State University).

To translate means to precisely and completely express by means of one language the things that
had been expressed earlier by the means of another language. (VENUTI 67)

VIKTOR VLADIMIROVICH VINOGRADOV‘S DEFINITION 

(31 December 1894 – 4 October 1969)

Was a Soviet linguist and philologist who presided over Soviet linguistics after World War II.

Translation is a process (and its result) caused by social necessity of information

(content) transmitting, expressed in a written or oral text in one language by the means of an
equivalent (adequate) text in another language. (VINOGRADOV 286)

JEAN DELISLE’S DEFINITION

Was born in Hull on13 avril 1947. He is a Canadian author, translation teacher, certified

translator, certified terminologist, translation specialist and historian of translation.

"What truly distinguishes translation is that it takes place in the context of the relations
between two cultures, two worlds of thought and perception" (DELISLE 74)

THEODORE HORACE SAVORY’S DEFINITION

English arachnologist, teacher and linguist.

Translation is made possible by an equivalent of thought that lies behind different verbal
expressions. (SAVORY 37)

ROGER T. BELL’S DEFINITION

Is an academician and an author of international repute. the author of books such as Translation and
Translating, Sociolinguistics, An Introduction To Applied Linguistics.   

Translation is the replacement of a representation of a text in one language by a representation of

an equivalent text in a second language. (BELL 06)

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ROMAN OSIPOVICH JAKOBSON’S DEFINITION

(October 11, 1896 – July 18, 1982) was a Russian-American linguist and literary theorist.

Translation is "the interpretation of verbal signs by means of some other language."'

(JAKOBSON 232)

SUSAN EDNA BASSNETT’S DEFINITION

   (Born 21 October 1945) is a translation theorist and scholar of comparative literature.

Translation is not only a kind of pure lingual activity but also a kind of communication intra-culture
and inter-culture. In other words, translation is not a mere linguistic transfer but a cross-cultural
activity. (BASSNETT 09)

Translation is "a rewriting of an original text". This "rewriting" is a "manipulation which can
help in the evolution of a literature and a society" (BASSNETT 46)

ANDRÉ ALPHONS LEFEVERE’S DEFINITION

(1945 – 27 March 1996) was a translation theorist. he was Professor of Germanic Studies at
the University of Texas at Austin.
“Translation is, of course, a rewriting of an original text” (LEFEVERE 12)

SUSAN EDNA BASSNETT AND ANDRÉ ALPHONS LEFEVERE’S DEFINITION

Translation is “a primary method of imposing meaning while concealing the

power relations that lie behind the production of that meaning. (BASSNETT
52)

EUGENE ALBERT NIDA AND CHARLES RUSSELL TABER’S DEFINITION  

Eugene Albert Nida

(November 11, 1914 – August 25, 2011) was an American linguist who developed the dynamic-
equivalence Bible-translation theory and one of the founders of the modern discipline
of translation studies.

Charles Russell Taber

French, American theology educator. Board directors Pioneer Bible Translators, Duncanville, Texas.

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 Translation is “reproducing in the receptor language the closest natural equivalent of the source language
message, first in terms of meaning and secondly in terms of style” (NIDA 12)

BASIL HATIM AND JEREMY MUNDAY’S DEFINITION

Basil Hatim

Is Professor of Translation & Linguistics at the American University of

Sharjah, UAE and theorist and practitioner in English/Arabic translation.
He has worked and lectured widely at universities throughout the world,
and has published extensively on Applied Linguistics, Text Linguistics,
Translation/Interpreting and TESOL.

Jeremy Munday

(Born May 18, 1960) is a British linguist and translation scholar. He teaches as a professor of translation
studies at the University of Leeds and works as a translator for the language combinations Spanish-English and
French-English

“The process of transferring a written text from SL to TL, conducted by a translator, or translators, in a
specific sociocultural context” (HATIM 06).

TRANSLATION: DEFINITIONS CONCLUSION.

From all the above definitions, and in spite of all the similarities and differences which exist, we cannot confine
translation to one or two definitions. It is elastic in nature and depends upon the person who does the translation. It
differs from language to language, and from culture to culture. . While trying to be a different version of the
original, it maintains its own uniqueness, an identity of its own. Hence it is not as easy as it is thought to be.

it can be concluded that translation implies the process of transferring a message from one language to another,
taking into account all the dimensions within in the Source Language , linguistic organization, culture, style, time,
intentions, feelings, etc. and reproducing the whole thing smoothly, naturally and as closely to the original as
possible in the Target Language.

TRANSLATION: TYPES

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The translation result often different from the original version, this is occur because different translator have
different types of translation. Moreover, a translator way of translating influenced by many types of translation.

1. General Translation

The translation of non-specialized text. That is, text that we can all understand without needing specialist
knowledge in some area.
The text may still contain some technical terms and jargon, but these will either be widely understood.
don’t need someone with specialist knowledge for this type of translation – any professional translator can handle
them. Translators who only do this kind of translation are sometimes referred to as ‘generalist’ or ‘general purpose’
translators.

Examples

Most business correspondence, website content, company and product/service info, non-technical reports.

2. Technical Translation

We use the term “technical translation” in two different ways:

Broad meaning: any translation where the translator needs specialist knowledge in some area.
Narrow meaning: limited to the translation of engineering (in all its forms), IT and industrial texts. This narrower
meaning would exclude legal, financial and medical translations for example, where these would be included in the
broader definition.
Technical translations require knowledge of the specialist field of the text. That's because without it translators
won’t completely understand the text and its implications. And this is essential if we want a fully accurate and
appropriate translation.

Examples

Manuals, specialist reports, product brochures

3. Scientific Translation

The translation of scientific research or documents relating to it.

These texts invariably contain domain-specific terminology, and often involve cutting edge research. So it’s
imperative the translator has the necessary knowledge of the field to fully understand the text. That’s why scientific
translators are typically either experts in the field who have turned to translation, or professionally qualified
translators who also have qualifications and/or experience in that domain. On occasion the translator may have to
consult either with the author or other domain experts to fully comprehend the material and so translate it
appropriately.

Examples

Research papers, journal articles, experiment/trial results.

4. Medical Translation

The translation of healthcare, medical product, pharmaceutical and biotechnology materials.

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Medical translation is a very broad term covering a wide variety of specialist areas and materials – everything from
patient information to regulatory, marketing and technical documents. As a result, this translation type has
numerous potential sub-categories – ‘medical device translations’ and ‘clinical trial translations’, for example.
the translators need sound knowledge of medical terminology and they also need specific subject-matter expertise.

Examples

Company accounts, annual reports, fund or product prospectuses, audit reports, IPO documentation

5. Economic Translations

Sometimes used as a synonym for financial translations.

Other times used somewhat loosely to refer to any area of economic activity – so combining business/commercial,
financial and some types of technical translations.
More narrowly, the translation of documents relating specifically to the economy and the field of economics.
relevant expertise and knowledge needed for this type of translation

6. Legal Translation

The translation of documents relating to the law and legal process.

Legal texts translation require translators with a legal background. without it, a translator may not fully understand
the legal concepts and writing in legal style
Examples
Contracts, legal reports, court judgments, expert opinions, legislation

7. Juridical Translation

Generally used as a synonym for legal translations.

Alternatively, can refer to translations requiring some form of legal verification, certification or notarization that is
common in many jurisdictions.

8. Judicial Translation

Most commonly a synonym for legal translations.

Rarely, used to refer specifically to the translation of court proceeding documentation – so judgments, minutes,
testimonies, etc.

9. Patent Translation

The translation of intellectual property and patent-related documents.

Patents have a specific structure, established terminology and a requirement for complete consistency throughout .
relevant expertise and knowledge needed for this type of translation
Examples
Patent specifications, prior art documents, oppositions, opinions

10. Literary Translation

The translation of literary works – novels, short stories, plays, essays, poems. Literary translation is widely regarded
as the most difficult form of translation. That’s because it involves much more than simply conveying all meaning
in an appropriate style. The translator’s challenge is to also reproduce the character, subtlety and impact of the
original. Literary translators must be talented wordsmiths with exceptional creative writing skills.

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11. Commercial Translation/Business Translations

The translation of documents relating to the world of business. This is a very generic, wide-reaching translation
type. It includes other more specialized forms of translation – legal, financial and technical, for example. And all
types of more general business documentation. Also, some documents will require familiarity with business jargon
and an ability to write in that style. Different translators will be required for different document types – specialists
should handle materials involving technical and specialist fields.
Examples
Business correspondence, reports, marketing and promotional materials, sales proposals

12. Administrative Translations

The translation of business management and administration documents.

So it’s a subset of business / commercial translations.
The implication is these documents will include business jargon and ‘management terminology’, so require a
translator familiar with, and practiced at, writing in that style.
Examples
Management reports and proposals

13. Marketing Translations

The translation of advertising, marketing and promotional materials.

This is a subset of business or commercial translations.
Marketing copy is designed to have a specific impact on the audience , So the translated copy must do this too.
But a direct translation will seldom achieve this. And sometimes a completely new message might be needed

Examples

Advertising, brochures, some website/social media text.

14. Document Translations / Text Translations

The translation of documents of all sorts. Here the translation itself is the end product and needs no further
processing beyond standard formatting and layout.

15. Subtitle Translations

Producing foreign language captions for sub or surtitles.

The goal with subtitling is to produce captions that viewers can comfortably read in the time available and still
follow what’s happening on the video. To achieve this, languages have “rules” governing the number of characters
per line and the minimum time each subtitle should display. Sticking to these guidelines is essential if subtitles are
to be effective. But this is no easy task – it requires simple language, short words, and a very succinct style.
Translators will spend considerable time mulling over and re-working their translation to get it just right. Most
subtitle translators use specialized software that will output the captions in the format sound engineers need for
incorporation into the video.

16. Audio Translations

Broad meaning: the translation of any type of recorded material into another language.
More commonly: the translation of a foreign language video or audio recording into your own language. The first
challenge with audio translations is it’s often impossible to pick up every word that’s said. That’s because audio
quality, speech clarity and speaking speed can all vary enormously. It’s also a mentally challenging task to listen to

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an audio and translate it directly into another language. It’s easy to miss a word or an aspect of meaning. So best
practice is to first transcribe the audio (type up exactly what is said in the language it is spoken in), then translate
that transcription.
Examples
Interviews, product videos, police recordings, social media videos.

17. Machine Translation (MT)

A translation produced entirely by a software program with no human intervention.

A widely used, and free, example is Google Translate. And there are also commercial MT engines. Getting the
general idea of what a text says. This method should never be relied on when high accuracy and/or good quality
wording is needed.

There are two limitations :

it make mistakes (incorrect translations), and  quality of wording is patchy (some parts good, others unnatural or
even nonsensical)
On its positive side they are virtually instantaneous and many are free.

18. Word-for-word Translation

This method translates each word into the other language using its most common meaning and keeping the word
order of the original language.
So the translator deliberately ignores context and target language grammar and syntax.
Its main purpose is to help understand the source language structure and word use.
Often the translation will be placed below the original text to aid comparison.

19. Literal Translation

Words are again translated independently using their most common meanings and out of context, but word order
changed to the closest acceptable target language grammatical structure to the original.
Its main suggested purpose is to help someone read the original text.

20. Faithful Translation

Faithful translation focuses on the intention of the author and seeks to convey the precise meaning of the original
text.
It uses correct target language structures, but structure is less important than meaning.

21. Semantic Translation

Semantic translation is also author-focused and seeks to convey the exact meaning.

Where it differs from faithful translation is that it places equal emphasis on aesthetics, i.e. the ‘sounds’ of the text –
repetition, word play, assonance, etc.
In this method form is as important as meaning as it seeks to “recreate the precise flavour and tone of the original”
(Newmark).

22. Communicative Translation

Seeks to communicate the message and meaning of the text in a natural and easily understood way.
It’s described as reader-focused, seeking to produce the same effect on the reader as the original text.

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23. Free Translation

Here conveying the meaning and effect of the original are all important. There are no constraints on grammatical
form or word choice to achieve this. Often the translation will paraphrase, so may be of markedly different length to
the original.

24. Adaptation

Mainly used for poetry and plays, this method involves re-writing the text where the translation would otherwise
lack the same resonance and impact on the audience.
Themes, storylines and characters will generally be retained, but cultural references, acts and situations adapted to
relevant target culture ones.
So this is effectively a re-creation of the work for the target culture.

25. Idiomatic Translation

Reproduces the meaning or message of the text using idioms and colloquial expressions and language wherever
possible.
The goal is to produce a translation with language that is as natural as possible.

26. Back translation

Back translation is the process of translating a document that has already been translated into a foreign language
back to the original one (preferably by an independent translator). Back translation is able to improve the reliability
and validity of a research in other languages.

TRANSLATION: TYPES CONCLUSION.

There are many more translation and there are all different kinds of processes and technologies that can
work for the different types of translation projects. What makes sense for one translation type might not work for
another.

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Toury, Gideon. “The Nature and Role of Norms in Translation”. In Idem, Descriptive Translation Studies and
Beyond. 3rd ed., vol. 5, Philadelphia, Tel Aviv University, 1995.

Venuti, Lawrence. The Translator's Invisibility: A History of Translation. 10.4324/9781315098746. (2017).

Venuti, Lawrence. The Translator's Invisibility: A History of Translation. 10.4324/9781315098746. (2017).

Vermeer, H. 1987. What does it mean to translate? Indian Journal of Applied Linguistics 13: 2, 25-33.

Vinogradov. V.S., Translation: General and Lexical Problems, (Moscow: KDU, 2006)

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NAME INDEX

(APTER 06) (LARSON 03)

(LIB 17)
(BELL 06) (LIB 18)
(BASSNETT 09) (LIB 20)
(BASSNETT 25) (LONG 112)
(BASSNETT 52) (LEFEVERE 12)

(CATFORD 01) (MALMQVIST 19)

(CATFORD 20)
(CHOLILUDIN 03) (NEWMARK 05)
(NEWMARK 07)
(DELISLE 74) (NIDA 12)
(DERRIDA 112)

(HARTMAN 242) (SAVORY 37)

(HATIM 06) (STEINER 54).

(JAKOBSON 232) (TOURY 56)

(KHALIFA 23) (VENUTI 17)

(VENUTI 67)
(VERMEER 29)
(VINOGRADOV 286)

ABBREVIATIONS
 
TL TLT
Target Language Target Language Text
 
SL SLT
Source Language Source Language Text
 
 

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