The Design of 3D Shape Knitted

Preforms

A project submitted in fulfilment of the requirements for the

degree of Doctor of Philosophy

Jenny Underwood
BA (Textile Design), BPD (Hons.)

School of Fashion and Textiles

Design and Social Context Portfolio
RMIT University
Nov 2009
DECLARATION

I certify that except where due acknowledgement has been made, the work is that of the author
alone; the work has not been submitted previously, in whole or in part, to qualify for any other
academic award; the content of the thesis is the result of work which has been carried out since
the official commencement date of the approved research program; any editorial work, paid or
unpaid, carried out by a third party is acknowledged; and, ethics procedures and guidelines
have been followed.

Jenny Underwood
November 2009

ii
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

I wish to take the opportunity to thank my family and friends for all their support,
encouragement, and understanding, especially Mum, Dad, Cathy, Bec, and Penny.

I would also like to thank my supervisors, Dr Juliette Peers and Dr Rajiv Padhye for their advice
and assistance; Dr Michael Bannister from the CRC-ACS for his involvement with starting the
research and initial supervision; Dean Jones for his technical assistance with knitting the final
pieces for the project; and my colleagues at RMIT University on the Textile Design program,
especially Esther for your advice and friendship.

iii
CONTENTS
Page
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS iii

CONTENTS iv

LIST OF FIGURES vi

DEFINITIONS AND TERMS x

STITCH CODE SUMMARY xiv

ABSTRACT 1

1. INTRODUCTION 3

1.1 OBJECTIVES 4

1.2 RATIONALE 4

1.3 PROCEDURE 5

1.4 BACKGROUND NOTE 7

PART 1: BACKGROUND 9

2. DESIGN OPPORTUNITIES FOR 3D SHAPED KNITTED TEXTILES 10

2.1 OPPORTUNITIES OF 3D KNITTED COMPOSITES 10

2.2 WEFT KNITTING TECHNOLOGY DEVELOPMENTS 14

3. BACKGROUND TO KNITTING 3D SHAPES 21

3.1 REVIEW OF KNITTING LITERATURE 22

3.2 BASICS OF KNITTING 25

3.3 THE KEY ELEMENTS OF FLAT BED MACHINES 26

3.4 THE BASIC ELEMENTS OF A STITCH 33

3.5 BASIC WEFT KNIT STRUCTURES 34

3.6 BASIC STITCH VARIATIONS 37

3.7 SHIMA SEIKI PROGRAMMING 40

3.8 CONCLUSION 61

4. 3D SHAPE KNITTING TECHNIQUES 62

4.1 SUSPENDED STITCHES 63

4.2 TRANSFER STITCHES 67

4.3 TUBULAR KNITTING 75

4.4 STITCH ARCHITECTURE 78

4.5 MISCELLANEOUS KNITTING TECHNIQUES 80

4.6 CONCLUSION 82

iv
PART 2: THE SHAPE LEXICON 84

5. CONES, DOMES AND BOX LIKE SHAPES 87

5.1 CONES 88

5.2 DOMES 96

5.3 CORNERS AND BOX LIKE STRUCTURES 101

5.4 CONCLUSION 106

6. TUBES AND TUBULAR CONNECTIONS 107

6.1 TUBE STRUCTURES 108

6.2 TUBULAR CONNECTIONS 111

6.3 CONCLUSION 126

7. CUT-OUTS 127

7.1 CUT-OUT SHAPES & SIMPLE VARIATIONS 128

7.2 CUT OUT FABRICS 134

7.3 CONCLUSION 137

PART 3: IMPLICATIONS FOR DESIGN 138

8. CASE STUDY: CraFormaTion 139

8.1 DESIGN INFLUENCES 139

8.2 THE KNITTED ARTEFACTS 147

8.3 CONCLUSION 153

9. TRANSFORMATIVE TEXTILES 155

9.1 NEW TEXTILES 155

9.2 TEXTILE DESIGN’S REPOSITIONING 160

9.3 NEXUS OF TEXTILE DESIGN AND ARCHITECTURE 161

9.4 NEW TOOLS 163

9.5 CONCLUSION 165

10. CONCLUSION 166

REFERENCES 173
APPENDIX 1 OPTIONAL LINE FUNCTION LIST 178
APPENDIX 2 PATTERN DEVELOPMENT ASSIGNMENT 182
APPENDIX 3 REFERENCE DATA FOR COLOURS USED FOR WG PACKAGE 186

v
LIST OF FIGURES
Figure 2.1 3D loop simulation program in progress and a garment being knitted on a
machine (Shima Seiki)

Figure 3.1 Graphic representations of knit design and knit process (yarn path)
Figure 3.2 Difference in yarn paths for basic woven, weft-knitted and warp-knitted fabrics
Figure 3.3 Flat bed knitting machine
Figure 3.4 Types of needles
Figure 3.5 The difference between the needle movement of a latch needle and a compound
needle.
Figure 3.6 Needle bed for standard 2-bed knitting machine
Figure 3.7 Needle bed positions
Figure 3.8 Four needle bed arrangement
Figure 3.9 Racking
Figure 3.10 Carriage and placement of cams and simplified diagram of the raising and
lowering CAMs
Figure 3.11 Carriage and yarn carriers
Figure 3.12 Take down
Figure 3.13 Tension device and Digital Stitch Control System
Figure 3.14 Sinker (Shima Seiki)
Figure 3.15 Stitch presser (Shima Seiki)
Figure 3.16 Needle bed notation for the yarn path
Figure 3.17 Weft knit single unit
Figure 3.18 Course to wale ratio
Figure 3.19 Plain fabric; technical front and back of the fabric
Figure 3.20 The needle action for a plain stitch
Figure 3.21 Tubular fabric
Figure 3.22 1x1 Rib fabric
Figure 3.23 Interlock fabric
Figure 3.24 Purl fabric
Figure 3.25 Tuck stitch
Figure 3.26 Needle action for tuck stitch
Figure 3.27 Float stitch
Figure 3.28 Needle action for float stitch
Figure 3.29 Transfer stitch
Figure 3.30 Needle action for transferring a stitch from front bed to back bed
Figure 3.31 Transfer process from needle to next needle on the same bed
Figure 3.32 SDS-ONE system (Shima Seiki)
Figure 3.33 SDS-ONE knit-paint program working page (Shima Seiki)
Figure 3.34 SDS-ONE knit-design program working page with knit simulation (Shima Seiki)
Figure 3.35 Example of simulation of suspended stitch design using Knit-design program,
compared to actual fabric
Figure 3.36 Example of a knit design program
Figure 3.37 Digital Control Simulation of knit program (Shima Seiki)
Figure 3.38 Shima Seiki, Basic principal of Package Software, (Shima Seiki)
Figure 3.39 Comparison of Paint Colour Mode and Free Colour Mode (Shima Seiki)
Figure 3.40 Shima Seiki, overview of package (Shima Seiki)
Figure 3.41 WholeGarment ® pattern making guide (Shima Seiki)
Figure 3.42 Example of the base programs for the Set-Up for WholeGarment ® programming
(Shima Seiki)

vi
Figure 3.43 Example of the compressed pattern Set-Up for WholeGarment ® programming
(Shima Seiki)
Figure 3.44 WholeGarment® knitting of a standard garment (Shima Seiki)
Figure 3.45 Packages within WG Packages (Shima Seiki)
Figure 3.46 (1) Processing the program and (2) control simulation (Shima Seiki)
Figure 3.47 The set up of 3D form by garment type for both Shima Seiki and Stoll
Figure 3.48 The 3D mapping of fabric onto garment (Shima Seiki)
Figure 3.49 The use of parametric type measurements for set 2D pattern shapes for Shima
Seiki and Stoll.
Figure 3.50 Standard package information
Figure 3.51 Presentation of designs using package
Figure 3.52 WG package information
Figure 3.53 Presentation of designs based on WG package

Figure 4.1 Principal of suspending stitches gradually

Figure 4.2 Yarn carriage movement to held stitches
Figure 4.3 Design of stepped segment to reduce holes
Figure 4.4 Angle of course shaping segments based on holding pattern
Figure 4.5 Repeats to yarn carriage movement
Figure 4.6 Increasing gradually
Figure 4.7 Decreasing gradually (to the right)
Figure 4.8 Decreasing gradually (to the left)
Figure 4.9 Decreasing multiple stitches gradually and the transfer process in detail
Figure 4.10 Examples of transfer sequence and the resultant segment angle
Figure 4.11 Inside stitch transfer creating 2D shapes
Figure 4.12 Increasing multiple stitches gradually
Figure 4.13 The effect of the slide process
Figure 4.14 Decreasing stitches by changing the number transferred stitches
Figure 4.15 Casting on single jersey
Figure 4.16 Casting on double jersey
Figure 4.17 Casting off
Figure 4.18 Basic tube shape
Figure 4.19 Knitting fabric on two needle beds with one join
Figure 4.20 Two separate unconnected fabrics
Figure 4.21 Interlock fabric
Figure 4.22 Examples of Links-links patterns
Figure 4.23 Change of stitch type
Figure 4.24 Multiple system knitting
Figure 4.25 Half gauging
Figure 4.26 1x1 Cable and 2x2 Cable

Figure 5.1 Standard Base Packages used

Figure 5.2 Essential WG Base packages used
Figure 5.3 Design of cone shape with suspending stitches
Figure 5.4 Design variables
Figure 5.5 The affect of repeating of a shaping segment
Figure 5.6 Design variations using suspended stitches for cone-like structures
Figure 5.7 Design variations, by exaggerating the shaping segment and the number of
shaping segments repeated.
Figure 5.8 Design of a cone formed by WG technology
Figure 5.9 Design variables
Figure 5.10 The effect of changing the shaping sequence on the height and incline of the
cone using WG

vii
Figure 5.11 Applying WG narrowing (after connection) principles to forming a the cone
Figure 5.12 Applying WG narrowing (after connection) principles to forming a the cone
Figure 5.13 WG Parachute pattern for garment (own design)
Figure 5.14 Design variations using suspended stitches for cone-like structures
Figure 5.15 Design of dome shape using suspended stitches
Figure 5.16 Design variables
Figure 5.17 The affect of the shaping segment on the dome shape
Figure 5.18 Dome structure with additional height, version 1 and 2
Figure 5.19 The effect of repeating the shaping segment
Figure 5.20 The effect of altering the variables, to form a tyre and sphere shape
Figure 5.21 Examples of multiple domes using short row patterns
Figure 5.22 Design of a dome formed by WG technology
Figure 5.23 Design variables
Figure 5.24 The design of a dome using WG parachute shaping method
Figure 5.25 Design of corner shape with suspended stitches
Figure 5.26 Design variables
Figure 5.27 The effect of changing the number of stitches not being shaped
Figure 5.28 The effect of repeating the shaping segment (4 times)
Figure 5.29 Continual repeating of a corner shaping segment
Figure 5.30 Design variations of corner shapes
Figure 5.31 Stepped corner shape
Figure 5.32 Design of a 3-sided corner in single jersey fabric by transfer stitches using a
standard machine
Figure 5.33 Design of a 3-sided corner in double jersey fabric using WG machine
Figure 5.34 Design of a 5-sided box applying WG parachute style of shaping

Figure 6.1 Essential Base packages for Tubes and tubular connection designs
Figure 6.2 Essential WG Base packages for Tubes and tubular connection designs
Figure 6.3 Tube Designs; option 1 and 2
Figure 6.4 Design for multiple connected tubes
Figure 6.5 Design for multiple unconnected tubes; close up showing draw thread
Figure 6.6 Design for multiple tubes
Figure 6.7 Design for tube with flanges
Figure 6.8 Design for tube with flange, variations
Figure 6.9 Design of L-joint using method (1)
Figure 6.10 Designs of T-joint and X-joint using method (1)
Figure 6.11 Designs of Y and K joints using method (1)
Figure 6.12 Design of L-joint using method (2)
Figure 6.13 Design of T and X joints, using method (2)
Figure 6.14 Design of L-joint using method (3)
Figure 6.15 Design of T-joints using method (3)
Figure 6.16 Design of Y-joint using method (3)
Figure 6.17 Design of Y and K joints using method (3)
Figure 6.18 Design of tube shape using method (4)
Figure 6.19 Design of curved tube with inside and outside suspended stitches shaping
using method (4)
Figure 6.20 Design of S-joint using method (4)
Figure 6.21 Design of L-joint using method (4)
Figure 6.22 Design of Y-joint using method (4)
Figure 6.23 Design of X-joint using method (4)
Figure 6.24 Design of L-joint using method (5)
Figure 6.25 Design of Y-joint using method (5)
Figure 6.26 Design of K-joint using method (5)

viii
Figure 6.27 Design of X-joint using method (5)
Figure 6.28 Design of T-joint (at 45 degree angle) using method (5)
Figure 6.29 Design of T-joint (at 90 degree angle) using method (5)
Figure 6.30 Design options for multiple tubes in one planar direction
Figure 6.31 Design options for multiple tubes in multiple directions
Figure 6.32 Design of Tripod joint; multiple tubes in multiple planar directions
Figure 6.33 Design of Tripod joint

Figure 7.1 Standard base Packages

Figure 7.2 Vertical slit
Figure 7.3 Vertical slit with cable
Figure 7.4 Variations of multiple slits
Figure 7.5 Horizontal slit
Figure 7.6 Variations of multiple slits
Figure 7.7 Diagonal slit
Figure 7.8 Variations of multiple diagonal slits
Figure 7.9 Square shaped cut-out
Figure 7.10 Alternate design for square cut-out
Figure 7.11 Variations for multiple square cut-outs
Figure 7.12 Graphical representation of diamond shaped cut-out
Figure 7.13 Graphical representation of circle shaped cut-out
Figure 7.14 Variations of circle cut-out
Figure 7.15 The basis of short row patterns
Figure 7.16 Central panel of short row pattern
Figure 7.17 Built-in pocket
Figure 7.18 Variations of short row patterns
Figure 7.19 A tube with short row pattern

Figure 8.01 Responding to nature sourced inspiration

Figure 8.02 The nexus of technology and design sourced inspiration
Figure 8.03 Transforming craft’ sourced inspiration
Figure 8.04 Transforming traditional lace hand knitting, sourced inspiration.
Figure 8.05 Augmented dimensionality, sourced inspiration
Figure 8.06 Working models of design concepts
Figure 8.07 Artefact 01: Cube structure with diagonal lattice
Figure 8.08 Augmented surface dimensionality
Figure 8.09 Artefact 02: Cylinder structure with chevron lattice
Figure 8.10 Design customisation through changes of stitch architecture
Figure 8.11 Artefact 03: open lattice

ix
TERMS AND DEFINITIONS

Additive fabrication Involves incremental forming by adding material in a layer-by-

layer fashion, in a process

Biomimetrics Design extracted from nature.

Composite A combination of two or more distinctively different materials in

form or composition that are combined to make a new material
with enhanced performance characteristics.

Compressed pattern Shima Seiki specific term, referring to a simplified version of the
design or ‘original drawing’. For the compressed pattern, the
structure pattern (the design area) is represented by registered
colours.

Course A horizontal row of stitches (loops) is known as a course.

Decorative textiles Textile materials and products manufactured for their aesthetic
or decorative characteristics, with relatively low structural and
performance requirements (as compared to technical textiles).

Developed pattern Shima Seiki specific term, referring to the expanded version of
a compressed pattern. This means the registered colours of
each package base pattern is read and put into the
compressed pattern.

Digital Knit programming Translates how the envisaged design will be knitted within the
set parameters of the industrial knit machine technology.

Double jersey See Rib fabric.

Fabric General textile term, meaning a relatively thin and flexible sheet
like structure material made of fibres and/or yarns.

Fashioning Frequency The ratio between the number of courses and the wales for
fixed length, such as 10cm. It is used for shape knitting to
determine exact measurements and angles of a knitted piece.

Fibre A unit of matter, which has the properties of fineness, flexibility

and a high ratio of length to thickness.

Flat bed machine Also referred to as Weft-knitting machine. It is industrial

knitting machine with needles arranged on horizontal or flat
needle beds.

Float stitch (miss stitch) It creates a straight ‘float’ of yarn. If a stitch precedes the float
the previous stitch is held. If there is no stitch before the float
stitch, a ladder is formed.

Form A three dimensional shape, also referred to as shape.

Gauge The spacing (linear density) of the needles. It is expressed as

the number of needles per inch.

Half gauging Involves knitting on every 2nd needle. As every alternate

needle is empty, a longer float occurs between stitches.

Interlock Interlock is two 1x1 rib fabrics knitted on alternating needles.

x
Knit notation A means to communicate through graphic representation the
knitting process (yarn path) and/or resultant fabrics’ stitch
architecture.

Knitting An action of forming fabrics by the intermeshing of loops.

Near net shape knit Used to describe a knitted preform that partly confirms to the
shape required, relying on the drapability of the knit fabric and
minimal shaping.

Net shape knit Used to describe a knitted preform that confirms to the exact
shape required.

Option lines Shima Seiki specific term. Option lines inform the knitting
machine how the design is to be knitted. Each option line
represents a different part of the knitting process, such as the
selection of yarn carriers, and which sections of the design are
to be repeated.

Package base patterns Shima Seiki specific term, referring to the individual knit
programmes that together make the overall design. Each is
represented by a registered colour.

Parametric design Allows for the designer to consider the relationship between
elements (variables) throughout a system, so that changes in a
single element distribute changes throughout the system.

Plain fabric See Single jersey.

Plain stitch See Stitch.

Preform An arrangement of dry fibres in the three-dimensional shape of

the final component for liquid moulding processes such as resin
transfer moulding (RTM) and vacuum polymer. Used in the
manufacture of composites.

Prepreg Ready-to-mould material, impregnated with resin. It is a stage

in creating a composite that produces a semi-finished product
which can be stored until required.

Programming Converts a design into knitting machine specific programming

language and data is inputted.

Pultrusion A process by which fibre-reinforced material is pulled through a

resin-impregnated.

Purl fabrics Also referred to as links-links. These contain both face and
reverse loops in any one wale. It is produced on two needle
beds, with the stitches on the needles being transferred from
back to front beds, and vice versa continuously.

Resin Solid, or pseudo-solid, organic material with the ability to flow

when subjected to stress. The resin cures while the shaping
(moulding) process is carried out.

Rib fabrics Rib fabrics can also be referred to as a double bed or double
jersey type fabric. It is made up of stitches formed in opposite
directions. It is produced on two sets of needles (beds).

RTM Resin Transfer Moulding; a form of liquid moulding whereby

pressure is used to drive a liquid thermosetting resin into a
mould cavity containing a dry fibre preform.

xi
Seamless knitting technology Refers to industrial knitting machines that have the capability to
knit tubular fabrics in various stitch architectures. Examples
®
include Shima Seiki’s WholeGarment .

Selvedge The sealed edge of the knitted fabric.

Shape See Form.

Shape Lexicon The catalogue of related 3D shape knitted forms established in

the research.

Shape segment type The shape (or angle) of the knitted triangular segment being
formed is determined by the holding sequence.

Shape knitting A process of knitting that impacts complex form into a fabric.
This results in the knitted fabric having a net or near net 3D
form.

Single jersey The simplest fabric construction is plain weft knitted fabric.
Plain fabric can also be known as single jersey or single knit. It
is produced on a single needle bed. As the yarn is fed across
the needle bed, each needle draws a new stitch through its last
stitch.

Sinker The sinker is a thin metal plate, at approximately right angles

between the adjoining needle beds to assist with stitch
formation.
®
Slide process For Shima Seiki WholeGarment seamless knitting the process
of transferring multiple stitches is referred to as the ‘slide’
process. It involves the continual transferring of multiple
stitches across the width of the knitted fabric over a given
number of courses.

Stitch A single unit of weft knitting is a stitch or loop. It can also be

referred to as a plain stitch, or jersey stitch.

Stitch architecture The structure of the knit fabric itself.

Stitch code A programming language, developed by Shima Seiki, where

every stitch type and stitch movement is represented by a
number/colour to communicate the fabric structure.

Stitch presser A device for further controlling stitch formation that operates in
the active knitting area of a fabric being formed.

Structure pattern The design area of the knitting program.

Surface The 2D form of a fabric.

Suspended stitches Also known as held stitches or flechagé. During the knitting
sequence, knitting is isolated to selected area(s), while the
remaining stitches are held and do not knit.

Takedown A mechanism to remove the fabric away from the knitting area
(needle beds) at a constant linear rate or at a constant tension.

Technical textiles Also referred to as industrial textiles. Textile materials and

products manufactured for their performance and function
properties rather than their aesthetic or decorative
characteristics.

xii
Textile A term and its plural textiles (derived from the Latin texere,
meaning to weave) can be applied to fibres, filaments and
yarns and the products made from them.

Textile design The design of a textile base surface; be it decorative (surface

pattern) or structural (constructed textiles) with emphasis
placed on the textile material or products aesthetic qualities.

Transfer sequence Determines the angle of shaping when transferring. It is how

many stitches are transferred, by how many pitches and over
how many courses.

Transfer stitch A process of moving a stitch to another needle, often a

neighbouring or opposing needle, on the opposite needle bed,
that can increase, decrease a fabric width or form a small hole
(lace).

Tuck stitch It creates an enlarged knitted loop with a segment of yarn

tucked behind it. It is formed, when a needle rises partly to
take a new stitch without casting off the old stitch.
Wale A row of vertical loops is known as a wale.

Warp knitting A method of making a fabric in which the stitches are made
from many warp threads running along the length of the fabric
approximately parallel with the selvedge of the fabric.

Weave The process of interlacing two or more sets of yarns at 90

degrees to each other to make a woven fabric.

Weft knitting A method of making a fabric in which the yarn forms horizontal
rows of stitches across the fabric, approximately perpendicular
to the selvedge of the fabric.
®
WholeGarment Also referred to as WG. Developed by Shima Seiki, it is a
means of knitting that can automatically produce ready-to-wear
garments, eliminating the need for any further making-up
processes.

Yarn A continuous strand of textile fibres, filaments or materials

suitable for weaving, knitting, or otherwise intertwining to form a
textile fabric.

Yarn path A standard graphic representation of the knitting process used

in the knitting industry.

xiii
STITCH CODE SUMMARY

xiv
Shima Seiki (2009) SES Colour No. List, accessed through the Automatic Software HELP (A-59) digital manual for
SDS-ONE system

xv
ABSTRACT

This research project explores knitting three-dimensional (3D) preforms suitable for fibre-
reinforced composite structures utilising Shima Seiki’s industrial knitting technology. The
research positions weft knitting as a 3D additive fabrication process that has potential
applications in a wider design context away from the textile, clothing and footwear (TCF)
industry. The knitting machine could expand its usefulness from being purely a manufacturing
process, to become a design tool for creating innovative 3D forms.

Within this context, 3D shape knitting offers enormous potential to achieve efficiencies of
systems, waste minimisation and material optimisation. Technological advances in flat-bed
®
seamless knitting, such as Shima Seiki’s WholeGarment allow for the automated production of
3D forms that once could only be handmade. These advances provide a unique opportunity for
new applications not traditionally associated with knitted textiles.

The research undertaken is set out in three parts. Part one focuses on the background
knowledge required in order to understand the significance of the research. Part two, the
Shape Lexicon, is a visual record of 3D shape knitted preforms, organised into three broad
groups and described in detail. To communicate the 3D shape knitted forms, a new
methodology focusing on the essential design parameters within a framework of technical
constraints was developed via design specifications. Part three shifts to design issues evolving
out of the technical explorations of the Shape Lexicon. A small case study CraFormaTion of
knitted artefacts demonstrates how the research could be a useful tool for designers to develop
new ways of thinking about form and the potential of 3D shape knitting to contribute to a wider
design discourse.

The Shape Lexicon establishes a link between 3D shape knitting and parametric design
principles. By focusing on the relationship of a shape’s variables and not specific values, a
more flexible and systems orientated approach to form building was developed. Understanding
the basis of parametric design within a knitting context also points to the next generation of
digital knit software technology. To date, there has been no concentrated survey of 3D shape
knitting techniques or generic knitted 3D forms in one informative document. Therefore this
research project fills a significant gap in academic literature.

3D shape knitting informs current design debates including; considerations of design

optimisation in nature, new technology and materials for design, the reconsideration of craft in a
digital context, and the interplay between design and science. Innovations occurring with textile
technology and material science are expanding the creative possibilities for designers to
reconsider the relationship between surface and form in a more integrated manner. The Shape
Lexicon potentially instigates these exchanges and enacts new ways of thinking about form.
Trans-disciplinary approaches are necessary to creatively respond to the nexus of technology

1
and craft, and to be able to blend scientific and technical know-how, with a poetic and aesthetic
sensibility. In this context, the potential for Textile Design and Architecture to work more closely
together is considered. For textile designers such exchanges assist the discipline to reposition
itself beyond the surface.

2
1. INTRODUCTION

The developments and innovations occurring with materials science and textile technology are
changing the way designers look at the relationship between surface and structure for the
construction of form. This research project addresses the technical design issues associated
with knitting 3D preforms suitable for fibre-reinforced composite structures utilising Shima
Seiki’s industrial flat-bed knitting technology. In doing so, the research positions weft knitting as
a 3D additive fabrication process, that has potential applications in a wider design context away
from the textile, clothing and footwear (TCF) industry.

Textile techniques, such as knitting, traditionally associated with hand crafted textiles are being
examined by industrial design, architecture and fashion in new ways. Concepts such as
knitting, pleating, tailoring and darts are being explored not just as a way to describe a spatial
form but as an integral element of design. As these concepts are textile based, design
disciplines are looking towards textile design to help expand the possibilities of new ways of
thinking about the relationship of form and surface.

An area of particular interest is three-dimensional (3D) shape knitting, or near net shape
knitting. Technological advances of seamless machine knitting, such as Shima Seiki’s
®
WholeGarment are allowing for 3D forms that once could only be crafted by hand to be
transformed through automated manufacturing processes. In addition, when machine
technology advances are considered alongside fibre-based material developments, 3D shape
knitting offers enormous opportunities, to be applied to new sectors not traditionally associated
with knitted textiles, such as industrial design, furniture design and architecture.

The use of fibre-reinforced composite structures has traditionally been within the aerospace,
automotive and marine industries and has been limited by their high cost of manufacture, which
involves a high degree of labour intensive shaping processes.

To date, standard two-dimensional (2D) woven fabric has been the preferred material used to
create textile composite structures. However, one major problem with woven material is its
difficulty in being formed into complex shapes. Due to its inherent inflexibility, the manufacture
of highly curved components requires the woven fabric to be cut into complex patterns for
folding and entails a large amount of costly hand labour. A possible solution for this problem
would be to manufacture a fabric that has the high deformability characteristics of a knit and that
can be tailored integrally to form a three-dimensional shape. 3D shape knitting techniques
could significantly reduce the cost of manufacturing composite structures of complex shape
through being manufactured by means of an automated process.

This research project, through the development of the Shape Lexicon, concentrates on the
design parameters associated with integrally knitted 3D preforms for a range of shape families.

3
In addressing the design parameters, the research makes the link between textiles, specifically
weft knitting, parametric design and a wider design context. Understanding the rudimentary
principles of parametric design leads to new ways of considering and describing knitted form
and provides designers with an understanding and knowledge to generate 3D knitted forms.
This shift reflects the broad repositioning of the textile design discipline within the trans-
disciplinary context of new textiles.

1.1 OBJECTIVES
The main purpose of the research is to establish a Shape Lexicon of prototype 3D knitted forms
(as preforms) and appropriate documentation.

In doing so, the objectives include:

• To survey and document 3D shaping knitting techniques and flat-bed knitting machine
capabilities.
• To investigate and determine the design parameters for a variety of simple generic 3D
knitted forms, and to extend this work to more complex 3D forms.
• To develop and produce a small range of knitted artefact models that can demonstrate
the design potentiality of the Shape Lexicon and the advantages of knitted preforms to
form complex 3D forms.
• To examine the relationship between form and surface, the influence of new textile
materials and technologies, and the impact of flat-bed knitting machine technology
advances.
• To provide textual support, analysis and reflection of the project

1.2 RATIONALE
The future of the Australian structural composites industry is strongly dependent upon its ability
to offer competitive advanced design and manufacturing capabilities. To date, the use of
composite components within the aerospace, automotive and marine industries has been
limited due to high costs in manufacturing.

As well, design based industry sectors, such as industrial design and architecture, are looking
towards textile composites as an opportunity to creatively explore new ways of reconsidering
the relationship of form and surface. Advances in industrial machine knitting and new fibre-
based material innovations offer enormous potential to develop knitted composites for new
applications not traditionally associated with textiles, such as industrial design, furniture design
and architecture. These advances could allow for the design of knitted textile composites that
combine structural and performance qualities with aesthetic values.

This research into 3D shape knitting techniques will facilitate the development of knitted
composite preforms which can be manufactured by means of an automated process. Knitted

4
preforms have the potential to significantly reduce the cost of manufacturing composite
structures of complex shape.

Importantly the research will provide designers and design academics with an understanding of
the potential opportunities for 3D shape knitting techniques and technology to be utilised for the
realisation of new product outcomes. Given the technical knowledge required for 3D shape
knitting and, to date, the lack of published research on this topic, this research project will assist
designers to gain a better understanding of the opportunities of 3D shape knitting within the
technical parameters of machine capacities. In doing so, the research will further contribute to
the development of advanced manufacturing processes, with supporting design capabilities that
will lead to more efficient, cost effective composite structures. It is expected that the Australian
textile industry could play a major role in the manufacture of such components.

1.3 PROCEDURE
This work sets out the results of a practical research project. The project has been organised
into three parts, each representing a critical phase of the project: Part 1 Background; Part 2
Shape Lexicon and; Part 3 Design Implications.

The first phase, Part 1 deals with the background knowledge required in order to understand the
significance of the research project.

Underpinning the work is an examination of existing knowledge, including a review of relevant

literature in relation to the current position of textiles composites, new materials and advances
®
in weft knitting machinery technology, with a particular focus on Shima Seiki’s WholeGarment
(WG) seamless technology (Chapter 2). 3D shape knitting is highlighted as providing an
opportunity for new applications for knitted fibre-reinforced composite structures to emerge.
This discussion presents a rationale as to the importance of the research being undertaken. As
well, it highlights a number of gaps existing in current knowledge, further demonstrating the
need for the research.

From the overview of the current position of textiles composites and weft knitting technology,
the research focuses on providing a summary of existing knitting knowledge (Chapter 3). This
overview includes a review of the literature in the field of knitting technology and knitwear
design. The review of literature provides further context for the research work and highlights the
gaps in the literature with regard to 3D shape knitting.

Further background work is provided, to draw together and examine knitting technology, basic
knit terminology and principles (Chapter 3). This work provides a clear summary of the existing
knowledge and includes the key elements of the flat-bed knitting machine, the elements of a
stitch, basic weft knit structures, and stitch variations.

5
In developing the research, an important consideration was to ensure that clear communication,
in the form of design specifications was established to show how a variety of 3D shapes can be
formed and how they differ from each other. For the purposes of this research Shima Seiki
knitting machines were used. Therefore an overview is provided of current programming for
both Shima Seiki’s standard and WG knitting machines; including an outline of basic
programming procedure, explanation of package programming and WG package programming
(Section 3.7).

Subsequent to the review of existing programming procedures, and based on the candidate’s
existing industry knowledge of WG programming, a simplified way of communicating and
documentation of the designs was established (refer Section 3.7.5). This Package Adaptation
is intended to provide the reader with the essence of how the specific 3D knitted samples are
designed, within the context of technical programming needs.

From the work in chapter 3, the most useful weft knit techniques to create 3D forms were
identified, examined and presented (Chapter 4). The initial selection of techniques was drawn
from the candidate’s existing knowledge gained from working in the knitting industry and
experience of teaching knitting theory, design and practice to Textile Design undergraduate
students (refer to Section 1.4). A number of trials were conducted to develop and review the
significance of various knitting techniques. The techniques (and variations) include suspending
stitches (holding or partial knitting to form segments), transfer stitches, tubular knitting, stitch
architecture and other useful miscellaneous knitting techniques such as half gauging and
cables.

The work presented in chapters 3 and 4 forms the basis for investigating and understanding the
design of knitted 3D shaped preforms. In addition, the information presented in these chapters
summarises the required existing knowledge and provides context for the rest of the work.
Importantly, it should be noted that Chapter 3 (Section 3.7) presents an overview of Shima
Seiki’s WG programming, that to date does not exist in current knitting literature.

Based on the shaping techniques identified (Chapter 4), a range of simple 3D knitted shapes
was created to form the Shape Lexicon (Part 2; Chapters 5-7). This work represents the
second phase of the research. As the work progressed, the range was categorised into three
broad groups. The groups of 3D knitted shapes investigated include;
1) Cones, domes and box like forms (Chapter 5)
2) Tubes and tubular connections (Chapter 6)
3) Cut-outs – purposeful slits and gaps within the knitting (Chapter 7)

Within these groups, the design and knit parameters for a variety of 3D knitted shapes were
investigated and documented. Critical to developing the design specifications which underpin
the Shape Lexicon was my own emerging trans-disciplinary design approach. The shift towards
a trans-disciplinary practice was a consequence of my teaching experience (Section 1.4) and

6
led to establishing a link between the process of knitting and 3D shape knitting in particular as a
form building device and parametric design principles.

The 3D shapes of the Shape Lexicon were initially developed and trialled on a hand operated
flat-bed knitting machine, and formed part of the lexicon of design possibilities and specification.
Then selected information was translated onto an industrial knitting machine in order to test and
develop an automated computer controlled production method of manufacturing. The
®
machinery used included the Shima Seiki’s SES 122F (7g) and WholeGarment New SES-S-
WG (14g).

With the Shape Lexicon established, the research shifts focus to examine the design
implications and potential applications (Part 3). Within this final part of the exegesis, a
discussion is presented that contextualises the use of the prior research (Parts 1 and 2) and
positions the research in a design space that connects 3D shape knitting to current design
debates on form and the nexus of technology and craft. A case study of 3D knitted artefacts is
presented. By creatively explores the relationship of form and surface, ornament and structure
the artefacts represent the practical knowledge in action of the Shape Lexicon. The intention is
to demonstrate how the Shape Lexicon could be a useful tool for designers to develop new
ways of thinking about form in light of current design debates.

The potentiality and usefulness of the research is further expanded on in Chapter 9.

Specifically, the research draws together the current position of innovations occurring with
textile technology and material science, and how these developments are expanding the
creative possibilities for designers to reconsider the relationship between surface and form. In
doing so, it is argued that a trans-disciplinary approach is needed, with the diverse worlds of
textile design and technical textiles converging and presenting a unique opportunity for new
applications for knitted textile composite structures to emerge. In addition, it is argued that
traditional notions of craft also need to be reconsidered in light of the use of digital technology.
The Chapter invites a broader design audience to consider how 3D shape knitting could be
used to create new innovative forms, and thus begins to speculate towards possible future
research directions involving 3D shape knitting.

Therefore the knowledge gained through this research project on 3D shape knitting, will assist
in expanding the possibilities of new ways of thinking about form. The research demonstrates
how 3D shape knitting techniques are blurring the distinctions between surface, form and
structure.

1.4 BACKGROUND NOTE

The research for this project has been significantly supported by my considerable industry and
teaching experience. This experience places me in a unique position to establish links between

7
knitwear design, knitting technology and other design disciplines. I believe that this precise
combination of knowledge previously has not been textually explored at length.

I have an extensive working knowledge of Shima Seiki industrial knitting machines, having
worked in the knitting industry for a number of years as a knit programmer and knitwear
designer. During that time, I worked for the Australian knitwear company Hysport International,
and was fortunate enough to undertake study at Shima Seiki in Wakayama, Japan on the New
SES-S-WG machine. This experience provided me with invaluable insight and knowledge
®
base, particularly with regard to WholeGarment programming that is of a very practical nature.
Much of this practical knowledge has been documented in this research project.

In addition, I have taught on the BA Textile Design program at RMIT for 10 years. Courses I
teach include Textile Industry and Technology (new fibres, materials and textile innovations)
and final year constructed textiles (knit and weave) and surface pattern (print) students in
nd
Textile Design. In addition, I have taught knitting techniques, theory and design principles to 2
rd
and 3 year students.

For the past 3 years I have also been involved in developing and teaching a range of trans-
disciplinary studios involving collaboration between architecture and textile design, aerospace
engineering and material science, and more recently industrial design, at RMIT. These studios
have explored innovations occurring with textile materials and technology, with particular focus
on the potential of textile composites [Composite_Space (semester 2, 2007)], [Fibre_Space
(semester 1, 2008)] and the potential of afterglow fluorescent materials [Afterglow (semester 2,
2009)]. The studios have challenged students to consider the potential of textiles beyond
fashion and home wares. By taking a trans-disciplinary approach, textiles are being explored
not just for aesthetic and tactile values, but for structural and performance qualities. This trans-
disciplinary approach has led me to consider how new technologies, such as seamless knitting
can lead to new ways of thinking about form building and the relationship of form and surface.
In doing so, I have come to realise there is a significant opportunity to establish a link between
parametric design principles and 3D shape knitting.

My experience allows for knowledge of a very practical nature to be consolidated through this
research project. This research captures knowledge of 3D shape knitting that has to date not
been well documented in one concentrated and informative format. This documentation will
allow designers across textile design, industrial design, architecture and fashion to understand
the possibilities that 3D shape knitting has to offer.

8
PART 1: BACKGROUND

Part 1 of the research sets out the background knowledge required to understand the
significance of the research project.

This documentation is essential for a number of reasons. Firstly, as the research commenced,
a review of relevant academic literature associated with the research topic was undertaken.
The review of literature included the current position of textiles composites, new materials,
advances in weft knitting machinery technology, as well as the field of knitting technology and
knitwear design. From this review it was apparent that there were significant gaps in academic
literature surrounding 3D shape knitting and new technology, particularly digital knit
programming. There was no single current informative text that covered the necessary
knowledge required.

Secondly, as this research is intended for not only textile designers who may have some
knowledge of knitting, but for designers and design academics, who may not have any
knowledge of knitting and in particular industrial knitting, it was important to be able to clearly
communicate all the necessary knowledge required. The setting out of the background
knowledge will enable the effective examination of the Shape Lexicon (Part 2) and the Design
Implications (Part 3) of the research. In doing so, the research allows designers to enter into
the very technical field of industrial knitting.

Therefore Part 1 of the research was organised accordingly; Chapter 2 examines existing
knowledge, including a review of relevant literature in relation to the current position of textiles
composites, new materials and advances in weft knitting machinery technology; Chapter 3 sets
out a summary of existing knitting knowledge relating to general knitting principles, construction
types and processes, as well as machine constraints and digital knit programming and; Chapter
4 presents a survey of 3D shape knitting techniques suitable for flat-bed industrial machine
knitting.

9
2. DESIGN OPPORTUNITIES FOR 3D SHAPE KNITTING

Innovations occurring with fibre-based materials and textile technologies are an important focus
for designers today. Architecture, industrial design, fashion and textile design are looking
towards these advances to creatively rethink the connection between a form’s surface and
structure. Can a textile be simultaneously structural and decorative, and be about surface and
volume? These innovations are leading designers to think of new forms and spatial
opportunities.

The diverse worlds of textile design and technical textiles are converging and presenting unique
opportunities for knitted fibre-reinforced composite structures to emerge. Textile composites,
once exclusive to the aerospace industry, are now being considered for the broader design
industry (Braddock Clarke & O’Mahony 2005). Of particular interest is the use of 3D net or near
net shaped weft knitted fabrics to help expand the possibilities of new ways of thinking about
and constructing form.

This chapter draws together an examination of the current position and opportunities that 3D
knitted textile composites present, and examines the developments occurring with weft knitting
technology. In doing so, particular attention is given to the emergence of seamless 3D knitting
®
technology, specifically Shima Seiki’s WholeGarment (WG).

2.1 OPPORTUNITIES OF 3D KNITTED COMPOSITES

Technical textiles are one of the largest growth sectors in the textile industry. The growth and
on going development of the technical textiles market, is having a significant impact. “We are
living through a period of unprecedented material innovation that looks set to change the role
and purpose of fabric in our lives” (Colchester 2007, p29).

Within the technical textiles sector, there is increased interest and research in the area of 3D
textile composites and in particular 3D shape knitting. “Of the large family of textile structures,
3D fabrics have attracted the most serious interest in the aerospace industry and served as a
catalyst in simulating the revival of interest in textile composites.” (Miravete 1999, p9)

The unique architecture of a knitted fabric is formed by the intermeshing of individually made
loops (Black 2002, p174). These loops glide over each other to provide the fabric with its high
degree of deformability (Miravete 1999, p180). It is this characteristic of a knitted fabric that has
enormous potential when applied to being a textile composite.

A composite is the combination of two or more distinctively different materials in form or

composition that are combined to make a new material with enhanced performance
characteristics (Braddock & O’Mahony 1998, p67). Textile composites can bring together the

10
best of both textiles and non-textiles materials, as the constituents of a composite retain their
identities but act collectively (Beylerian, Dent, & Quinn 2007). For example the strength of
textile fibres and the stiffness of resin produce materials with high stiffness and strength at low
density, high-specific energy absorption behaviour and excellent fatigue performance (Miravete
1999).

The process of transforming a textile into a composite generally involves three production
stages. The first is to produce the textile preform, and then impregnate it at the second stage
with resins. Commonly referred to as the prepreg, this stage produces a semi-finished product
which can be stored until required (Braddock Clarke & O’Mahony 2005, p72). The third stage is
to mould the prepreg by thermoforming it in a heated mould. The resin cures while the shaping
process is carried out (Braddock Clarke & O’Mahony 2005, p72). Therefore the advantage of
using a knit fabric as the preform, that naturally provides good drapability characteristics as well
as being able to be integrally shaped to impart near net or net shape, has the potential to deliver
significant cost savings, with “minimum material wastage”. (Miravete 1999, p180)

The potential for 3D shape knitting has long been recognised, even though the machine
technology had not yet been available (Brackenbury 1992; Spencer 1997). Conventional hand
knitting 3D shaping techniques are the basis for creating a structure on automated machinery.
However, it has only been since the mid 1990s, with significant flat-bed knitting technology and
computer aided design (CAD) software developments, that this potential is being realised.

The leading knitting machine companies, namely Shima Seiki (Japan) and Stoll (Germany)
have led the technical developments and research in flat-bed machinery, and Santoni (Italy) for
circular bed machines. The most significant developments are outlined in papers by Lo (1999),
Nakashima and Karaswuno (1996), Knitting International (1997) and Hunter (2004i, ii, and iii)
and specifically on machinery developments for technical textiles, Reider (1996) and Stoll
(1999). The most important developments have been in the construction of flat knitting
machines. In particular, key developments include the use of electronics for individual needle
selection, stitch transfer, the use of holding down sinkers on the needle beds and motor drive
take-down rollers. It is these innovations that are largely responsible for the ability of the new
high-tech flat-bed knitting machines to produce 3D shapes. These developments are discussed
in Section 2.2. A basic comparison of the Shima Seiki and Stoll’s machinery is provided by
Choi and Powell (2005). Note, for the purpose of this research Shima Seiki technology was
used.

Given the developments in knitting machinery, much attention and research is now focused on
3D shape and seamless knitting. In particular seamless garment technology, such as Shima
® ®
Seiki WholeGarment and Stoll-knit and wear , and its impact on the traditional knitwear (Choi
& Powell 2005; Hunter 2004i, ii, and iii) is a key industry driver, identified as the future of the
knitting industry.

11
Now sectors such as architecture and industrial design are looking towards textile technologies,
which seamless knitting represent, along with material developments as a tool to expand form
and spatial design opportunities.

In terms of actual work in 3D shape knitting for composites, while there is significant research in
the area, there is not a lot of published work to date. This is mainly due to the competitive
commercial and economic climate of the technical textile industry leading to developments
being protected under copyright and/or confidentiality agreements. Most of the work that has
been published is not generic in nature, but rather focused with specific end use products in
mind. The research being carried out covers a diverse range of applications in such fields as
aerospace, automotive, medicine, geotextiles, building, and construction.

For example, Frank Robinson and Simon Ashton (1994) presented a seminar on the future of
true 3D knitting of fabric structures for a diverse range of end uses, with particular reference to
the research being carried out by Courtaulds Research and Teknit (a division of Courtaulds
Textiles). They discussed the opportunities that exist in the knitting industry, and how new
technologies and the ever-increasing range of new fibres and yarns were widening the use of
knitted fabrics in the industrial and technical sectors. Examples of this included a static engine
part for a Rolls Royce jet engine which is completely knitted in silicon carbide, “a headlamp unit
for a Rolls Royce car where the use of a knitted fabric provided greater flexibility and as well as
non-corrosive properties”, and car seat covers, knitted in one piece (Robinson & Ashton 1994).

Their paper also highlighted the potential of 3D net or near net shape knitting to achieve
significant cost reductions. With improvements in resin transfer moulding techniques, there is
greater demand for near net shape knitted preforms that fit the tool and so keep loading to the
shortest possible time.

Similar findings are also discussed in a paper that focuses on the work being done through the
‘Sunrise all composite Electric Vehicle program’ (Van Vuure, Ko & Balonis 1999, Van Vuure, Ko
& Beevers 2003). Part of this research focused on the use of textile preforms in large scale
composite product manufacturing. Of particular interest is the work on net shape knitting.

From this paper, the general benefits of net shape and near net knit preforming relate to the
knitted fabric’s ability to be made to conform to a complex shape, the capability of fully
fashioning, the automation of the production process with its high productivity and reproduction
capabilities on automated knitting machines, and the good resin permeability of knits. The
advantages of near net shape knitting were highlighted through the worked example of the
‘wheel wells’ component (Van Vuure, Ko & Beevers 2003). Made from a 2D knitted preform
design, the knitted preform could easily drape around the part to cover it completely, without
cuts or overlaps, and include integrally UD Carbon reinforcements in the selected areas.

12
In the production of the total wheel well preform there is a high potential for a significant cost
reduction. Overall labour time savings (including knitting) of more than 30% were realised. A
further advantage of using a knit for the wheel wells is the ability to have straight fibres laid-in to
reinforce particular areas of the design.

Hearle (1994i; 1994ii) in Textile Horizons in papers entitled ‘Textiles for composites - a business
opportunity for the 21st century’ also discusses these possibilities and advantages of knitted
preform, highlighting the “challenge is to develop fast, automatic machines which can convert
cheaper yarns into components that will match metals in the automobile, construction and
similar industries” (1994i). Knitting is seen as a means of achieving this outcome.

In related technology sectors such as medicine, research is also being carried out on 3D shape
knitting. Research has focused on particular end uses such as the improved development of
shaped bandages, pressure garments (Long, 2005), and cardiovascular implants (Miller 1998),
(Rigby, Anand & Miraftab 1993). Shape knitting is critical in the formation of seamless pressure
garments for a wide range of products for the aftercare treatment of burns. These products are
made by knitting a dense structure with small stitch length, and plating the main ground with an
elastane monofilament thread. This results in a fabric which applies a constant pressure to the
skin, reducing scar tissue. Note these developments are closely linked to improvements in new
fibres and yarns for use in medicine and surgery.

In terms of work in the area of composite structures for the aerospace industries, there has
been some modelling work in relation to how knitted structures behave and work (Naveen V et
al 2006), (Ramakrishna 1997), (Ramakrishna 1998), (Ruan & Chou, 1996), (Wada et al. 1997),
as well as analysis of properties and knit structures in E-glass (Wang et al. 1995). To date,
more work has been done in the area of 3D textile sandwich composites (Raz 1993), (Verpoest
1995), (Philips & Verpoest 1996), than with 3D shaping.

While most research is for specific applications, there is some on-going generic work. Of the
work that is more generic, it is focused on technical aspects of performance of knitted
composites and does not cover the 3D design of the knit preform. For example Padaki &
Alagirusamy (2006) focus on providing a general overview of the potential role of knitted
preforms for composites. This paper outlines a critical review of the work being done in relation
to a variety of knit structures, as well as issues associated with using high performance yarns
and their knittability and fibre damage during knitting.

As well, at the University of Minho, Portugal, the Department of Textile Engineering is working in
the area of knitted technical textiles, with particular emphasis in 3D structures (Fangueiro et al
1999). In their paper ‘Advances in weft-knitting technical structures’ two types of 3D knitted
fabrics (3D sandwich fabrics and 3D shaped fabrics) and a new prototype for a multiaxial weft
knitting technique are discussed.

13
In particular, their work on 3D shape knitting focuses on outlining the various methods and
techniques, namely using different stitch lengths, using different structural combinations (i.e.
changing from single jersey to 1 x 1 rib), and altering the number of operating needles from
course to course. It is this later technique that is highlighted as having the most potential and
flexibility in product outcome. This is shown through worked examples of basic generic shapes
such as tubular form, sphere form, and helmet form. However, there is little to no detailed
information given in terms of design parameters and limitations, or to considering design
variations. As well, only a limited number of knit shaping techniques are discussed.

For the next generation of high-performance structural composites, textile preforms have
potentially a lot to offer in terms of being able to meet specific requirements. But “in order to
take advantage of the attractive features offered by textile structural composites, there is a need
for the development of a sound database and design methodologies which are sensitive to
manufacturing technology. An examination of the literature indicates that only a limited number
of systematic experimental studies have been carried out on 3D fabric reinforced composites. A
well-established database is needed in order to broaden the usage of fabric reinforced
composites for structural applications.” (Miravete 1999, p 38). At present this still needs to be
addressed.

The development and use of 3D shape knitting techniques is growing in the technical textiles
field. The major gap in the current research literature is that no specific design details have
been discussed. For example detailed design information and investigation of how to construct
and replicate various shapes of a generic nature, design parameters, requirements and
limitations are not available. Rather, the literature has generally focussed on specific end use
products.

2.2 WEFT KNITTING TECHNOLOGY DEVELOPMENTS

There have been significant breakthroughs in the technology and software of flat-bed machinery
for weft knitting since the late 1980s. These developments have seen what was once ‘potential’
for 3D shape knitting for apparel and more recently non-apparel industries come to be realised.
With further machine and design software improvements, 3D shape knitting is recognised as a
major opportunity for the knitting and technical textile industry.

The push towards 3D shape knitting for technical textiles has come from many directions. The
knitting industry, particularly in Europe, has seen the growing migration of apparel production to
low-cost countries. This has induced the European textile industry to seek new high-tech
products and markets in non-apparel sectors (Rieder 1996). Such sectors include aerospace,
automotive, marine, geotextiles, medicine, protective clothing and construction. The future for
the European knitting industry appears to be in the development of a highly skilled workforce
and the creation of high value-added textile products in non-traditional market areas. At the
same time, industries such as aerospace and automotive are under increasing pressure, to

14
continually develop more cost effective manufacturing techniques and obtaining higher
performance for products. From these industries’ perspective they are looking towards the
textile industry and particularly the knitting industry as a means to providing new opportunities
(Long 2005, pxiii-xiv).

Thus from the beginning of the 1980’s, technical knitted-fabrics have gained steadily in
importance, becoming a substantial growth market. Potential applications for knitted fabrics are
both comprehensive and diverse. This is where knitting technology can be utilised to the full,
with its strengths in flexibility of production, performance and versatility (Rieder 1996).

Given these needs, knitting machine manufacturers have responded accordingly. The past 15
years has seen serious focus on the development of flat-bed technology to enable a wide range
of products to be knitted, with particular focus on 3D seamless knitting solutions. Seamless
knitting is seen as offering large cost savings as apparel and non apparel items can be
essentially knitted in one with little to no finishing required thereafter (Choi & Powell, 2005).

While the concept of seamless knitting is not a new one, the technology had not been available
to fully realise the possibility.

For seamless flat-bed knitting machines, Shima Seiki and Stoll, are the leaders in machine
manufacturing (Choi and Powel, 2005, p14). The most significant breakthrough in machine
technology came with the introduction of Stolls CMS series, in 1987 at the Paris ITMA
(International Exhibition of Textile Machinery) (Hunter2004i). This was the first prototype flat-
bed knitting machine to open up the possibilities of 3D shape knitting. This was shortly followed
by Shima Seiki with their short bed SES series.

What made both these machines so remarkable was the development and use of a fabric
control sinker device that allowed for the control of loops on active and inactive needles. The
‘sinker’ device was the accumulation of research that had begun in the 1960’s with, in particular,
the development of the presser foot by Coutaulds. The presser foot was constructed as a
method of controlling the fabric by means of a gentle pushing down action, as opposed to a
roller take-down action with its constant pull. In this way it was possible to knit on selected
needles and hold loops on non-selected needles, thus forming courses of knitting that were of
variable length. Variable length courses formed by a progressive withdrawal, progressive
introduction, or both, create triangular knitted segments (Robinson & Ashton 1994). The sinker
devices developed in the late 1980s were successors to the presser foot and generally more
reliable.

The other important elements to machine technology have been the development of the bi-
partile compound needle and complete electronic machine control. This has allowed for greater
versatility, needle selection and reliability particularly for shape knitting.

15
The mid 1990’s saw the commercialisation of seamless knitting (Choi & Powell, 2005). Since
then further developments and improvements in knitting machine technology and software have
taken place, with strong emphasis being placed on improving the capabilities of seamless
knitting technology. Choi and Powell (2005) provide a comparison of the flat-bed knitting
machines from Shima Seiki and Stoll, as well as an overview of the principles of seamless
knitting for garments.

®
In 1995 Shima Seiki launched their patented WhoeGarment technique at ITMA, which
“involved integrally and seamlessly knitting a complete tubular garment on a V-bed rib machine
®
(Spencer 2001, p237-8). The concept of WhoeGarment was shown with two different V-bed
models; the SWG-X and SWG-V machines. Significantly both types of machine models made
rib transfer possible.

The SWG-X machine consisted of four needle beds. Its configuration of two additional needle
beds placed directly over a conventional V-bed enabled enormous pattern capabilities that were
previously not possible. The model allowed for a 3D shaped knitted piece to be formed using
virtually any shaping technique and in any knit architecture. Thus a tube could be knitted in a
rib type fabric and shaped at the same time. It is the ability to combine tubular knitting and
stitch transfer in double jersey type architectures that forms the basis of seamless knitting and is
an important concept when applied to developing 3D shapes. The SWG-X model was a
development from the Shima model SES 122 RT introduced in 1993, which also had four
needle beds, but the upper two beds contained transfer points instead of needles (Spencer
2001, p240).

The other model SWG-V machine had only two needle beds. The needles, however, are in a
twin gauge arrangement offset in pairs (Spencer 2001, p240). By acting in pairs, effectively the
machine operates much like a four beds of the X machine. Thus a 14 gauge machine produces
a 7 gauge tubular fabric, using half the needles. Effectively the knitting is ‘half gauged’ (refer to
Section 4.5.2 for explanation). The remaining needles are used for transferring and knitting rib
type structures. This needle arrangement enables enormous pattern capabilities.

The latest generation of flat bed knitting machines has further increased the reliability and scope
for 3D shape knitting, and opens up the potential for a wider range of applications, particularly
®
for technical textile sectors. For example Shima Seiki’s WholeGarment FIRST machine and
®
Stoll’s CMS 340 Knit and Wear . Both are designed to automatically produce shaped knitted
panels and seamlessly ready-to-wear garments, eliminating the need for any further making-up
processes. This fully automated machinery has the potential to give significant cost savings in
labour and time (Hunter2004i, 2004ii and 2004iii). Other advantages of these machines include
the ability to multi-gauge, allowing different gauges (fine and bulky fabrics) within a garment. As
well the FIRST machine uses slide needles that assist in loop transfer, ensure more rounded
and precise stitches and considerable time savings in knitting compared to previous machines.
®
Note for this research Shima Seiki’s WholeGarment New SES-S-WG (14g) has been used.

16
In addition to the significant advances in industrial knitting machines over the past 15 years, has
been the development of digital knit programming software. As machine capabilities have
advanced so too have CAD/CAM (computer aided design / manufacturing) systems been
improved. Traditionally knitting data was stored in the form of punched cards, but the advent of
computers has led to the evolution of knitting from a purely mechanical process, to incorporating
electronics, to being a fully computerised automatic system.

Since 1981 with Shima Seiki’s release of the SDS-ONE-1000 Shimatronic Design System, the
next major advance with digital programming came in 2000 with the All-in-One Design system
SDS-ONE (Shima Seiki, 2009). The SDS-ONE system had a more user-friendly interface
(being Windows based), increased functionality and increased power and speed of processing
through Shima Seiki specific hardware and software, allowing for 3D loop simulations of stitch
®
architectures and the capability to handle large file sizes generated from WholeGarment
programming needs.

In 2007, Shima Seiki developed the SDS-ONE APEX, which focused on improved 3D knit
®
simulations for WholeGarment design (Shima Seiki, 2009). Shima Seiki's computer graphic
design systems, developed originally as pattern preparation systems for knitting machines, now
feature multi-DSP parallel processors, ultra-high speed real time graphics, and specialized high-
capacity graphic memory (Shima Seiki, 2009).

While this research focuses on Shima Seiki, it should be noted that Stoll too has developed
® ®
similarly their CAD/CAM systems, with the M1plus and the Eneas Software Packages (Stoll,
2009i)

Although Stoll and Shima Seiki’s CAD/CAM systems are different in set up, and use different
language to descript various functions, over the past 10 years their approach has become more
similar. For example Stoll has a Design and Technical mode to their program while Shima Seiki
has a Knit-design and Knit-paint (technical) programs within their system. In addition, in the
area of 3D design, both have developed a range of garment silhouettes that designers and
®
technicians can draw on. Shima Seiki’s WholeGarment is referred to as the Garment Library,
®
while Stoll’s Stoll-Knit and Wear is referred to as the Shaper. Both also allow for knit
simulations; Shima Seiki is the Knit Controller and Stoll is the Sintral Check. These knit
simulations also check the knittability of the program, the knitting time and yarn consumption.

For both Shima Seiki and Stoll, the concept of seamless knitting has been a key development in
® ®
the past fifteen years. Using WholeGarment or Stoll-Knit and Wear seamless knitting
technology a garment is created by three tubes being knitted simultaneously for the body and
sleeves. These tubes are spaced appropriately on the needle bed and at the sleeve connection
point, the two sleeves effectively ‘slide’ into the body of the garment (Figure 2.1). Then through
regular stitch transfer the tubes wales (number of horizontal stitches) decrease, and the sleeves

17
connect into the body of the garment. This involves the continual transferring of multiple
stitches across the width of the knitted fabric (the sleeves) over a given number of courses.

Figure 2.1 3D loop simulation in progress and a garment being knitted on a machine (Shima Seiki)

For Shima Seiki the sleeve can be connected in a number of different ways, depending on the
type of sleeve required. Specifically sleeve types include being ‘set in’ or ‘dropper shoulder’
with either a seam line at the top of the shoulder or towards the back of the shoulder, a raglan
sleeve, parachute sleeve (where there is no traditional seam line visible), epaulet or 3D sleeve
(Shima Seiki, 2009). Stoll allows for similar garment and sleeve types to be achieved such as a
pullover, cardigan, slipover waistcoat.

It is worth considering and interesting to note the language used by both Shima Seiki and Stoll
reflects the commercial reality that knitting machines’ primary function is the manufacture of
®
knitwear for the apparel industry. Hence Shima Seiki’s WholeGarment and Stoll’s Stoll-Knit
®
and Wear , have developed their range of 3D forms by garment type. This point is further
discussed in the research in Section 3.7, in relation to the current limitations to the management
of 3D shape generation.

With the sleeves connected to the body of the garment the neckline is then formed. Again a
number of different types of necklines are possible, based on traditional knitwear, for example
V-neck, round neck or turtle neck. However there are limitations to the depth of some neck-line
types (for example round neck).

In addition, a range of other garment types such as sleeveless sweaters, cardigans, skirts and
pants can be constructed. These garment styles rely on adopting similar knitting principles to
the sweater style, but are based on either one or two tubes being knitted, instead of three tubes.

When seamless technology is applied to non garment forms, it is the process of the transfer of
multiple stitches that imparts shape into the fabric piece and can result in a raised or three-
dimensional form or area. The transfer process can occur in either one direction or in both
directions and will affect the resultant three-dimensional shape of the fabric. This principle can
be applied to a wide range of tubular connections (refer Chapter 6).

Seamless knitting technology allows for a garment to be integrally knitted, minimising the need
for post make-up labour. With seamless technology a garment (the form) can not be conceived
without considering the fabric (surface). They are one in the same. The garment’s fabric and

18
form must be planned, designed and knitted as one, whereas, traditional knitwear was based on
the principal of ‘cut and sew’. First the fabric was considered as a two-dimensional piece, with
stitch structures, colour, fibres and yarns considered. The fabric was machine knitted as a
series of flat pieces, then the garment pattern pieces were laid over the fabric and cut, then
panels were sewn and trims and details attached. Now with three-dimensional knitting, all of
these steps in the design and product development need to be considered at the same time.
The preparation and development is complex, and combined with the highly technical nature of
the machine technology and programming requirements, a team of designers and technicians is
required.

Garment design and construction is made even more complex, when technical textiles, such as
the incorporation of electronics for sportswear or health monitoring garments, are considered.
More specialists are needed to be called upon to advance the design process. For example,
with electronics being incorporated into a garment, the traditional cut and sew method of a
garment is made redundant, as cutting into a circuit, would destroy the electronics. Therefore
as the electronics and fabric are developed, the placement of them in relation to the body must
be considered and the garment pattern must be determined. There is a need to work closely
with the body and in three-dimensional form from the start of the design process.

The advantage of seamless technology is that once designed, the item can be mass produced
and at lower cost. As well, an infinite number of variations of the design can be generated
quickly, allowing for mass-customisation, and with minimal waste of raw materials. Seamless
technology has significant potential as a means of providing “another technology-enabled option
to the sustainable fashion system” (Hethorn & Ulasewicz, 2008, p112).

Moreover, when seamless knitting technology is applied to the production of net shape knit
preforms there is the potential for significant savings with not only material waste minimisation
and the production of the preform, but also the set up time for moulding and curing of the
prepreg.

It is only now that the potential for 3D shape knitting is beginning to be fully realised. The
machine technology is now able to perform true transfer on double jersey type fabrics, thus
allowing automatically shaped pieces to be knitted, with the consistency and reliability to provide
competitive production capabilities and commercialisation opportunities.

When this technology is combined with knowledge of 3D net or near net shape weft knitting
techniques there are considerable opportunities to significantly reduce the cost of manufacturing
composite structures of complex shape. With improvements in resin transfer moulding
techniques, there is greater demand for near net shape knitted preforms that fit the tool, and so
keep loading to the shortest possible time. “A combination of net shape fibre preforms and
conventional liquid moulding techniques has the potential to mass produce and to reduce the
production time, and thus lower the cost of composite material. This is important especially

19
when the applications for composite materials are changing from high-cost and high-
performance products of aerospace industry to low-cost and mass-producible products of the
general engineering industry.” (Miravete 1999, p180)

The use of fibre-reinforced composite structures has been limited by their high cost of
manufacture which involves a high degree of labour intensive shaping processes. To date,
standard 2D woven fabric has been the preferred material used to create composite structures.
However, one major problem with woven material is the difficult process of forming it into
complex shapes. Due to its inherent inflexibility, the manufacture of highly curved components
requires the woven fabric to be cut into complex patterns for folding, and entails a large amount
of costly hand labour in the manufacturing process. A possible solution for this problem would
be to manufacture a fabric that has the high deformability characteristics of a knit, and that can
be tailored integrally to form a three-dimensional shape. It is the deformability of the knit’s
architecture that “provides drapeability, which makes knitted fabric reinforcement formable into
the desired complex preform shapes for liquid moulding to produce the composite component.”
(Miravete, 1999, p180)

The general benefits of net shape knit preforming relate to the knitted fabrics’ ability to be made
to conform to a complex net-shape, the capability of fully fashioning, the automation of
production process with its high productivity and reproduction capabilities on automated knitting
machines, and the good resin permeability of knits.

In considering 3D shape knitting, there are significant design opportunities that, to date, have
not been fully explored or documented. Shape knitting techniques include suspending stitches
(periodically knitting in selected area(s) across the fabric, while the remaining needles do not
knit); transferring stitches (increasing or decreasing the number of wales knitted within a piece
of fabric); tubular knitting; and changing of knit architecture (stitch type).

It is these knitting techniques, and in particular tubular and transferring stitches (specifically
wale shaping), that are the basis of seamless knitting technology. When combined, these
techniques can be used to create a range of complex 3D shapes that would be difficult (and
costly) or otherwise impossible using other textile techniques such as weaving or warp knitting.
Domes and cones, complex corners, tubes and tubular connections (such as T, Y, K, X joints)
and cut-outs (shapes with integrally knitted holes or cut-outs) can be designed and
manufactured (refer Chapters 5 to 7). When combined with various knit architectures including
single jersey and double jersey type knits, virtually any shape can be designed and produced.

3D shape knitting could lead to new design opportunities with applications in sectors of design
such as architecture, industrial design, furniture design, as well as technical textiles sectors of
automotive, aerospace, and marine. When new advances with fibre-based material
developments are also considered, 3D shape knitting has the potential to be used by designers
as a tool to expand spatial design opportunities.

20
3. BACKGROUND TO KNITTING

A review of knitting literature, basic terminology, mechanical principles of knitting technology

and machinery are discussed in this Chapter. Specifically the key themes of this Chapter
include;
1) Review of knitting literature (Section 3.1)
2) Basics of knitting (Section 3.2)
3) The key elements of flat-bed knitting machines (Section 3.3)
4) The basic elements of a stitch (Section 3.4)
5) Basic weft knit structures (Section 3.5)
6) Basic stitch variations (Section 3.6)
7) Shima Seiki Programming (Section 3.7)

This background information is not intended to be a comprehensive analysis of knitted fabrics or

technology, but a useful starting point for investigating and understanding the design of knitted
3D shape preforms. The basic content of the Chapter describes the physical nature of knitting
construction types and processes; and in doing so importantly introduces the reader to the very
technical vocabulary of knitting and visual graph-like language of knit notation used to
communicate knit constructions.

The broad intention of this Chapter is for the reader to i) gain an understanding of the technical
and design constraints informing the research project, ii) to understand the general principles
and processes of knit construction, and iii) to understand knitting technology developments in
terms of both industrial flat-bed machinery and digital knit programming specific to Shima Seiki.

Understanding the background knowledge presented in this Chapter is important for later
Chapters that focus on addressing design issues, within industrial machine knitting’s very
technical processes. Much of the material presented within this Chapter does not exist in an
academic or concentrated format and consequently the effective evaluation and documentation
of the knitting processes of sequent Chapters (4 to 7) are dependent upon the base of this pre-
knowledge.

In this Chapter, as well as subsequent Chapters, two types of knit notation are used for the
purpose of visually communicating the knitting process (Figure 3.1). The first representation is
based on Shima Seiki knit programming language (Stitch Code). The Stitch Code represents
every stitch type and stitch movement by a number and colour (refer to Stitch Code Summary).
The second representation is of the yarn path during knitting. This yarn path graphic
representation is based on standard knit notation that is well recognised and used in the knitting
industry (Spencer, 1997; Tellier-Loumagne, 2005). These two types of notation are used to
visually describe various stitch architectures and 3D shape constructions. In addition, package
software, a knit programming method developed by Shima Seiki, has been modified and

21
simplified to communicate more complex design outcomes (Chapters 5 to 8). An overview and
explanation of package programming is provided in Section 3.7. Again it must be emphasised
such a knowledge base is necessary to cover because it has not been dealt with in an
academic context and therefore is a new contribution to the literature.

Figure 3.1 Graphic representations of knit design and knit process (yarn path)

3.1 REVIEW OF KNITTING LITERATURE

While Chapter 2 discussed the literature associated with 3D knitted textile composites and
developments occurring with weft knitting technology, this Section provides a review of literature
on knitting. In reviewing the literature, there are three sectors within the knitting industry of
interest: textile technology, textile design and hand knitting. In discussing these sectors,
significant gaps in current literature are highlighted in the area of 3D shape knitting which this
research seeks to address.

Textile technology offers the most relevant and useful information for understanding industrial
machine knitting. This sector deals with knitting science and technology, machinery and
industry such as garment production and manufacturing. Key texts include Brackenbury (1992),
Spencer (2001), and Raz (1991). While being somewhat dated now, these texts provide very
good details on the mechanism of knitting, both weft (flat-bed and circular) and warp knitting.
They outline the basics of knitting, including stitch types, and fabric groups and properties, as
well as covering the industrial knit machinery, and Brackenbury (1992) also covers knitted
garment production.

With regard to 3D shape knitting, very little is written about the topic. Of the above key knitting
texts 3D shaping techniques are only very briefly covered. Specifically, Brackenbury (1992,
pp75-88) provides a chapter on integral garments, with general descriptions on how berets,
hosiery, and fully fashioned garments in theory are formed. As well, Brackenbury briefly
describes how a garment can be integrally knitted (pp84-86), but this is written in the context
that “this type of garment … would be best exploited if special machinery were designed” (1992,
p86). Spencer (2001) writes about knitting to shape and how shape can be imparted by wale
fashioning (pp184–193). Again this discussion is very limited and does not discuss all methods
of shape knitting. Raz (1991) briefly writes about 3D shaping possibilities, such as a conical
structure, in the context of knitted technical textiles (pp441-446), but does not provide any

22
details as to how the shapes are formed. For all three texts, seamless knitting technology is not
discussed, as these texts generally predate the technology.

The most recent knitting technology developments are covered in the industry’s key magazine,
International Knitting. International Knitting is not academic in nature, but provides good
information, focusing on the commercial operations of knit production and manufacturing, recent
patents, new knitting machine releases and developments, as well as fibre and yarn
developments. Seamless technology has been an important discussion point in terms of what
particular companies are commercially developing, specifically in terms of garments and actual
knit machinery. One of the first and most comprehensive articles on seamless technology
appeared in Knitting International in 2004 (Hunter, 2004i, 2004ii, 2004iii). In this 3 part series,
seamless technology was discussed, focusing particularly on the process of how different
manufacturers such as Shima Seiki, Stoll, Universal and Santoni were developing machinery for
seamless garments.

It should be noted that, while the process of actually knitting garments and the knit machinery
itself are described, very little has been written on design or programming. In particular for
Shima Seiki WG knitting, the process of programming, what ‘package’ is, or the significance of
‘package’, have not been addressed. This perhaps reflects that, within the knitting industry, knit
programming technicians generally do not have an academic background. Conversely
academics do not have the practical technical knowledge. As well, Shima Seiki in their digital
manuals do not articulate the process well. Knowledge relating to programming is generally
learnt on the job by doing, as happened in my experience. Therefore this research project
addresses the significant gap in the literature with regard to understanding and explaining
Shima Seiki knit programming (refer to Section 3.7).

In regard to textile design, references tend to focus on providing stitch and fabric inspiration, as
well as showing examples of knitwear design. In particular, the most useful texts for
documenting stitch architectures for inspiration are Tellier-Loumagne (2005), Allen (1989),
Lewis (1986), and for knit design, Black (2002) and McFadden (2007). Tellier-Loumagne
(2005) focuses on both hand and industrial knitting for a wide range of single and double jersey
type fabrics, while Allen (1989) and Lewis (1986) focus on using domestic hand flat-bed
machines. Interestingly, all texts tend to view the design of the knitted fabric as 2D surface
design. While some limited 3D shape knitting techniques are mentioned, it is generally only in
the context of the 2D surface. For example, the use of transferring stitches to create lace
patterns or fully fashioned panels. Creating knitted 3D forms are generally not considered.
Although Lewis (1986) does include a brief discussion on a limited range of 3D shapes (pp157-
158) using short row knit technique, documented notation is limited, with key ideas hand drawn
on graph paper, and this text does not cover the other important shape methods such as
transfer stitches. Interestingly, while Tellier-Loumagne (2005) discusses in a general nature
and shows fabric examples of suspended stitches and partial knitting (pp92-109), there is no
graphic representation of the actual fabrics. This is in contrast to other sections within the text

23
that are represented in standard knit notation. This perhaps reflects the difficulties in
communicating such stitch architectures that are 3D in nature through traditional stitch notation.

Other useful references focus on the visual representation of knit design and designers as
inspiration such as Black’s ‘Knitwear in Fashion’ (2002) and McFadden’s ‘Radical Lace and
Subversive Knitting’ (2007). Black (2002) presents a comprehensive picture of contemporary
knitwear in fashion, highlighting the diversity of knitting for apparel, interiors, to artworks and
sculptural form, both hand-knitted and industrially produced. Of particular relevance are
sections on ‘The Seamless Revolution’ (pp. 118 – 131) which focuses on seamless knitting
such as Issey Miyakes A-POC using warp knitting technology, and the section on
‘Developments in design’ (p178) that briefly describes the potential of flat-bed seamless
technology. Again this text highlights the lack of published material on the topic of 3D shape
knitting. McFadden (2007) from an exhibition at the Museum of Arts and Design in New York
focuses on contemporary artists reworking knitting and lace techniques in creative ways. Of
particular interest is the work of Yoshiki Hishinuma who creates ‘3D clothing’ using “innovative,
computer-controlled, three-dimensional knitwear technology” to create organic forms
(McFadden, 2007, p34-37).

The third category of interest to this research, that the knitting sector covers, is hand knitting.
Hand knitting offers the most widely published work of all knitting sectors. This reflects the
revival of traditional craft skills with much of what is published being ‘how to’ books, showing
examples of how to make a specific garment type for the hobbyist. It is however worth noting
the work of Lee (2007), that focuses on contemporary hand knitting using 2D and 3D knitting
techniques, creating some 3D forms such as tubular vessels and branching forms (pp89 – 93).
The work emphasises the relationship of materials, particularly non-standard materials (such as
wire) and knitting techniques. As a result, the outcomes tend to be organic and free flowing,
with forms being described but not accurately documented. While being of interest, the text
does not allow for the translation of these ideas onto an industrial knitting machine, nor is it a
comprehensive survey of 3D forms or shape knitting techniques. Again, the scope of Lee’s text
indicates a gap that this research intends to address.

This research project substantially places itself in the potential intersection of these three
sectors, of technical textiles, textile design and hand knitting. 3D shape knitting techniques and
seamless knitting technology provides the opportunity for traditionally hand crafted techniques,
which hand knitting represents, to converge with new technology to develop fully automated
manufacturing processes. The nexus of craft and technology is an important theme to the
research, and is discussed further within a broader design context in Chapter 8.

Given the significant gaps with regard to 3D shape knitting identified in the literature, this
Chapter will draw together and capture basic knitting terminology, the process of stitch and
fabric formation, as well as machine developments and digital programming. This background
to knitting is important as it sets up the pre-knowledge required for understanding 3D shape

24
knitting techniques as presented in Chapter 4 and consequently the Shape Lexicon of 3D
shapes in Chapters 5 to 7.

3.2 BASICS OF KNITTING

Knitting is the action of forming fabrics by the intermeshing of stitches (loops). There are two
basic types of knitting: weft knitting and warp knitting.

Figure 3.2 Difference in yarn paths for basic woven, weft-knitted and warp-knitted fabrics

Weft knitting is a method of making a fabric in which the yarn forms horizontal rows of loops
(stitches) across the fabric, approximately perpendicular to the selvedge of the fabric (Figure
3.2(b)). One horizontal row of loops (a course) is made from one or very few yarns.

Warp knitting is a method of making a fabric in which the loops are made from many warp
threads running along the length of the fabric approximately parallel with the selvedge of the
fabric (Figure 3.2(c)). One horizontal row of loops is made from many yarns.

Weft knitting is considered to offer the most potential and versatility for 3D shaping.

Weft knitted fabrics can be produced either on a flat-bed or circular machine. A flat-bed knitting
machine has its needles arranged on horizontal or flat needle beds, whereas a circular knitting
machine’s needles are arranged in a circle.

In the area of 3D shape knitting, the flat-bed machine has the greatest potential for design
options, because of its ability to combine knitting of multiple tubes and rib transfer, thus allowing
for variations in the width circumference of a 3D form. The most recent machine developments
mean it is possible to knit a wide range of 3D forms in any stitch architecture on a flat-bed
machine (refer Section 2.2). In comparison, circular knitting machines are less versatile; being
able to only knit a single tube of a fixed circumference. Consequently, seamless knitting on a
circular machine is not true seamless knitting (Choi and Powell 2005, p11). Therefore, this
research concentrates on weft knitting techniques utilising flat-bed machinery.

25
As outlined in Chapter 2, there are a number of companies researching and manufacturing flat-
bed knitting machines. The two leading companies are Shima Seiki (Japan) and Stoll
(Germany). The machine technology and CAD system interface for both Stoll and Shima Seiki
are similar. For the purpose of this research Shima Seiki technology was used.

3.3 THE KEY ELEMENTS OF FLAT-BED MACHINES

Industrial flat-bed knitting machines allow for a fully automated computer controlled method of
production (Figure 3.3). The technical parameters of what can be physically knitted on the
machine are dependent on the machine capacities.

Figure 3.3 Flat-bed knitting machine

This Section will explicate the key components and mechanisms of an industrial knitting
machine. The key elements, common to all flat-bed machines, are essential to the developing
3D shape knitted preforms and include:
1) The needle
2) Needle bed
3) Racking mechanism
4) Carriage and cams
5) Yarn Carriers
6) Takedown
7) Yarn threading mechanism
8) Sinkers
9) Stitch Presser

3.3.1 The Needle

It is the needle, on which the loops are formed. During yarn feeding, the needle raises, the
latch or tongue is opened to release the old loop and to receive the new loop, which is then

26
enclosed in the hook and the needle lowered. There are two important types of needles – (a)
latch and (b) compound (Figure 3.4).

Figure 3.4 Types of needles

The main difference between the conventional latch needle and a compound needle is that the
latch needle relies on the stitches being formed to open and close the latch, whereas the
compound needle consists of two separately controlled parts; the hook and the closing element
(latch) (Figure 3.5). The two parts rise and fall as a single unit but at the top of the rise the hook
moves (slides) faster to open and at the start of the fall the hook descends faster to close the
hook. It has a short, smooth and simple action, which allows for high knitting speeds. This
allows for greater versatility and needle selection compared to the conventional latch needle,
which relies on the loops being formed to open and close the latch.

Figure 3.5 The difference between the needle movement of a latch needle and a compound needle.

3.3.2. The Needle Bed

The needles are arranged along two horizontal needle beds, known as the front and back
needle beds (Figure 3.6). The two beds (also referred to as v-bed) are at right angles to one
another forming an inverted ‘V’ shape. Each needle bed contains over two hundred needles.
The length of the needle bed determines the maximum width of fabric.

Figure 3.6 Needle bed for standard 2-bed knitting machine

27
The distance between two neighbouring needles (the linear spacing of needles) determines the
gauge of the machine. It is commonly expressed as the number of needles per inch.

The front and back needle beds can be placed in one of three positions, depending on the type
of fabric being knitted (Figure 3.7). The two most common arrangements are ‘0 pitch’, where
the needles alternate with each other, and ‘half pitch’, where the needles are opposite each
other. A third position ‘quarter pitch’ can also be used, when transferring. This position is
between ‘0’ and ‘half’ pitch. The needle beds will automatically be set at half pitch left for single
jersey and ‘0’ pitch position for double jersey.

Figure 3.7 Needle bed positions

Flat-bed machines can also consist of four beds, known as x-bed machines. With this set up
two standard needle beds and two additional beds (either as transfer or needle bed) are
positioned above in an ‘X’ configuration (Figure 3.8). An example is the Shima Seiki RT series
and ‘FIRST’ machines. These machines theoretically make it possible for any fabric type to be
shaped using any number of shaping techniques. Prior to these machines, only certain shaping
techniques were possible in limited fabric types. For example tubular shapes could only be
knitted in single jersey type fabrics. Now it is possible using x-bed machines to knit rib type
fabrics, in tubular form.

Figure 3.8 Four needle bed arrangement

28
3.3.3. Racking Mechanism
Most flat knitting machines are equipped with a racking mechanism (Figure 3.9). Racking
allows for the displacement of one of the needle beds parallel to the other. This is used for
transferring stitches (refer Section 3.6.3) to the left or right over a selected number of pitches (-7
to 7). One pitch equals one needle. Therefore, for example, to rack 3 pitch means to move the
back bed 3 needles to the right.

Figure 3.9 Racking

3.3.4. The Carriage and Cams

The carriage consists of the cams, cam plates and the yarn feeders. As the carriage passes
over the needle beds, it is these elements that are responsible for knitting (Figure 3.10).

The cams control the movement of the needles. The needle butts pass through the cam
channels, and determine the raising and lowering of the needle. This determines the type of
stitch that is formed; be it a plain, tuck or miss stitch. The formation of stitches and their
physical properties will be discussed in detail in Sections 3.5 and 3.6.

Figure 3.10 Carriage and placement of cams and simplified diagram of the raising and lowering CAMs

29
The cams are fixed to a cam plate. The front cam plate and the rear cam plates are connected
by a bow. As the carriage moves across the needle bed it controls the motion of the needles
and carriers.

A machine with one set of cams is referred to as a single cam system machine. It is possible to
have machines with 2, 3, or 4 cam systems. In the case of a 2 cam system (double system),
two complete sets of knitting cams are arranged side by side in the same cam plate each
working with a separate yarn carrier. Thus in one carriage movement, two courses of knitting
can be produced, which may or may not be in the same knit architecture. This makes for
greater productivity, but does not necessarily double the rate of production as the carriage has
to travel further to clear the needles being knitted at each end.

The setting of the position of the lowering cams enables the length of stitch to be determined.
With a machine of a particular gauge, long stitches give a slack fabric whereas small stitches
make a tight fabric. The potential variation is why the adjustment of the lowering cams is also
known as the stitch length.

3.3.5. The Yarn Carriers

The yarn carrier travels with the carriage (Figure 3.11). It feeds yarn from the yarn tension
device to the needles. Dependent on the type of machine, there can be up to 16 yarn carriers.

Figure 3.11 Carriage and yarn carriers

3.3.6. Takedown
The takedown removes the fabric away from the knitting machine at a constant linear rate or at
a constant tension (Figure 3.12). Takedown also helps in the formation of the new stitch, in
providing a tension on the fabric during the descent of the needle and the dropping off of the old
stitch. The weight of the fabric itself is not sufficient to maintain an even tension.

On a conventional flat-bed machine, there are three devices used; main roller, sub roller and set
up comb.

30
Figure 3.12 Take down

The set up comb operates at the beginning of the knitting process until the fabric has got down
to the main roller, where it then takes over. The speed of rotation of the take down roller can
be adjusted to suit the type of fabric being knitted. The sub roller is near the gap of the needle
beds and moves fabric away that has just been knitted.

For 3D shaping, the conventional system of take down can be inappropriate. Tension that
varies over the course of the fabric is generally preferred, as areas are selected to knit and
others are non-selected (suspended or held). Because of this need for varying the tension,
complex 3D shapes that in theory can be knitted may not be possible with current technology.

3.3.7. Yarn threading mechanism

This device provides a tension force for the yarn to be fed to the yarn feeder (Figure 3.13).
Yarn must be taut when it arrives at the needles. It also detects yarn breakage and knots in the
yarn that may cause problems with the knitting.

Figure 3.13 Tension device and Digital Stitch Control System

31
3.3.8. The Sinker
The sinker is a thin metal plate, at approximately right angles between the adjoining needle
beds (Figure 3.14). Sinkers assists in the stitch formation and in holding down the old stitches
as new stitches are formed. Specifically it prevents the old stitches from being lifted as the
needles rise to clear the stitches from their hooks. Sinkers also enable tighter and more uniform
stitch architectures to be obtained, and knitting can be commenced on empty needles more
easily when takedown tension is reduced. Using sinkers also allows for higher knitting speeds
to be achieved.

Sinkers are critical when using 3D shape knitting techniques, as it is the sinkers that act as a
tensioning device. They allow for knitting on selected needles to occur, while stitches on non-
selected needles are held. The sinkers ensure that the knitted fabric (previous stitches) does
not rise up and interfere with the knitting, causing problems.

Figure 3.14 Sinker (Shima Seiki)

3.3.9. The Stitch Presser

The stitch presser is a device for further controlling stitch formation that operates in the active
knitting area of a fabric being formed (Figure 3.15). This diminishes the need for take down on
the fabric. It allows for stitches to be held while knitting occurs over selected needles, with
minimal take down. The stitch presser can generally only be used for single jersey type fabrics
and cannot be used when knitting all needle rib type fabrics.

Figure 3.15 Stitch presser (Shima Seiki)

32
3.3.10. Representing the knitting machine in knit notation
A standard knit notation form is used to represent the yarn path during knitting. A dot (●)
represents a needle. Double bed needle beds are represented by two lines of dots, where; F =
needles on the front bed and B = needles on back bed (Figure 3.16). The dots can be off set for
‘0’ pitch or directly aligned to represent the needle beds at half pitch.

Figure 3.16 Needle bed notation for the yarn path

The sequence of knitting is indicated at the right hand side with 1st, 2nd, and 3rd and so on
from the bottom up (Figure 3.16). The arrow indicates the direction of the carriage movement
and the number of systems being used. Single system means one movement of the carriage
produces one course of knitting. With double system knitting one movement of the carriage
produces two courses of knitting. If the two systems are the same then they are represented as
S1 and S2 with an arrow. If the two systems are different, then they are represented
separately. The use of systems knitting is to provide maximum efficiency with knitting time.

3.4 THE BASIC ELEMENTS OF A STITCH

A single unit of weft knitting is a stitch or loop (Figure 3.17). It can also be referred to as a plain
stitch, or jersey stitch. The size of the stitch can vary; as the stitch length increases the area the
stitch occupies increases. The size of the stitch length is partly determined by the yarn used,
and the gauge of the knitting machine.

Figure 3.17 Weft knit single unit

33
A horizontal row of stitches is known as a course, while a row of vertical stitches is known as a
wale. The sealed edge of the knitted fabric is known as the selvedge.

The ratio between the course and the wale unit of a single stitch is not constant (Figure 3.18).
This ratio can vary considerably depending on the particular stitch type and fabric structure
used. A fabrics course:wale ratio is particularly important for shape knitting when exact
measurements (angles) are required. The ratio can be calculated by measuring the number of
stitches in the course and wale direction over a fixed length such as 10 cm. This ratio then
determines the fashioning frequency (Spencer 2001, p185).

Figure 3.18 Course to wale ratio

3.5 BASIC WEFT KNIT STRUCTURES

Weft knitted fabrics can be broadly classified into three primary structures or knit architectures:
plain, rib and purl. From these primary structures all weft knitted fabrics are derived. These
basic structures are all based on one type of knitted stitch; the plain stitch.

Note stitch variations, such as a tuck or float stitch and knitting processes such as transferring a
stitch, can be applied to these primary knit architectures to produce an infinite range of fabric
structures. These stitch variations and their properties are discussed in Section 3.6.

3.5.1. Plain fabric

The simplest fabric construction is plain weft knitted fabric. Plain fabric can also be known as
single jersey or single knit. It is produced on a single needle bed. As the yarn is fed across the
needle bed, each needle draws a new stitch through its last stitch.

In knit notation, a plain stitch is represented by a red square if knitted on the front bed, or by a
green square if knitted on the back bed (Figure 3.19).

34
Figure 3.19 Plain fabric; technical front and back of the fabric

The process of knitting plain fabric involves 3 steps (Figure 3.20):

1. Needles move up through the last loop, opening the latch, while holding the last loop on
the shank of the needle.
2. Needles move down, collecting new yarn.
3. Needles continue down, closing the latch, drawing yarn through and releasing the old
loop.

Figure 3.20 The needle action for a plain stitch

Plain fabric has all the stitches drawn through from the technical back and towards the technical
face of the fabric. The resultant fabric is not very stable or balanced, with the edges of the
fabric curling inwards. The fabric can also distort easily compared with other types of knitting
and will ladder and unravel if the last course is not secured. A ladder (or run) is the result of a
collapsed wale and appears like a float stitch.

The general characteristics of plain knit are light, little elasticity, and stitches formed are very
uniform.

35
When the stitches are drawn from the front to back the stitch is referred to as a purl stitch. It
looks like the reverse (back) of a plain stitch. This is important for other weft knit structures
such as rib, interlock and purl fabrics that are all made up from a particular combination of plain
and purl stitches.

It should also be noted that tubular fabric is an extension of plain knitting using two needle beds
(Figure 3.21). Refer to Chapter 4 for detailed explanation of the knitting process involved.

Figure 3.21 Tubular fabric

3.5.2 Rib fabric

Rib fabric can also be referred to as a double bed or double jersey type fabric. It is made up of
stitches formed in opposite directions. It is produced on two needle beds.

The simplest rib fabric is a 1x1 or all needle rib. Alternate stitches are made on front and back
needle beds and all the stitches in any one wale are of the same type (Figure 3.22). Because of
this stitch formation the face and back of a 1x1 rib fabric are identical. It produces a balanced
fabric and therefore lies flat without curling when cut. The other key characteristic is its elasticity
in the course direction.

Figure 3.22 1x1 Rib fabric

36
Note an important variation of rib is Interlock fabric. Interlock is formed from two 1x1 rib fabrics
knitted together. It is produced on two needle beds. Knitted in double system, two yarn feeders
knit on separate alternate needles producing two half-gauge 1x1 rib courses (Figure 3.23). It
produces a balanced, smooth stable structure, which lies flat without curling. It is also elastic in
its course direction, and therefore a bulkier fabric than plain knit.

Figure 3.23 Interlock fabric

3.5.3 Purl (Links-links) fabric

Purl fabric contains both face and reverse loops in any one wale. It is produced on two needle
beds, with the stitches on the needles being transferred from back to front beds, and vice versa
continuously (Figure 3.24).

Figure 3.24 Purl fabric

A purl fabric is a balanced fabric that does not curl at the edges, lies flat and distorts less. It is
highly extensible, being elastic in both course and wale direction.

3.6 BASIC STITCH VARIATIONS

It is possible to manipulate, modify and displace the stitches in a knitted fabric, by varying the
needle movement that forms the stitch. There are 3 basic stitch variations to a plain stitch:
Tuck, Float, and Transfer stitch. These stitch variations will affect the properties and
appearance of the fabric. It should be noted that no fabric can be produced entirely from tuck,
float or transfer loops. A basic fabric structure of knitted loops is first required.

37
3.6.1 Tuck stitch
The tuck stitch creates an enlarged knitted loop with a segment of yarn tucked behind it. It is
formed, when the yarn is tucked into the structure by the needle, instead of being formed into a
stitch. The needle rises partly to take a new stitch without casting off the old stitch (Figures 3.25
& 3.26).

Tuck stitch will make a basic knit fabric wider, thicker and slightly less elastic. It is used as a
means of patterning, to increasing fabric weight and thickness, to insert problematic yarns that
would not otherwise knit easily, and/or to shorten long jacquard floats.

In knit notation, a tuck stitch is commonly expressed as a ‘v’, which symbolises that the yarn is
fed into the needle but without a new stitch being formed.

Figure 3.25 Tuck stitch

Figure 3.26 Needle action for tuck stitch

3.6.2 Float (or miss) stitch

The float stitch creates a straight ‘float’ of yarn (Figure 3.27). If a stitch precedes the float the
previous stitch is held. This forms the basis of slip stitch patterns. If there is no stitch before the
float stitch, a ladder is formed.

The float stitch is formed when the needle retains the old stitch and fails to rise to take the yarn
to form a new stitch (Figure 3.28). Float stitch will make a basic knit fabric narrower, thinner and
nd
much less elastic. It is used in half gauge knitting, where only every 2 needle is used. Refer to
Section 4.5.2 for more detailed explanation.

38
In knit notation, a float stitch is commonly expressed as a dash (-), indicating that it is missing
the needle.

Figure 3.27 Float stitch

Figure 3.28 Needle action for float stitch

3.6.3 Stitch transfer

Transfer is a process of moving a stitch to another needle, often a neighbouring or opposing
needle on the opposite needle bed (Figure 3.29).

Figure 3.29 Transfer stitch

The v-bed flat knitting machine can transfer stitches from a front needle to a rear and vice versa
in one movement (Figure 3.30). However, it cannot transfer a stitch from needle to needle

39
within the same needle bed in one operation. For this type of transfer (Figure 3.32), the stitch is
transferred to the opposite needle bed (B), the bed is racked sideways by one needle space (C)
and then the stitch is transferred back, now one needle over from its original position, and the
racked bed is racked back to its original position (D). Note during the transfer procedures, the
needles are set in the ‘transfer position’, so a safe transfer is possible.

Figure 3.30 Needle action for transferring a stitch from front bed to back bed

Figure 3.31 Transfer process from needle to next needle on the same bed

Stitch transfer is very versatile and is used as a means of patterning (knitting purl type fabrics,
cables, laces), to change from different fabric structures (e.g. rib to plain) and shaping
(increasing/decreasing stitches and casting off). For a more detailed explanation of processes
involved in shaping refer to Section 4.4.

The transfer procedure is shown in knit notation form by an arrow above the selected stitch to
be transferred. The arrows indicate which of the stitches are to be transferred and to which
needles.

3.7 SHIMA SEIKI PROGRAMMING

As stated in Section 3.3, the technical parameters of what can be physically knitted on an
industrial machine are dependent on the machine’s capacities and will determine the potential
types of 3D forms that can be generated. In order to take advantage of the capacities of the
machinery and to develop a fully automated computer controlled method of production, the
developments and processes of digital knit programming must also be considered.

40
Digital knit programming involves a series of procedural steps to translate the envisaged design
into a computer language or code using the CAD/CAM (Computer Aided Design / Manufacture)
system. The data is then saved onto a disc (or the network) and is transferred to the knitting
machine.

From the broader design perspective, knit digital programming potentially acts as a critical
boundary between the technician and designer. Understanding the parameters of programming
within the context of knit machine technology is therefore an essential communication tool.
“The designer’s concept sketch must be realised through the capabilities of the machine
governed by the technical expertise of the technician.” (Choi and Powell, 2005, p18)

To date digital knit programming has been largely in the domain of the knit technician.
However, as designs become more complex, there is the need to consider how to integrate 2D
fabric stitch architecture within a 3D form. In addition as the technology for digital programming
becomes more sophisticated and user friendly there is an opportunity for designers to enter this
technical domain and engage in a discourse in relation to industrial knitting.

By recognising the potential of digital programming to assist with communication, this research
will develop a method for expressing a shared visual knit language that focuses on the design
parameters of how to construct various 3D forms within the technical constraints. This method
of graphic representation is outlined in Section 3.7.5 and used in Part 2, the Shape Lexicon.
Therefore, for the effective evaluation of this method of communicating there is a need to firstly
explicate the fundamentals of digital knit programming, particularly as to date this material has
not been documented in an academic format.

For Shima Seiki, the CAD system developed is known as SDS-ONE. The SDS-ONE system is
a totally integrated knit production system that allows all phases including planning, design,
evaluation and production (Spencer, 2001, p144). As outlined in Chapter 2 (Section 2.2) Shima
Seiki released its “All-in-One Design system SDS-ONE” in 2000 (Shima Seiki, 2009). This CAD
system was a significant development with a more user-friendly interface and increased
functionality, as well as increased power and speed for processing data. This system was
further upgraded in 2007, with the release of the SDS-ONE APEX, which focused on improved
®
3D knit simulations for WholeGarment designs, with 3D Modelist software. The 3D Modelist
software creates a virtual body, on which loop simulation data is mapped (Shima Seiki, 2009).

It is important to recognise that digital knit programming developments parallel to knitting

®
machine developments have allowed for seamless technology, such as WholeGarment to
advance and have led to seamless knitting being commercially and economically viable.
Therefore it is necessary to understand the essentials of digital knit programming.

This Section explicates the Shima Seiki specific language associated with technical knit
programming and the key concepts for digital knit programming. The knowledge presented in

41
this Section is specific to Shima Seiki knitting machines. As previously stated in Section 3.1,
there is a significant gap in the literature with little to no knowledge of knit programming
available. Therefore, this research addresses the existing gap.

The important concepts for digital knit programming using Shima Seiki’s SDS-ONE system are
as follows:
i) The Colour Number List (refer to Stitch Code Summary)
ii) Optional Line Function List (refer to Appendix 1)
iii) Pattern Development Assignment (refer to Appendix 2)
®
iv) Reference data for colours used for WholeGarment (WG) package (refer to
Appendix 3)

The intention of this Section is to give an overview and explanation of how these concepts work
together to allow for complex designs to be programmed and knitted. Specifically the Section
provides an outline of (1) basic programming procedure, (2) package programming and (3) WG
package programming.

In addition, a sub-section is included on how the basis of digital programming can be adopted to
present a new way to communicate 3D knitted shapes: Package Adaptation (Section 3.7.4).
Two simplified versions of Package were developed; these being Standard Package and WG
Package. This method of Package Adaptation was used for the Shape Lexicon (Chapters 5 to
7) as a means to clearer communication and to explain the designs of various 3D shapes.

3.7.1. Outline of basic programming procedure

In order to knit a design using a Shima Seiki industrial knitting machine, it must be programmed.
The steps involved are: (1) Design preparation, (2) Programming the design, (3) Design
Processing, and (4) Knitting.

Specifically,
1. Design preparation
Design preparation involves the initial planning and development of the design ideas. This
includes inputting the design into the CAD system. The knitting CAD system is specific to the
industrial knitting machine. For Shima Seiki knitting machines the CAD system is SDS-ONE
(Figure 3.32).

Figure 3.32 SDS-ONE system (Shima Seiki)

42
With the SDS-ONE system there are several programs related to different aspects of knit
production. The most useful programs include Knit-paint and Knit-design.

The Knit-paint program is where all technical knit programs are constructed, processed and
checked, through the knit simulation function (Figure 3.33).

Figure 3.33 SDS-ONE knit-paint program working page (Shima Seiki)

In contrast the Knit-design program is for design work. Knit-design allows for the design of 2D
surface stitch architectures, yarn and colour selection to be virtually knitted (simulated), as well
as colourways tested. The design program has a broad file format, allowing for jpeg, tiff, and
bmp files to be imported into the system. Therefore artwork, for example for a jacquard, can be
scanned into the system, cleaned (through colour reduction) and prepared.

Within the Knit-design program there is a library of stitch architectures, which can be accessed
to create complex fabric structures (Figure 3.34). Also, there is the added benefit that as the
virtual fabric is designed, the technical program is automatically created and can then be
exported into the Knit-paint to be processed.

Figure 3.34 SDS-ONE knit-design program working page with knit simulation (Shima Seiki)

43
The apparent ease of designing through the knit-design program can however be problematic,
as highly complex knit designs which are easily created virtually with the software, are in reality
impossible to knit. For example the program allows multiple cables to be placed next to each
other but such a fabric could not be produced. Therefore the designer is required to have a
high technical knowledge to understand how to work within the parameters of what is possible
on an industrial machine.

While there are obvious advantages to the Knit-design program, there are also significant
limitations, particularly for 3D shape knitting. The fabric simulation is represented as a 2D flat
surface only, or be it a textured 3D relief surface. The Knit-design program can not deal with
stitch architectures such as suspended stitches that create a 3D shape or flat surface that is not
rectangular (Figure 3.35). To date, the simulation, does not take into account the change in
wale direction. Therefore when working with 3D shape knitting techniques (refer to Chapter 4)
the Knit-paint program must be used to create the design.

Figure 3.35 Example of simulation of suspended stitch design using Knit-design program, compared to actual fabric

The lack of ability for Knit-design software to be able to deal with a design such as suspended
stitches is a significant limitation of the current technology. This limitation also reflects broader
issues in relation to the current management of 3D shape generation. The representation of 3D
in a 2D format and the integration of the 2D and 3D are important points for this research, and is
discussed further within Section 3.7.4. Current management and limitations of 3D shape
generation.

2. Programming the design

The design is converted to programming language and data is inputted and consists of 3 parts;
(1) the structure pattern, (2) the option lines and (3) the pattern development assignment
(Figure 3.36). The programming is undertaken through Knit-paint (Figure 3.33).

Figure 3.36 Example of a knit design program

44
Specifically, the structure pattern or design area (Figure 3.36, 1) is set, based on the stitch code
colour number list (refer to Stitch Code Summary). Every stitch type or movement of a stitch is
represented by a colour/number. Then the option lines and pattern development assignment
are set. The option lines (Appendix 1) (Figure 3.36, 2) inform the knitting machine how the
design is to be knitted. Each option line represents a different part of the knitting process, such
as the selection of yarn carriers, and which sections of the design are to be repeated. The
option lines ultimately provide the knit program with some flexibility, as the inputted data in the
option lines can be changed at the processing and at the knitting stage. For example by having
an economiser (set in L1 and/or L2 of the option lines) allows for the specified knit area to be
repeated. Consequently, at processing stage or at the knitting stage the input value can be
altered, thus changing the length of the resultant fabric. The pattern development assignment
(Appendix 2) (Figure 3.36, 3) also provides support information, similar to the option lines, about
the width and placement of the knitting on the machine.

3. Design Processing
The design is processed and saved to a formatted disc or network to ensure the knit program
can be read by the knitting machine. In processing, the knit parameters are set and the
machine type to be used is specified. The knit parameters are based on the option lines and
can include for example economisers (repeat sizes), digital stitch and takedown values and the
selection of yarn carriers. The data inputted provides greater flexibility to the knit program and
is particularly useful when trialling different yarn types and counts, as well as for grading (sizing)
purposes. As well, during processing faults that may be in the knit program can be detected,
such as a conflict with yarn carriers.

In addition, the knit program can also be checked through the digital Control Simulation of the
knitting process offered through Shima Seiki’s SDS-ONE Knit-paint program (Figure 3.37). With
this completed, the knit program is sent (via network or disc) to the machine for knitting.

Figure 3.37 Digital Control Simulation of knit program (Shima Seiki)

45
4. Knitting
The knitting machine is set up. Yarn is selected and threaded through the tension devices to
the yarn carrier. Then the knit program is selected, read, and knit parameters set and/or
adjustments made via the machine display panel. The knit program is then knitted.

3.7.2. Package programming

Package is an extension of basic programming. Through the use of Package software,
developed by Shima Seiki, the programming of a design is simplified. Package software uses a
system of registered colours, with each colour (and number) representing a different knit
package or combination of stitches. Package allows for complex design outcomes, particularly
3D seamless knitting, to be more readily visualised and communicated in a simplified 2D format.

The important elements of Package are: (1) the package base pattern, (2) the compressed
pattern and (3) the development pattern (Figure 3.38).

Figure 3.38 Shima Seiki, Basic principle of Package Software, (Shima Seiki)

1. The package base patterns

The package base patterns are the individual knit programmes that when combined with the
compressed pattern, make the overall knit program. Each package base pattern is compressed
by a registered colour.

The package base pattern can be produced by either Free Colour Mode or Paint Colour Mode
(Figure 3.39). Both have particular advantages and uses. Free colour is more useful for
jacquard type fabrics, as it creates a base pattern for each colour of the jacquard, while Paint
Colour Mode is useful for shaping, as it creates a base pattern for each colour combination.

Figure 3.39 Comparison of Paint Colour Mode and Free Colour Mode (Shima Seiki)

46
2. The compressed pattern
The compressed pattern is the overall structure of the knit program. It is the simplified version
of the design or ‘original drawing’ (Figure 3.40). For the compressed pattern, the structure
pattern (the design area) is represented by the registered colours.

Figure 3.40 Shima Seiki, overview of package (Shima Seiki)

The advantage of package programming is that firstly, the compressed pattern is simpler to
understand and secondly, it can be very easily altered. For example grading a garment piece,
or altering a 3 or 4 colour jacquard design, only the compressed pattern is changed, as the
package base patterns remain the same. This is important for complex designs where a large
number of package base patterns may be required.

3. The developed pattern

The compressed pattern is ‘expanded’ to form the development pattern (Figure 3.40). The
process of expanding combines the base package patterns and the compressed pattern
together. Each register colour in the compressed package is read and its corresponding
package base pattern is inserted into the compressed pattern. This process is done
automatically using the processing procedure of Package development.

At this point the knit program can be processed using the automatic software process.
Processing the program involves firstly selecting the machine type, machine gauge and needle
bed length, then the economisers (repeat lengths), the yarn carriers and yarn carrier
combinations and saving the program into a disc or the network.

®
3.7.3. WholeGarment package programming
As outlined in Section 2.4 seamless knitting technology creates a complete garment with
minimal or no cutting and sewing required, thus eliminating seams. Seamless knitting is made
possible by machine technology that allows tubular rib transfer.

®
Package programming is essential for WholeGarment (WG) knitting. The programming
requirements for WG knitting are complex, as the program simultaneously must represent both
47
the 2D surface (stitch architecture) of the knit fabric and 3D shaped form of the garment.
Consequently, Shima Seiki developed Package Software, referred to as ‘Pattern Making Guide’.
Package Software programming has made the development and commercialisation of
®
WholeGarment seamless knitting possible.

Package Software consists of a library of WG packages and registered colours, that the user
can automatically draw on. The WG packages are designed in relation to a typology of garment
production templates. The library consists of a list of the registered colours for a standard range
of package base patterns, each representing a component of a particular garment type. The list
of the registered colours for WG Package is provided in Appendix 3.

There are a variety of different garment outcomes available. The user accesses the library
firstly by machine type and then by garment type (Figure 3.41). Organising the library in this
way reflects that currently WG technology is used primarily by the apparel industry.

Figure 3.41 WholeGarment ® pattern making guide (Shima Seiki)

By having the library set up this way, with a presumption that a conventional garment type will
be constructed, allows for a more economical and systematic way of sorting the registered
colours. It also means for the programmer, building a knit program is made easier, knowing the
registered colours reflect the same directory of general garment components across all machine
types and garment types. For example, the registered colour for the set up for a 1x1 rib is the
same for all garment types and for all machine types (no.121), even though the actual package
base patterns may vary considerably (Figure 3.42).

48
Figure 3.42 Example of the base programs for the Set-Up for WholeGarment ® programming (Shima Seiki)

Rather than having to focus on the package base patterns or on constructing an entire knit
program from nothing, the programmer instead mostly works with the registered colours for the
compressed patterns (Figure 3.43). Working with the registered colours is a significant
simplification to the process, as the user does not need to build all the package base patterns
every time a new design or machine type is required. When expanding the compressed
pattern, the library is automatically accessed. Note a basic garment may need up to one
hundred base packages.

Figure 3.43 Example of the compressed pattern Set-Up for WholeGarment ® programming (Shima Seiki)

49
The significance of digital knit programming and the concept of package in particular should not
be underestimated. The development and advancement of seamless knitting is a consequence
of both developments in digital knit programming and industrial machine technology.
Specifically the opportunity for the technical advances with the machinery (such as the use of
sinkers, the needle, needle beds, digital stitch control and variable takedown) to be fully
exploited has only come about through parallel developments with digital knit programming.
The concept of package and the development of the WG package library have enabled complex
programming to be simplified, significantly speeding up the time it takes to program, thus
making the process economically viable and allowing for a much great range of design
possibilities to be achieved.

®
When Package Software is applied to Shima Seiki’s WholeGarment technology, three stages
for programming need to be completed before the design can be knitted. This is similar to
standard package programming and includes (1) the Package base pattern, (2) the Compress
pattern and (3) the Development pattern (Figure 3.44).

Figure 3.44 WholeGarment® knitting of a standard garment (Shima Seiki)

1. Package base patterns

Package base patterns are based on the package library developed by Shima Seiki. In
addition, for more complex designs, the required package base patterns may need to be self
constructed by the knit programmer.

50
2. Compressed pattern
The garment design is translated into programming language. The compressed pattern
consists of three parts; (i) the base pattern, (ii) the front design area and (iii) back design area
(Figure 3.44, 1). The base pattern provides the information on the overall garment shape or
structure. This information includes variations with front and back, such as necklines or
variations required for a cardigan type garment. The front and back design area is for inputting
information regarding variations with different stitch architectures, such as a feature front panel
or placement of rib pattern engineered to the shape of the garment.

In addition, the concept of ‘Package’ can be extended further, by building ‘packages within
packages’ (Figure 3.45). Using free colour mode packages embedded with WG packages is a
very useful tool, to further simplify the programming of complex designs. For example to
produce a garment with a jacquard type patterning, the garment style (shape) is designed and
developed using WG packages, and the jacquard pattern is designed using free colour mode.
Using free colour mode, allows for the jacquard design to be clearly visualised. Then as the
compressed patterns are expanded, the free colour packages are also expanded.

Figure 3.45 Packages within WG Packages (Shima Seiki)

3. Developed pattern
The Compress Pattern is expanded to become the ‘Developed Pattern’. The process of
expanding the pattern combines the three parts of the Compressed Pattern and develops each
package (Figure 3.44, 2). This process is semi automatic and is achieved by using the
processing procedure of Package development. Developing the packages converts the
program to the standard Shima Seiki colour code language, where one colour per square
equals one stitch type. As well the selected packages can be also gathered up and grouped
together, for the users’ reference.

51
Once expanded, the Developed Pattern can be processed. Processing is a semi automatic
procedure carried out through the Knit-paint software and involves inputting specific information
such as the yarn carriers, economisers and takedown into the program and converting the
program to a .000 file, so that the program can be read by the knitting machine (Figure 3.46(1)).
Processing also allows for the knit program to be tested for a number of functions, such as
ensuring yarn carrier directions are correct and there are no conflicts with yarn carriers. As with
®
basic programming, the WholeGarment program can be checked via digital Control Simulation
within the SDS-ONE Knit-paint program (Figure 3.46(2)). With the processing completed, the
design program is sent (via network or disc) to the machine for knitting.

Figure 3.46 (1) Processing the program and (2) control simulation (Shima Seiki)

3.7.4. Current management and limitations of 3D shape generation

For the leading industry knitting machine manufacturers (Shima Seiki and Stoll), the set up for
managing 3D knitted shapes is based on a range of different garment types. This approach to
the management of 3D shape reflects the commercial and economic reality that the primary
function for knitting technology is to address the needs of the apparel industry. The garment
types reflect both what is achievable with the technology and what is being demanded by
designers based on fashion trend forecasting.

The current management of 3D form is rather rudimentary. Both Shima Seiki and Stoll have
organised their respective 3D library by garment type (refer to Section 2.2). How the 3D library
is set up, effectively means the 3D form building is done by the knitting machine manufacturer,
and not the designer. For the designer, the garment silhouette (form) is selected from the
garment production templates which closest fit the intended design (Figure 3.47). From this
selection, the design work is focused on the 2D surface, through the selection and arrangement
of the stitch architecture applied to the silhouette. In terms of the 3D garment only basic
adjustments can be made, such as the length and width of the silhouette.

52
Figure 3.47 The set up of 3D form by garment type for both Shima Seiki and Stoll

For the major machine knitting companies of Shima Seiki and Stoll, the setup of the garment
library means they constantly need to update the library, adding new garment shapes. While
this methods works for garments, when shapes are relatively homogeneous, difficulties arise
when designs fall outside of the typology of garment production templates, particularly for non
apparel applications. At present, only limited 3D form building is possible for the designer.
Instead the designer is dependent on the knit machine manufacturers to develop new garment
(shape) types and must rely on the technical expertise of the knit technician or programmer to
navigate the system to be able to interpret the design. Such designs can be developed through
the creation of new packages and/or working across the different garment types and mixing
packages. However, the process can be very time consuming and not cost effective, and
consequently an alternate design may be sought, inevitably compromising the original design
intent.

The system of managing shapes reflects the broader shift in knitwear design from being about
the two dimensional to grappling with the three dimensional. At present, the knitting machine’s
function is clearly defined within the boundaries and needs of the garment manufacturing
industry. By setting up the data bank of garment types as the knitting machine manufacturers
have, the role of the designer is predominantly defined as being about the ‘surface’. This is not
unrealistic to expect, as traditionally the textile design discipline, within which knitwear design
falls, has comfortably viewed itself as dealing primarily with the design (creation or attention) of
a ‘surface’ usually in the form of fabric that is either decorative and/or structural (Underwood,
2009). Design had usually focused on the selection and combination of colour, yarn, and stitch
architectures to create a fabric. The design fabric was then applied to the silhouette of flat 2D
pattern pieces.

Currently this 2D approach to design is still the expectation, even with the advancements of
digital technology in knitting. For example, a designed fabric can be applied (simulated) to a
virtual garment on a 3D virtual model with Shima Seiki’s 3D Modelist software (Shima Seiki,
2009). However, this simulation is still only a surface application, with a pattern mesh being laid

53
across a specified garment type (Figure 3.48). Hence the 2D fabric is partially draped across
the surface of the garment (be it a three-dimensional surface).

Figure 3.48 The 3D mapping of fabric onto garment (Shima Seiki)

The process of design and predefined role of the designer reflects how traditional ‘cut and sew’
garments were constructed. With traditional knitwear, firstly the fabric was considered as a two-
dimensional flat panel, with the colour, yarn and stitch architectures selected and combined.
With the fabric knitted, the garment pattern pieces were laid over the fabric and cut, then the
pieces were sewn (overlocked) and trims and details attached (Brackenbury 1992, p10-15).
The process was very linear.

However, with the development of seamless technology such a traditional expectation to design
is inadequate. For seamless technology to be fully exploited a more flexible system of 3D
shape management needs to be developed. The ideal future system would allow the designer
(or more likely the design team) to have greater input into the actual 3D form generation, and
allow for the complete integration of surface and form.

With seamless technology, a garment’s fabric and form need to be planned, designed and
knitted in one. Such an approach opens great possibilities for how 3D form and surface can be
imagined and developed. Therefore how might designers need to respond to these
possibilities? How might a designer be able to engage in genuine form building? Does the
complex relationship between surface and form represent a broader shift for textile design?

For textile design these questions represent important debates with wider ramifications. These
debates reflect the repositioning of textile design from being merely about considering the
‘surface’ to be more closely allied with other design disciplines such as fashion, industrial design
and architecture, to deal with ‘form’ in a more integrated manner. This repositioning of textile
design is an important argument of this research and is discussed further in Part 3.

Given the potential repositioning of the role of textile designers, questions must also be
ultimately asked of how adequate is the current set up and management of 3D shape
generation by the major knit machine companies? For a textile designer to engage in 3D form

54
building there is a need to ensure that the designer is able to contribute meaningfully to the
process of constructing the 3D form. Therefore the current system may need to be remodelled
to allow for 3D form building and this remodelled must be in done in a way that is not too
technical.

A possible solution to overcome these current constraints of industrial knitting technology is to

incorporate parametric thinking and software, just as industrial design and architecture have
when dealing with complex 3D forms.

Parametric design allows for the designer to consider the relationship between elements
(variables) throughout a system, so that changes in a single element distribute changes
throughout the system (Hernandez 2005). For architecture, parametric design is made possible
through sophisticated 3D CAD/CAM software that utilises a design feature called parametrics.
Parametrics is a method of linking dimensions and variables to geometry in such a way that
when the values change, the component (shape) changes as well. In this way, design
modifications and creation of a family of components can be performed in remarkably quick time
compared with the redrawing required by traditional CAD (Hernandez 2005).

Parametric design processes potentially have much to offer the area of 3D shape knitting and
could led to new ways of understanding and describing knitted form beyond the surface.

It can be seen that both Shima Seiki and Stoll recognise the current limitations of their own
software and data management, given they are utilising some very basic concepts and more
importantly the language of parametric design. Specifically both refer to parametric
measurements for basic 2D pattern shapes and for the purposes of grading; the resizing of
patterns (Figure 3.49). Stoll also has established through its Eneas® Software Packages an
internal archive of parametric shapes, allowing the designer some control. Similarly Shima Seiki
allows for changes to be made and saved.

Figure 3.49 The use of parametric type measurements for set 2D pattern shapes for Shima Seiki and Stoll.

However, for Shima Seiki and Stoll the use of parametric measurements is limited to 2D pattern
pieces, similar to traditional ‘cut and sew’ production processes. With their systems, the widths

55
and lengths of the pattern piece can be changed. Neither company’s software allows for the
actual garment form to be altered in three dimensions.

Most likely a parametric design program could serve as an annex to the existing system, as not
all designers would need to be working with genuine form building. Many designers, working
within well established boundaries of commercial knitwear, would not need such software.
However, for designers wanting to explore more unconventional knitwear silhouettes and for
designers in the non-apparel related industries, a parametric approach would be very useful.

For designers wanting to create a 3D form, that sits outside the boundaries of conventional
garment typologies, this could be achieved by first selecting variables or sets of variables that
related to a base form. Altering one or more variables the designer could be completely in
control of the design of the 3D form. Variables and constraints could be added to the program
and the complexity increased.

If the form building were digitalised, a range of design solutions could be developed in real time.
Design alterations could be tracked changed and recorded; and the most efficient and effective
design selected. Parametric software, such as that adopted by architecture and aerospace
engineering, would also enable the 3D design to be viewed and worked in 3D. This approach to
3D form building for knitting would assist in potentially quickening the design process, by
reducing the amount of actual knitting in sampling which results from trial and error of current
production and sampling processes.

As well, the knitting machine could expand its usefulness to be not only a manufacturing
process, but to become a design tool for innovative 3D form to emerge, much like the 3D dust
plotter or laser cutter has. Thus parametric design could further advance the use of the knitting
machine to reconsider and reposition the relationship of form and surface for applications
outside of the tradition boundaries of the knitting industry.

This research speculates that it is highly likely that the next significant technology advancement
for the knitting industry could be the use of parametric design software to allow for the design of
3D knitted form in 3D. How far off such a development could be is unclear, particularly when
considering non garment specific 3D forms. Until there is significant demand, especially from
sectors outside the apparel industry, investment into developing sophisticated parametric
software allied with knitting is unlikely to be commercially or economically viable.

Therefore, for designers to be able to engage in authentic 3D shape generation, and particularly
for non apparel applications, the development of a way to effectively communicate 3D form that
is not too technical or industry specific is essential. At present digital knit software only allows
for form building, within a range of set boundaries specific to the construction of garments.
Consequently there is a need to assist designers to understand the potential opportunities of
what 3D shape knitting has to offer for generating a wide range of 3D forms, beyond apparel.

56
This research will facilitate such an outcome, through the consideration and application of
parametric design principles to 3D knitted forms. In doing so, the research is an important link
between established areas of interest in current design practice and the technical domain of 3D
shape knitting.

For designers to gain an understanding of 3D shape knitting, a design specification system

needed to be developed for the research. This system had to balance the need for simplified
and clear design information, specific to knitting, within a framework of technical parameters
appropriate for an industrial knitting machine and a knit technician. Therefore the system,
Package Adaptation was created. The Package Adaptation system is intended to not only
bridge the gap between the designer and knit technician, but to importantly bridge the gap
between current management of 3D knitted form by knitting companies and elicit possible future
directions for 3D form building. Package Adaptation is explained in the next section (Section
3.7.5) and forms the basis for the Shape Lexicon of 3D shapes presented in Part 2 of the
research.

3.7.5. Package Adaptation

For the purposes of clear communication and to explain the designs of various 3D shapes, two
simplified versions of Package, referred to as the Package Adaptation system (design
specifications) were developed and used in Part 2 and 3 of the research. These being:
Standard Package and WG Package. Programs based on Standard Package can be used for
most machine types, although there may be some limitations on the knit architecture with these
®
programs. However, programs based on WG Package can only be used on WholeGarment
type machines.

The development of the Package Adaptation is a significant design outcome of the research.
The issue of how to communicate the various 3D forms emerged as the Shape Lexicon
samples were being knitted, specifically with the construction of tubes and tubular connections
(Chapter 6). As tubular joints are complex in form traditional methods of knit notation, such as
the yarn path, were not appropriate. The yarn path method, which is used in Chapters 3 and 4,
was too detailed and confusing, particularly for someone without a highly developed technical
knit base knowledge. Likewise the Stitch Code method (which are also used in Chapters 3 and
4), which graphs every stitch type and stitch movement by a number and colour was too value
specific. I realised, using a value specific approach, would mean the design specifications
developed would only be relevant to the actual knitted samples and not to a broader design
audience.

Consequently, as the knitting of the samples progressed, it become apparent that the design
specifications for this research needed to describe the 3D knitted form in a general sense, so
that the essence of how the shape is constructed could be understood, ensuring the Shape
Lexicon was useful to a broader design audience. I needed to consider, for a designer, what is

57
the essential information required to be communicated. Therefore the design specifications
could not be value specific.

In developing the specifications, I looked towards Shima Seiki’s concept of ‘Package’ as a

possible approach, and the starting point. As Package has significantly simplified the
programming procedure, could such an approach be modified to communicate 3D form building
design capacities?

By adapting Package and concentrating only on the essential design elements needed with 3D
form build, a more appropriate method of communicating 3D form emerged, referred to as
‘Package Adaptation’. I realised the value of such an approach, with its clear links to parametric
design principles, offered greater flexibility to communicate a wide range of design possibilities
in a standard manner.

The graphic representation for Package Adaptation does not provide an exact number of
stitches/courses or the programming requirements (such as option lines). As well, only the base
compressed pattern is shown. However, when the stitch architecture is critical to the design
outcome, the front design area and back design area are shown.

The design specifications are intended to communicate to a designer the essential design
information required for the construction of the various 3D forms. While the approach to the
Package Adaptation system was developed through non-parametric methods and is in a 2D
format, it does offer insight into how parametric principles could be useful to communicate 3D
knitted form.

The design specifications represent the relative relations between the different variables of a
shape, without assigning any values to them. Therefore when actual numbers (values) are
assigned to the variables, the shape of the form (and scale) can look very different. The family
of a particular shape, for example a cone, therefore admits a wide range of possibilities, all
belonging to the same family. In addition, further variable or entities can be considered such as
the choice of materials (fibres and yarn), stitch architecture, machine type and gauge.

Defining the shape in a general sense, by using variable attributes (parameters), there is
capacity for a large (possibly infinite) number of specific designs to emerge (Hernandez, 2005).
This non-value specific method opens up the possibility to identify a large range of associated
shapes, and to select the best one, effectively engaging in parametric design.

Package Adaptation intends to bridge the gap between the designer and the knit technician.
By developing a visual language that focuses on the design parameters of how 3D shapes are
created, based on the various shape knitting techniques, the designer will automatically begin to
understand some of the technical parameters. This approach forms the basis for the Shape
Lexicon set out in Part 2 of the research.

58
The Shape Lexicon potentially becomes a catalogue of base 3D forms or building blocks.
Therefore the base blocks can be combined for more complex forms to be developed. The
technician is able to readily understand the intention of the design, and rather than interpret the
design, is able to translate it much more closely.

3.7.5.1. Standard Package Adaptation:

The following explains the format for Part 2 the Shape Lexicon (Chapters 5 to 7). A summary of
the required base packages is presented at the beginning of each group of shapes. This
summary provides details of what each package represents (Figure 3.50).

Figure 3.50 Standard package information

For each package, the following descriptors are given; (1) package colour, (2) package number
and description, (3) stitch structure repeat unit, (4) stitch structure yarn path and (5) a key of the
stitch colour codes.

Then, for each design presented within the chapter, a simplified compressed pattern is shown
(Figure 3.51). The modified compressed pattern is represented by the package colour/number
and the economiser (the repeat segment) is indicated in red.

Figure 3.51 Presentation of designs using package

3.7.5.2. WG package adaptation:

Where WG package is used, at the beginning of each Chapter (5 – 7) a summary of the
required WG base packages is presented based on the reference data for colours used for WG
59
package (Appendix 3). The summary provides a brief description of what each package
represents (Figure 3.52). For the WG Package, Package Software is used drawing directly from
the list of the registered colours for a standard range of package base patterns. As such, and
for ease of communication only the package colour, number and stitch description are shown,
and not the stitch structure or yarn path.

Figure 3.52 WG package information

It must be noted, the WG packages represent the general WG knitting concept for the required
knitting programs. For every WG knitting machine type and WG garment concept type a
different package program is required, even though the same package number is used.
Therefore as a means of simplification, each WG package represents all possible variations.

Refer to Appendix 3 for Reference data for colour numbers used for WG package. For more
detailed information refer to WG Pattern Making Guide (version A-59) (Shima Seiki), a digital
help reference manual on the SDS-ONE Knit-paint system.

For each design, within the chapter, a simplified WG base compressed pattern is shown, and
the WG package colour/number are provided (Figure 3.53). As well, an indication of the
economiser (in red) and where the slide process occurs (in pink) is also shown.

Figure 3.53 Presentation of designs based on WG package

60
3.8 CONCLUSION
This Chapter provided a review of existing knowledge within the commercial knitting industry,
with new additional information on current knitting technology, for both the operation of industrial
flat-bed machine technology and digital knit programming. In doing so, the Chapter established
some base line considerations for this project that are essential for understanding its scope and
intention. In particular, the Chapter provided an outline of the programming components and
procedure for Shima Seiki knitting machines and specifically for WG machines. As well, basic
weft knit fabric architectures and stitch variations are explicated.

As there is little detailed academic treatment on advanced, computerised commercial knitting,

this Chapter provides important background information on general knitting terminology and
concepts. The Chapter advocates that knitting technology advances are a consequence of both
developments in digital knit programming and machine technology. The research highlights the
importance of digital programming, as well as its impact on the development of seamless
knitting. In particular, an overview and explanation of Shima Seiki Programming and Package
programming is provided in Section 3.7. Details on Shima Seiki Programming have not been
covered in published academic literature and therefore are a new contribution to the literature.

In addition, the research identified some of the limitations for designers to engage in authentic
design of 3D knitted form, due to the current set up and management of 3D shapes (by garment
production templates) by both Shima Seiki and Stoll. The research further identified a possible
solution to overcome these current constraints through the use of parametric design principles.
Such an approach formed the basis for the development of a Package Adaptation system,
which will be used in Part 2, the Shape Lexicon for communicating the design parameters of 3D
shapes.

This Chapter is a precursor to Chapter 4, which will outline a comprehensive explication of 3D

shape knitting techniques available for use on industrial knitting machines.

61
4. 3D SHAPE KNITTING TECHNIQUES

This Chapter draws on the base knowledge set out in Chapter 3 to focus on explicating the
knitting construction processes and technical parameters of the range of 3D shape knitting
techniques available.

The most useful knitting techniques to create 3D shapes were identified and organised during
the research process. Drawing on existing knowledge and industry experience, trialling of
various knitting techniques was undertaken. From these trials the knitting techniques were
organised and documented into 5 broad groups. These techniques include:
1) Suspended stitches (Section 4.1)
i) Progressively increasing/decreasing held stitches
2) Transfer stitches (Section 4.2)
i) Outside stitch transfer - one stitch gradually
ii) Inside stitch transfer - multiple stitches gradually
iii) Transferring multiple stitches continually (cast on and off)
3) Tubular knitting (Section 4.3)
i) Tubular knitting
ii) Half tubular knitting
iii) Unconnected tubular knitting
4) Stitch architecture (Section 4.4)
i) Interlock
ii) Links-Links
iii) Change in stitch architecture
5) Miscellaneous knitting techniques (Section 4.5)
i) Multiple system knitting
ii) Half gauging
iii) Cable

Each group of techniques is examined and shown in graphic representation of knit notation.
The technical vocabulary and visual graphical language of knit notation is drawn from the
knowledge presented in Chapter 3.

The techniques discussed can be utilised on an industrial flat-bed knitting machine. However
some restrictions apply to the type of machine that can be used. Only certain knitting machines
allow for all possible techniques outlined here to be used, and in virtually any stitch architecture.
The main criteria is that the machine should be equipped with sinkers and a stitch presser
device to assist in knitting without imposing takedown on the fabric being formed, and the
needle bed (or additional transfer bed) arrangement.

62
The material presented within this Chapter, while being considered in the knitting industry as
existing knowledge, has not to date been captured, organised and documented in one
concentrated format. As discussed in the review of knitting literature (Section 3.1), while a
number of texts refer to 3D shape knitting techniques, information is very limited and not all
methods of shape knitting have been documented in a single academic format. In particular for
the textile design sector, the focus is on the knitted fabric as a 2D surface, with only some
limited 3D shape knitting techniques being mentioned within the context of the 2D surface.
Creating knitted 3D forms has to date not been documented in one comprehensive and
informative format. Therefore this Chapter will fill a significant gap in academic knitting
literature.

Importantly, within the context of this research, the purpose of this Chapter is to capture a
complete survey of 3D shape knitting techniques available for use on a flat-bed industrial
knitting machine. In doing so the intention is for the reader to i) gain an understanding of the
general principles and processes of 3D shape knitting techniques, ii) to recognise the potential
of the versatility of 3D shaping techniques available for flat-bed weft knitting machinery, and iii)
to recognise the options and flexibility of 3D shape knitting for design.

Understanding the scope of shaping techniques is important for Part 2 of the research, the
Shape Lexicon, which focuses on exploring design and technical parameters for a broad range
of 3D knitted forms.

4.1 SUSPENDED STITCHES

Suspended stitches involve stitches being held on a needle. During the knitting sequence,
knitting is isolated to selected area(s), while the remaining stitches are held and do not knit. No
stitches are lost by casting off or pressing off (dropping stitches). All stitches are stored (held)
to be re-introduced and knitted at a later stage. This ensures that the segment isolated for
knitting is linked to the rest of the fabric.

By suspending stitches, the number of courses changes within the fabric length. The technique
can be described as knitting in which the wales (or length) within the fabric contain differing
numbers of stitches. This can cause the direction of the knitting to change and/or a raised or
three-dimensional area within the fabric to be formed. This technique is also referred to as
course shaping, partial knitting or flèchage knitting.

4.1.1 Progressively increasing/decreasing held stitches

Also known as the ‘beret’ principle of knitting (Brackenbury 1992, p77), this is a very versatile
method of forming 3D shapes. Within the course being knitted, the number of wales is
progressively diminished or extended, by storing (and reintroducing) stitches either by one stitch
or small groups of stitches at a time (Figure 4.1). As a result the knitting area being produced is

63
a triangular shaped segment, and causes the direction of the knitting to change or a raised 3D
area within the fabric.

Figure 4.1 Principal of suspending stitches gradually

The direction of the carriage is critical in forming the shaping segment and the holding
sequence. The carriage (yarn carriers) must begin and finish on the correct course of knitting
(Figure 4.2 (1)). In general if starting from the left hand side, then the carriage is travelling to
the right for odd numbered courses, and the yarn carriage is moving to the left for even
numbered courses, and stitches are held from the right to left. This ensures there are no long
floats of yarn between the selected groups of held stitches, particularly if groups of stitches are
being held at a time (Figure 4.2 (2)).

Figure 4.2 Yarn carriage movement to held stitches

Given the potential issue with floats of yarn, generally two courses are knitted between placing
stitches on hold. By doing this any number of stitches can be placed on hold and no floats will
occur on the back of the fabric. However the segment will have steps as such, and small holes
can result when knitting recommences with all stitches. This can be overcome by inserting a
single tuck stitch where the step occurs (Figure 4.3).

If the stitches are held in every course, then only when one stitch is held at a time does a
smooth unstepped line form. When two or more stitches are held, a float of yarn will occur on

64
the technical back of the knitting every second course. This is similar to having an incorrect
carriage direction.

Figure 4.3 Design of stepped segment to reduce holes

The shape (or angle) of the knitted triangular segment being formed is determined by the
holding sequence, which is how many stitches are held (H) over how many courses (K) (Figure
4.4). For example a triangular segment formed by holding 2 stitches every 2 rows progressively
will have a larger segment angle than a segment formed by holding 4 stitches every 2 rows
progressively.

There can be some degree of variation on the angle formed. This variation is caused by loop
distortion of the stitches being held. The degree of variation can be attributable to how many
courses the stitches are held, the stitch architecture and the yarn type used.

Figure 4.4 Angle of course shaping segments based on holding pattern

65
Repeating all or part of the shaping segment allows for greater flexibility and design options
(Figure 4.5). If the shape segment is repeated then the segment must have an even number of
courses, to ensure continuity of the carriage movements.

Figure 4.5 Repeats to yarn carriage movement

The technique of suspending stitches gradually can create a variety of 3D shapes with little or
no seams required. By varying the way in which the knitting segment occurs over the width of
the knitted fabric, this method is potentially very versatile. The range of design options is
demonstrated in Chapter 5.

The significant benefit of the suspended stitches technique is it can be used to create a wide
range of shapes, with little or no seams required. The technique is also very reliable with less
fibre damage occurring and less potential of dropped stitches, compared other shaping
techniques that may involve for example continual transferring of stitches. As well, the
techniques can be applied to double bed fabrics (rib, interlock, etc) that are stable balanced
fabrics, allowing for easier handling once the shape has been knitted. In addition, the machine
requirements are minimal, even when applied to double bed fabrics; only requiring a standard
double bed with sinkers. Therefore it is possible to use this technique on older models of
industrial knitting machines.

There are some limitations with using the suspended stitches technique. The main issue
relates to the physical stress the stitches (and fabric) are under when being held. This is
directly influenced by the type of takedown system of the machinery. With a number of stitches
being held at any one point, while other needles are knitting, takedown across the needle bed
needs to be varied. The sinkers and stitch pressers can assist in addressing this, allowing the
tensioning and takedown to be minimal and not affect the knitting.

66
The takedown and tensioning of the knitting is particularly important if the holding of stitches
occurs at or near the edge of the fabric. These held stitches are under the greatest amount of
stress. As a consequence there may be some distortion of the stitch length and its shape.
Stitches most frequently held, particularly on the edge of the fabric, may be elongated
compared to stitches within areas that are continually being knitted. This can distort the angle
of the shaped segment.

In general, the greater the angle of the shaping segment being formed, the more potential there
is for problems with knitting to arise, such as fibre damage, yarn bursting and stitch distortion.
No definitive formula can be given as to what knitting angle can be achieved before these
potential issues occur, as it depends on the fibre and yarn choice, the stitch architecture and the
type machinery being used. It is because of this complexity that little has been documented in
the literature. Ultimately the maximum angle needs to be determined on a case by case basis.

A number of measures can be taken to overcome or at least reduce this stitch distortion. Firstly
the take down tension must be addressed. Ensuring the right tension with the rollers is critical.
The main roller needs to be slackened off, and excess fabric moved away from the needles by
the sub roller. As well, with the advanced technology of machinery, special takedown systems
and a Digital Stitch Control System (DSCS) can control the length of the loop being formed.
The use of sinkers can also assist with to reduce stitch distortion.

4.2 TRANSFER STITCHES

Stiches can be transferred to decrease or increase the width of the fabric to generate shape.
Transferring can occur either on the edge or within the fabric.

Transferring stitches within the knitting changes the number of wales within the fabric length.
This technique is also referred to as wale shaping, as the number of wales changes throughout
the knitting piece. Transfer stitches can also be used for fully fashioning to give shape to the
fabric panel, and to cast on and cast off (bind off) stiches, providing a sealed edge to all sides of
the knitted fabric.

As well, transferring stitches is formed by increasing or decreasing the number of wales knitted
within a piece of fabric, while the number of courses essentially remains the same. Combining
transferring multiple stitches (wale shaping) with tubular knitting, forms the basis of seamless
®
3D knitting technology such as Shima Seiki WholeGarment knitting.

The most useful variations identified in the research include:

1) Outside stitch transfer - one stitch gradually
2) Inside stitch transfer - multiple stitches gradually
3) Transferring multiple stitches continually (cast on and off)

67
4.2.1 Outside stitch transfer - one stitch gradually
Transferring (or moving) an outside (edge) stitch one pitch will change the number the wales
(the width) within the fabric. Depending on the direction of the transfer, the width will increase
or decrease.

The two methods identified include:

(a) Transfer single stitch to increase gradually on the edge
(b) Transfer single stitch to decrease gradually on the edge

To determine the frequency of decreasing/increasing required to produce a particular angle, the

course unit to wale unit ratio must be known (refer Figure 3.18).

(a) Transfer single stitch to increase gradually on the edge

The simplest method to increase the size of a fabric panel is to introduce an edge needle one at
a time. First the yarn floats across the needle (foundation stitch), similar to a tuck stitch, and
then knits an actual stitch (Figure 4.6). In forming the new stitch the direction of the carriage is
important.

Figure 4.6 Increasing gradually

(b) Transfer single stitch to decrease gradually on the edge

Narrowing of a fabric piece occurs by decreasing stitches over a number of courses (Figure 4.7
and 4.8). This produces a clean sealed edge to a specific shape. And when combined with the
technique of increasing stitches, a panel piece of any flat shape can be formed.

Figure 4.7 Decreasing gradually (to the right)

68
Figure 4.8 Decreasing gradually (to the left)

Transferring a single stitch can also occur within the fabric width and will create a purposeful
hole. This technique of transferring single stitches within the fabric is very versatile and can be
used to create an infinite variety of lace and textural effects. The creation of lace patterns is
well established within both the textile design and hand knitting sectors of the knitting industry
and there are a number of texts dedicated to depicting lace patterning possibilities such as
Lewis (1992), Allen (1998) and Tellier-Loumagne (2005).

While this research is concerned primarily with how 3D shape knitting can create a structure, it
is worth noting the potential of using transfer stitches in the formation of lace like lattice
structures. While lace patterning is generally considered ornamental, this research will show
how there is potential for such a technique to be use in a more structural manner. The blurring
of structure and ornament, and of the surface and form, are two central themes explored in Part
3 Implications for Design of the research.

4.2.2 Inside stitch transfer - multiple stitches gradually

Transferring (or moving) multiple stitches, gradually (one or two pitches) over a number of
courses, will change the number of wales (the width) within the fabric. Depending on the
direction of the transfer, the width will increase or decrease. Increasing and/or decreasing the
width of the panel can occur by transferring the same number of stitches or a different number
of stitches and this can occur in one or two directions.

To decrease multiple stitches gradually within the fabric width, the selected stitches are
transferred to the opposite (back bed), then the back bed racks 1 pitch (in the required direction)
and stitches are returned (transferred) to the front bed, now 1 pitch from their original position
(Figure 4.9). After the transfer has occurred one needle has two stitches and all the rest have
one only.

69
Figure 4.9 Decreasing multiple stitches gradually and the transfer process in detail

To determine the exact measurement of the angle of shaping required for the knitted fabric
piece is dependent on the particular stitch architecture used and the transfer sequence.
Therefore the course unit to wale unit ratio or fashioning frequency must first be calculated
(refer Figure 3.18). The ratio can be used to determine the frequency of decreasing/increasing
(the transfer sequence) to achieve the required segment angle.

The transfer sequence can be calculated by how many stitches are transferred, by how many
pitches and over how many courses (Figure 4.10). For example a shaped segment’s angle
formed by transferring stitches 1 pitch every 4 rows progressively will be smaller than a segment
formed by transferring stitches 2 pitches every 2 rows progressively.

Figure 4.10 Examples of transfer sequence and the resultant segment angle

70
When transferring stitches, a variety of methods can be used. The examples shown in Figure
4.10 are based on a standard industry practice for Shima Seiki machinery. This method
involves separating out the transfer process over a number of carriage movements. It is
generally considered a more reliable way of transferring (resulting in less dropped stitches),
particularly when transferring a large number of stitches, and as such is used in
®
WholeGarment (WG) programming as the standard method of transfer.

Inside stitch transferring is particularly useful for forming both 3D and 2D shapes. By knowing
the fashioning frequency for the specific stitch architecture being used, then the transferring
sequence can be determined and arranged to form a variety of shapes, such as triangles,
squares and hexagons (Figure 4.11).

Figure 4.11 Inside stitch transfer creating 2D shapes

The process of increasing the fabric width is a similar process to that of decreasing. When
increasing the width, the selected stitches are transferred in the opposite direction (away from
the fabric) (Figure 4.12). This results in an empty needle within the fabric and a small hole
forming when knitting recommences. This hole can be ‘filled’ as such, by a process of twisting
(or half twisting the yarn).

Figure 4.12 Increasing multiple stitches gradually

There are more limitations with increasing multiple stitches within the width of the fabric
compared to decreasing multiple stitches. The main limitation is that the fabric width is

71
effectively being stretched to accommodate the additional stitches. Therefore the fabric can
only be stretched as far as the stitch architecture of the fabric will allow. Having a stitch
architecture that is more elastic, such as a rib, can assist with the process.

The principle of transferring multiple stitches can be applied to a tubular structure and forms the
basis of seamless knitting.

®
For Shima Seiki WholeGarment (WG) seamless knitting the process of transferring multiple
stitches is referred to as the ‘slide’ process. The slide process involves the continual
transferring of multiple stitches across the width of the knitted fabric over a given number of
courses. This process of ‘sliding’ stitches imparts shape into the fabric piece and results in a
shaped, raised or three-dimensional area. The slide process is also responsible for joining
multiple tubes together and the forming of complex tubular joint structures (refer Section 6.2.5).

The angle at which the two tubes meet is determined by the transfer sequence and the way the
‘body’ and ‘sleeve’ components slide together (Figure 4.13). The slide process can occur in one
direction only, with the sleeve effectively sliding into the body. Alternatively the slide process
can occur in two directions, where both tubes come together.

Figure 4.13 The effect of the slide process

In addition, when transferring multiple stitches, the number of stitches being transferred can be
altered (Figure 4.14). This option for variation is useful to forming corners and box-like shapes,
where exact angles are required (refer Chapter 5).

Figure 4.14 Decreasing stitches by changing the number transferred stitches

72
The technique of transferring stitches is a versatile method of imparting shape. Transferring
stitches allows for a wide range of shapes to be formed, requiring few or no seams.
Specifically, the transfer stitch technique can be applied to create corners (at any required
angle), box-like shapes and importantly it can also be combined with tubular knitting to form the
basis of seamless 3D knitting. Transfer stitch, when used with WG technology, can be applied
to a wide range of tube shapes and tubular connections. The full range of design options are
demonstrated in Chapters 5 to 7.

When transferring stitches a number of technical issues need to be considered. Transferring

stitches is a more problematic method of shaping compared to suspending stitches, particularly
when using a yarn with little to no elasticity (or give) such as e-glass on an industrial flat-bed
machine. The process of transferring stitches is mechanically complex and slow. This is
because the stitches have to be continuously moved (transferred) form one needle to the next.
In order for this to occur, the stitches have to be to transferred firstly to the back bed, and then
the bed is moved (racked) so that the stitches can be transferred back onto the front bed in their
new position. This continual movement and manipulation of the stiches increases the chances
of fault occurring such as dropped stitches (resulting in laddering), increased fibre damage and
the chance of yarn breakages occurring. In general the more a stitch is transferred the greater
the potential for damage and breakage of the fibre/yarn to occur.

Generally when transferring, a slightly looser tension (stitch length) is needed to assist with the
transfer process. As well, when transferring stitches is applied to a double bed fabric type then
®
the machine requirements are restricted to WholeGarment (WG) machinery, with additional
transfer beds required. Similarly, when applied to tubular fabric, a knitting machine with 4 beds
or 2 additional transfer beds for stitch storage is required.

4.2.3 Transferring multiple stitches continually (cast on and off)

Multiple stitches can be introduced or withdrawn either on the edge or within the fabric piece.
Introducing stitches or casting on and withdrawing stitches or casting off (also referred to as
binding off or structure sealing), can dramatically change the number of wales in the fabric.

The two methods identified include:

(a) Casting on stitches
(b) Casting off (or bind off) stitches

(a) Casting on stitches

Any number of stitches can be introduced by casting on. There are two basic methods, for
single bed and double bed type fabrics.

73
For single bed type fabric, knitting of the cast on area begins by knitting every second empty
needle (Figure 4.15), which creates a tuck like stitch. Then every alternate empty needle is
knitted. By doing this a sealed edge is formed, which will not unravel, and then knitting can
continue on all needles. Note this method can be used for forming a sealed cast on edge for a
tube. Effectively it involves casting on and knitting two single bed fabrics, joined only at the
edges of the fabric.

Figure 4.15 Casting on single jersey

For double bed type fabric, knitting of the cast on area begins simply by knitting all the empty
needles, which forms a zigzag effect with the yarn. Then the next row will form proper stitches
(Figure 4.16). With this method, care must be taken with the use of the stitch presser and
sinkers, as the new cast on area is not under takedown tension.

Figure 4.16 Casting on double jersey

This method of casting on all needles for a double jersey type fabric also forms the basis for
more advanced types of cast on, such as for the set up of an open ended tubular knitting.
When casting on for an open ended tube, the process begins with knitting waste yarn, then 2
courses are knitted of the suppy yarn for all needle cast on, then 4 courses are knitted of
tubular, and finally 4 courses of tubular using a draw thread are knitted. The draw thread will
later be removed along with the set up waste yarn. The tubular set up is then introduced, which
is similar to single bed cast on, but in a tubular form. This method is the basis of
®
WholeGarment knitting and can be seen in the sample of multiple unconnected tubes (Chapter
6, Figure 6.5).

74
(b) Casting off stitches
Casting off is similar to decreasing edge stitches gradually. However with casting off, instead of
knitting a number of courses between the stitch decreases, decreasing is a continuous process.
Because of the continuous transfer of stitches, casting off can be problematic, particularly if
using fibres that are brittle and with little to no elasticity such as e-glass. There is the potential
for dropped stitches to occur and for fibre/yarn damage to be high. This means reliability can be
difficult to achieve with mass production.

The process of casting off involves transferring all stitches to the front bed (if it is a double bed
fabric) and knitting one course (single jersey) at a looser tension (Figure 4.17). To begin the
cast off, the edge stitch(s) are transferred to the back bed and racked across one place and
transferred back onto the front bed, in a new position. This decreases the width of the knitting
by one, as two stitches will be on one needle. These two stitches are then knitted. The process
is repeated across the piece until only two stitches remain. These remaining stitches are knitted
several times, to form a tail, so when the piece comes off the machine it will not unravel. Once
off the machine the tail can be carefully unravelled and secured, with a slip knot.

Figure 4.17 Casting off

There are many variations on casting off, but essentially they involve the same steps as above.
Variations can include transferring two or more stitches at a time and or knitting more courses
between the transferred stitches.

An alternative method to casting off, particularly for large panel pieces, is to knit the final few
courses of the piece with a thermoplastic yarn, which can later be heat set. Heat setting, fuses
together the thermoplastic yarn to form a sealed edge.

4.3 TUBULAR KNITTING

Tubular knitting allows for a tube-like shape, including tubular joints, to be formed. Yarn is
knitted in a cylindrical configuration. Essentially two single jersey type fabrics are knitted on two
needle beds that are joined at the two sides (selvedge), at one side only, or as two unconnected

75
fabrics. The same principle can also be applied to double jersey type fabrics, but requires either
the knitting to be produced as half gauged for two needle beds or the use of a four needle bed
knitting machine.

The three useful tubular-like techniques identified through this research include:
1) Tubular knitting
2) Half tubular knitting
3) Unconnected tubular knitting

Note tubular knitting combined with transfer stitches forms the basis of seamless garment
knitting on a flat-bed knitting machine. By knitting multiple tubes with rib transfer allows for
changes in each tube’s circumference and the connecting of tubes together. Note in contrast a
circular knitting machine can only knit a single tube of a fixed circumference.

4.3.1 Tubular knitting

The simplest tube is made in plain single jersey fabric, on two needle beds, the minimum
requirement (Figure 4.18).

Figure 4.18 Basic tube shape

A tube is achieved by knitting on the front bed in one direction (as stitches are held on the back
bed) and then knitting on the back bed in the opposite direction (with the front bed stitches
being held) ensuring that the yarn only passes across from one needle bed to the other at the
edge. The process closes the edge of the fabric by joining together the two single jersey fabrics
on each needle bed. Using this method, a completely seamless tube of virtually any diameter
and length can be formed. The diameter is only restricted by the length of the needle bed.

When designing the structure of a tube, the two important variables to consider are the width of
the tube and the length of the tube. Altering one or both of these variables will affect the overall
structure of the tube.

76
The width of the tube is determined by the number of needles (stitches) used. The more
needles used, the wider the tube opening will be. The maximum circumference of a tube is
equal to twice the length of the needle bed.

The length of the tube is determined by the number of rows knitted and thus effectively any
length of tube can be knitted.

The basic principle of a tube can be applied to different knit architectures. However with more
complex architectures, such as double bed type fabrics (eg ribs or interlock), WG machinery is
required. Specifically, a knitting machine with 4 beds; either as 4 needle beds or 2 needle beds
and 2 transfer beds. This is because, two needle beds are required to knit the fabric for the
front of the tube and then 2 alternate needle beds are required for the back of the tube. Using
WG technology thus provides the greatest design flexibility.

If using a machine with only two beds and 2 additional transfer beds for stitch storage, then the
piece must be knitted quarter gauged. Quarter gauge is similar to half gauging (refer Section
4.5.2). With this process, selected stitches are continually transferred and stored from the front
to the back transfer beds and vice versa. This is a complex procedure and the potential of
dropped stitches, or fibre/yarn damage is high.

In addition, tubular knitting can be combined with other shaping techniques, such as suspending
stitches and stitches transfer. By combining shaping techniques with tubular knitting, a wide
range of tube-like shapes and tubular connections, such as L, T, Y, K joints can be formed with
no seams. Refer to Chapter 6 ‘Tubes and Tubular Connections’ for detailed discussion.

When combining tubular knitting with other techniques (specifically stitches transfer) a WG
machine must be used, even if only a single jersey type fabric is required. Using a standard
two-needle bed machine only a single jersey type fabric can be used in the construction of the
tube and no additional stitch transfer can be performed.

4.3.2 Half tubular knitting

This technique involves knitting a fabric piece over two needle beds with one join (Figure 4.19).
It is useful for forming part of a tubular joint such as an L-joint.

Figure 4.19 Knitting fabric on two needle beds with one join

77
4.3.3 Unconnected tubular knitting
By knitting in double system, with one yarn carrier knitting on the front bed, and a second carrier
knitting on the back needle bed, two unconnected fabrics can be produced (Figure 4.20). This
technique is particularly useful for forming part of a tubular joint such as T-joint.

Figure 4.20 Two separate unconnected fabrics

4.4 STITCH ARCHITECTURE

The structure of the knit fabric itself, referred to as the stitch architecture, is a well recognised
method of imparting shape or more precisely near net shape into a fabric. As stated in Section
2.1 the intermeshing of the loops provide a knitted fabric with a high degree of drapability
(Miravete 1999). By combining different arrangements of the stitches, as outlined in Sections
3.5 (Basic weft knit structures) and 3.6 (Basic stitch variations), an infinite array of stitch
architectures can be achieved potentially creating a three-dimensional surface pattern.

It is the knitted fabric’s unique qualities of deformability, caused by the stitch architecture, that
makes this method of ‘shaping’ very useful and versatile for knitwear garment construction. For
the garment industry, this method is referred to as ‘stitch shaped’, as it is derived from “different
stitch structures within the length of the blank (piece) that distorts it from the rectangle into a
shape associated with the body” (Brackenbury, 1992, p13-14). An example of stitch shaped is
the use of ribs for waistbands, cuffs and collars.

While stitch architecture is not necessarily a shaping technique in itself, it does have significant
impact on the resultant 3D shape. In addition, the stitch architecture affects the way a 3D form
can be knitted, determining the type of knitting machine required and the degree of difficulty in
production of the said 3D shape. Complex stitch architectures, particularly double jersey type
fabrics, will require the most advanced machine capabilities. As well, the stitch architecture will
affect the structural integrity and performance of the 3D shape.

For this research, a limited number of stitch architectures were identified as being useful and of
most interest. These stitch architectures included i) interlock for its stability particularly for
tubular joints, ii) links-links type fabrics for their ability to form highly 3D surface structures and
iii) changing the stitch architecture to show how a fabric’s width can expand or contract as a
result of different stitches.

78
4.4.1 Interlock
Interlock fabric is essentially two 1x1 rib fabrics, knitted on alternating needles (Figure 4.21). It
forms a very strong firm fabric. It is useful for forming various tubular joints with flanges (Refer
to Chapter 6).

Figure 4.21 Interlock fabric

4.4.2 Links-links
Links-links is a variation of a rib type fabric structure. It can form a 3D surface and has
considerable stretch and good drapability. Using a combination of front and back stitches (plain
and purl), an infinite variety of fabrics can be formed.

Links-links is particularly interesting when considering the exploration of form and surface. It
allows complex 3D surfaces to be created (Figure 4.22).

Figure 4.22 Examples of Links-links patterns

4.4.3 Change in stitch architecture

Changing the stitch type of a knitted fabric can generate shape without altering the number of
needles that are being used (Figure 4.23).

79
Figure 4.23 Change of stitch type

Changing the stitch architecture is a simple and fast method compared to other shaping
techniques. However, changing the stitch architecture by itself only has a limited ability to
impart shape. It generally needs to be combined with other shaping techniques to create more
dramatic form.

4.5 MISCELLANEOUS KNITTING TECHNIQUES

Three additional techniques in forming 3D shapes were identified as being useful as part of this
research. These include: 1) Multiple system knitting, 2) Half gauging, and 3) Cables.

4.5.1 Multiple system knitting

Multiple system knitting is required to form a number of different shapes (Figure 4.24). Rather
than one yarn carrier continuously knitting a shaped fabric piece, it is possible to use a number
of different yarn carriers to knit different parts of the fabric. The yarn carriers can be used
separately or at the same time.

80
Figure 4.24 Multiple system knitting

The number of yarn carriers available depends on the specific machine. Generally, on a
standard industrial knitting machine there can be up to 14 yarn carriers available. The number
of yarn carriers that can be used at any one time is dependent on the number of cam systems
available on the machine (refer Section 3.3.4). Knowing the full capacity of a given machine is
important when knitting complex shapes, such as tubular joints and cut-outs, as these shapes
require multiple system knitting and yarn carriers. Therefore complex tubular joints may only be
®
formed using the most advanced machinery such as WholeGarment .

4.5.2 Half Gauging

nd
Half gauging involves knitting on every 2 needle (Figure 4.25). As every alternate needle is
empty, a float occurs between the stitches. When the fabric is knitted and relaxed this extra
length of yarn (float) naturally is taken up into the loop of the stitch. The resulting fabric appears
to have been knitted on a smaller gauge machine, as the fabric is looser and loop size is bigger
(but not doubled). Even though it is referred to as half gauging, a fabric knitted on a 14 gauge
machine in half gauge will not be a true 7 gauge fabric in stitch quality, but more like an 8-9
gauge fabric.

81
Figure 4.25 Half gauging

Half gauging is useful for achieving more flexibility from a standard knitting machine. It provides
a wider range of stitch size and density. More importantly, half gauging allows for the knitting of
rib type fabrics in a tubular form on a standard 2-bed machine. This, along with multiple stitch
transfer (wale shaping), is an important element of seamless knitting technology.

4.5.3 Cables
A cable is a cross over of two (or more) stitches. It is useful to reinforce transition points,
particularly for cut-outs (Figure 4.26).

Figure 4.26 1x1 Cable and 2x2 Cable

4.6 CONCLUSION
This Chapter provided an examination on 3D shape knitting techniques available for use on
industrial knitting machines. The most useful knitting techniques to create 3D knitted form were
identified and organised into 5 broad groups. These included: suspended stitches, transfer
stitches, tubular knitting, stitch architecture, and miscellaneous knitting techniques.

82
This survey of 3D shaping techniques has not previously been presented in knitting literature in
a complete form; therefore this information fills a significant gap in the literature.

By presenting the knowledge of 3D shaping techniques in one format, the scope of options
available to be used is highlighted. These shaping techniques form the basis for understanding
how 3D forms can be built. By combining these methods and understanding their technical
constraints, a clearer understanding of the capacities for 3D form building is gained.

The information presented in Chapters 3 and 4 is essential base knowledge. The knowledge
presented in these Chapters is important to understand and to apply to the next part of the
research, the Shape Lexicon (Part 2), which shifts the focus towards exploring design and
technical parameters for constructing a range of 3D shape knitted forms.

83
PART 2: SHAPE LEXICON

The next three Chapters examine the design of a range of 3D forms by applying the base
knowledge established in Chapters 3 and 4. Chapter 3 set out the pre-knowledge of general
knitting principles, construction types and processes, as well as machine constraints and digital
knit programming. Chapter 4 presented a comprehensive survey of 3D shape knitting
techniques. From this initial research work, the research shifts focus to identify and develop a
range of simple generic 3D forms that can be knitted integrally.

The analysis, selection and organisation of what 3D forms to include were initially developed out
of discussions undertaken at the Co-operative Research Centre for Advanced Composite
1.
Structures (CRC-ACS) based at Fisherman’s Bend, Victoria. Based on these discussions, the
research focused on shapes that were considered complex, and would otherwise require
extensive hand labour of cutting, stitching and laying-up of the preform for moulding. By
eliminating the need for hand labour more cost effective composite structures could be
achieved. Shapes such as cones, domes, corners and tubes were identified as offering
significant opportunities for knitted preforms compared to woven preforms and formed the initial
starting point of this research phase.

As these discussions were occurring, preliminary physical trialling of various knitted 3D forms
was undertaken on a hand flat knitting machine. The work formed the basis of the Shape
Lexicon of 3D shape possibilities. Through this early trialling three broad groups or families of
shapes began to emerge. Consequently, the 3D knitted forms were organised and categorised
into these groups:
4) Cones, domes and box like forms (Chapter 5)
5) Tubes and tubular connections (Chapter 6)
6) Cut-outs – purposeful slits and openings within the knitting (Chapter 7)

In examining the families of shapes, the design and technical knit parameters for each were
identified and documented. As the research progressed the range of 3D forms was expanded.
The extension of the range of shapes reflected both the increased understanding and
knowledge of the research material and the influence of being involved in teaching an on-going
design studio between textile design and architecture (refer to Section 1.4).

It was through the experience of engaging in a trans-disciplinary design approach that led to an
awareness of parametric design for 3D form building and increased the expectations of form
possibilities for the Shape Lexicon.

___________

1. This research work was first proposed by the CRC-ACS, under the direction of Dr Michael Bannister. The CRC-ACS
was interested in better understanding the potential cost savings of manufacturing 3D shaped preforms for composite
structures of complex shape.

84
Parametric design, as outlined in Section 3.7.4. Current management and limitations of 3D
shape generation potentially has a great deal to offer the area of 3D shape knitting. By
considering the relationship between elements throughout a system parametric design allows
changes in a single element to distribute changes throughout the system.

For textile design, the lack of awareness of parametric design is not necessarily surprising given
the discipline has seen itself as being primarily concerned with the 2D surface design. In
general, a fabric is created and handed over to another design discipline, such as fashion or
industrial design for the form building. However, this positioning of textile design is no longer
the case today, with a blurring of form and surface. Therefore an understanding of 3D form
building possibilities is increasingly necessary for textile designers.

The links between textiles, specifically knitting, and parametric design are potentially strong and
could led to new ways of understanding knitted 3D form. Knitting is essentially a mathematical
process, with a single thread forming a sequence of interlocking stitches, and through the
repetition of the sequence the 2D surface (fabric) and 3D form systematically grows. Therefore,
by understanding the rudimentary principles of parametric design and the potential such an
approach has to offer knitting is an exciting prospect. For the textile design discipline, the
concept of parametric design is a new way of thinking about form.

Consider that the key 3D knitted forms (shapes) presented in Chapter 5 to 7 represent base
building blocks. By combining these base blocks, more complex outcomes are possible. For
each base building block, the dimensions of the shape are identified based on the shape’s
optimal knitting process. That is, how the form is knitted is determined by a number of variables
and potential constraints (or fixed variables).

In order to communicate the 3D shape knitted forms, design specifications were developed,
referred to as Package Adaptation. Package Adaptation aims to communicate essential design
information within a framework of technical constraints. Refer to Section 3.7.5. Package
Adaptation for how the design specifications were developed.

As a result of how the design specifications are presented, Part 2 of the research, the Shape
Lexicon, represents the first phase towards incorporating principles of parametric design
thinking to enable designers to gain an understanding of 3D knitted form, so that they may
authentically work with 3D form.

The purpose of the Shape Lexicon is to codify a range of base 3D forms that can be produced
on a flat-bed industrial knitting machine. In doing so the intention is:
i) To demonstrate the versatility 3D shape knitting to build form.
ii) To identify and communication the design parameters (variables) of how to construct
various 3D forms within the technical constraints established through Chapters 3 and 4.
iii) To elicit the potential for building complex form by combining base blocks together.

85
Based on the work, there is clearly significant opportunity for further research, optimally through
collaborative partnerships. In particular the next step is to utilise parametric 3D software to
investigate how such software could assist with understanding, generating and expanding the
possibilities of 3D knitting form and to test potential digital outcomes by knitting them. In doing
so, further research should focus on how parametric design could advance the use of the
knitting machine to applications otherwise not imagined.

86
5. CONES, DOMES AND BOX LIKE SHAPES

This Chapter examines the design parameters of knitting cones, domes and box-like shapes.
As the research progressed, a number of 3D shaped forms were identified and examined within
this group. 3D shaped forms consist of; cones including hourglasses and funnels; domes, and;
box shapes, including corners, corner lips, saddles, and tyre shapes. From these shapes it is
possible to form a wide range of structural forms, requiring little to no additional post knitting
labour and in any fabric stitch architecture (single or double bed).

Three methods for forming cones, domes and box like shapes, were identified and trialled as
offering the most versatility and greatest potential. These being;
(1) Suspended stitches: This is the simplest method, requires minimum machine technology,
and can be produced in any stitch architecture, but may result in one seam being required.
Refer to Section 4.1 for explanation of the technique.
(2) Transfer stitches: This involves transferring multiple stitches at a time. It is a more complex
method compared to suspended stitches, with the machine requirements being determined
by the stitch architecture; minimum machine technology for single jersey type fabrics and
®
WholeGarment (WG) technology for double jersey type fabrics. Refer to Section 4.2 for
explanation of the technique.
(3) WG knitting: Tubular knitting with multiple transfer stitches. This is the most complex
method of production, requiring WG machinery. It can produce completely seamless
structures in any stitch architecture. Refer to Sections 3.7, 4.1 and 4.2 for explanation of
the techniques involved.

For this Chapter, the standard base packages developed and used are shown in Figure 5.1 and
the WG base packages are shown in Figure 5.2.

87
Figure 5.1 Standard Base Packages used

Figure 5.2 Essential WG Base packages used

5.1 CONES
A cone has a wide circular base, tapering to a tip. This section outlines how basic cone
structures and variations such as hourglasses, funnels, and complex cone-like structures can
be formed.

Two methods were identified, as having the most potential to form cone-like structures; these
®
being by suspended stitches and WholeGarment knitting. Each method is discussed in this
section, demonstrating the design opportunities, advantages, and technical considerations.

5.1.1 Basic Cone using suspended stitches

The simplest method of forming a cone is by suspending stitches. The suspended stitches
method is very versatile, allowing for a range of cone-like shapes to be formed and for the

88
knitted piece to conform to the shape closely. However using suspended stitches does mean
the cone designs require one seam.

The basic shape of a cone is formed by knitting a series of shaped triangular segments (Figure
5.3).

Figure 5.3 Design of cone shape with suspending stitches

When designing the structure of a cone, there are four variables to consider (Figure 5.4). These
being:
(1) The shaping segment type
(2) The number of shaping segments
(3) The number of courses between the shaping segments
(4) The number of stitches
Figure 5.4 Design variables

Specifically:
(1) The shaping segment type: this affects the angle of the 3D cone and the base
circumference. The greater the shaping of the segment, the greater the angle of the segment,
and the greater the base circumference will be (refer to Figure 4.4 in Section 4.1). The shaping
segment can be kept constant, with a regular holding pattern to form a symmetrical cone.
Alternately the shaping can be altered and made irregular to form an asymmetrical cone (Figure
5.7).

(2) The number of shaping segments: this affects the cone shape (Figure 5.5). The angle of
the 3D cone and the base circumference can be increased by repeating the shaped segment a
number of times. As the number of shaping segments is increased (repeated) the flatter the
cone becomes. A point is reached where a flat circular piece is created, and there is no height
to the cone.

89
Figure 5.5 The effect of repeating a shaping segment

Continuing to repeat the shaping segment beyond this point can then produce complex 3D
parabola-like and spiral structures (Figure 5.6).

Figure 5.6 The effect of continuing to repeat the shaping segment

(3) The number of courses between the shaping segments: this determines the top
circumference and also affects the base circumference. By increasing the number of rows in
which all stitches are knitted, the top and base circumference increase by the same amount.
The angle of inclination of the cone and its height remain constant.

(4) The number of stitches: this determines the length of the inclined cone surface, and
therefore will affect the height of the cone.

Altering any one or all of the above 4 variables will affect the overall size and structural
dimensions of the cone, as well as allowing for other cone-like structures such as hourglass and
funnels to be formed. Figure 5.7 shows some of the design opportunities that suspended
stitches can create.

90
Figure 5.7 Design variations using suspended stitches for cone-like structures

Specifically variations can include:

i) Asymmetrical cones; achieved by altering the shaping segments (1) and/or the
number of knitting courses between the segments (3), rather than being repeated in
the same combination as with a symmetrical cone.
ii) Funnel structures; achieved by reducing the shaping segment of the cone to one
side of the knitting length.
iii) Umbrella structures; similar to a funnel, but the shaping segment is exaggerated
more than the funnel structure.
iv) Hourglass structures; achieved by effectively knitting 2 cones, one inverted onto the
other. As well, the shaping segment can be restricted to form a tube in the centre
of the two cones.

In addition, exaggerating both the shaping segment type and repeating the number of shaping
segments results in the potential for a range of complex structures to be formed (Figure 5.8).

Figure 5.8 Design variations, by exaggerating the shaping segment and the number of shaping segments repeated.

Given the potential diversity of shape generation that can be achieved using the suspended
stitches technique, the design opportunities are immense. Suspended stitches method is a very
versatile and generally reliable technique of shaping, on a standard 2-needle bed machine. In

91
addition, any stitch architecture can be used and the knitting (wales) can follow the contour of
the shape allowing for very good form fit to occur.

However one significant drawback is that for basic shapes such as cones, hourglasses, or
funnels, one seam is required to be sewn together.

While the technique of suspended stitches is versatile and the angle of the shaping segment in
theory can be large, the knitting of such extreme forms is problematic. As with all suspended
stitch base techniques, the main issue relates to the physical stress the stitches (and fabric) are
under during the knitting process. A number of stitches may be held at any time, as knitting is
continuing. Refer to discussion on technical issues of suspended stitches in Section 4.1.1.

Factors impacting on the success of the technique include:

(i) The fibre and yarn type: for example the fibre’s stretch and recovery (elasticity) and its’
brittleness will effect the yarns ability to cope with the stresses of the knitting process.
(ii) The stitch architecture: the type of fabric particularly if it is a single or double jersey type
fabric.
(iii) The width of the fabric piece: the greater the number of stitches means as the holding
sequence occurs, the longer edge stitches may be held.
(iv) The machinery used: the tensioning take-down device, use of sinkers and stitch pressers.
Tension is required in only selected areas that are being knitted and is not required where
stitches are being held. Therefore the type of take-down system of the machinery is critical.
Take-down across the needle bed needs to be varied. The sinkers and stitch pressers can
assist in addressing this, allowing the tensioning and take-down to be minimal and not affect the
knitting. If tension and take-down are not addressed, there is the potential for stitches to distort
(stretch and elongate) and for damage to occur to the fibre and yarn.

5.1.2 Basic Cone using WG technology

WG technology can be used to form a cone that is completely seamless. It is a more complex
method of forming a cone, as it combines tubular knitting with multiple transfer stitches.
Because of the complexity involved with using such shaping techniques WG technology is
required, even when knitting single jersey type fabrics.

The basic shape of a cone is formed by knitting a tube and transferring multiple stitches, to
decrease and/or increase the tube’s circumference, (Figure 5.9).

92
Figure 5.9 Design of a cone formed by WG technology

When designing the structure of a cone using WG, there are three variables to consider (Figure
5.10). These are:
(1) The transfer sequence
(2) The number of stitches for the base
(3) The number of stitches for the top

Figure 5.10 Design variables

Specifically:
(1) The transfer sequence: that is the number of stitches being transferred over the number of
pitches, by the number of courses between the transferring (Figure 5.11). This affects the angle
of inclination and the height of the 3D cone, and therefore the difference between the base and
top circumference. Using WG, stitches can be transferred either 1 or 2 pitches at a time, with 2
courses of knitting required between each transfer series.

Figure 5.11 The effect of changing the transfer sequence on the height and incline of the cone using WG

A greater incline can be formed by using the slide process that allows for multiple transfers at a
time (Figure 5.12). This is the process that occurs when the garment sleeve is ‘inserted’ into the
body of the garment (refer Figure 4.13). When doing this, particular attention must be paid to

93
the takedown, with the main rollers being opened and closed at frequent intervals to release the
fabric which is under significant tension as it is continually being transferred.

Figure 5.12 Applying WG narrowing (after connection) principles to form a cone

As well, the idea of multiple transfers across the knitting at any one point can be extended by
adopting the ‘parachute’ style of shaping (Figure 5.13).

Figure 5.13 Applying WG parachute style of shaping to form a cone

Parachute pattern allows for even distribution of transferred stitches (Figure 5.14). This allows
for a quick decrease in a garment’s width, such as going from the bust line of a garment to the
shoulders, and then to a close turtle neck line.

Figure 5.14 WG Parachute pattern for garment (own design)

94
Determining the exact measurement of the angle of shaping required for the knitted piece is
dependent on the particular stitch architecture used and the transfer sequence. Therefore the
course unit to wale unit ratio, or fashioning frequency, must first be calculated (refer Figure
3.18). Then the ratio can be used to determine the frequency of decreasing/increasing (the
transfer sequence) to achieve the required segment angle.

(2) and (3) The number of stitches (for the base and top): the base and top circumference is
determined by the number of stitches used; the circumference of the base being twice the width
of the design area. The WG base compressed pattern shows front and back together.

Altering any one or all of the above variables will affect the overall size and structural
dimensions of the cone, as well as allowing for other cone like structures such as hourglasses
and funnels to be formed. Figure 5.15 shows some of the design opportunities that WG can
create.

Figure 5.15 Design variations using WG transfer stitches for cone-like structures

The advantage of using the WG method is that complex shapes can be formed with no seams
being required and can be knitted in both single and double bed type fabric stitch architectures.
As well, because of the transferring process the knitting (wales) can follow the contour of the
shape allowing for very good form fit to occur.

It should be noted, that while the WG method cannot achieve the extremes of forms that the
technique of suspended stitches can, a variety of seamless shapes such as hourglasses,
funnels, and umbrella-like forms can still be generated using the technology.

When using WG method, a number of technical issues need to be considered. This method
requires advanced seamless knitting machinery. Because the method involves a large amount
of continual transferring care must be taken with take-down tension and the stitch loop size.
There is increased potential for dropped stitches.

95
Factors impacting on the success of the technique include:
(i) The fibre and yarn type: for example the fibre’s stretch and recovery (elasticity) and its
brittleness to cope with the stresses of the knitting process.
(ii) The stitch architecture: the type of fabric, particularly if it is a single or double bed type fabric.
(iii) The transferring sequence: how the stitches are transferred. Refer Section 4.2.2 and
Figure 4.10).
(iv) The tensioning take-down: a variable take-down is required, both across the needle bed and
through the piece being knitted. At points where there is a lot of transferring occurring,
minimum take-down is required, with only the use of the sub roller, and no use of the main
roller. Also with continual transferring over a number of courses, the main rollers need to be
opened and closed at frequent intervals.

5.2 DOMES
A dome is a rounded structure on a circular base. This Section outlines how dome structures
and variations such as spheres, tyres and multiple dome-like structures can be formed, with
either minimal or no seams.

Two methods are identified: suspended stitches and WG technology. Each method is
discussed within this Section, demonstrating the range of design opportunities, advantages, and
technical considerations.

5.2.1 Dome formed by suspended stitches

The simplest method of forming a dome is by suspending stitches (Figure 5.16). Using the
suspended stitches method is very versatile, allowing for a range of dome-like shapes to be
formed and for the knitted piece to conform to the shape closely.

For simple dome structures with minimal curvature no seams are required. However if extreme
curvature is required then one or more partial seams may be required.

Figure 5.16 Design of dome shape using suspended stitches

96
When designing the structure of a dome, there are five variables to consider (Figure 5.17).
These are:
(1) The shaping segment type
(2) The number of shaping segments
(3) The number of courses between the shaping segments
(4) The number of stitches between the shaping segments
(5) The number of stitches
Figure 5.17 Design variables

Specifically,
(1) The shaping segment type: affects the angle of the dome and the height to base ratio.
The greater the shaping segment (the greater the angle of the triangular segment), the taller the
height of the dome will be compared to its base, with no seam being required (Figure 5.18). As
with the cone, the shaping segment can be kept constant, with a regular holding pattern to form
a symmetrical cone. Refer to Section 4.1 and Figure 4.4. Alternately the shaping can be varied
so that a gentle curvature is created at the top of the dome and steeper slope on the sides.

Figure 5.18 The affect of the shaping segment on the dome shape

A significant limitation to forming a dome using suspended stitches is the height to base ratio
that can be achieved with no seams. The height can be no greater than the diameter of the
base, because when the shaping segment is completed all needles are re-engaged to continue
knitting. Therefore the height of the dome is limited to the width of the diameter of the base.

If a dome of greater height is required then additional shaping techniques must be used in
conjunction with suspended stitches (refer to Figure 5.19). Additional courses must be knitted
before and after the dome shaping commences, and two partial seams will be required. The
additional knitted panel can be shaped, through transferring stitches to allow for any type of
dome to be formed, with the most complex part of the dome, the area with the greater curvature
(the top) still being formed in one piece.

97
Figure 5.19 Dome structure with additional height, version 1 and 2

(2) The number of shaping segments: affects the dome shape (Figure 5.20). Similar to the
effect on the cone, the height of the dome and the base circumference can be increased by
repeating the shaping segment. As the number of shaping segments increases (repeats)
sphere and tyre-like structures are formed. Continuing to repeat the shaping segment beyond
this point then produces complex spiral and helix-like structures.

Figure 5.20 The effect of repeating the shaping segment

(3) The number of courses between the shaping segments: affects the base circumference of
the dome and the flatness of the overall shape of the dome. By increasing the number of rows
of knitting between the shaped segments, the base circumference is greater, with effectively no
change to the height of the dome. This also affects the side of the dome - increasing the turning
point, which forms a ‘circular hole’ on the side of the dome.

98
(4) The number of stitches between the shaping segments: affects the top of the dome and the
base circumference. The greater the number of stitches between the shaping segments the
flatter the top of the dome will be. Note if a symmetrical dome (sphere-like) is required then it is
critical that both variables (3) and (4) are proportional to each other so that the front and side of
the dome are the same shape.

(5) The number of stitches: determines the overall size, diameter and height of the dome. If a
symmetrical dome is to be formed, then it is important that the number of stitches used is
proportional to the number of knitted courses between the shaped segments.

Altering any one or all of the above mentioned 5 variables will affect the overall size and
structural dimensions of the dome, as well as allowing for structures such as a half sphere, full
sphere, tyre and asymmetrical dome-like shapes to be formed (Figure 5.21).

Figure 5.21 The effect of altering the variables, to form a tyre and sphere shape.

In addition the dome structure can be repeated across a surface, using an extension of
suspended stitches known as short row patterns (Figure 5.22). Repeating the dome shaping
sequence (short row pattern) across a surface, produces a fabric with a series of raised 3D
domes. Depending on how the dome shaping sequence is formed, the resultant surface may or
may not have cut-out holes within the fabric. The placement of the dome shapes can be
controlled and varied in size and shape to produce either a regular or irregular surface. As
well, the formation of multiple domes can be worked in a tubular structure.

Figure 5.22 Examples of multiple domes using short row patterns

99
As with the formation of cones, similar technical issues need to be considered and overcome.
Factors impacting on the technique include: (i) The fibre and yarn type; (ii) The fabric’s stitch
architecture; (iii) The width of the fabric piece; (iv) The machinery and tensioning take-down
used. Refer to Sections 4.1 and 5.1.1 for discussion.

5.2.2 Domes formed using WG technology

WG technology can be use to form a dome, of any knit architecture, that is completely
seamless. As this is a more complex method, combining tubular knitting with multiple transfer
stitches, only WG machinery can be used.

The basic shape of a dome is formed by knitting a tube and then transferring multiple stitches,
to decrease the tube’s circumference, (Figure 5.23) to a point where the remaining stitches, at
the top of the dome are cast off. Depending on the design of the dome, a seam-like ridge may
appear at the top of the dome if a number of stitches are cast off at once. This method
produces a dome, in any knit architecture, with no seams.

Figure 5.23 Design of a dome formed by WG technology

When designing the structure of a dome using WG, there are three variables to consider (Figure
5.24). These are:
(1) The transfer sequence
(2) The number of stitches (for the base)
(3) The number of stitches (for the top)

Figure 5.24 Design variables

Specifically:
(1) The transfer sequence: that is the sequence of the number of stitches, by the number of
pitches the stitches are being transferred, and the number of courses between the transferring.
This affects the height of the dome and the shape of the dome’s top.

Using WG, just as with forming a cone and its transferring sequence (Section 5.1.2 and Figure
5.10), stitches can be transferred either 1 or 2 pitches at a time, with 2 courses of knitting
required between each transfer series. In addition, a steeper incline can be formed by using the

100
slide process that allows for multiple transfers at a time and the ‘parachute’ style of shaping
(Figure 5.25).

Figure 5.25 The design of a dome using WG parachute shaping method

(2) The number of stitches (for the base): the base circumference is determined by the number
of stitches used. The circumference of the base being twice the width of the design area, as
the WG base compressed pattern shows the front and back together.

(3) The number of stitches (for the top): the top circumference is determined number of stiches
remaining after the transfer sequence (1).

Altering any one or all of the above variables will affect the overall size and structural
dimensions of the dome, as well as allowing for a variety of other structures, such as a sphere,
to be formed.

The advantage of using the WG method is when forming complex shapes no seams are
required and the form can be in both single and double bed type stitch architectures. As well,
because of the transferring process, the knitting (wales) can follow the contour of the shape
allowing for very good form fit to occur. The technical considerations for domes are similar to
forming a WG cone. Factors impacting on the technique include: (i) the fibre and yarn type; (ii)
the fabric architecture; (iii) the transferring sequence; and (iv) the tensioning take-down. Refer
to Section 5.1.2 for discussion.

5.3 CORNERS AND BOX LIKE STRUCTURES

This Section examines how to form structures that consist of three planes intersecting. These
structures include box-like structures such as corner, corner lip, and saddle shapes.

101
Two methods are identified, these being suspended stitches and transferring stitches. Each
method is discussed within this section, demonstrating the range of design opportunities,
advantages, and the technical considerations.

5.3.1 Corner formed by suspended stitches

The simplest method of forming a corner is by suspending stitches (Figure 5.26). A corner is
formed by knitting a shaped triangular segment within the piece. Stitches are first gradually
held in the required holding sequence and then gradually reintroduced.

Figure 5.26 Design of corner shape with suspended stitches

When designing the structure of a corner, there are five variables to consider (Figure 5.27).
These being:
(1) The shaping segment type
(2) The number of stitches not being shaped
(3) The total number of stitches
(4) The number of shaping segments
(5) The number of courses between shaping segments Figure 5.27 Design variables

Specifically:
(1) The shaping segment type: affects the angle of the corner being formed. The greater the
holding sequence, the greater the angle will be. In addition, the shaping segment can be
repeated to produce a continual series of corners (turning points) that result in a box-like shape
being formed (Figure 5.29).

(2) The number of stitches not being shaped: determines the length of two of the intersecting
planes (Figure 5.28).

Figure 5.28 The effect of changing the number of stitches not being shaped

102
(3) The total number of stitches: this determines the overall size of the corner piece

(4) The number of shaping segments: affects the box shape type. Repeating the corner 4
times will allow a box to be created that requires one partial seam (Figure 5.29).

Figure 5.29 The effect of repeating the shaping segment (4 times)

Continuing to repeat the corner shaping segment beyond this point can then produce more
complex shaped structures (Figure 5.30).

Figure 5.30 Continual repeating of a corner shaping segment

(5) The number of courses between the shaping segments: determines the distance between
the corners.

Altering any one of or all of the above variables will affect the overall size and structural
dimensions of the corner, as well as allowing for variations to be formed. Figure 5.31 shows
some of the design opportunities that suspended stitches can create in relation to corner

103
shapes. For example, corner-like shapes, such as corner lip and saddle shapes can be formed.
These can then be combined to formed stepped corner shapes (Figure 5.32).

Figure 5.31 Design variations of corner shapes.

Figure 5.32 Stepped corner shape

The technical considerations of forming corners are similar to cones and domes. Refer to
Sections 5.1.1 and 5.2.1 for discussion. The most important aspect to consider for corners is
that the nature of the suspended stitches holding pattern may place greater stress on the edge
stitches, as these are held the longest. Therefore careful use and adjustment of takedown,
stitch length size and yarn are required.

5.3.2 Corners formed with transfer stitches

The alternate method of forming a corner is to transfer stitches. The stitch architecture, whether
it is single or double jersey type fabric, will determine the machinery requirements.

104
A standard machine can be used if knitting in the single jersey type fabric (Figure 5.33).
However a WG machine is required if knitting a double jersey type fabric, as additional beds
(either needle or transfer beds) are needed to store and transfer the stitches (Figure 5.34).

Figure 5.33 Design of a 3-sided corner in single jersey fabric by transfer stitches using a standard machine

Figure 5.34 Design of a 3-sided corner in double jersey fabric using WG machine

Using WG technology, the design of a corner can be extended further to form box shapes (5
sided) and cube shapes (6 sided) with no seams required and in any stitch architecture (Figure
5.35).

The technical considerations for knitting corner-like structures with transferring stitches are
similar to WG cones and domes, even when using standard machinery, because the method
involves continual transferring during the knitting process. Refer to Sections 5.1.2 and 5.2.2 for
discussion.

105
Figure 5.35 Design of a 5-sided box applying WG parachute style of shaping

5.4 CONCLUSION
This Chapter examined a variety of simple shapes. Shapes were categorised into three broad
groups; cones, domes and box-like shapes. A number of shape knitting methods were
identified, including suspended stitches, transfer stitches and WG knitting, as offering the
greatest potential to form a variety of 3D forms. Most 3D shapes can be produced using a
number of different shape knitting techniques. It is the shape knitting technique and choice of
stitch architecture that determines the machinery requirements.

106
6. TUBES AND TUBULAR CONNECTIONS

This Chapter examines the design and knitting of a variety of tubes and tubular connections. As
the research progressed, a number of generic tubular shapes were identified and examined.
These include tubes (singular and multiple) and tubular joint connections such as L, T and X
joints. From these it is possible to form a wide range of tubular-like structural shapes, requiring
no additional post knitting labour. Note a tubular structure can be produced in any stitch
architecture (single or double jersey type fabric) and can be formed in conjunction with all other
shape knitting techniques.

In examining tubular shapes, a number of shaping method combinations were identified as

being the most useful for developing a wide range of tubular connections. These shaping
methods can be categorised as either being produced using a standard knitting machine, based
®
on standard base packages developed, or produced using a WholeGarment knitting machine,
based on WG base packages.

For this Chapter, the standard base packages developed and used are shown in Figure 6.1 and
the WG base packages are shown in Figure 6.2.

Figure 6.1 Essential Base packages for Tubes and tubular connection designs,

107
Figure 6.1 cont. Essential Base packages for Tubes and tubular connection designs

Figure 6.2 Essential WG Base packages for Tubes and tubular connection designs

Note most designs, within the Chapter, are represented using standard package. These
designs can also be knitted using WG machinery. Designs are shown using WG package
where no other method of construction is possible.

6.1 TUBE STRUCTURES

This Section outlines how basic tube structures and variations such as multiple tubes and tubes
with flanges are formed. Refer to Section 4.3 Tubular knitting for a detailed explanation on the
process of knitting tubular fabric.

108
6.1.1. Basic tube
There are two ways of forming a tube structure (Figure 6.3). The conventional method and
most common (option 1) forms a tube by knitting stitches on the front bed in one direction and
then knits on the back bed in the opposite direction, with yarn only passing from one needle bed
to the other at the selvedge. Refer to Section 4.3.1 for detailed explanation. This type of tube
allows for unlimited length, with the wales running parallel to the tube length. The width of the
tube is limited to the length of the knit machine. That is, the circumference of the tube being
twice the width of the design area. In contrast, the second method (option 2) allows for
unlimited width, but the length of the tube is restricted to the machine bed length. With this
method, stitches are cast on in all needle rib, and then an unconnected fabric is simultaneously
knitted (using 2 systems) on the front and back needle beds. Once the required tube width is
reached, stitches on the back bed are transferred to the front bed and cast off.

Figure 6.3 Tube Designs; option 1 and 2.

6.1.2. Multiple tubes

From the basic tube form, a number of variations can be achieved. These include multiple
tubes, either connected and/or unconnected.

There are two ways to form a multiple connected tube (Figure 6.4). The first method (option 1)
is to essentially form a tube with tubular knitting (front to back) and the alternate tube knitting in
reverse (back to front). The connection between the tubes is limited; being formed by the yarn
as it moves from the front to back bed (and vice versa) with each tube. The alternate method
(option 2) is to knit two tubes the same (tubular knitting [front to back]) with one stitch between
the two tubes being knitted back to front. While both methods may appear similar, option 2
forms a stronger connection between the tubes.

Figure 6.4 Design for multiple connected tubes

109
Multiple tubes can also be formed as unconnected tubes (Figure 6.5). This is a critical
technique when applied to WG knitting where multiple tubes are knitted and then connected to
form for example various tubular joints (refer to Section 6.2.5.).

Figure 6.5 Design for multiple unconnected tubes; close up showing draw thread

To begin knitting unconnected tubes, a closed tube of the required total length is first knitted.
This is the set up and is referred to as waste knitting. Then a draw thread is knitted for two
courses (4 carriage movements). The draw thread is used to separate the tubes from the waste
set up knitting. After the set up, the tubes are knitted using multiple yarn carriers and systems.

By combining unconnected and connected tubes together many simple tubular-like connections
can be formed (Figure 6.6).

Figure 6.6 Design for multiple tubes

6.1.3. Tubes with flanges

Extending the basic tube further is to form a tube with a flange (Figure 6.7). A flange is a
projecting rim or collar. A flange, knitted in interlock fabric (refer Section 3.5.2), is useful as it
can reinforce and stabilise a tubular component.

Figure 6.7 Design for tube with flanges

110
In addition, the flange and tubular form can be curved (Figure 6.8).

Figure 6.8 Design for tube with flange, variations

6.2 TUBULAR CONNECTIONS

Tubular connections refer to designs such as L, T, X, Y and K joints. Based on the shape
knitting techniques established in Chapter 4, five methods were identified as being the most
useful combinations of knitting techniques for the construction of tubular connections. All of
these methods produce design outcomes that have no seams and require no additional sewing.
The methods discussed range from the easiest and least problematic to knit through to the most
complex and difficult to knit, and thus requiring advanced machinery.

The combinations identified are:

1) Tubular knitting with interlock fabric (Section 6.2.1)
2) Tubular knitting with interlock and edge transfer (Section 6.2.2)
3) Tubular knitting with casting on and off (Section 6.2.3)
4) Tubular knitting with suspended stitches (Section 6.2.4)
5) WG knitting (Section 6.2.5)

For each method a variety of tubular connections are shown, and a discussion of the
advantages and disadvantages of each technique is provided. Refer to Chapter 4 for detailed
explanation on these shape knitting techniques.

6.2.1 Method 1: Tubular knitting with interlock fabric

The simplest and most reliable method of forming a variety of tubular connections is to knit a
combination of tubular and interlock fabric.

The required base packages include:

200 Tubular knitting
202 Half tubular knitting
203 Unconnected tubular
211 Interlock fabric
216 Cast on (all needles rib)
226 Cast on (tubular with draw thread)

111
By combining these packages virtually any tubular joint structure can be formed (Figure 6.9,
6.10 and 6.11) including L, T, X, K and Y joint designs. Note this method produces a sealed
edge on all sides except for the end of the piece. To have an open tube with sealed finished
edge requires WG machinery, as it involves casting off separately on the front and back beds.

Figure 6.9 Design of L joint using method (1)

Figure 6.10 Designs of T joint and X joint using method (1)

Figure 6.11 Designs of Y and K joints using method (1)

Using this method is the simplest method and therefore the least problematic. It can be used to
form all basic types of tubes and tubular joints very reliably. The machine requirements are

112
minimal; being able to be formed on any two needle bed knitting machine. Note if using only a
2 needle bed machine the tubular connection can only be formed using single jersey. If a
double jersey type fabric is required then WG machinery is needed.

The resultant structures are generally very stable with the edges (the flanges) being reinforced
with interlock fabric. This method cannot create tubes and joints without some fabric
surrounding the joint; however this fabric could be cut away afterwards to remove the flange or
change the shape and size of the flanges.

In creating tubular connections with this method, the most significant disadvantage is the
potential of some loop distortion at the ‘meeting points’ of the tubes. This loop distortion is
caused because the joint is knitted as a flat piece and when formed into the 3D form, there is
some excess of fabric that may result in buckling. The buckling (and loop distortion) can be
overcome through changes in stitch architecture, such as strategic placement of miss and/or
tuck stitches at these meeting points.

6.2.2 Method 2: Tubular knitting with interlock and edge stitch transfer
This method of forming a tubular connection uses the combination of tubular and interlock fabric
with edge stitch transfer (refer Section 4.2). It is similar to method (1) but allows for the flanges
to be tailored to the joint shape, adding strength and stability to specific areas of the joint where
required. Using stitch transfer minimises waste of raw materials and reduces post knitting
labour, as no excess fabric is cut away after the knitting process is complete.

The required base packages include:

200 Tubular knitting
202 Half tubular knitting
203 Unconnected tubular
207 Interlock fabric with transfer (1 pitch left)
208 Interlock fabric with transfer (1 pitch right)
211 Interlock fabric
216 Cast on (all needles rib)
226 Cast on (tubular with draw thread)

By combining these packages tubular connection structures such as L, T and X joints can be
formed with trimmed flanges of specific requirements (Figure 6.12 and 6.13).

113
Figure 6.12 Design of L joint using method (2)

Figure 6.13 Design of T and X joints, using method (2)

The advantage of using this method is that the tubular connection is formed with flanges tailored
to specific areas of the joint to add reinforcement and stability.

As with method (1), the machine requirements are minimal; being able to be formed on any two
needle bed knitting machine with sinkers. However, note if using only a two needle bed
machine, the tubular connection can only be formed using single jersey. If a double jersey type
fabric is required then WG machinery is needed. There may also be some loop distortion at the
‘meeting points’ of the joints, but this distortion can be minimised by changing the stitch
architecture at these strategic meeting points.

Method (2) is relatively simple and reliable. However this method is potentially more
problematic compared to method (1), because of the edge stitches being transferred during the
knitting process. With transferring, stitches are moved from one bed to the other and this
increases the risk of dropping stitches and for fibre/yarn damage, particularly if using advanced
yarns such as glass fibre. Therefore this method of knitting is slower compared to method (1).
As well, because of the stitch transfer, the design programming is more complex compared to
method (1).

114
6.2.3 Method 3: Tubular knitting and casting on and off
This method of forming a tubular connection involves knitting tubular fabric and casting on and
off (refer to Section 4.2.3) in selected areas to form the required joint component. By
transferring multiple stitches continually to increase or decrease the number of stitches means a
tubular connection can be formed with no excess fabric and the edges sealed.

The required base packages include:

200 Tubular knitting
202 Half tubular knitting
203 Unconnected tubular
204 No needle selection
205 Cast off (right to left)
215 Cast off (left to right)
216 All needle Cast on
226 Cast on (tubular with draw thread)

By combining the above packages a number of tubular structures can be formed, including L, T
and X joint designs (Figure 6.14 and 6.15).

Figure 6.14 Design of L joint using method (3)

Figure 6.15 Design of T joints using method (3)

115
In addition, by also combining gradual outside stitch transfer (refer Section 4.2.1) to decrease or
increase one stitch at a time within the course Y and K type joints can be formed (Figure 6.16
and 6.17). It should be noted that creating a Y or K joint with this method, the wales don’t follow
(conform to) the shape of the component and results in a mock seam appearing on the edge
where the increasing or decreasing stitches has occurred.

Figure 6.16 Design of Y joint using method (3)

Figure 6.17 Design of Y and K joints using method (3)

The advantage of using method (3) over method (1) and (2) is that the tubular connection is
formed completely; no flanges are created.

As with the previous methods, the machine requirements are minimal; being able to be formed
on any two needle bed knitting machine with sinkers, and there could be some loop distortion at
the ‘meeting points’ of the joints. Also, it should be noted if using a two needle bed machine the
tubular connection can only be formed using single jersey and the tube piece cannot be cast off
(sealed) if it is to remain open. WG machinery is needed if a double jersey type fabric is
required and if the open tube is cast off. This is because 2 additional needle beds or transfer
beds for storing stitches are needed during the casting off process.

Method (3) is more complex and potentially more problematic with the design, programming and
knitting compared to methods (1) and (2). This is because of the cast-off process of knitting, as

116
stitches are being continually transferred from one bed to the other, thus increasing the risk of
dropping stitches and for fibre/yarn damage. Therefore method (3) of knitting is slower
compared to method (1).

6.2.4 Method 4: Tubular knitting with suspended stitches

This technique involves knitting a tubular fabric and combining it with course shaping. Selected
areas of the tube are held, while the rest is knitted, thus imparting some shape into the tube.
This is ideal for forming irregular tubes and tubular joints such as L joints. It also means that
exact tubular shape can be formed with minimal stitch distortion. As well the knitting direction
(course direction of the knitting) can follow the contour of the particular tubular shape. Refer to
section 4.1 suspended stitches for explanation.

The required base packages include:

200 Tubular knitting (front – back)
204 No needle selection
202 Half tubular knitting
226 Cast on (jersey)

Figure 6.18 Design of tube shape using method (4)

Stitches can be held either on the inside or outside of the tube component (Figure 6.19) and
affects the smoothness of the curvature of the turn.

117
Figure 6.19 Design of curved tube with inside and outside suspended stitches shaping (method (4))

Combining the above packages a range of tubular structures can be formed, including S, C and
L joint designs (Figure 6.20 and 6.21). The frequency and type of shaping sequence (how the
stitches are held) will affect the degree of curvature of the tube. A gentle curved tube requires a
holding sequence of more stitches of few courses and more courses of plain tubular between
the shaping sequences. While for a true L joint (Figure 6.21) the shaping sequence needs to be
greater; holding fewer stitches over more courses. The design of an L joint is based on how a
corner is formed (refer Section 5.3.1).

Figure 6.20 Design of S joint using method (4)

Figure 6.21 Design of L joint using method (4)

118
This method is further extended by also combining multiple unconnected tubes with suspended
stitches. This allows for K, T and X joint designs to be formed (Figure 6.22 and 6.23). It should
be noted by creating a joint with this method, the wales conform to the shape of the component,
eliminating the loop distortion at the ‘meeting points’ of the joints.

Figure 6.22 Design of Y joint using method (4)

Figure 6.23 Design of X joint using method (4)

The main advantage method (4) offers compared to the previous methods is that an exact tube
component can be created. With method (4) the wales (and knitting) direction following the
contour of the tubular shape, resulting in the exact tubular shape being formed with no loop
distortion at the ‘meeting points’ of the joints. As well, this method also allows for more complex
stitch architectures, such as in-laid fibres to be potentially used, which could further strengthen
and reinforce the tubular component.

Method (4) can be considered relatively simple, as it does not involve transferring stitches from
one bed to another. However, the method is potentially more problematic with increased
complexity of programming and knitting compared to the previous methods. The main reason is
because of the requirement for variable takedown. As selected areas of the tube are being
knitted, other stitches are held. Some loop distortion (elongation) and possible fibre/yarn
damage or breakage could result if stitches are held under too much takedown tension.
Therefore tubular components requiring tight turning angles are dependent on careful continual
adjustment to the takedown and with the selection of fibre and yarn types.

119
It should also be noted with method (4), as with method (3), if using a two needle bed machine
the tubular connection can only be formed using single jersey and the tube piece cannot be cast
off (sealed) if it is to remain open. WG machinery is needed if a double jersey type fabric is
required and if the open tube is cast off. This is because 2 additional needle beds or transfer
beds for storing stitches are needed during the casting off process.

®
6.2.5 Method 5: WholeGarment knitting
This method offers great opportunity with knitting tubes and tubular connections of any shape
and stitch architecture. As a result of the complexity of the design, programming and knitting
the most advanced knitting machine technology is required.

WG knitting involves combining potentially all of the shaping techniques as outlined in Chapter
4. In particular, the essential techniques are tubular knitting and transfer stitches. Through the
‘slide process’ (refer Section 4.2 for description) multiple stitches (wales) can be gradually
increased and/or decreased within the tubular knitting. This process allows for potentially any
tubular joint to be formed with all edges being sealed. It also means that exact tubular shapes
can be formed with little to no loop distortion, as the wales (knitting direction) can follow the
contour of the required tubular structure.

Refer to Figure 6.2 for the required WG base packages used. By combining these WG
packages a wide range of tubular joint structures can be formed.

The simplest tubular connections are created with two tubes being slid together. This can
produce tubular structures such as L, Y, K and X joints (Figure 6.24, 6.25, 6.26, and 6.27). The
angle the two tubes meet is determined by the transfer sequence and the way the ‘body’ and
‘sleeve’ components slide together (refer to Section 4.2.2 and Figures 4.11 and 4.13).

Figure 6.24 Design of L joint using method (5)

120
Figure 6.25 Design of Y joint using method (5)

Figure 6.26 Design of K joint using method (5)

Figure 6.27 Design of X joint using method (5)

121
Each of the above tubular joint angles can be further exaggerated by increasing the transfer
sequence and the additional use of suspended stitches at the joint intersections.

More complex tubular connections involve three or more tubes being jointed together, such as
for example a T joint (Figures 6.28 and 6.29).

Figure 6.28 Design of T joint (at 45 degree angle) using method (5)

Figure 6.29 Design of T joint (at 90 degree angle) using method (5)

122
Again the angle at which the two ‘sleeve’ tubes meet the ‘body’ tube is dependent on the
transfer sequence and how they slide together.

More complex tubular connections can be formed by transferring to not only decrease stitches,
but to also increase stitches and therefore produce tubular connections of 6 or more tubes
(Figure 6.30). There are however, some design limitations with the arrangement of multiple
tubes in multiple plane directions. Tubes are restricted to being arranged in one or two plane
directions at any one time. Changes of the plane direction can occur within a piece, but not at
the same time. This is because during the knitting process the tubes are being knitted on
parallel needle beds as a flat piece in one plane direction only.

Figure 6.30 Design options for multiple tubes in one planar direction

In examining tubes and tubular connections thus far, the tubular connections discussed have
been formed with multiple tubes positioned in one plane direction only. The plane direction of
the tubular joint is a result of the knitting process. That is, the tubular joint is knitted on the flat
needle bed knitting machine. Essentially the joint is knitted flat in a 2D form, with multiple tubes
knitted next to each other and then transferred into each other. Therefore the knitting process,
by its nature, restricts the types of multiple tubular connections that can be knitted in one piece
seamlessly.

Given the arrangement of the needle bed and the knitting process, methods 1 – 4 only allow for
tubular connections of multiple tubes to be formed in one plane direction. If multiple directions
of the tubes are required then the joint needs to be knitted in several pieces and seamed
together.

In contrast, method 5 could allow for some changes to the direction of the tubes positions within
the joint (Figure 6.31 and 6.32).

Figure 6.31 Design options for multiple tubes in multiple directions

123
Figure 6.32 Design of Tripod joint; multiple tubes in multiple planar directions

Figure 3.32 shows a Tripod joint (three tubes joined in multiple plane directions) with two tubes
being brought to the front and off centre to the middle tube. The design specification is shown
in Figure 6.33. The joint is formed by the two edge tubes being transferred on the front bed at
twice the rate of the stitch transfer on the back bed. This process effectively brings the two
tubes forward.

The programming of the Tripod joint is complex, as it falls outside of the Shima Seiki WG
system of packages, the WG library. Consider the WG system of packages is designed in
relation to a typology of garment production templates. A design such as the Tripod joint does
not fit a standard garment type or component of a garment type, such as a sleeve, therefore a
range of new packages needed to be created.

In developing the Tripod joint reference was first made to identifying existing garment
components within Shima Seiki’s system that might provide assistance to developing the
concept. The vest (singlet) style of garment, which allows for the front and back of the garment
at the sleeve opening position to be different widths within the knitting, was identified as useful.
Using this component of the vest as the starting point, packages were developed for the sleeve
to be turned as it was being connected. Turning involved sliding the front sleeve stitches 1 pitch
more than the back sleeve stitches. In addition, transferring one back stitch to the front was
required to compensate for the unbalanced movement of stitches. This process of turning for
the sleeve is a new concept.

The new package concepts created in this research include:

234 Transfers stitches 1 pitch on back and knits on front
235 Ground
236 Transfers edge back stitch to front (after slide process)
237 Ground (before slide process indicates knitting on the front)
238 Transfers stitches 1 pitch on front and knits on back

124
Packages 235 and 236 were developed and used to assist with positioning the transfer
sequence, before the slide process, so it can be more readily visualised where and how the
transferring is occurring within the piece. After the slide process, Packages 235 and 236 are
effectively the same as Package 200 (tubular ground).

Figure 6.33 Design of Tripod joint

As the sample shown in Figure 6.33 demonstrates, it may be possible to form a joint with tubes
in multiple directions. However, the multiple directional joint is limited, because of the nature of
the knitting process. Effectively the tubes are knitted next to each other flat on the needle bed.
Therefore for the most complex multiple directional tubular joint such as in Figure 6.31 (ii)
cannot be knitted in one seamless piece. Instead a joint of this type must be knitted in two or
more pieces and seamed together. Alternatively the joint could be hand knitted. At present
hand knitting is the only way to achieve truly seamless complex multiple directional tubular
joints. However, hand knitting is not viable at a commercial industrial scale, because of the
potential volume of production required and also the selection of fibre and yarns.

Of all the methods, method (5) is the most versatile method of machine knitting tubes and
tubular joints. The advantages of using method (5) is that a tubular connection can be formed
in virtually any stitch architecture and any structural shape. In addition all examples produced
using the previous methods (1-4) can be produced using this WG method. Therefore WG offers
the greatest design opportunities compared to the other methods.

With method (5), the exact tube component can be created, with the wale’s direction following
the contour of the tubular shape, resulting in no stitch distortion at the meeting points of the
joints and all edges sealed. As well, because of the use of four beds complex double jersey

125
type stitch architecture can be used, which could provide additional strength and reinforce the
tubular component.

In creating tubular connections with method (5), the most significant disadvantage is the
complexity of design, programming and knitting compared to the other methods. The most
advanced machinery is required with four beds and variable takedown system to allow for
complex stitch transferring processes. As a result of the complexity, this method could
potentially be less reliable compared to other methods, as stitches are continually being
transferred through the slide process. The possibilities for dropping stitches and for fibre and
yarn damage increases. These issues can be addressed somewhat, as with the examples in
Chapter 5, through design modifications to reduce the stresses on the pieces during the knitting
process, as well as through the selection of fibre and yarn type.

6.3 CONCLUSION
This Chapter examined a variety of tubes and tubular connections. Five methods were
identified as being the most useful combinations of knitting techniques and offering the greatest
potential for the construction of tubular connections. These are; 1) Tubular knitting with
interlock; 2) Tubular knitting with interlock and edge transfer; 3) Tubular knitting with cast on
and off transfer; 4) Tubular Knitting with suspended stitches; and 5) WG knitting. From these
methods, most tubular joint structures can be formed.

126
7. CUT-OUTS

This Chapter examines the design and knitting of cut-outs. A ‘cut-out’ refers to a purposeful
hole or opening within a fabric piece. It is formed during the knitting process, and as a result the
edges of the cut-out are sealed.

The concept of cut-outs can be extended to include multiple cut-outs or openings within a 3D
form. Such a concept highlights the potential opportunity of 3D shape knitting to achieve
material optimisation and structural efficiencies of a form. Through the utilisation of new
advanced materials combined with the strategic placement of cut-outs within a 3D form, there is
the potential to realise a structure with a lightness of weight while maintaining the form’s load
bearing capacity. The advantage of cut-outs is that they can be achieved by fully automated
manufacturing processes; no hand labour is required, in terms of cutting or sewing after the
knitting process. Consequently utilising cut-outs can assist with providing paramount efficiency
and minimal wastage of raw materials. The potential of material optimisation is explored as part
of the case study in Chapter 8.

As this research progressed, a number of generic cut-out shapes were identified and examined.
These included slits, which include a long narrow vertical, horizontal or diagonal opening within
a fabric, square cut-outs, diamond cut-outs and circle cut-outs. From these it is possible to form
cut-outs of any description and shape. Note cut-outs can be produced in any stitch architecture
(single or double bed) and can be formed in conjunction with all other shaping techniques.

For this Chapter, the standard base packages developed and used are shown in Figure 7.1.

Figure 7.1 Standard base packages

127
7.1 CUT-OUT SHAPES AND SIMPLE VARIATIONS
Using a combination of the above packages a wide range of cut-out shapes can be formed.

7.1.1 Vertical Slit

The process of forming a vertical slit is in 3 parts (Figure 7.2). Firstly plain courses are knitted
with the carriage finishing part way across the fabric, at the point where the slit begins. At this
moment knitting continues with 2-systems, each system knitting separately the fabric strip on
either side of the slit. As the 2-systems do not cross each other, an opening is formed in which
the edge of the slit is sealed, similar to the selvedge. This effectively strengthens the edge, as
opposed to cutting into the fabric and leaving a raw edge, which could cause laddering. To
close the slit, single system knitting recommences on all needles.

Figure 7.2 Vertical slit

The shape of the slit is affected by the selected stitch architecture. With balanced fabric, such
as all needles rib, the slit is straight (flat) compared to an unbalanced fabric such as single
jersey that curls to form an oval shaped slit. Therefore with jersey type fabric, the longer the
length of the slit the more curved (oval shaped) the slit will be.

The greatest area of stress for a vertical slit is at the beginning and end point where there is
effectively only a single yarn path that holds the sides together. This critical point can be
reinforced and strengthened with the use of a cable (Figure 7.3). A cable is where 2 or more
stitches are crossed over one another.

Figure 7.3 Vertical slit with cable

128
Forming a vertical slit is a relatively simply process. A 2-system machine is the only
requirement. If multiple slits are required then more yarn carriers and a higher system machine
is needed. For example two slits side by side requires 3 yarn carriers and can be produced
using either 2 or 3-system knitting machine. The knitting system determines how efficiently the
fabric is knitted.

Variations can include slits being side by side, off centre or on top of each other (Figure 7.4)
and can be applied to complex shapes, such as cones, domes and tubular type structures.

Figure 7.4 Variations of multiple slits

7.1.2 Horizontal Slit

A horizontal slit is formed by casting off a number of stitches to form the length of the slit and
then immediately casting on those empty needles (Figure 7.5).

As with forming a vertical slit the area of greatest stress is at the beginning and end of the slit.
A cable can be used to reinforce and strengthen these critical points.

Figure 7.5 Horizontal slit

The only machine requirements are the use of sinkers and stitch presser (refer Sections 3.3.8 &
3.3.9), because when the knitting recommences on the empty needles, there is effectively no
takedown being exerted on these stitches. The newly formed stitches can ride up and cause
problems. Using the stitch presser thus ensures the stitches clear the needles.

Many variations can be formed such as multiple horizontal slits (Figure 7.6).

Figure 7.6 Variations of multiple slits

129
7.1.3 Diagonal Slit
A diagonal slit is based on the process of gradually increasing and decreasing stitches
simultaneously (Figure 7.7). The process is similar to a vertical slit, in that it is knitted with a 2-
system machine, with each system knitting separately the fabric on either side of the slit. As
one side of the slit is gradually decreased, the other side increases stitches. The 2-systems do
not cross each other, so that the edges are sealed. To close the slit, single system knitting
recommences on all needles.

Again the area of greatest stress is at the beginning and end of the slit and this can be
reinforced with the use of a cable.

Figure 7.7 Diagonal slit

Many variations can be formed such as multiple horizontal slits in multiple directions within a
fabric and/or 3D form (Figure 7.8).

Figure 7.8 Some variations of multiple diagonal slits

7.1.4 Square Cut-out

A square cut-out is a combination of both a vertical and horizontal slit. It involves the process of
casting off a section of knitting, then knitting in 2-systems the two sides of the square and then
casting on to close the square cut-out (Figure 7.9).

Figure 7.9 Square shaped cut-out

130
The area of greatest stress for a square cut-out is at the beginning and end of the square. To
overcome this stress in part, a cable can be used to reinforce the knitting.

The machine requirements to form a square cut-out are a 2-system machine and the use of
sinkers and stitch presser are needed for casting on, when knitting is recommenced on the
empty needles.

With this method, all four sides of the cut-out are sealed, but the edges are not the same. The
two side edges are relatively flat and straight. However the edge where the stitches have been
cast off has a raised lip. And the edge where the stitches are cast back on is flat but not
straight. The raised lip is because it takes two courses of knitting for loop formation to occur.

Alternatively, using a draw thread and knitting waste can overcome this by forming a non-sealed
cast off and cast on edge (Figure 7.10). Rather than casting off the stitches, a single draw
thread course is knitted and then waste yarn is used to knit essentially the centre square. This
is done with a 3-system machine, the two outer systems knitting the sides of the square and the
centre system knitting waste. At the end of the square cut-out, again a single course of draw
thread is knitted over the width of the square and then single system knitting is recommenced.
Once the fabric comes off the machine the two draw threads are pulled out and the waste
knitting falls away. At this point, while the resultant sides of the square are all flat and straight,
only two of the square’s sides are sealed. The bottom and top edges are unsealed.

An advantage of knitting a square cut-out with this method is a very tight fabric can be formed,
as there is no issue with take-down, and therefore less need for the use of sinkers and the stitch
presser.

Figure 7.10 Alternate design for square cut-out

Many variations can be formed such as multiple square cut-outs (Figure 7.11).

Figure 7.11 Variations for multiple square cut-outs

131
7.1.5 Diamond Cut-out
A diamond cut-out is based on a variation of a diagonal slit. Knitting with a 2-system machine,
stitches are gradually decreased by transferring over a number of courses, and then stitches
are gradually reintroduced to close the diamond cut-out (Figure 7.12). All edges are sealed.

Figure 7.12 Graphical representation of diamond shaped cut-out

7.1.6 Circle Cut-out

The basic form of a circle cut-out involves the process of a horizontal slit, diamond cut-out, and
vertical slit (Figure 7.13). To begin the circle cut-out a number of stitches are cast off. Then in
2-system knitting, stitches are gradually decreased by transferring, and then straight knitting
occurs and then stitches are gradually reintroduced. To close the circle single, the remaining
empty needles are cast on and system knitting is recommenced.

Figure 7.13 Graphical representation of circle shaped cut-out

As with the square cut-out, the edges of the circle vary. Using a draw thread and knitting waste
can overcome this, but it results in a non-sealed cast off and cast on edge.

Variations can be formed such as half circle, oval and multiple circle cut-outs (Figure 7.14).

Figure 7.14 Variations of circle cut-out

132
7.1.7 Technical considerations with cut-out shapes
There are a number of issues that need to be taken into consideration and/or addressed during
the knitting process of forming most cut-out shapes. These include;

(i) The consistency of the edge of the cut-out: Combining different knitting techniques such as
casting on/off results in different edge treatments which can cause an inconsistent edge or
selvedge. Some edges are raised, curled or flat. The raised edge could be a problem
depending on the particular application. It can be overcome by use of a draw thread and waste
knitting. However, a non-sealed edge is formed, which would require greater handling care
after the piece comes off the machine.

(ii) Single verses double bed fabric architectures results in different outcomes. In particular the
single bed fabric stitch architecture is unstable and curls. The instability is accentuated
particularly with a longer slit. So rather than a flat narrow slit being formed, it is closer to an oval
shape. Double bed fabric stitch architectures are more balanced and so curling is less of an
issue. The advantage is that with the drape the moulding nature of a knitted fabric, a design will
conform to shape more readily and so a simplified design can be used. For example for an oval
shape cut out design, a slit is all that is required.

(iii) The use of sinkers and stitch presser: A stitch presser is necessary when casting on a
number of stitches onto empty needles. If no stitch presser or sinkers are used, the fabric can
ride up and cause problems, as it is under no takedown. Careful balance and consideration is
required, particularly when knitting a double bed fabric structure. If the stitch presser is used
when the fabric is being knitted at too tight a tension, damage to the needles is likely. This is
because the stitch presser goes under the needles that rise to take the new yarn and above the
existing loops that are across the needle beds. If the tension is very tight, then there is no room
for the stitch presser and so it is forced up, hitting the needles. Therefore if the cut-out shape
requires the use of casting on a number of stitches then the tension of the fabric must be
adjusted to insure that it is not too tight. Consequently the optimal fabric structure may not
result. Note this is not an issue with single bed stitch architectures, as the yarn does not pass
between the two needle beds.

®
(iv) Use of WholeGarment machinery: All of the above cut-out shapes can be knitted using
®
seamless knitting technology such as WholeGarment machinery. Therefore these cut-out
shapes can be formed within a tubular structure. It should be noted there may be some
restriction on the type of knit architecture that can be used if knitting is in a tubular form.
Specifically, if casting off is required then just prior to casting off, the fabric must be a single
jersey type fabric. Being a single jersey fabric is to allow for an additional bed for transferring
during the casting off stage.

133
7.2 CUT-OUT FABRICS (using suspended stitches)
The technique of short row patterning, an extension of suspending stitches, can be used to
create cut-outs shapes within the fabric’s stitch architecture. Refer to Section 4.1 for
background about the technique.

7.2.1 Short Row Patterns

The simplest way to achieve a cut-out shape using suspended stitches is to knit only a selected
number of stitches for a number of courses, while the rest of the knitting is held (Figure 7.15).

Figure 7.15 The basis of short row patterns

By repeating the ‘group’ or ‘short row pattern’ a fabric with small multiple cut-outs is formed.
The resultant fabric is likely to have a raised 3D surface within the fabric, because of the nature
of how the fabric is being knitted (Figure 7.16).

Figure 7.16 Central panel of short row pattern

Note this technique can be used to create a pocket within the fabric (Figure 7.17). In this
circumstance, the isolated short row group is twice the length of the desired pocket.

Figure 7.17 built-in pocket

134
As well, through simple variations of the short row pattern technique, a variety of outcomes can
be achieved (Figure 7.18).

Figure 7.18 variations of short row patterns

Variations can be made to;

1) The size of the group: the number of stitches and courses being knitted. Generally the
more courses knitted the more raised and 3D the fabric surface is. The fewer the needles,
combined with more courses knitted, a ribbon-like structure is created. As well, the number
of stitches and courses within the group can be constant throughout or altered within the
fabric piece to create a random and organic surface appearance to the fabric.
2) The shape of the group: knitting can be consistent with same number of stitches knitted, or
altered for example to knit a triangular shaped segment.
3) The placement of the group: the placement can be either singular such as a central panel or
as an all over pattern. As an overall pattern the group can be knitted for example next to
each other, as a brink-like repeat or randomly repeated.
4) The stitch architecture: any stitch architecture, including double jersey type fabrics can be
used on most knit machine types.

In addition, short row patterns can be combined with other shaping techniques to form complex
integrated forms and surfaces. For example short row patterns can be formed within a tubular
®
shape using WholeGarment machinery (Figure 7.19).

135
Figure 7.19 A tube with short row pattern

As a result of the increased complexity of the programming, when combining short row patterns
with other shaping techniques, the use of a sub package within packages is necessary (refer to
Section 3.7.3 and Figure 3.45 for explanation). The tubular form is developed with WG
packages and package 102 is used in the design to indicate where the short row pattern will be.
A separate standard package is then developed with the package 102 to represent the short
row pattern. Subsequently as the compressed pattern is expanded, the sub packages are also
expanded.

7.2.2 Technical considerations with cut-out fabrics (using suspended stitches)

Using the short row pattern is a relative easy method to form cut-outs, with minimal machine
requirements. Refer to discussion on technical issues of suspended stitches in Section 4.1.

As with all suspended stitch base techniques, the main issue relates to the physical stress the
stitches (and fabric) are under during the knitting process. A number of stitches may be held at
any time, as knitting is continuing.

There are a number of factors impacting on the using of this technique and on how extreme or
dramatic the short row pattern can be. Factors include:

(i) The fibre and yarn type: for example the fibre’s stretch and recovery (elasticity) and its’
brittleness to cope with the stresses of the knitting process.

(ii) Stitch architecture: the type of fabric, particularly if it is a single or double bed type fabric.

136
(iii) The machinery used: the tensioning takedown device, use of sinkers and stitch pressers.
Tension is required in only selected areas that are being knitted and is not required where
stitches are being held. Therefore the type of takedown system of the machinery is critical.
Takedown across the needle bed needs to be varied. The sinkers and stitch pressers can
assist in addressing this, allowing the tensioning and takedown to be minimal and not affect the
knitting. If tension and takedown are not addressed, there is the potential for stitches to distort
(stretch and elongate) and for damage to occur to the fibre and yarn.

7.3 CONCLUSION
This Chapter examined a variety of cut-out shapes. Shapes were categorised into four broad
groups; slits (vertical, horizontal and diagonal), square cut-outs, diamond cut-outs and circle
cut-outs. From these it is possible to form a cut-out of any description and shape.

A number of shape knitting methods were identified as offering the greatest potential. The
Chapter shows the diversity and potential for any cut-out shape to be formed. Most shapes can
be formed using any stitch architecture and on any knitting machine, including standard and
WG machines. It is the choice of stitch architecture that determines the machinery
requirements.

137
PART 3: IMPLICATIONS FOR DESIGN

With Part 3 Implications for Design, the focus of the research shifts to a design space. It is both
reflective and speculative in nature. Having set out the background knowledge required for the
research (Part 1) and established the Shape Lexicon (Part 2) the final phase reflects on and
examines the potentiality of the research. In doing so, Part 3 draws attention to how this
research into 3D shape knitting links to and overlays with other designers’ and design
academics’ nodes of thinking in relation to form.

Firstly a small case study CraFormaTion (Chapter 8) is presented. The case study explores the
relationship of form and surface, ornament and structure, and culminates in a small series of
knitted artefacts. The intention is two fold: firstly to demonstrate the potential of how the Shape
Lexicon can support and enhance the design process to creatively think about form in new
ways, and secondly to highlight how this research into 3D shape knitting relates to and
potentially can contribute to a wider design discourse.

The research then switches to a more speculative nature with Chapter 9. The potentiality and
usefulness of the research is expanded on, further validating the work. The Chapter invites a
broader design audience to consider how 3D shape knitting could be used to create new
innovative forms, and thus begins to point towards possible future research directions involving
3D shape knitting. In particular the potential nexus of textile design and architecture is
considered.

Within this design context, Part 3 shows how the research, and specifically the Shape Lexicon,
should be viewed as both a tool to understand and construct form and a communication device
to further trans-disciplinary design research. The research is ultimately a bridging position
between the highly technical field of industrial 3D shape knitting and design.

138
8. CASE STUDY: CraFormaTion

This Chapter presents a case study that draws together and extends the work set out in
Chapters 2 to 7, by creatively exploring the relationship of surface and form, ornament and
structure. Having investigated, identified and documented important knitting technology and
principles (Chapter 2 and 3) and established the most useful 3D shape knitting techniques
(Chapter 4), a Shape Lexicon of 3D knitted forms was established (Chapters 5 to 7). The
Shape Lexicon represents a range of base building blocks available for use on an industrial
knitting machine. By examining the Shape Lexicon and combining these base blocks, more
complex forms can be developed.

Through a series of knitted artefacts, the case study represents the practical knowledge in
action of the Shape Lexicon. By shifting into a design space, the intention is to demonstrate the
value of the research into 3D shape knitting. Thus the Shape Lexicon could be a useful tool for
designers to develop new ways of thinking about form in light of current design debates.
Specifically the design debates discussed, that this research has a relationship to, include
considerations of natures’ structural efficiencies and form building capacities, the impact and
influence of new technology and materials for design and the reconsideration of craft in a digital
technology context.

By utilising weft knitting flat-bed machinery technology and considering advanced textile
materials, the case study proposes that a form may be structural and ornamental. There is a
blurring of surface, structure and form, with these elements needing to be considered not as
separated entities, but as one. With this blurring, there is the opportunity for craft and
technology to converge, with each influencing, informing and ultimately transforming how form
can be imagined.

In order to make the links between the application of the Shape Lexicon and broader academic
design discourse, the case study is organised into two parts. Firstly the design influences are
outlined (Section 8.1), and then the design outcomes, as a series of artefacts are presented
(Section 8.2), with discussion on the use of the Shape Lexicon.

8.1 DESIGN INFLUENCES

The starting point for the knitted artefacts was to consider the theme of ‘Integrating form and
surface’. With the theme direction in mind, design research drew on important discourses within
the broader design discipline and brought together a range of contemporary and historical
sources across science, technology and design. Specifically the ideas explored were clustered
around three key themes: (i) responding to nature; (ii) the nexus of technology and design, and
(iii) transforming craft.

139
The design intent was to visually illustrate and inform how a form could be simultaneously
structural and ornamental; be about surface and volume. The artefacts would highlight the
benefits for material efficiencies brought about by 3D shape knitting and elicit the potential
opportunities of the convergence of new technologies and materials with craft in order to pursue
innovative design outcomes. In doing so, the artefacts would demonstrate how 3D shape
knitting has a relevance to other designers and design academics nodes of thinking and
potentially contribute to a wider design discourse.

The three key themes of (i) responding to nature, (ii) the nexus of technology and design, and
(iii) transforming craft are briefly discussed. These discussions are not intended to be a
comprehensive analysis of current design theories or debates, but a starting point for
understanding the overlaps this research has, and therefore its potential usefulness of the
research, to a broader design audience.

Specifically;
(i) Responding to nature
Inspiration was drawn from nature, as well as contemporary designers’ response to nature both
as an aesthetic and as a means to generating optimal structural form building capacities (Figure
8.1). What can design learn from natural organisms which can create increased structural and
efficient systems through material optimisations?

Figure 8.1 ‘Responding to nature’ sourced inspiration

Nature as inspiration is an important design consideration today, as highlighted by the text By

Nature’s Design by Murphy (1993), Angeli Sach’s Nature Design, from inspiration to innovation
(2007) and exhibitions such as The Design and the Elastic Mind at the Museum of Modern Art,
New York in 2008.

140
Designers are looking towards natural organisms, systems and processes to inspire aesthetic
form building, as well as biomimetricy, to achieve material optimisation (Downton et al 2008;
Mattheck 1990). In particular designers, architects and engineers are looking towards natural
systems and processes as a way to explore how more structural efficiencies of a form can be
achieved. “Naturally occurring structures such as trees, bone, coral, sponge, foam and bio-
mineralised protest shells exhibit flamboyant geometry that simultaneously negotiate several
environmental conditions with minimal energy and material consumption” (Downton et al 2008,
p127). In exploring such forms, weft knitting and specifically 3D shape knitting could be a useful
tool.

For example, natural coralline forms are generated that are lightweight and self replicating and
self repairing. Additionally, by reducing the weight of the coral’s own structure, it is able to form
tall stronger self supporting structural surfaces, with near uniform stress distribution. Of
particular interest are deep sea corals that survive in extreme environmental conditions, which
are only now possible to be explored because of advanced deep sea diving technology. For
example, earlier this year CSIRO scientists discovered the ‘waffle-cone’ sponge which has a
half metre wide mouth and is 2 metres high, found at a depth of 2197 metres in the Tasman
Fracture Zone, near Tasmania (CSIRO, 2009).

In addition, nature as inspiration can be further extended to look at other natural forms, such as
depicted in the illustrations of Ernst Heinrich Haeckel (1974) that display a flamboyant
geometry. These forms are both ornamental and structural and offer designers both an
aesthetic inspiration and insight into the relationship of form and surface. For example,
Japanese designer ceramicist Ikuko Iwamoto creates biomorphic porcelain sculptures that
“convey a world of intricacy and detail, of mathematical pattern and organic chaos, of beauty
and repulsion” (Brownell, 2008, p37).

When viewing such coralline structures, it is worth noting the potential similarities these forms
have to process and outcomes that can be achieved by weft knitting. Therefore, could
advanced weft flat-bed knitting machinery offer new insight and opportunities to creatively
reconsider the relationship of form and surface, ornament and structure? Can a single thread
and the process of duplicating a repeat unit (stitch) form an efficient and self-supporting
structure? Could such a form be both flamboyant and efficient?

Consider the physical action of weft knitting, built on the placement of successive stitches one
by one, is an additive fabrication manufacturing process, much like building a logarithmic
pattern or coralline forms. 3D shape knitting could open up the possibility to think about and
approach form very differently. The added value is that 3D shape knitting is a completely
automated manufacturing process. Therefore new ways of building form may be explored, not
only at the micro level of being a useful method to create maquettes, but at the macro level of
building larger scale structures, particularly when advanced textile fibres and textile composites

141
are considered. To date, such an opportunity does not exist with other 3D additive fabrication
processes such as 3D printers that are restricted in size outputs.

(ii) The nexus of technology and design

Inspiration was also drawn from the profound influence of new technology and materials for
contemporary design (Figure 8.2). There are numerous texts exploring the impact of new digital
technology and high performance fibre-based materials on design, such as Extreme Textiles
(McQuaid, 2005), Ultra Materials (Beylerian, Dent & Quinn, 2007) and Transmaterial 2
(Brownell, 2008). While there is significant acknowledgement of technical textile advances as
offering opportunities with these texts, to date, flat-bed weft knitting machinery has largely sat
outside of this design discourse. As highlighted in Chapter 2 and Section 3.1, much of the
research and literature on advanced knitting technology is in the technical textiles sector and is
not well understand outside of this sector. However, if advanced weft flat-bed knitting
machinery was placed in a design space, and reconsidered as a design tool, rather than purely
a manufacturing process for the apparel industry, could designers exploit this technology to
develop creative ways of thinking about form?

Figure 8.2 ‘The nexus of technology and design’ sourced inspiration

At present there is a range of new digital technology traditionally associated with engineering,
industrial and automotive manufacturing processes that offer enormous potential for the
designers think about form and the relationship of form and surface. For example CAD/CAM
parametric design software, 3D scanning, 2D fabrication technologies such as laser cutters and

142
3D fabrication technologies of additive and subtractive fabrication processes, such as rapid
prototyping. Additive fabrication involves incremental forming by adding material in a layer-by-
layer fashion, in a process which is the converse to milling (subtractive fabrication) (Kolarevic
ed. 2003, p34-6). For example Noriko Ambe’s A Piece of Flat Globe, Vol 6.

For the textile industry, the adoption of new technology not traditionally associated with the
textile industry is an exciting prospect. To date, textile designers have particularly embraced
the 2D fabrication technologies of laser cutting. The focus on the 2D reflects the traditional
notion of textile design being about the ‘surface’. However, the laser cutter is opening up the
possibilities to reconsideration of the relationship of the surface and form in new ways, shifting
the focus beyond the surface. For textile designers this is allowing for a more three-dimensional
and structural view of the surface to emerge, as can be seen for example in the work of the
textile designers Lauren Moriarty and Anne Kyyrö Quinn. In particular, Lauren Moriarty’s
Noodle Block Cubes represent intriguing experiments in digitally fabricated 3D cellular
structures (Brownell ed. 2008, p109), which are designed digitally, and then laser cut and hand
finished. While Anne Kyyrö Quinn, works with traditional felt and laser-cuts pioneering a new
genre of soft furnishings for architectural panels based on structure rather than surface
ornamentation (Beylerian, Dent, & Quinn 2007, p74).

Conversely designers outside of the textile industry are looking increasingly towards the
surface, recognising the enormous potential that new textile materials have to offer, when
combined with 2D and 3D fabrication technologies. Designers are developing new three-
dimensional surfaces and forms that would otherwise not be possible. It can be seen that the
combination of technological and material advances are allowing for the surface and form to
connect together. For example Freedom of Creation, an Amsterdam-based design lab, has
developed a sophisticated process of rapid manufacturing (also known as rapid prototyping and
stereolithography) to produce a flexible garment that resembles chain mail. “The process reads
files created in three-dimensional modelling software applications such as Solidworks and
fabricates the object by firing a laser into a chamber of liquid material such as plastic or metal.
The laser solidifies a tiny layer of material at a time, slowing building up a three-dimensional
object” (Beylerian, Dent, & Quinn 2007, p79). The resulting 3D malleable surface is a non-
woven textile made up of interlocking elements that would not otherwise be possible to produce
by traditional manufacturing processes.

For the textile sector, significant developments are also occurring with existing textile specific
manufacturing processes, machinery, and CAD/CAM processes, which have brought improved
performance. For example in warp knitting the Raschel machine allows for spacer fabrics
offering new depth in textiles and non-woven production allowing for the incorporation of
electronics, such as Eleksen’s touch-sensitive pads for smart textiles (Beylerian, Dent & Quinn
2007, p30-1). Similarly, weft flat-bed knitting machinery and specifically seamless knitting
technology as discussed in Sections 2.2 and 3.7 are providing significant improved efficiencies
and performance.

143
When these textile technology advances are considered in light of the developments in fibre-
based materials, there are significant opportunities to expand the way designers think about and
engage in form building. These developments offer opportunities for new innovative design
solutions to emerge and to push the boundaries and definition of what is a textile today. In
addition, when these technology and material advances are considered along side
developments in composite structures, as discussed in Chapter 2, the potential for 3D shape
knitting is enormous.

To date, developments in textile specific technologies have tended to operate exclusively in the
textile domain. However, could textile manufacturing processes, such as the industrial flat-bed
knitting machine, be adopted by the broader design community as a tool much like the laser
cutter has been, as a way to creatively explore the relationship of form and surface? The
potentiality of the nexus of advanced 3D shape knitting and design is expanded on in the next
Chapter.

(iii) Transforming craft

The final range of ideas this research has a relationship to and was explored for the case study
was around the theme of transforming craft. Inspiration was drawn from contemporary design,
as well as historical sources, in order to reflect on and consider the nexus of craft and digital
technology. The focus was on how hand craft textile techniques are being utilised in non
traditional ways (Figure 8.3).

Figure 8.3 ‘Transforming craft’ sourced inspiration

The relationship of craft and technology is another important discourse for design. As
highlighted by the influential work of Malcolm McCullough’s Abstracting Craft (1996),
consideration needs to be made to the relationship of the hand, mastering one’s tools and
knowledge of a medium with the emergence of digital technology.

144
Similarly other texts such as Richard Sennett’s The Craftsman (2008) and Sandy Alfoldy’s
NeoCraft: Modernity and the Crafts (2007) expand the discourse by consider the meaning of
craft.

While innovations in new materials and technology have sparked designers’ imaginations, these
innovations have also brought out a renewed appreciation of traditional craft and decorative arts
techniques. The re-emergence of craft as a design sensibility can be seen partly as a reaction
against digitisation and as a pursuit for authenticity (Erlhoff and Marshall 2008, p91). There is a
significant shift taking place from the large-scale industrial processes that emphasised
standardisation during the twentieth century to today’s desire to customise and personalise
(Brownell ed. 2008, p8).

This re-emergence of craft as a reaction against digitisation has not meant the complete
rejection of digital technology. Indeed, the advent of digital fabrication technologies has
reintroduced the detailed individual artistry and sophisticated material refinement of the
craftsperson (Brownell ed. 2008, p8). Consider the term craft “refers to the skill and mastery of
working with materials and/or processes” (Erlhoff and Marshall 2008, p90). In light of digital
technology, what does the term craft mean today? What tools are appropriate for a
craftsperson to use masterfully? Does the industrialisation of craft, through access to
automated processes, change the value or perception of craft?

Investigating hand craft techniques in non traditional textile ways in order to create distinctive
and unique products has been a significant focus of many designers, such as Marcel Wander
Lace Table (1997) and Van Eijk’s Bobbin Lace Lamp (2002). Wander’s Lace Table (1997) is
constructed from individual Swiss lace pieces that are stitched together, formed over a mould
and stiffened with e-poxy resin to make a table with function and the aesthetic value of
traditional lace (Braddock Clarke & O’Mahony 2005, p137). While Van Eijk’s Bobbin Lace Lamp
(2002) uses fibre optic cables with traditional textile lace-making and knotting techniques.
Interestingly both designers rely on an element of hand crafted textile processes that (to date)
can not be replicated or adapted to automated manufacturing processes or methods
(McFadden, 2007, p70).

With these designs, there is a blurring of digital and analogue in which new forms and ideas
emerge. Therefore similarly, what could be achieved through the nexus of craft and technology
specific to weft knitting?

Consider how the craft of hand-made lace knitting could be re-interpreted and transformed into
a 3D form and through the automated processes of advanced seamless knitting technology
knitting. Could such a convergence of craft and technology allow for ornament to be used in a
structural way to generate a form?

145
 th
Hand-made lace knitting has a long tradition and enjoyed remarkable popularity in the 18 and
th
19 centuries across many European countries (Kinzel, 1972) (Figure 8.4). Crafted using fine
lace thread and extremely fine wire-like needles, complex decorative cobweb-like open lace
patterns were created. Because of the fineness of the needles, this was a very labour intensive
process. The designs were based on the technique of medallion knitting or ‘round art knitting’,
in which lace stitches and patterns are worked in a circular movement without the need for any
seams (Kinzel, 1972, p9).

Figure 8.4 Transforming traditional lace hand knitting, sourced inspiration.

It is only with the development of advanced weft flat-bed knitting machinery, namely seamless
knitting, that hand lace designs ‘on the round’ can now be knitted by automated processes. In
addition, by transferring the ideas of this traditional craft to an automated production method
also allows for new textile fibres and potentially extremely fine yarns that could be exceedingly
problematic to hand knit, to be utilised. For example a synthetic yarn with a very slippery
handle will distort easily when not under tension. This handle increases the likelihood of
dropped stitches to ladder and unravel, making hand knitting virtually impossible. Such yarn
however could be industrially knitted.

In addition, by shifting the notion of hand knitting ‘on the round’ into a digital technology sphere,
with the use of advanced high performance fibres, there is the potential to explore for structural
and form building capacities that would not otherwise be possible. Could a traditionally
decorative element be investigated for its structural qualities?

Transforming the craft of hand lace though new textile materials and technology blurs the
boundaries of craft and technology, and allow for the reconsideration of ornament and structure,
so that what emerges as a form is unexpected and new. In doing so, could an augmented
dimensionality of surface and form be achieved by 3D shape knitting?

146
If the surface is no longer ‘flat’, but an active element, could the surface provide both
ornamental and structural qualities. Could the interplay and response of light passing through
structures to create shadows add texture and depth, further enriching the surface? For example
Richard Sweeney’s Light Modulator (2008) made of paper and adhesive, which is a maquette
for plywood lighting construction (Figure 8.5).

Figure 8.5 Augmented dimensionality, sourced inspiration

Reconsidering traditional notions of craft in light of digital technologies advances, challenges

designers to think about how to engage with new mediums. As Malcolm McCullough states “it
matters less what the technology can do alone than what you want to do with it” (1996, p IX).

8.2 THE KNITTED ARTEFACTS: Integrating form and surface

With the design intent of integrating form and surface established, and having highlighted how
this research and 3D shape knitting connects to the work of other designers and design
academics, attention shifted to the development of a small series of knitted artefacts.

As, the early concepts for the knitted artefacts began to emerge, the creative process needed to
fluidly shift between design considerations and technical constraints. In doing so, the 3D shape
knitting techniques and Shape Lexicon established (Chapters 4 to 7) were essential to
understanding the form building. The Shape Lexicon presents the design specifications of a
wide range of 3D base forms. By combining a number of elements (building blocks) together,
more complex forms are possible.

At this point technical design parameters also were considered. A critical review of the
technical knowledge that the Shape Lexicon offered was undertaken, with analysis and
selection of knitting elements (building blocks). The review process was about identifying the
most optimal approach (knitting techniques), to ensure the physical translation of ideas could be
realised.

147
It was critical that the review process was not only about understanding the technical
parameters in which the designs could emerge, but that the use of the Shape Lexicon would
elicit opportunities and facilitate new ideas. The Shape Lexicon acted as an important support
to the overall design process, by being both a tool to further creative thinking and a means to
ensure the design ideas could be realised. The positive and negative attributes of a design
could quickly be evaluated, and the design direction determined. As the form emerged, the
required base building blocks and knitting techniques were identified and the machinery
requirements determined.

The value of the Shape Lexicon is the way in which the 3D forms are organised and
communicated. Adapting the concept of ‘package’, the standard technical programming tool
developed by Shima Seiki, a graphic 2D representation of 3D shapes was developed (refer to
Section 3.7). The design specifications are compatible with the compressed pattern of Shima
Seiki’s knit programming, but without additional technical programming information of the
pattern development assignment or optional lines, which the knit technician requires. The
Package Adaptation enables designers to understand the essence of how various 3D shapes
are formed, by focusing on the relationship between the variables, and not specific values, that
constitute the shape. Alternating one or more of these variables can affect and alter the whole
system (resultant knitted 3D form) creating a potentially infinite range of associated shapes.

The Shape Lexicon concentrates on the design parameters, which is what the designer needs
to know about in order to create a 3D form, within the context of programming needs, which the
knit technician requires. By applying ideas associated with parametric design, the focus is on
exploiting the opportunity to generate new form. Set up in this manner, the Shape Lexicon
enables a designer to focus on developing and resolving design opportunities, but without being
overwhelmed with having to understand technical digital knit programming. For designers the
Shape Lexicon therefore provides a useful gateway into a very technical domain and in doing so
the Shape Lexicon supports and enhances communication between the designer and knit
technician.

Furthermore, by articulating the possibilities of 3D shape knitting to designers and design

teams, the industrial flat-bed knitting machine could potentially become a tool to explore
complex design ideas, much like other types of 3D additive fabrication technologies such as
rapid prototyping.

Consequently the benefits of the Shape Lexicon are multi faceted. Better communication and
understanding between the design and technical sectors of the knitting industry potentially leads
to accelerating the product development phase, ensuring a timelier and cost effective outcome.
The designer also gains a clearer understanding of machine limitations. The Shape Lexicon
®
shows what is possible for a standard knitting machine verses a WholeGarment machine. If a
designer only has access to a particular knitting machine then they are able to ensure the

148
design is achievable. Again, this could speed up the product development process, by focusing
on feasible techniques and base forms.

As the review of the Shape Lexicon was occurring, consideration also began on the selection of
suitable materials to knit the artefacts. The material choice needed to reinforce and support the
design intent by ensuring that the reconsideration of the relationship of form and surface was at
the forefront. With this in mind a multi filament, high tenacity ballistic nylon was selected, as it is
strong and lightweight, with a translucent quality. Such a material represents new fibre
advances and ensured the artefacts did not have the feel of being hand crafted in any traditional
sense. Instead the material selection would further blur the boundaries of craft and technology,
design and science so that what emerged was unexpected and new.

In addition, preliminary research was undertaken, but not pursued, into the use of resins for
textile composites, such as epoxy resin (Long, 2005). The use of resins requires a significant
knowledge base, particularly in light of use of chemical processes and sustainability issues.
Therefore, given this research is focused on the design of preforms and for the purpose of
communicating ideas of the knitted preforms, a simplified model of the resin process using non
toxic PVA glue was instead adopted. A next step, which is beyond the scope of this research, is
to look towards investigating resins, most likely through collaborative partnerships.

From the research, a series of small scale models were developed (Figure 8.6). These first
samples were trialled in cotton on a hand flat knitting machine. This allowed for the testing of
ideas and to see the potential of the approach in light of the technical issues of knitting. For this
stage, cotton yarn was used. If the samples were not successful in cotton, due to the stress the
knitted piece was under during the knitting process, then it was unlikely to work in a less
forgiving yarn such as nylon.

Figure 8.6 Working models of design concepts

Designs for the artefacts were further refined and modified, balancing both technical and
aesthetical concerns, and scale increased. The knit programs were developed and tested,
through the digital simulation of the knitting process offered through Shima Seiki’s SDS-ONE
Knit-paint program. This process of technical translation was assisted and considerably

149
accelerated by use of the Shape Lexicon. The ease of translation was in contrast to what can
occur at this stage of knit product development, when a design can be compromised, as
technical issues are addressed at the expense of aesthetic considerations.

Selected final designs were then knitted on an industrial knitting machine using both cotton and
the high tenacity nylon. The knitted forms were subsequently converted into composite
structures, by applying the simplified resin process to the knitted preforms. This stabilised the
knitting and made the forms semi rigid, giving them a translucent quality.

The first knitted artefact, Cube structure with diagonal lattice, expresses a surface pattern that is
engineered and integral to the overall form (Figure 8.7). A cube shaped structure was created
with a flat base, formed by four triangular segments coming together using the parachute
technique of transferring stitches. As a result the artefact relies on seamless knitting
technology.

Figure 8.7 Artefact 01: Cube structure with diagonal lattice

A diagonal lattice lace work was also applied to the form. The placement of the patterning was
purposefully linked to the underlining structure achieved at the base of the piece. The direction
of the diagonal lace pattern changed on each side of the cube, so that the transitional points
directed the form. Thus the patterning became a device to assisted the composite forming
phase when the stiffening agent was applied, as the boundaries of each surface were clearly
defined.

In addition, the dual response of the diagonal lace lattice network and translucent quality of the
material to light gives the artefact an added complexity and richness of texture. The interplay of

150
light passing through the structure creates an augmented surface dimensionality, further
challenging the relationship and perception of the form and surface. The viewer’s perspective
of the foreground and background surfaces of the artefact comes in and out of focus, at times
merging the two together so that the diagonal patterning appears as a diamond pattern (Figure
8.8).

Figure 8.8 Augmented surface dimensionality

By integrating form and surface, the structural and ornamental begin to blur. As the second
artefact, Cylinder structure with chevron lattice demonstrates how structure and ornament can
support and merge into each other (Figure 8.9).

Figure 8.9 Artefact 02: Cylinder structure with chevron lattice

The underlying structure (form) to the knitted artefact is a cylinder shaped tube with a flat base.
The base being formed by 6 triangular segments coming together through the parachute
technique of transferring stitches. The base of the artefact, while appearing decorative is in fact
completely structural. In contrast the cylinder tube’s ornamental element is not structural. The

151
chevron lace pattern has been applied to the structure, and while the lace pattern is integrated
with the form, it is not inseparable.

Therefore, once the underlying form is established, additional surface patterning can be applied
to the cylinder. This supplementary ornamental patterning can be used to provide additional
structural support, and disguise the structural nature of the ornamental; merging the structural
and ornamental. The surface pattern can have a structural element and be engineered to
support the form. That is, surface pattern such as a lattice lace pattern can assist the form to be
self supporting and improve overall stability. The base of the form is more densely packed with
fibre and as the height increases, the lacework increases and the surface becomes more open,
effectively reducing the overall weight of the piece.

In addition, because of the use of automated machinery, the artefact could be easily customised
in a quick response mode. The artefacts scale and choice of materials could readily be
changed, and alternative stitch architectures applied to the form (Figure 8.10). It is the potential
ease of customisation using automated processes that allows for the industrialisation of craft.
Craft and technology, as well as the use of new materials can come together to support each
other and thus facilitating new opportunities for knitted textile applications to emerge.

Figure 8.10 Design customisation through changes of stitch architecture

Further extending the idea of Integrating form and surface is to blur the structural and
ornamental so that the two elements can not be separated. The artefacts’ structural element is
ornamental and the ornamental element is structural. Consequently what may appear to be
ornamental is in fact fundamental to the structure of the artefacts’ form.

The blurring of structural and ornamental elements is partially achieved within artefact 02,
Cylinder structure with chevron lattice at the base. However with artefact 02 (Figure 8.9) the
lattice diamond lace pattern within the cylinder could be removed or changed and the essence
of the form (and structure) would remain. So while the form and surface through its core are
integrated they are not inseparable.

With the final artefact, open lattice, the structural ornamental blurring is extended throughout the
whole piece, so that the ornamental can not be removed, without the form collapsing (Figure
8.11). In addition, artefact 03 embodies the efficiency of structure and materials in relation to

152
form. This material optimisation highlights the advantages of using 3D shape knitting as a
means to generate complex form. The artefact is created with one continuous thread, requiring
no cutting or seaming and ensuring paramount efficiency and minimal wastage of raw materials.

Figure 8.11 Artefact 03: open lattice

The form for artefact 03 was created by combining tubular knitting with a short row patterning
technique (suspended stitches) in single jersey to create a series of diagonal oval shaped slits
within the form. Although the form was complex in nature, the actual knitting process compared
with the first two artefacts was simpler, because the knitting involved no multiple stitch transfer
processes, apart from the cast off. Therefore the machinery options for this artefact were
broader, being able to be knitted on most industrial machines which have sinkers and a stitch
presser.

Research into the utilisation and potential exploitation of multiple cut-outs with a broader range
of 3D shape knitting techniques, for material structural efficiencies, warrants further
investigation. By reducing the overall weight of the form, and allowing for the form’s height to
be extended and its span to be potentially increased could offer greater insight into developing
new forms.

8.3 CONCLUSION
A series of knitted artefacts were created, responding to the design theme of Integrating form
and surface, in order to elicit the potential of 3D shape knitting for new ways of reconsidering
the relationship of form and surface, ornament and structure. In doing so, the case study
demonstrates how this research connects to and has overlaps with other designers and design
academics’ nodes of thinking. These overlaps highlight the potential of 3D shape knitting and
the usefulness of the Shape Lexicon to contribute to key design debates. In particular this

153
research recognises that 3D shape knitting has the potential to engage in expanding ideas to do
with the efficiencies of natural systems and form build capacities, the impact of technology and
the reconsideration of craft in a digital context.

The knitted artefacts show the opportunity to transform traditional handicrafts, such as hand
knitting through the use of advanced automated technology and manufacturing processes and
®
high performance fibre-base materials. By utilising technology such as WholeGarment and
through material selection, these artefacts could not otherwise be made.

In light of digital technology, craft increasingly interacts with industrialisation. Craft is no longer
seen to be isolated or alienated from technology, but is instead making a rapprochement with
technology. Ultimately this leads to reconsidering what craft means today. What tools can a
craftsperson use and master? Does access to automated processes change the perception
and value of craft?

The artefacts demonstrate the usefulness of the Shape Lexicon to support the design process
in this context of the confluence of craft and technology. The Shape Lexicon provides the
designer with an understanding of technical parameters of 3D knitting, and in doing so supports
clearer communication between the designer and technician. This trans-disciplinary approach
is essential to reconsidering the relationship of surface and form.

The case study shifts the research to a design space, and in doing so actively demonstrates
how this research acts as a bridging position between the highly technical domain of 3D shape
knitting and design. Consequently the case study elicits the potentialities of 3D shape knitting
and the usefulness of the Shape Lexicon for a broader design audience. These potentialities
are further expanded upon in the next chapter.

154
9. TRANSFORMATIVE TEXTILES

Today, textiles reveal their capacity to transform our world more than any other material
(Beylerian, Dent & Quinn 2007, p68). Innovations occurring with textile materials and
technologies are of importance for designers. Technological breakthroughs are transforming
textile fibres and textile techniques traditionally associated with the hand crafts such as
weaving, knitting, crochet and embroidery. This is allowing designers to look towards textiles
for the opportunity to creatively explore the relationship of surface and form. By using new
textile materials, can a form be simultaneously structural and ornamental, as well as about
surface and volume?

Extending the ideas as set out in the case study (Chapter 8), this Chapter takes on a more
speculative approach. By positioning 3D shape knitting within a design space the potentialities
of the research to connect with a wider design discourse are considered.

Within the Chapter, the significance of new textiles for design is examined (Section 9.1).
Innovations occurring with materials science, namely composites, and textile technology in
terms of both 2D and 3D fabrication processes, are expanding the possibilities of how designers
consider the relationship between surface and form, and structure and ornament. Secondly, in
order to take advantage of these breakthroughs, there is a need to bridge gaps in
understanding, by developing meaningful links across the various design sectors, but also
between design and science; craft and technology. For textile designers in particular, such
exchanges offer an exciting prospect, in which new design applications may emerge. But more
profoundly, such exchanges are assisting textile design to reposition itself beyond merely
consideration of the surface (Section 9.2). In particular, the Chapter speculates at the potential
opportunity for textile design and architecture to work more closely together (Section 9.3).

Finally, in light of new textiles and the repositioning of textile design, the Chapter narrows its
focus to examine and reflect on the significance of the research. Highlighted is the potential of
the Shape Lexicon to be both a design and communication tool (Section 9.4). 3D shape knitting
techniques and the development of the Shape Lexicon need to be seen as a means to further
assist in instigating meaningful trans-disciplinary exchanges, which could ultimately bring about
innovative design solutions. In addition, the question is raised: could the industrial flat-bed
knitting machine become a tool for designers outside the apparel industry in the near future?

9.1 NEW TEXTILES: integrating form and surface

The term textile and its plural textiles (derived from the Latin texere, meaning to weave) can be
applied to fibres, filaments and yarns and the products made from them (Anstery & Weston
2003). It is closely associated with and often substituted for the term fabric; a relatively thin and
flexible sheet like structure made of fibres and/or yarns. The structure of the textile fabric can

155
be formed in a variety of ways; intermeshing (weave), interlooping (knit, crotchet and knotting),
stitching (embroidery), or entangling, melting or bonding together (in the case of non-woven
fabrics), braiding (cords and ropes) or through more complex means of combining numerous
techniques.

Essential to understanding textiles and fabric is the complex relationship of the surface and its
underlying structure, and how this can be applied to create form. A fabric, regardless of how it
is made has a substantial surface area in relation to its thickness and sufficient structure to give
the assembly (of fibres and/or yarns) useful mechanical strength (eds. Denton & Daniels 2002).

Textile fabrics can be seen to fall into two distinct categories; decorative and structural. The
decorative is about the surface of the fabric and the application of pattern to that surface, in a
two dimensional form. Often it does not have structural integrity in itself. The ornamental
element (the surface’s colour, pattern, design) can not stand alone and it needs a substrate (the
structure or bones) on which to work. This ornamental can be achieved using an extensive
range of textile techniques such as printing, embroidery or fabric manipulation. In contrast,
structural textiles explore the ‘bones’ of a cloth. Starting with nothing, fibres and yarns are
selected and the cloth is constructed, through techniques such as knitting, weaving and felting.
Even though these fabrics can take on a three-dimensional nature such as pleats, welts or
textural effects, it is still ultimately about the surface; be it a three-dimensional surface.

At the micro level, textiles can be both decorative and structural, as their performance
requirements are relativity low, compared with the absolute needs of for example aerospace
engineering (aircraft design) and architecture. Because of a textile’s ability to easily mould to a
form, textiles and textile fabrics are an ideal ‘cloth’ to work with for fashion designers. Textiles
at the micro scale can take on an infinite range of diverse characteristics and performance
qualities. These can be determined or set through the selection of different fibre types, yarns,
fabric constructions and decorative applications, as well as finishing processes and
applications.

However, the role of textiles is changing. Designers from industrial design and architecture
disciplines, as well as fashion and textile design are looking towards textiles to innovate. What
we are seeing is perhaps a return to the designer as a material innovator. Innovations and
advances in textile fibres and technology are influencing how textiles are being used.
Traditional techniques and technology, the ornamental and structural, and the micro and macro
are blurring. Textile techniques, once associated with being hand crafted are being transformed
into high-tech automated processors using sophisticated and complex technology and
machinery.

With advances in textile materials and technology the relationship of surface and structure is
changing. The transformation of textiles due to new technologies is impacting on virtually every
industry and aspect of our lives. Surface, structure and form are becoming more

156
interconnected, interdependent and interactive (Colchester 2007). As well, textile innovations,
in particular fibre developments, are changing the scale of how textile designers can operate.
While textiles have traditionally been applied to the micro level, for their ornamental qualities
such as fashion (clothing) and household textiles (soft furnishings, upholstery, and carpets),
they are increasingly being applied to the macro level for having structural performance qualities
such as the built form and architecture.

It must be noted that textiles and textiles based hybrids already operate at a structural level in
the field of technical textiles, across a diverse range of applications in such fields as aerospace,
automotive, marine, medicine, geotextiles, building and construction, and have done so for
some time. “Industries are increasingly replacing heavier materials with part textile (flexible),
part non-textile (glass, carbon, metal and ceramic) hybrids. They offer high performance but
with reduced weight, an important consideration for the construction industry” (Braddock Clarke
& O’Mahony 2005). These fabrics are developed for their technical performance and functional
properties rather than their aesthetic or decorative qualities. Generally they are hidden out of
sight as they are assisting an existing situation rather than being the main support. For
example, they are used to reinforce bridges, repair existing structures (eds. Horrocks & Anand
2000) and increase the strength of a failing structure, which typically happens in disaster zones,
or with age. The extreme performance requirements of technical textiles leave little room for
ornamental design opportunities. Out of necessity, function must override form; performance is
paramount.

However, under question today is what exactly constitutes a textile fibre or fabric. If something
behaves like a textile, is it a textile? Conversely, if a textile is transformed and engineered to
not behave or look like a textile, can it still be classified as one? And what happens when
textiles are combined with non-textile and hybrid materials, and new functions associated with
nanotechnology or electronics are incorporated and engineered into the ‘fabric’? In the future,
fabrics may not be passive, but instead monitor and interact with the individual and their
environment.

How will designers respond to the new textiles? Can a textile be simultaneously structural and
decorative, be about surface and volume? This is leading to a reconsideration of a form’s
surface and structure. “No longer intended for practical use alone, materials are playing an
important role in taking aesthetics forward” (Beylerian, Dent & Quinn 2007, p7).

Fabrics can now take on a range of properties, specifications and performance characteristics
that are transforming and challenging what a textile is and can do. Technical textiles are being
designed to be as much about functionality as about having an aesthetic. Textiles are also
being engineered to be smart; integrating sensors, actuators, processors, and microsystems
into clothing (eds. Jayaraman, Kiekens & Grancaric 2006). Smart textiles may be able to sense
their surroundings and respond with an appropriate action (McQuaid 2005).

157
Interestingly, technical textiles are looking to decorative techniques, such as embroidery to
develop integral structural forms (Tao, 2000). There is a blurring of the traditional boundaries of
the technical and structural with the decorative. This blurring is allowing for textile techniques
that were associated more with fashion to be transformed and considered by diverse sectors
such as medicine, military (protective wear) and architecture.

Fundamental to material innovations are the advances in fibres. The engineering of fibres has
accelerated over the past decade. The twentieth century saw the transformation of fibres from
natural fibres (such as cotton and wool) to the early synthetics (nylon and polyester), to blending
of fibres, to the development of advanced second, third and fourth generation fibres such as
glass, aramids (Kevlar) and carbon, as well as microfibres and nanofibres. Combined with
these fibre development is the emergence of hybrid fibres, textile composites and textile
membranes resulting in high strength, low weight materials that potentially perform better than
conventional materials (Eds. Horrocks & Anand 2000, p.24-39).

Fibres that combine impressive structural as well as potential innovative aesthetic qualities,
such as glass, aramid and carbon, are attracting considerable interest from designers. Such
materials have the potential to be applied to a wide range of design applications, from furniture
design to the built environment. Of particular interest are textile composite structures. As
previously discussed in Chapter 2, textile composites combine two or different materials to
make a new material with enhanced performance characteristics (Braddock & O’Mahony 1998,
p67).

The major advantages of composite materials are their high strength and stiffness, lightweight,
corrosion resistance, crack and fatigue resistance and design flexibility as compared to metals
and natural materials (Yang 1993, p120). For example, a carbon composite can produce a
material that combines “lightweight, quality of strength, high strength-weight ratio, fatigue
resistance, vibration absorption and electrical conductivity. When deprived of oxygen it
becomes an inorganic insulator which is resistant to high temperatures.” (Braddock Clarke &
O’Mahony 2005) Its applications, once exclusive to the aerospace field, now include
automotive, racing yachts, sports equipment and furniture, such as the ‘Carbon copy chair’ by
Bertjan Pot manufactured by Wanders Wonders, Amsterdam (Colchester 2007, p70).

Carbon is also being considered for architecture, such as the thought provoking project ‘the
Carbon Tower’ by Testa and Weiser (Garcia 2006; Hodge 2006). The Carbon Tower is a
conceptual project, designed mainly through computer modelling tools and draws on techniques
traditionally associated with textiles and fashion; the tower is to be literally woven on site.
“Braiding and weaving are systems in which all fibres are continuously mechanically interlocked
at regular intervals; applied architecturally, they create a mechanism that distributes the load
evenly throughout the structure” (Beylerian, Dent & Quinn 2007, p50). Through the combination
of using textile techniques, carbon fibres and composite materials, the form-work is no longer
just the support for the structure but is actually creating the structure (Underwood & Zilka 2008).

158
This makes a building much lighter and yet more resistant to impact, an important consideration
for earthquake construction. It is because of the unique qualities that carbon fibre offers, that
projects of this nature can be considered.

As well, from a designer’s perspective, textile composites offer a variety of appearances:

translucency, colour, surface texture, finish quality, etc (Long 2005). For example, a textile
technique such as a pleating may not only inspire a design, but in fact may be used as the
structural concept to generate the form, be it at a micro or macro scale. With new materials it is
possible to use a textile (as a soft membrane skin or as a composite) to achieve a structural
function as well as aesthetic quality. In addition, the surface may no longer be considered ‘flat’
and separate to the structure and form, but is the structure and the form. “Greater depth allows
thin materials to become more structurally stable, and materials with enhanced texture and
richness are often more visually pleasing” (Brownell 2008, p9). This possible integration of form
and surface offers designers a new way to explore form, bringing the structural and surface skin
together as connected entities. Using fibres that have a high strength to weight ratio, as carbon
fibre does, creates a new possibility of having an extremely fine structure but with these
elements more frequently placed and for conceptual concepts such as augmented
dimensionality to emerge.

Parallel to the developments in new materials, has been the significant advances taking place
with technology and manufacturing processing in particular. “No matter how good a material is,
if it can’t be formed into the right shape, or stuck to another material, or even a small amount of
it is too heavy to lift, it will not be a successful product” (Beylerian, Dent & Quinn 2007, p40).

As put forward in the case study (Section 8.1), advances in CAD/CAM parametric design
software, 2D and 3D fabrication technologies offer new found potential for unlimited creativity of
form. Additive fabrication technologies such as rapid prototyping, 3D printers and laser cutters
are changing the way designers think about form and the relationship of form and surface that
would otherwise not be possible. These technologies are also allowing designers the
opportunities to re-examine traditional notions of craft and reposition craft into a digital context.

The confluence of craft and technology is also allowing for textile techniques such as weaving
and knitting once only suitable for fashion to be transformed and scaled up. This nexus of craft
and technology is offering designers the opportunity to innovate with new forms, exploring the
space, volume and scale between the body and cloth, as well as the structural and sculptural
nature of fabric. A fabric may appear rigid and hold its shape, but in fact be soft and flexible,
allowing for easy movement.

For designers, the possibility of the integrating form and surface through new technology and
materials is an exciting prospect. However, understanding how to work with and optimise these
new textiles materials and technologies also significantly increases the complexity of the design
process. “Advanced tools and materials are making the designer’s task ever more complex. As

159
a consequence, we are starting to see some changes in design practice” (Braddock, Clarke &
O’Mahony, 2005, p.136). Therefore meaningful links must be made between not only the
parallel worlds of design; of fashion design, industrial design, architecture and textile design, but
also between design and science. For textile designers in particular, this offers new
opportunities. As these materials breakthroughs are textile based, textile designers are in a
unique position to assist in instigating these exchanges.

9.2 TEXTILE DESIGN’S REPOSITIONING

Traditionally there was the distinction that textile designers dealt primarily with decorative
textiles through the exploration of the ‘surface’, which required relatively low structural and
performance requirements, while textile technologists and engineers dealt with ‘structural’ and
‘technical’ textiles, where function overrides form, and performance is paramount. However,
could this distinction be changing, with a blurring of the structural and ornamental? Does the
complex relationship between surface and form represent a broader shift for textile design?

The textile design discipline is repositioning itself in order to take advance of new textile material
technology developments and in doing so to ensure the discipline remains relevant. As stated
in Section 8.1, the adoption of new textiles and technology is changing the way designers think
about the relationship of form and surface. For textile designers the surface is becoming more
three-dimensional and structural, with ‘form’ being considered as the surface is developed.
Textile designers are shifting their focus “from surface design to the fabric’s structural integrity,
they pioneer a new, minimalist methodology capable of creating more volume while generating
less waste” (Quinn 2009, p167).

By moving beyond the surface, textile design is repositioning itself to be more closely allied with
other design disciplines such as fashion, industrial design and architecture, to deal with ‘form’ in
a more integrated manner. Similarly other design disciplines, whom are primarily concerned
with form, are considering the surface more.

To deal with surface, structure and form as interdependent entities opens up great possibilities,
but also increases the complexity of the design process and the need for a wider more
substantive knowledge base. Consequently, collaboration and inter-disciplinary approaches are
becoming more necessary. Inter-disciplinary can be defined as “inquiries, which critically draw
upon two or more disciplines and which lead to an integration of disciplinary insights” (Haynes,
2002, p.17).

As the design disciplines moves towards each other out of necessity with dealing in complex
design issues, there is a degree of cross-over occurring between the design disciplines as linear
design processes shift to complex non-linear models. There is a greater need for collaboration,
with different expert persons to have input at various stages of the design process. Such
collaboration also gives rise to the likelihood of roles to cross over or even blur. If a fabric is the

160
form, and the form the fabric, then where does one role end and other begin? “From the
traditional to the intangible, from the technical to the tectonic, the exchanges taking place
between materials and design are forging a uniquely multi-disciplinary arena” (Beylerian, Dent &
Quinn 2007, p46).

Much of the future progress of textiles will depend on techniques, knowledge and methods well
beyond the traditional craft origin and scope of textile design and construction” (Gale & Kaur,
2002, p172). Designers must understand the consequences of their choices that they ‘lock’ into
the product at the design stage (Lewis, 2001). The textile designer needs technical knowledge
of technologies, processors and materials, and the consequences of these in terms of
manufacturing, use and retirement options. Therefore the complexities of the design process
are far greater.

Additionally, textile innovations are making it necessary for designers to work in teams reflecting
both design and science, to involve people who view the world differently. “People from a wide
range of disciplines are being included in design teams. Design is not longer regarded as the
task of just one person.” (Braddock Clarke & O’Mahony 2005, p137)

For the textile design discipline such a trans-disciplinary approach is an exciting proposition, to
inform and ultimately transform the discipline. Collaboration could enable textile designers to
engage and work on new applications not yet imagined and scaled up to the macro level of for
example architecture. Could it be through collaborative partnerships and trans-disciplinary
approaches that textiles designers, architectures and engineers are able to work together to
create composite structures that were not just about being high performance, but were also
designed to be seen and valued for their aesthetics? Much like how a fashion designer might
work with a fabric, could the same be applied to the macro level for architecture?

9.3. NEXUS OF TEXTILE DESIGN AND ARCHITECTURE

Consider textile fabrics have historically worked well at the micro level in the form of clothing.
For fashion designers, textiles can be both decorative and structural, and because of their
flexibility and ability to easily mould to the body, allows for a vast array of design opportunities.

In contrast, for architecture the very qualities of textiles that appeal to fashion are considered a
negative. Indeed, “architecture is equated with density and mass, while textiles have often been
limited to lightweight decorative expressions” (Garcia 2006, p23). Architecture’s relationship
with the body is at the macro level, where structure and performance is of paramount concern.
Compared to clothing, architecture must withstand and protect against harsh environmental
conditions. Hence it’s ‘cloth’ of choice are highly durable materials such as timber, steel, metal,
glass and concrete. They are made to be permanent, hard and rigid with structural integrity.

161
However, fashion and architecture have not always been so distant. It is argued both shared
the same origins of textiles and developed out of the need to provide protection and shelter
against the environment and the production of social space (Wigley 1995; Quinn 2003; Hodge
2006). “Clothing first provided the body with wearable shelter, with architecture manifesting as
a framework to support the animal hides and panels of fabric that became roofs and walls”
(Bradley 2003, p2). Gottfried Semper in the mid nineteenth century theorised this link,
identifying “the textile essence of architecture, the dissimulating fabric, the fabrication of
architecture, with the cloth of the body” (Wigley 1995, p12). Semper asserted “the evolution of
architecture resulted from technological changes rather than from the pursuit of idealistic forms”
(Quinn 2003, p136).

For architecture, the very first primitive forms of shelter were made using textile techniques,
such as weaving, knotting and braiding. But this was when architecture was operating at the
micro level. Shelters were small and intimate. The shelter was low rising and temporary in feel.
It was when the functional requirements were low, allowing structure and surface to be
interdependent.

It was only, with the inception of modern architecture that the surface of the building became
independent of its structure. “With the advent of steel frame construction (first developed in
Chicago during the 1880s), walls lost their load-bearing function.” (Colchester 2007, p92) And
as the scale for architecture increased, there was a greater need for structural weight bearing,
and textiles were no longer seen as appropriate and were replaced with materials such as
wood, stone and steel.

Thus the walls of a building became merely a covering and textiles were confined to the interior,
where they became a tool to humanise a building (Garcia 2006, p45). Textiles were able to
connect the architectural form with the body, providing coverage for the space that surrounded
it. In doing so, textiles (as they do for garments) were a means to define social space (Wigley
1995 p11-15), between private spaces and public arenas, both defining our identity and place in
society (Quinn 2003, p6). They brought warmth, softness and comfort, through providing
coverage such as bed linen, upholstered furnishing, screens, carpets and curtains. Textiles
were able to define the space and give it identity at a micro level. Hence imagine a block of
high-rise flats that at the macro level all appear the same and impersonal, but at the micro level
are altered through the use of textiles to personalise the interior spaces.

For the interior space, textiles are about the ornamental, being flexible, fragile, soft and tactile,
while the outer shell is permanent and rigid, with structural integrity. There was a distinction
between the inside and the outside, the structural and the surface.

However, in light of new textiles and technologies, architectures relationship to textiles is

changing. For architecture, textiles innovations are impacting on the relationship of surface and
structure, which goes far beyond architecture merely looking towards textiles and fashion

162
designers use of textiles for conceptual inspiration. “Fabric architecture has reasserted itself at
the start of the 21st century” (Colchester 2007, p92). Architecture is looking towards textiles to
innovate, through the use of textile techniques, such as weaving and knitting. As discussed in
Section 9.1 textile composites offer enormous opportunities through the potential to develop
new ways of thinking about spatial qualities of form and structure.

With architecture and textile design aligning more closely together, and responding to the
developments occurring with textiles, there is also an opportunity for textile technology, such as
the industrial flat-bed knitting machine to emerge as a significant design tool.

9.4 NEW TOOLS: the knitting machine and the Shape Lexicon
As discussed in Section 9.1 innovations in textile materials, specifically composites, and
advances in technologies are having a profound impact on design. These developments are
leading designers to reconsidering the relationship of form and surface. As complexities
increase, the need to adopt a trans-disciplinary approach is necessary.

Within this design space, the Shape Lexicon of 3D forms provides a significant tool for
designers. While the expectation is for designers to work more in teams and for there to be a
greater emphasis on teamwork, the need for communication and understanding of the
technologies is critical for successful collaboration. The role of the designer is no longer an
individual pursuit. Designers must engage with others in a collaborative manner to solve
problems and make products that meet the needs of our complex world (Erlhoff & Marshall,
2008). Collaboration needs to be not only among design disciplines, but between design and
technology / science.

To provide the opportunity for the integration of disciplinary insights, design needs to look
towards science and technology to inform and challenge. Highlighting the similarities could help
to alleviate any sense of anxiety about crossing the line into textile technology (Crabbe, 2008).
The Shape Lexicon established through this research project could be such a tool.

Underlying the nexus of textiles innovations and design is the need for designers to better
understand, beyond a superficial level, the potential opportunities and consequences of the
textile technologies, processes and materials. The success of a project (or product) relies upon
a combination of factors: an aesthetic sympathy with the design intention, and the practical
ability to select the appropriate means and methods by which to develop and execute the
desired outcome. New advances in textile technology, such as industrial machine knitting and
specifically seamless knitting technology demand a more expansive knowledge base that
blends the scientific and technical know-how, with a poetic and aesthetic sensibility.

163
For 3D shape knitting, utilising industrial flat-bed knitting technology, to be useful to designers
there is a need to be able to articulate how 3D forms can be constructed. There is a need for
the designer to be able to engage in genuine form building.

At present, however there are significant boundaries surrounding the generation of form, as
discussed in Section 3.7.4. Current management and limitations of 3D shape generation. To
date, the set up of the programming for industrial flat-bed knitting machinery is specific to the
needs of the garment industry, with forms based on specific garment types. This effectively
means the form building is controlled by the knitting machine manufacturer (for the purpose of
knitwear garments) and not the designer. Forms that fall outside of the range of garment
production templates provided within the knitting machine software system require the expertise
of the knit technician or programmer to navigate around. Such designs became complex and
costly, in terms of time, programming requirements and the trial and error involved in sampling.

Therefore, in order to advance 3D shape knitting, and to ensure genuine form building can be
achieved by designers, there is a need for designers to understand the design parameters and
opportunities of how to create 3D form using an industrial flat-bed machine. Such
documentation of how a variety of base forms can be created would ensure designers,
particularly those without a textile and specifically an industrial knitting background, are able to
access and explore the potential of 3D shape knitting for purposes that go far beyond the
knitting machine manufacturer’s expectations.

Through this research, the Shape Lexicon was developed to document a range of 3D knitted
forms that can be produced on a flat-bed industrial knitting machine. In light of the shift towards
increased inter-disciplinary teams to solve trans-disciplinary problems, the Shape Lexicon
becomes as much about a tool kit to design with, as it is a communication tool to work with.

As discussed in the case study (Chapter 8) the value of the Shape Lexicon is the way in which
the 3D forms are organised and communicated. Through the development of ‘Package
Adaptation’ (refer to Section 3.7) designers are able to understand the essence of how various
3D shapes can be formed, within the context of technical programming needs, but without the
needing to understand or know how to undertake the complex task of technical digital knit
programming.

Therefore, this research, and the development of the Shape Lexicon, represents the first step
towards designers understanding how 3D form can be knitted and thus opens up and allows
designers to access the potentiality of 3D shape knitting for broader applications beyond the
apparel sector of the TCF industry. By providing a gateway for designers to enter into the highly
technical space of 3D shape knitting, designers gain the essential knowledge of the technical
and design considerations to engage in genuine form building.

164
Furthermore, the research highlights the need for industrial knitting machine manufacturers to
develop more sophisticated ways to deal with 3D form. How this could be achieved is
demonstrated through the organisation of the Shape Lexicon. The Shape Lexicon shifts the
form building into the hands of the designer, by providing a more flexible and systems
orientated approach, through parametric design. The design specifications presented in the
Shape Lexicon, represent the next phase towards incorporating principles of parametric design
thinking for the consideration of 3D knitted form and points to possible future directions for
knitting technology. Specifically, the development of parametric software is the next step in
digital knitting software.

Perhaps most importantly, the Shape Lexicon can to act as a springboard for what is possible in
terms of new ways of thinking about form, while remaining grounded in an understanding of
what is technically possible. In this context, the designers’ imagination to ‘think outside the
square’ becomes an exciting prospect. The use of the Shape Lexicon to address complex
design issues that may sit outside traditional conventional knitting sector could lead to the
realisation of new and diverse design and product outcomes.

This research assists in narrowing the gap between design and science, and craft and
technology. Within the context of new textile materials and technological advances the
research is a significant aid to broadening the potential use of the industrial flat-bed knitting
machine.

9.5 CONCLUSION
This Chapter speculated on the potentiality of the work undertaken with this research in order to
highlight the latent relevance of 3D shape knitting for designers and design academics.

The Chapter examined the significance of textile innovations for creativity and how innovations
occurring with materials science and textile technology are expanding the possibilities of how
designers consider the relationship between surface and form. In order to take advantage of
these breakthroughs, there is a need to bridge gaps between not only the parallel design
disciplines, but also between design and science. From this perspective, the Shape Lexicon is
a useful tool to assist in instigating these exchanges and ultimately may bring about new
innovative design solutions.

165
10. CONCLUSION

This Chapter concludes the research project undertaken. A summary of the research project is
presented, with the most significant outcomes highlighted.

Part 1 of the research involved examining existing knowledge in the area of knitting. Subjects
include a review of literature in relation to the current position of textiles composites and weft
knitting technology. In doing so, fully automated 3D shape knitting was highlighted as providing
an opportunity for new applications for knitted fibre-reinforced composite structures to emerge
(Chapter 2). As well, a review of existing knowledge of knitting technology and principles was
documented in one concentrated format (Chapter 3). In particular both digital knit programming
and industrial machine technology advances for seamless knitting were identified as being key
drivers for the expansion and development of 3D shape knitting. The background work
identified the significant gaps in the literature with regard to 3D shape knitting and digital knit
programming.

Drawing together and examining knitting technology, basic knit terminology and principles, as
well the physical trialling of knitting techniques led to the most useful techniques to create 3D
forms being identified and examined (Chapter 4). These knitting techniques were organised
into 5 groups: i) suspended stitches, ii) transfer stitches, iii) tubular knitting, iv) stitch
architecture, and v) miscellaneous knitting techniques. The documentation of 3D shaping
techniques on Shima Seiki flat-bed knitting machines filled a significant gap in the existing
literature, particularly at an academic level.

The initial background research work formed the basis of, and was essential to, the
establishment of the Shape Lexicon (Part 2). The Shape Lexicon was organised into three
broad groups of 3D forms; these being
(i) Cones, domes, and box type forms (Chapter 5)
(ii) Tubes and tubular connections (Chapter 6)
(iii) Cut-out forms (Chapter 7)

This phase of the research focused on providing the design parameters to construct various 3D
forms by way of developing design specifications, within the context of technical programming
needs. These specifications or Package Adaptation effectively represent a range of base
building blocks that can be combined to understand and develop more complex 3D knitted
forms. The Package Adaptation is a new way of communicating the essence of how the
specific 3D knitted samples are designed.

With the background research and the Shape Lexicon established, the research shifted focus to
examine the implications of the research for design (Part 3). Within this final phase, a case
study, CraFormaTion consisting of a small range of knitted artefacts, was developed in order to

166
elicit the potential of the Shape Lexicon (Chapter 8). Responding to the design theme of
Integrating form and surface, three key design discourses were identified as having a
relationship to this research. The discourses included considerations of natures’ structural
efficiencies, the impact of new technology and materials for design and the reconsideration of
notions of craft in a digital technology context. By position the research within these discourses,
and highlighting the connections this research has to other designers and design academics,
further validated the research.

The concepts visually represented in the case study, were then further expand on in Chapter 9.
Speculative in nature, the Chapter pointed towards how innovations occurring with textile
technology and material science are expanding the creative possibilities for designers to
reconsider the relationship between surface and form in a more integrated manner. In doing so,
the research argued that a trans-disciplinary approach is needed, as the diverse worlds of
textile design and technical textiles are converging and present a unique opportunity for new
applications for 3D shape knitting to emerge outside of the traditional boundaries of the textile,
clothing and footwear (TCF) industry. For textile designers such exchanges offer an exciting
prospect and are assisting the discipline to reposition itself beyond considering the surface.

From this perspective, the significance of the research is considered; highlighting the potential
of the Shape Lexicon as both a design and communication tool. In addition, the question is
raised: ‘could the industrial flat-bed knitting machine become a tool for designers outside the
apparel industry in the near future’?

In summary the most significant outcomes of the research project include:

(1) Documentation
The documentation of current knitting technology and the presentation of a comprehensive
survey of the 3D shape knitting techniques in one concentrated and informative format
(Chapters 3 and 4). In doing so, the research fills a significant gap in academic knitting
literature.

(2) Knitting technology advances

Knitting technology advances are a consequence of both digital knit programming and industrial
machine technology developments (Chapter 3). This research asserts that while flat-bed knit
machinery developments are significant; the parallel developments of the digital knit
programming are equally important and should not be underestimated. In doing so the research
highlights the importance and impact that digital programming has had on the development of
seamless knitting, which until now had not been documented at length in the literature. In
particular, section 3.7, Shima Seiki Programming is a new contribution to the academic knitting
literature.

167
In analysing the current management of 3D shape generation by leading knit machine
manufacturers, the research identified some limitations for designers to genuinely engage in
authentic 3D knitted form building. At present, the knitting machines function is clearly defined
within the boundaries and needs of the garment manufacturing industry, with the current set up
and management of 3D shapes base on garment production templates. This effectively means
the form building is controlled by the knitting machine manufacturer (for the purpose of knitwear
garments) and not the designer. The research further identified a possible solution to overcome
these current constraints through the use of parametric design principles (refer to points (3) and
(4)).

(3) Communication; Package Adaptation

The development of a method to effectively communicate 3D knitted form, which is not too
technical, is essential for designers. Such a method is needed to enable designers to engage in
authentic 3D shape generation.

As present digital knit software sets out the data bank of form building based on the
construction of garments. Consequently there is a need to assist designers to understand the
potential opportunities of what 3D shape knitting has to offer for generating a wide range of 3D
forms.

Through the consideration and application of parametric design principles to 3D knitted forms,
this research developed a graphic representation of 3D form, as design specifications, referred
to as Package Adaptation (Section 3.7.5). Package Adaptation allows designers across a
range of disciplines to better understand the possibilities that 3D shape knitting has to offer
beyond the apparel industry. By focusing on the design parameters, and within a context of
technical requirements, the means of communicating provides a useful gateway for designers
into the very technical domain of industrial knitting, and therefore offers the establishment of a
shared knitting design language.

The Package Adaptation system is intended not only to bridge the gap between the designer
and knit technician, but to importantly bridge the gap between current management of 3D
knitted form by knitting companies and elicit possible future directions for 3D form building (refer
to point (10)).

(4) The link between 3D shape knitting and parametric design

As briefly stated above, this research identified a possible solution to overcome the current
constraints of knitting technology for genuine 3D form building through the use of parametric
design principles. Such an approach formed the basis for the development of the Package
Adaptation system, used in Part 2, the Shape Lexicon for communicating the design parameters
of 3D shapes.

168
Parametric design processes potentially have much to offer the area of 3D shape knitting and
could led to new ways of understanding and describing knitted form beyond the surface.

While the approach to the Package Adaptation system was developed through non-parametric
methods and is in a 2D format, it does offer insight into how parametric principles could be used
to communicate 3D knitted form.

This research demonstrates the need to focus on the relationship between the variables, and
not specific values, that constitute the shape. This focus enables designers to understand the
essence of how various 3D shapes are formed, and opens up the possibility to identify an
infinite range of associated shapes, and to select the best one, thus effectively engaging in
parametric design.

Such an approach shows how industrial knitting machine manufacturers need to develop more
sophisticated ways to deal with 3D form. The Shape Lexicon shifts the form building into the
hands of the designer, by providing a more flexible and systems orientated approach. The
design specifications presented in the Shape Lexicon, represent the next phase towards
incorporating principles of parametric design thinking for the consideration of 3D knitted form
and points to possible future directions for knitting technology.

(5) The Shape Lexicon

The establishment of the Shape Lexicon of 3D shape knitted forms (Chapters 5, 6 and 7). The
Shape Lexicon provides a survey of 3D forms that can be knitted on an industrial flat-bed
knitting machine. To date, there has been no concentrated survey of 3D shape knitting
techniques or catalogue of knitted 3D forms in one concentrated format. Therefore this
research project fills a significant gap in academic literature.

The Shape Lexicon effectively becomes a tool to understand how to construct, design and knit a
form using flat-bed knitting machines. The Shape Lexicon also highlights the flexibly of the
technology to be able to generate a broad range of 3D forms, requiring little to no additional
post knitting labour.

Most importantly, the Shape Lexicon allows for designers without a knitting knowledge to
access information and to understand the process of how various forms can be knitted. The
use of the Shape Lexicon could act as a springboard to open up the possibility to think about
and approach form very differently. Consider the essential 3D knitted forms presented as base
building blocks. By combining these base blocks, more complex outcomes are possible. For
each base building block, the dimensions of the shape are identified based on the shapes
optimal knitting process. In this context, the designers’ imagination to ‘think outside the square’
and address new and diverse design and product outcomes becomes an exciting prospect.

169
(6) Positioning of the research within a design context
This research, although very technical by necessity, is positioned within a design context.
Previously advanced knitting has often been discussed from a purely technical approach, as
evident by the discussion in Chapter 2. By positioning 3D shape knitting within a design space,
this research provides the possibility for the very technical knowledge base of 3D shape knitting
to be understood and potentially utilised by designers outside of the TCF industry.

The research discussed the potential of 3D shape knitting and the Shape Lexicon to generate
innovative design solutions, through the reconsideration of form and surface (Chapters 8 and 9).
With 3D shape knitting blurring the distinctions between surface, form and structure, these
elements need to be considered and designed not as separate entities, but as interdependent.

The design opportunities are expanded further whilst considering the use of advanced fibre
based materials and ancillary processes such as resins for textile composite structures. Could
new composite forms emerge that are not just high performance lightweight structures, but are
also designed to be valued for their aesthetics?

The possibilities to integrate form and surface through new technology and materials, as well as
the complexities of the design process were identified. In order to take advantage of these
breakthroughs, there is a need to develop trans-disciplinary approaches within multidisciplinary
teams to be able to creatively respond to the nexus of technology and craft; to be able to blend
scientific and technical know-how, with a poetic and aesthetic sensibility. This research
highlights that such exchanges offer exciting prospects’ for textile design and are assisting the
discipline to reposition itself beyond the surface.

(7) Craft and technology nexus

The research asserts the importance of reconsidering the meaning of craft in a digital context.
The convergence of craft and technology could lead to opportunities for innovative design
outcomes to emerge. By using new technology such as seamless knitting and looking to
traditional practice and knowledge bases, a new aesthetic and authenticity of personalisation
may emerge. This personalisation, through automated quick response manufacturing
processes, could ultimately reconnect the individual and the artefact at an emotional level by
drawing on ideas more readily associated with craft traditions. Craft should not be seen as
alienated from technology, but is instead aligned with technology. Ultimately this
rapprochement is leading to reconsidering what craft means today.

Furthermore, by articulating the possibilities of 3D shape knitting to designers and design

teams, the industrial flat-bed knitting machine could potentially become a tool to explore
complex design ideas, much like other types of 3D additive fabrication technologies such as
rapid prototyping.

170
(8) Trans-disciplinary responses
The research into 3D shape knitting through fully automated processes is a significant aid to
broadening the potential use of the industrial flat-bed knitting machine and assists in narrowing
the gap between design and science, and craft and technology.

The research highlights the importance of a trans-disciplinary approach with particular attention
to the nexus of design and technology. A renewed focus on traditional craft techniques
combined, with new materials and technologies, and the consequent complexities and wide
knowledge base required, makes it imperative that the design process reflects a trans-
disciplinary approach.

(9) Application of knowledge; integrating form and surface

The potential of the Shape Lexicon to expand the possibilities to creatively think about the
relationship of form and surface is demonstrated through the application of the Shape Lexicon
in the case study CraFormaTion (Chapter 8). The theme integrating form and surface was
explored through a series of knitted artefacts. The artefacts demonstrated how form and
surface can become one entity, with the structural and ornamental blurring. As the knitted
artefacts show, through 3D shape knitting, a structural surface can be created, in which the
surface not longer acts a skin, but is the structural element to the form itself.

In doing so, the artefacts would demonstrate how 3D shape knitting has a relevance to other
designers and design academics nodes of thinking and potentially contribute to a wider design
discourse. By taking advantage of new materials and seamless knitting technology, new ways
of thinking about form opens up the possibility for greater efficiencies of systems, waste
minimisation and material optimisation to be achieved, thus connecting with the important
design research field of sustainability. These advances in 3D shape knitting provide a unique
opportunity for new applications not traditionally associated with knitted textiles or the apparel
industry to emerge.

(10) Opportunity for further research

Finally, the parametrical and multi trajectories potential of the research is highlighted. This
research project in addressing the design issues associated with knitting 3D preforms suitable
for fibre-reinforced composite structures utilising Shima Seiki’s industrial flat-bed knitting
technology presents the opportunity for further research on multiple fronts.

Firstly, there is research specific to the knitting technology. For example, there is clearly an
opportunity for further research to test and critique this work by using another machine system,
namely Stoll. Can the same type of 3D forms be created, using the Shape Lexicon design
specifications, as developed through Package Adaptation? As well, by reviewing and testing
the Shape Lexicon established, through the use of other machine types, further research would
assist in assessing and comparing the benefits and constraints of the parallel knitting systems
of Stoll and Shima Seiki, the leading flat-bed knitting machine manufacturers.

171
Importantly, having identified and speculated that the next significant technology advancement
for the knitting industry will need to be the use of parametric design software to allow the design
of non garment specific 3D knitted form to be viewed three dimensionally there is considerable
opportunities for research. There is the prospect to develop a knitting digital system that shifts
the form building into the hands of the designer, by providing a more flexible and systems
orientated approach, through parametric design. Such an approach could lead to significant
cost benefits, as well as new design solutions, appropriate to industries such as the automotive
industry.

Secondly, there are significant opportunities for further research in relation to the design
debates as discussed in Chapter 8. In particular, research in material optimisation and
structural efficiencies of a form, offers a rich field to explore. Ideally such research needs to be
as a collaborative partnership across diverse disciplines including design and science.

Thirdly, this research positions weft knitting as a 3D additive fabrication process that has the
potential to be used in a wider design context away from the TCF industry. There are the
significant opportunities to engage and expand a discourse with academics and researchers
working broadly in the field of digitisation and the design process. As knit technology is very
unfamiliar to designers beyond the knitting garment industry, such a dialogue could be another
potentially rich field of discovery. For example, consider how the knitting machine might be
used as a 3D additive fabrication process within a design studio or architectural practice. With
this in mind, the knitting machine could expand its usefulness from being purely a
manufacturing process, to become a design tool for innovative 3D forms to emerge, much like
the 3D printer or laser cutter. Further still, consider how parametric design could further
advance the use of the knitting machine to reconsider the relationship of form and surface for
applications outside of the traditional boundaries of the knitting industry.

172
REFERENCES

Alfoldy, Sandra (ed.) 2007, Neo Craft, modernity and the crafts, the Press of Nova Scotia,
Canada.

Allen, J 1998, Treasury of Machine Knitting Stitches, Sterling Publishers, London.

Ambre, Noriko 2008, A Piece of Flat Globe Vol. 6, viewed September 2009,
<http://www.norikoambe.com/works/index.html>

Anstery, H & Weston, M 2003, Guide to textile terms, Weston Publishing Limited, London.

Antonelli, P 2008, Design and the Elastic Mind, the Museum of Modern Art, New York.

Beylerian, G M, Dent, A & Quinn, B 2007, Ultra Materials, how materials innovation is changing
the world, Thames & Hudson, New York.

Black, S 2002, Knitwear in Fashion, Thames and Hudson, London.

Brackenbury, T 1992, Knitting Clothing Technology, Blackwell Scientific Publications, London.

Braddock, S & O’Mahony, M 1998, Techno textiles, Thames and Hudson, London.

Braddock Clarke, S & O’Mahony, M 2005, Techno textiles 2, Thames and Hudson, London.

Brownell, B (ed.) 2008, Transmaterial 2, Princeton Architectural Press, New York.

Choi, W & Powell, N B, 2005, ‘Three Dimensional Seamless Garment Knitting on V-bed Flat
Knitting Machines’, Journal of Textile and Appeal, Technology and Management, Volume 4,
Issue 3, Spring 2005, retrieved Aug 2008,
http://www.tx.ncsu.edu/jtatm/volume4issue3/articles/Choi/Choi_full_145_05.pdf

Colchester, C 2007, Textiles Today, Thames & Hudson, London.

Cole, D 2008, Textile Now, Laurence King Publishing, London.

Crabbe, A 2008, ‘The Value of Knowledge Transfer Collaborations to Design Academics’, The
Design Journal, volume 11, issue 1 pp9-28. Berg 2008, viewed May 2009.

CSIRO (2009) ‘deep sea coral forms of the coast of Tasmania, viewed October 2009,
http://www.scienceimage.csiro.au/mediarelease/mr09-07.html

Denton, MJ & Daniels, PN (eds.) 2002, Textile terms and definitions, eleventh edition, the
Textile Institute, Manchester.

Don, S (1981) The Art of Shetland Lace, Bell & Hyman, London.

Downton, P, Mina, A, Ostwald, M & Burry, M 2008, Homo Faber: Modelling Ideas, SIAL and the
Melbourne Museum, Melbourne.

Erlhoff, M. & Marshall, T. (eds.) 2008, Design dictionary: perspectives on design terminology.
Birkhäuser Verlag AG, Berlin.

Fangueiro, R. et al 1999, ‘Advances in welt-knitting technical structures’, The Nordic textile

Journal, The Textile Research Centre CTF, Swedish School of Textiles, University College of
Boras. pp. 36 – 53.

Freedom of Creation 2009, Freedom of Creation website, viewed October 2009,

http://www.freedomofcreation.com/home

173
Garcia, M (ed.) 2006, Architextiles, Architectural Design, Nov/Dec 2006, Wiley-Academy,
London.

Gale C & Kaur J 2002, The textile book, Berg, Oxford.

Haeckel, E 1974, Art Forms in Nature, Dover Publications, Inc, New York.

Haynes, C. 2002, Innovations in interdisciplinary teaching. USA: American Council on

Education / The Oryx Press.

Hearle, J W S. 1994i, ‘Textiles for composites - a business opportunity for the 21st century.
Part 1: The General Scence’, Textile Horizons, (December), pp. 12 – 15.

Hearle, J W S. 1994ii, ‘Textiles for composites - a business opportunity for the 21st century. Part
2: Multiple Dimensions and Directions’, Textile Horizons, (February), pp. 11 – 15.

Hernandez, C R B 2006, ‘Thinking parametric design: introducing parametric Gaudi’, Design

Studies, 27 (2006) pp309-324.

Hethorn, J & Ulasewicz, C 2008, Sustainable Fashion, Why Now?, Fairchild books Inc, New
York.

Hodge, B 2006, Skin + Bones: Parallel Practices in Fashion and Architecture, Thames and
Hudson, MOCA Los Angeles.

Horrocks, AR & Anand, SC (eds.) 2000, Handbook of technical textiles, The Textile Institute,
Woodhead Publishing Limited, Cambridge.

Hunter, B 2004i, ‘Complete Garment Evolution or Revolution? (Part 1)’, Knitting International,
111 (1319), p18-21.

Hunter, B 2004ii, ‘Complete Garment Evolution or Revolution? (Part 2)’, Knitting International,
111 (1320), p22-23.

Hunter, B 2004iii, ‘Complete Garment Evolution or Revolution? (Part 3)’, Knitting International,
111 (1321), p20-22.

Jayaraman, S, Kiekens, P & Grancaric, AM (eds.) 2006, Intelligent Textiles for Personal
Protection and Safety, IOS Press, Amsterdam.

Kinzel, M 1972, First book of modern lace knitting, Dover Publications, New York.

Knitting International 1997, Flat Frame Machines. No. 1235. March 1997. pp 30 – 31.

Kolarevic, B (ed.) 2003, Architecture in the ditigal age: design and manufacturing, Spon Press,
New York.

Lee, R 2007, Contemporary Knitting for textile artists, Batsford, London.

Lewis, H 2001, design + environment, Greenleaf publishing, London.

Lewis, S E & Weissman, J 1986, A machine knitter’s guide to creating fabrics, Sterling Pulishing
Co, New York.

Lewis, S (1992) Knitting Lace: a workshop with patterns and projects, Brooklyn Museum,
Threads Book, USA.

Lo, T Y 1999, ‘ITMA 99 survey 4: Flat knitting machines’, Textile Asia, August. pp.42.

Long, AC (ed.) 2005, Design and manufacture of textile composites, Woodhead Publishing
Limited in association with The Textile Institute, Cambridge.

McCullough, Malcolm 1996 Abstracting Craft, The Practiced Digital Hand, the MIT Press,
Massachusetts, USA

174
McFadden, D R 2007, Radical Lace and Subversive Knitting, Museum of Arts & Design, New
York.

McQuaid, M 2005, Extreme Textiles, Designing for high performance, Thames and Hudson,
London.

Miller,D W 1998, ‘Knitted Technical Textiles - A survey of applications in the medical field’,
Knitting International, Number 1250. pp 36 - 38.

Miravete, A (ed) 1999, 3D textile reinforcements in composite materials, Woodhead Publishing

Limited in association with The Textile Institute, Cambridge.

Murphy, P 1993, By Nature’s Design, Chronicle Books, San Francisco.

Nakashima, T & Karaswuno, M 1996, ‘Total Garment technology - The pursuit of

WholeGarment Production’, Knitting International No. 1222, p65 – 70

Naveen V, Padaki, R, Alagirusamy & B S Sugun, S. 2006 ‘Knitted Preforms for Composite
Applications’, Journal of Industrial Textiles 2006; 35; 295

Padaki, N V & Alagirusamy, R 2006, ‘Knitted Preforms for Composite Applications’, Journal of
Industrial textiles, Vol. 35, no. 4, April 2006, p295 – 321, viewed August 2008,
http://jit.sagepub.com/cgi/content/abstract/35/4/295

Philips, D & Verpoest, I 1996, 3D-Knitted Fabrics for Composite Structures, at KU Leuven.
January 1996 / 1.

Quinn, B 2003, The Fashion of Architecture, Berg, Oxford.

Quinn, B 2009, Textile designers, at the cutting edge, Laurence King Publishing, London.

Quinn, A K 2009 Anne Kyyro Quinn website, viewed October 2009,

http://www.annekyyroquinn.com/

Ramakrishna, S. 1997, ‘Characterization and Modelling of the Tensile Properties of Plain weft-
Knit Fabric-Reinforced Composites’, Composites Science and Technology. Volume 57, Number
1 pp. 1 – 22.

Ramakrishna, S. 1998, ‘Analytical and Finite Element Modeling of Elastic Behaviour of Plain-
Weft Fabric Reinforced Composites’, Key Engineering Materials, Volume 137, pp. 71 – 78.

Raz, S 1991, Flat Knitting, the new generation, Meisenbach Bamberg, Germany.

Raz, S 1993, ‘Three-dimensional knitted structures for technical uses’, Technical Textiles
International, May 1993. pp. 16 – 19.

Rieder, O 1996, ‘Knitting machines for technical textiles’, ITB: International Textile Bulletin -
Nonwovens - Industrial Textiles, Volume 1, pp. 60 – 63.

Rigby, AJ, Anand, SC & Miraftab, M 1993, ‘Medical textiles - textile materials in medicine and
surgery’, Textile Horizons International, pp.42 – 45.

Robinson, F & Ashton, S 1994, ‘Knitting in the third dimension - A look into the future
possibilities for knitted fabrics’, Textile Horizons, December, pp. 22 – 24.

Ruan, X & Chou, T W 1996, ‘Experimental and Theoretical Studies of the Elastic Behavior of
Knitted-Fabric Composites’, Composites Science and Technology, Volume 56, pp 1391 -1403.

Sachs, A (ed.) 2007 Nature Design, from inspiration to innovation, for the Museum fur
Gestaltung Zurich, Lars Muller Publishers, Switzerland.

175
Schafter, Debra 2003 The Order of Ornament, The Structure of Style, Cambridge University
Press, UK.

Seivewright, S 2007, Research and Design, AVA Publishing SA, Switzerland.

Sennett, Richard 2008, The Craftsman, Yale University Press, New Haven, USA

Shima Seiki 2008, WholeGarment® Package pattern making for sweater referential manual,
Shima Seiki, Japan

Shima Seiki 2008, Shima Seiki website, viewed Oct 2009,

http://www.shimaseiki.co.jp/homee.html

Spencer, D J 1997, Knitting Technology, 2nd Edition, Pergamon Press, Oxford, England.

Spencer, D J 2001, Knitting Technology, 3rd Edition, Pergamon Press, Oxford, England.
Stoll GmbH, H 1999, ‘Flat-knitting machinery for technical textiles’, Technical Textiles
International, November, pp 20 – 24.

Stoll, 2009 Stoll website, viewed Oct 2009, http://www.stoll.com/

Stoll, 2009i ‘The Highlights of the M1plus®’, viewed October 2009,

http://www.stoll_highlightsM1plus.ppt

Stoll, 2009ii ‘The Highlights of the Eneas® Software Package’, viewed October 2009,
http://www.stoll_highlights_eneas_auto.ppt

Sweeney, R 2009, Sweeney, Richard website, viewed September 2009

http://richardsweeney.co.uk/index.htm,

Tao, Xiaoming (ed.) 2001, Smart fibres, fabrics and clothing, The Textile Institute, Woodhead
Publishing Limited, Cambridge.

Tellier-Loumagne, F 2005, the art of knitting, inspiration stitches, textures and surfaces, Thames
and Hudson, London.

Underwood, J. 2009, 'Fashioning new structures', in The Body: Connections with Fashion.
Conference Proceedings 2008. International Foundation of Fashion Technology Institutes
(IFFTI), T.Guglielmino and M. Peel (ed.), International Foundation of Fashion Technology
Institutes (IFFTI), Melbourne, Australia pp. 302-309 (10th Annual Conference for the
International Foundation of Fashion Technology Institutes (IFFTI))

Underwood, J. and Zilka, L. 2008, 'Croquis and maquettes: Reconsidering surface and form', in
The 86th Textile Institute World Conference. Fashion and Textile: Heading Towards new
Horizons, Prof. Xiaoming Tao (ed.), Institute of Textiles and Clothing, Hong Kong (The 86th
Textile Institute World Conference. Fashion and Textile: Heading Towards new Horizons)

Underwood, J. and Zilka, L. 2009, 'Fibre space', in The Body: Connections with Fashion -
International Foundation of Fashion Technology Institutes Conference IFFTI 2008, T.
Guglielmino and M. Peel (ed.), International Foundation of Fashion Technology Institutes
(IFFTI), Melbourne, Australia pp. 119-129 (The Body Connections with Fashion -10th Annual
Conference of the International Foundation of Fashion Technology Institutes (IFFTI))

Van Vuure, A W, Ko, F K, & Balonis, R J 1999, Texile preforming for complex shape structural
composites. Proceedings of the 44th International SAMPE Symposium, May 23-27, 1999. pp
293 – 302.

Van Vuure, A W, Ko, F K, & Beevers, C 2003, ‘Net-Shape Knitting for Complex Composite
Preforms’, Textile Research Journal 2003; 73; 1, retrieved May 2008,
http://trj.sagepub.com/cgi/content/abstract/73/1/1

Verpoest, I 1995, Advanced three-dimensional textile sandwich composites, CRC-AS Australia

1997.

176
Wada, T, Hirai, S Hirano, T & Kawamura, S 1997, ‘Modelling of Plain Knitted Fabrics for Their
Deformation Control’, Proceedings of the 1997 IEEE International Conference on Robotics and
Automation Albuquerque, New Mexico - April 1997. pp.1960 – 1965.

Wang, Y. Gowayed, Y. Kong, Li. X. & Zhao, D. 1995, ‘Properties and Analysis of Composites
reinforced with E-Glass Weft-Knitted Fabrics’, Journal of Composites Technology and
Research, Volume 17, Number, 4 October, pp283 – 288.

Wigley, M 1995, White Walls, Designer Dresses, MIT Press, Cambridge.

Yang, H H 1993, Kevlar Aramid Fibre, John Wiley & Sons, Chichester, England.

177
APPENDIX 1 - OPTIONAL LINE FUNCTION LIST

178
Shima Seiki (2009) SES Option Line Function List, accessed through the Automatic Software HELP (A-59) digital
manual for SDS-ONE system

179
180
Shima Seiki (2009) New SES-S WG Option Line Function List, accessed through the Automatic Software HELP (A-59)
digital manual for SDS-ONE system

181
APPENDIX 2 - PATTERN DEVELOPMENT ASSIGNMENT

182
Shima Seiki (2009) SES Pattern Development, accessed through the Automatic Software HELP (A-59) digital manual
for SDS-ONE system

183
184
Shima Seiki (2009) New SES-S WG Pattern Development, accessed through the Automatic Software HELP (A-59)
digital manual for SDS-ONE system

185
APPENDIX 3 - REFERENCE DATA FOR COLOURS USED FOR WG
PACKAGE

Shima Seiki (2009) Colours used for WG Packages, accessed through the WG Pattern Making Guide (A-59) digital
manual for SDS-ONE system

186