Sinhalese–Portuguese War
Sinhalese–Portuguese War
The Sinhalese–Portuguese War was a series of Part of the Crisis of the Sixteenth Century
conflicts waged from 1527 to 1658 in Sri Lanka
(then known to Europeans as Ceylon) between
the native Sinhalese kingdoms against the
Portuguese Empire.[1] It spanned from the
Transitional to the Kandyan periods of Sri
Lankan history. A combination of political and
military moves gained the Portuguese control
over most of the island, but their invasion of the
final independent kingdom was a disaster, leading
to a stalemate in the wider war and a truce from
The Portuguese army at Kandy during the campaign
1621. In 1638 the war restarted when the Dutch
East India Company intervened in the conflict, of Danture, by Philippus Baldaeus
initially as an ally of the Sinhalese against the Date 1527–1658
Portuguese, but later as an enemy of both sides.
Location Sri Lanka
The war concluded in 1658, with the Dutch in
control of about half the island, the Kingdom of Result
End of the kingdoms of Kotte,
Kandy the other half, and the Portuguese
Sitawaka, Jaffna and Raigama
expelled.
Establishment then destruction of
The Portuguese arrived in Sri Lanka in 1505, Portuguese Ceylon
initially as merchants for the lucrative spice trade.
Incorporation of parts of Kotte and
Sri Lanka's Crisis of the Sixteenth Century
Sitawaka into the Kingdom of Kandy
(1521–1597) began with the Vijayabā Kollaya,
the division of the Kingdom of Kotte between Capture of Colombo, Galle, Jaffna,
three brothers, who began a series of wars over Raigama and much of Sitawaka by
the succession. Starting in 1527, the Portuguese the Dutch and the establishment of
began to exploit the rivalries between the divided Dutch Ceylon
kingdoms by intervening in Sinhalese
politics.[2][3] The Portuguese expanded their Belligerents
influence by placing client rulers on the thrones Kingdom of Portuguese From 1638:
of several kingdoms and directly ruling other Sitawaka Empire Dutch
areas as Portuguese Ceylon. These machinations Kingdom of Kingdom of East India
gained the Portuguese complete control over the
Kandy Kotte Company
Kingdom of Kotte from 1551. However the main
• Kingdom of Supported by:
beneficiary was the Kingdom of Sitawaka, which
from 1521 to 1587 was able to expand – through Raigama • Lascarins
conquest of other native kingdoms – to cover Kingdom of
most of Sri Lanka. Jaffna
• Vanni chieftains
Rajasinha I of Sitawaka attempted to expel the
Commanders and leaders
Portuguese from the island, but was repulsed
with heavy losses at the siege of Colombo in Mayadunne Pedro Adam
1587–8. Most of the newly conquered territories Rajasinha I Lopes de Westerwold
then rebelled against Sitawaka. The divided and Sousa † Willem
disorganised rival kingdoms became easy targets Vimaladharmasuriya Jerónimo Jacobszoon
for further Portuguese expansion. In a series of I de Azevedo Coster
military conflicts and political manoeuvres the Senarat Constantino Joan
Portuguese extended their control over the Rajasimha II de Sá de Maetsuycker
kingdoms of Jaffna (1591), Raigama (1593), and Cankili I Noronha †
Sitawaka (1593).[2] Puviraja Diogo de
In 1592 the Portuguese placed a client ruler on Pandaram † Melo de
the throne of the Kingdom of Kandy, but he died Castro †
soon after in suspicious circumstances and they
were forced to withdraw. Seeking to subdue the Bhuvanaikabahu
last major kingdom in Sri Lanka, the Portuguese VII
launched a full military invasion of Kandy in the
Casualties and losses
Campaign of Danture of 1594. The invasion was
a disaster for the Portuguese, with their entire Unknown Unknown Unknown
army wiped out by Kandyan guerilla warfare.
The war became a stalemate, with further Portuguese attempts to conquer Kandy repeatedly repulsed,
whilst the Kandyans were unable to oust the Portuguese from the rest of the island. A series of rebellions in
both Portuguese held territory and the Kandyan Kingdom led both sides to agree to a truce in 1621. The
treaty led to Kandy formally becoming a vassal state of Portugal, but in reality maintaining its
independence. This allowed both sides to crush the rebellions in their respective territories, and ended direct
conflict between them for the next seventeen years. The Portuguese were also able to conquer the Vanni
chieftains in 1621.
The uneasy peace was eventually broken by the intervention of the Dutch East India Company in 1638,
who sought to exploit the situation to take over Portuguese possessions as part of the Dutch–Portuguese
War. The Dutch formed an alliance with Kandy; together they won several battles against the Portuguese,
most notably the siege of Galle in 1640. However, the Dutch-Kandyan alliance broke down and the three
remaining powers fought each other in triangular warfare for a time. The Dutch and Kandyans renewed
their alliance in 1649 to drive the Portuguese from the island. The Portuguese stronghold at Colombo was
conquered in 1656, but once this was done the Dutch immediately betrayed their Kandayn allies, taking
over the Portuguese possessions.
By the end of the war in 1658 all Portuguese forces had been expelled from the island. The Kingdom of
Kandy was the only surviving indigenous polity, ruling almost half of Sri Lanka.[4] The Dutch were left in
control of the major population centres.
Contents
Origin
Early stages 1521–1538
Sitawaka expansion 1538–1587
Siege of Kotte
Battle of Mulleriyawa
The siege of Colombo 1587–1588
Portuguese campaign in Jaffna and takeover of Sitawaka 1588–1593
Campaign of Danture 1594
Portuguese consolidation of Kotte and attacks on Kandy 1595–1617
Rebellions against both powers and submission of Kandy 1617–1621
Uprisings in Portuguese territory
Rebellion in Kandy
The Luso-Kandian treaty
Portuguese conquest of Jaffna 1619
Developments in southern Sri Lanka
The Danish
Dutch intervention 1638–1658
Aftermath
Notes
References
Citations
Bibliography
Origin
The Portuguese arrived in Sri Lanka in 1505[5] and established trade relations with the Kotte kingdom.[6]
During the early 16th century their intentions were directed towards defending their trading interests,
particularly the lucrative spice trade.[7] However, with time this policy gradually changed to territorial
ambitions with the objective of outright conquest.[8] Island resources, Sri Lanka's strategic location for both
trade and naval security and rise of the Mughal Empire in India influenced this change.[9][note 1]
In 1521, the three sons of the Kotte king Vijayabahu VII rebelled
against their father. After killing Vijayabahu, his sons
(Bhuvanekabahu, Pararajasingha, and Mayadunne) divided the
kingdom among themselves in the 'Spoiling of Vijayabahu'.
Mayadunne received the Kingdom of Sitawaka, Pararajasingha
was given the Principality of Raigama (taking the name Raigama
Bandara), and Bhuvanekabahu ruled over the remaining part of
Kotte (as Bhuvanekabahu VII). This event began the Crisis of the
Sixteenth Century. The rivalries between these three new realms
gave the Portuguese an opportunity to expand their influence on
the island, by becoming involved in its internal politics.[10][11]
At first the Portuguese limited themselves to securing their share of
the cinnamon trade in Colombo and supporting – and defending –
their allies the rulers of Kotte. It was only after Dom João
Dharmapalla converted to Christianity and bequeathed his
Political map of Sri Lanka soon after kingdom to the King of Portugal upon his death in 1597, that the
the Spoiling of Vijayabahu in 1521 Portuguese regarded Kotte as their territory, and considered the
conquest of the entire island to secure it.
Early stages 1521–1538
During the initial encounters, the Portuguese lent their assistance to the Bhuvanekabahu VII of Kotte to
defend against the attacks from Sitawaka.[12] Their influence over the Kotte grew with the military aid they
provided.[7]
Sitawaka expansion 1538–1587
In 1551, this uneasy alliance came to an end with the death of
Bhuvanekabahu VII of Kotte. Bhuvanekabahu was killed by a
shot fired by a Portuguese soldier, which was claimed to be an
accidental discharge of the weapon.[13][14] Following
Bhuvanekabahu's death his young grandson, Dharmapala of
Kotte, was established on the Kotte throne under the protection of
the Portuguese. Later he converted to Christianity and became a
vassal of Portuguese emperor.[15] This sparked a series of
campaigns between the Portuguese and the Sinhalese[16] who
were led first by the Kingdom of Sitawaka and then by the
Kingdom of Kandy.
Siege of Kotte
Battle of Mulleriyawa Growth of the Sitawaka kingdom
from 1521 to 1587
The siege of Colombo 1587–1588
Having conquered Kandy, King Rajasinha I of Sitawaka turned his attention to the Portuguese stronghold
at Colombo. He timed the campaign to begin shortly after the start of the monsoon season, so the
Portuguese would not be able to send reinforcements by sea. The Sinhalese army appeared around
Colombo on 4 June, consisting of 50,000 men, 2200 pack elephants, 40,000 oxen, and 150 small calibre
bronze cannon. Supporting the army were 65 light galleys which were to blockade the fortress by sea. The
Portuguese captain defending Colombo was João de Correia de Brito, who had 300 Portuguese soldiers
assisted by 700 Lascarins, plus a civilian population of some 60,000. Foreseeing the possibility of a siege,
he had stockpiled supplies of food and ammunition. The Portuguese flotilla of 6 galleys was beached due to
the weather, but nevertheless Brito sent a small craft over the sea to Goa with a distress call.[17]
Knowing of Colombo's defences, which included a lagoon serving
as a moat by its southern side, Rajasinha began the siege by having
entrenchments dug around the walls and the lagoon drained, which
took a month. With the digging complete, Rajasinha rallied his
entire army outside Colombo in a display of force, shouting war-
cries to intimidate the besieged. Undaunted, Brito ordered a sally
against the troops closest to the city, throwing them into great
confusion.[18]
On the night of 3 August, the Rajasinha ordered the first mass
assault. Thousands of Sinhalese attempted to scale Colombo's
earthen walls, while sappers (aided by hundreds of elephants) tried
to breach them. They were met with superior Portuguese
firepower. Some Sinhalese were able to climb onto the bastions
São Lourenço and São Gonçalo, but were repelled by a swift
Portuguese counter attack. By the following morning, the Plan view of Portuguese Colombo,
Sinhalese had been driven off, having suffered 400 dead and 2,000 made in 1650
wounded.[19]
Over the following months Rajasinha attempted three more assaults on Colombo, along with attempts to
undermine the walls, while the Portuguese conducted sorties against Sinhalese positions. With the end of
the monsoon, the first Portuguese reinforcements from Goa arrived on 11 September. Further ships carrying
reinforcements arrived on 4 October, 23 October, 4 November, and 15 February. Finally, on 18 February a
large fleet of eighteen galleys commanded by Manuel de Sousa Coutinho arrived, after raiding Sitawakan
shores in northwestern Sri Lanka. The fleet sailed in battle formation and sounded its guns; the Portuguese
defenders greeted it by ringing their church bells and firing a general salvo from the fortress' cannon.[20]
With the arrival of the reinforcements, there were now 2,000 Portuguese soldiers inside the fortress, in
addition to the lascarins and civilian defenders. Rajasinha realised that the opportunity to take Colombo had
been lost and lifted the siege shortly afterwards. Over the eight-month campaign, the Sinhalese had lost
5,000 men.[21]
Portuguese campaign in Jaffna and takeover of Sitawaka 1588–
1593
In 1588 Kandy rebelled against its new Sitawaka rulers. However, the heirs of the Kandyan royal family
had fallen under Portuguese influence and were held in Colombo. In 1592 the Portuguese intervened in
Kandy, placing their protégé Yamasinghe Bandara on the throne. However, the new ruler died in suspicious
circumstances shortly after his coronation. The Portuguese accused a rival Kandyan faction of poisoning
Bandara, but the Kandyans blamed the Portuguese, who were forced to withdraw. Vimaladharmasuriya I
became the new king of Kandy.
Meanwhile, the Jaffna Kingdom in the north of the island fell increasingly under Portuguese influence. In
1591 a Portuguese expedition deposed (and killed) the Jaffna king Puviraja Pandaram, then installed his
son Ethirimana Cinkam as a client ruler.
In 1593 Sitawaka forces attempted to re-take Kandy, but were repulsed and their king Rajasinha I died of
disease contracted during the fighting. One of the rival claimants to his throne defected to the Portuguese,
enabling them to take complete control over Sitawaka.
Campaign of Danture 1594
The Portuguese tried again to put their preferred candidate on the throne of Kandy as a client ruler. This
time it was Dona Catarina, a Kandyan princess who had been entrusted to the care of the Portuguese and
brought up in a Catholic European style. She was then aged ten or twelve.
Pedro Lopes de Sousa led a force of about 20,000 in an invasion of Kandy, of which one thousand were
Portuguese troops (the majority transferred from Goa in India for the expedition), 15,400 native Lascarin
allies, 47 elephants used as pack animals,[note 2] and the remainder Badaga mercenaries from India and
coolie labourers. The initial number of opposing Kandyan forces is unknown, but is estimated at 10,000.
The defenders held a distinct advantage in the terrain, as Kandy is a mountainous region and the invading
force would be forced to traverse well-defended mountain passes.
The Portuguese stormed the pass at Balana with heavy losses, after which the Kandyan forces began to
retreat before the invaders. The Portuguese were able to enter the capital Kandy without resistance, finding
it abandoned by King Vimaladharmasuriya I. Dona Catarina was crowned as the new ruler of the Kingdom
of Kandy. However, she and her Portuguese advisers were unpopular rulers, particularly after rumours
spread that she was to be married to a Portuguese husband (as the Portuguese were indeed planning).
Vimaladharmasuriya's forces engaged in guerilla tactics, attacking
Portuguese foraging parties and cutting off lines of supply and
communication. A large Portuguese-Lascarin raiding party of
3,000 men was surrounded and destroyed in the Uva region.
Shortly thereafter, evidence was found that Jayavira Bandara
Mudali, one of the Lascarin chieftains, was preparing to betray the
Portuguese to Vimaladharmasuriya. Part of this evidence was later
shown to be fabricated by Vimaladharmasuriya, but Jayavira was
killed as a traitor before this was realised.
The death of Jayavira led many of the Lascarins to desert, along
with all of the Badaga mercenaries. Less than a thousand native
allies were left with the Portuguese forces, who were now
massively outnumbered, lacking supplies, and faced a mass
rebellion. The Portuguese attempted to retreat from Kandy to the
fort at Balana. Losses to guerilla warfare and further Lascarin Key locations in the Campaign of
desertions reduced their forces to about 360 Portuguese and an Danture, 1594
equal number of Lascarins by the time they reached Danture. In
contrast, defections and troops arriving from other parts of the
kingdom had swelled Vimaladharmasuriya's forces to about
20,000 men.
At Danture, the Portuguese forces were attacked as they retreated.
The organised columns disintegrated in the forest and most were
wiped out. Sousa surrendered with the remaining 93 European
troops. In a departure from usual Sinhalese warfare, the prisoners
were tortured and mutilated. Sousa died of the wounds he
sustained during the fighting. With the exception of a patrol sent
back to the lowlands during the early part of the campaign, only
three Portuguese soldiers escaped back to Colombo. Portuguese soldiers kill the Lascarin
leader Jayavira and his attendants,
Vimaladharmasuriya solidified his control over Kandy by marrying who were suspected of treason.
Dona Catarina. In an attempt to prevent further Portuguese Woodcut by Philippus Baldaeus.
incursions he built new fortifications in the Balana pass.
Portuguese consolidation of Kotte and attacks on Kandy 1595–
1617
With the death of Pedro Lopes de Sousa at Danture, Dom Jerónimo de Azevedo succeeded him as Captain-
General of Ceylon, and despite the losses in the battle, Kandy was unable to advance into the lowlands as
the Portuguese forts and garrisons remained intact.[22]
Dom Jerónimo proceeded to reform Kotte's provincial administration, dividing it into four provinces, or
disavas, each administered by the eponymous disava, with military and judicial powers. The tax system
was also reformed and the old system of tributes replaced with fixed mandatory payments. The original
military system of castes and levies however, remained organized under the local mudaliar commanders,
who assisted the Portuguese troops. Dom Jerónimo also encouraged missionary work by the Jesuits,
Augustinians and Dominicans in addition to the Franciscans.[23]
Nevertheless, the defeat at Danture sparked a number of uprisings in Kotte which Dom Jerónimo had to
defeat before he could move on Kandy. He considered the defeat of Kandy an utmost priority to secure Sri
Lanka and secured Kotte first with the construction of fortified encampments in Matara, Sabaragamuwa,
Manikkadawara, and Malwana, where he established the army
HQ.[24]
By 1603, Kotte was firmly secured and Dom Jerónimo led his
troops into Kandy through the mountain pass, where he seized the
Kandian fort at Balana and proceeded towards the city of Kandy
itself. However, the kingdom could not be subjugated then due to a
rebellion among the Lascarins, and was forced to return to
Colombo.[24]
Unable to capture Kandy, Dom Jerónimo adopted a policy of first
weakening Kandy through devastating raid warfare by land, twice
every year, at harvest time, resorting to light contingents of troops,
while blockading the eastern Kandian ports of Trincomalee and
Batticaloa by sea, between 1604 and 1612 with considerable
success. This coincided with a succession crisis in Kandy after the
death of King Vimaladharmasuryia in 1604, that was only solved
months later with the succession of his cousin Senarat to the Political situation in Sri Lanka in the
throne.[24] early 17th century
Senarat proved to be an unpopular ruler and unable to prevent the
Portuguese from causing great devastation upon Kandian villages and crops. In 1612, Dom Jerónimo was
appointed as the next viceroy of Portuguese India and was succeeded in Sri Lanka by Dom Francisco
Meneses (1612–1614), Manuel Mascarenhas Homem (1614–1616), and Dom Nuno Álvares Pereira
(1616–1618). Because of his great experience in Sri Lanka, as viceroy Dom Jerónimo de Azevedo kept the
Portuguese garrisons well supplied and reinforced, which caused the depopulation of Kandy on account of
the systematic Portuguese raids.[25]
Rebellions against both powers and submission of Kandy 1617–
1621
Uprisings in Portuguese territory
The taxes imposed by the Portuguese, and the desecration of
Buddhist temples by missionaries caused great discontent among
the Sinhalese peasantry and in late 1616 an uprising broke out in
Sabaragamuwa. Disava Filipe de Oliveira's forces camped in the
Seven Korales were dispatched south, but in his absence, in
December 1616 a much greater revolt broke out in eastern Seven
A Portuguese illustration of
Korales, led by a disgraced grain measurer who claimed to be the
Sinhalese warriors, produced c. 1540
grandson of Rajasinha, late prince Nikapitiya Bendara, dead since
1611. Senarat immediately took the opportunity to support
Nikapitiya with a force of 2000 men commanded by the former
rebel leader Kangara Aratchi, and the Prince of Uva, Kuruvita Rala, to march his forces southwards into
Matara and Sabaragamuwa. Under these conditions, the Portuguese were overwhelmed: part of
Sabaragmuwa and Matara were overrun while a considerable portion of the Seven Korales fell to
Nikapitiya's rebellion.[26]
Rebellion in Kandy
Despite initial cordiality, Senarat quickly grew distrustful of Nikapitiyas' success and attitude towards
Kandy. Fearing a future rival, he withdrew all his aid and ordered Kuruvita Rala to suspend operations
while he attempted to gain a truce with the Portuguese. This in turn caused Kuruvita Rala, a native from
Kotte, to rebel in indignation against Senarat, choosing instead to ally with Nikapityia, march against his
former ruler, and invite Mayadunne of Denawaka exiled in India to become King of Kandy instead (since
his lowly caste disallowed him from crowning himself king). In this regard, C.R. de Silva considers
Kuruvita Rala to have been "the true Sinhalese patriot, for it was he who put national above dynastic
interests".[27]
Kuruvita Rala, ruling much of southern Sri Lanka including the
port of Batticaloa, now posed a much graver threat to Senarat than
Nikapitiya. Thus, after recapturing the Balana fort from the
Portuguese turned to them for a treaty and an alliance, but only
when he released all the Portuguese prisoners was captain-general
Dom Nuno Álvares Pereira convinced that Senarat's proposal was
genuine.[28]
The Luso-Kandian treaty A Portuguese illustration of
Sinhalese women and children,
By this sudden turn of events, on August 17 an agreement produced c. 1540
between the Portuguese and Kandy was reached and a treaty put
into effect. In negotiating with the Portuguese, Senarat proved
rather capable, refusing most of Portuguese demands but stil had to formally pledge vassalage to the King
of Portugal, agree not interfere in missionary work in Kandy (Senarat even entrusted his children to be
educated by Franciscans), offer several noblemen as hostages in Colombo and pay two large elephants a
year as a token tribute. The Portuguese on their part agreed to a formal alliance and recognized Senerat as
the rightful King of Kandy.[29]
With the coming of favourable winds in March 1617, important Portuguese reinforcements had arrived in
Colombo. In June, developments in Jaffna favoured the Portuguese as Cankili I usurped the throne through
a coup and in exchange for Portuguese recognition, agreed to prevent supplies and weapons from reaching
the rebels from there. Between July and September the Portuguese were able to recapture the Seven
Korales, and Nikapitiya fled to the jungles inhabited by the Vanni in northeastern Sri Lanka, never to be
seen again.[30]
Portuguese conquest of Jaffna 1619
Although the Portuguese confirmed Cankili as the ruler of Jaffna, Cankilis' brutal murder of political rivals
made him an unpopular ruler, and incapable of preventing dissatisfaction especially from the rising number
of native Christians of the Kingdom. In August 1618, a rebellion instigated by Christian mudaliars Dom
Pedro and Dom Luiz and aided by local Portuguese casados evicted Cankili from the throne, but was
eventually suppressed with the assistance of 5000 men of the Hindu Nayak of Tanjore, in south-east
India.[31] As Cankili was a weak ruler who failed to prevent growing unrest in the kingdom, to pay due
tribute to the Portuguese, and was rumoured to be allowing supplies to reach the southern rebels and even
seeking aid from the Dutch, in March 1619 the Portuguese captain-general of Ceylon Dom Constantino de
Sá decided to dispatch Filipe de Oliveira ahead of 230 Portuguese and 3000 lascarins to subjugate Jaffna.
Furthermore, the captain-general had received reports that a Christian Malabarese privateer on the service
of the Zamorin, Dom Pedro Rodrigues, was attacking Portuguese and allied shipping in the vicinity of the
island of Mannar, and tasked Oliveira to deal with the issue en route.[32]
Upon reaching Mannar, Dom Pedro sailed away, and Oliveira
proceeded towards Jaffna. Once there, he demanded the payment
of due tributes but as negotiations with Cankili failed, in June the
Portuguese-Sinhalese forces of Filipe de Oliveira marched on the
capital Nallur, defeated the Tamil forces at Jaffna, captured Cankili
and formally annexed Jaffna to the Portuguese Crown.[33] The
ancient capital of Jaffna was moved to the coastal city of Jaffna
itself (Jafanapatão), and with the kingdom secured from outside
threats by February 1621, navigation in the Palk Strait became
much safer. Cankili was sent to Goa to face trial, where he was
found guilty. However, he agreed to convert before being formally
executed.[34]
Developments in southern Sri Lanka
Maximum extent of Portuguese
Elsewhere, in early 1620 Senarat achieved another truce – with Ceylon (cyan), after the conquest of
Mayadunne and Kuruvita Rala – by promising them the throne of Jaffna in 1619 and the Vanni
Kotte instead. Only by June 1620 did the Portuguese captain- Chieftains in 1621
general Dom Constantino de Sá de Noronha manage to recapture
the southern lowlands, for Kuruvita Rala was a skilled and popular
commander and knew the territory well.[35] A month later,
Kuruvita Rala was himself ambushed and killed by the disava of
Matara Dom Costantino Barreto (a Christian Sinhalese) in
Panama, southeastern Sri Lanka. The departure of Mayadunne of
Denawaka back to India in March 1621 brought the end of the
rebellion in Kandy, and peace between the Portuguese and
Kandy.[36]
The Danish
Portuguese soldiers in Asia in the
The second European power to establish a foothold on Sri Lanka
17th century, painted by André
were the Danes. In 1620, Senarat received the first expedition of
Reinoso
the Danish East India Company led by Ove Gjedde, who reached
Sri Lanka after a perilous journey of over two years, that claimed
more than half its personnel. Senarat placed great expectations on a Danish alliance against the Portuguese
and agreed to sign a treaty and grant them the port of Trincomalee, where the great Koneswaram temple
was located. However, until the Danish could prove capable against the Portuguese, Senarat was not
willing to relinquish his hard-won peace with them or grant the Danes any further concessions. Thus, just
two weeks after the treaty was signed, the Danish evacuated Trincomalee and left for Tranquebar in
Tanjore, where they established a fort.[37]
Dutch intervention 1638–1658
The kingdoms of Spain and Portugal had been in dynastic union under the Spanish Habsburgs since a
Portuguese succession crisis in 1580. This Iberian Union possessed a vast empire of colonial possessions,
but lacked the strength (particularly naval forces) to defend them. Other colonial powers sought to take
advantage of this weakness to obtain their own empires, particularly after the collapse of the Iberian
economy in 1627. The Spanish overseas possessions were generally better defended than Portuguese ones,
which were widely scattered and difficult to reinforce.
The rival Dutch Empire – engaged in the Eighty Years' War against its
former master, Spain – concentrated its overseas efforts on conquering
parts of the Portuguese Empire in the Dutch–Portuguese War. The
Dutch East India Company (VOC) sought to oust the Portuguese
from the East Indies and Indian subcontinent so they could control the
lucrative spice trade. Seeing an opportunity to undermine the
Portuguese on Sri Lanka, the VOC made contact with the Kingdom
of Kandy. Confidence in the Kandyan forces rose after they defeated
a Portuguese army at the Battle of Gannoruwa in March 1638.
Shortly thereafter, the VOC and Rajasinha II of Kandy signed a treaty
in May 1638, by which the VOC promised to aid Kandy in its
continuing war against the Portuguese in exchange for a monopoly on
many trading goods.
The combined VOC and Kandyan forces gradually wore down the
Portuguese forces, pushing them out of their strongholds across the
island. Batticaloa on the East coast fell to Dutch forces in 1639, then Portuguese drawing of the
Negombo on the West coast in 1640. Galle was captured after a siege Koneswaram temple
in 1640, providing the Dutch with a port and naval base. However the
Kandyans became suspicious of their new allies, correctly
believing that the VOC goal was not just to remove the Portuguese
from Sri Lanka, but to replace them as the colonial power. The
alliance fell apart after a ceasefire was agreed between Dutch and
Portuguese forces at some point between 1641 and 1645.
Kandyan forces engaged in skirmishing with both Dutch and
Portuguese forces over the following years, but were unable to
make inroads. The VOC and Kandy returned to negotiations and
reformed their alliance in 1649, albeit on different terms.
Meanwhile, the Iberian Union had ended in 1640, depriving the Dutch forces storm the fort of Galle
Portuguese colonies of Spanish support. The Peace of Münster in in 1640, by Philippus Baldaeus
1648 had ended the Dutch war with Spain (but not Portugal).
These developments together acted to free up Dutch forces from
other conflicts, allowing them to concentrate on their attacks on Portuguese colonies.
The VOC-Kandy alliance went on the offensive in Sri Lanka from 1652. Whilst Kandy controlled the
interior of the island, it was landlocked and the Dutch fleet were able to dominate the coast. Two naval
actions were fought between the Dutch and Portuguese on 23 March near Colombo and 2 May 1654 near
Goa; the Portuguese won the first battle but lost their entire Indian subcontinent fleet in the second. The
Dutch placed the main Portuguese base of Colombo under siege in 1655. Rajasingha no longer trusted the
Dutch and insisted that Colombo be ceded to Kandy as soon as it fell. However, when the city finally fell in
1656, the Dutch immediately closed the gates against their ally.
Faced with a complete breakdown in relations with the Dutch, the Kandyan's broke off the alliance and
pillaged the area around Colombo. They then retreated back inland and resumed their war with the Dutch,
which would continue intermittently for the next century.
The last Portuguese forces were expelled from Sri Lanka entirely in 1658. The VOC was left in control of
Colombo and much of the surrounding coastline, forming Dutch Ceylon.
Aftermath
By the end of the war, the Portuguese had lost all of their possessions in Sri Lanka along with their trading
rights. Portuguese Ceylon ceased to exist.
The Dutch were left in control of numerous ports and fortifications along the coastline, along with the
major population centres of Colombo and Galle. Their possessions on the island were organised into the
colony of Dutch Ceylon. Over the following century the colony gradually expanded its holdings in Sri
Lanka, and engaged in sporadic warfare with Kandy. Eventually the Kew Letters of 1795 led to the
transfer of the Dutch possessions on the island to the British in 1796, forming British Ceylon.
The Kingdom of Kandy retreated to the highlands in the interior and east of the island. They continued to
resist European influence on Sri Lanka, engaging in skirmishing and guerilla warfare without making
significant inroads into the lowlands. Kandy maintained its independence until 1815 when it ceded its
power to the British.
Notes
1. The rise of the Mughal empire led to an increase in efforts on Sri Lanka by the Portuguese,
as evident by a claim made by Lisbon. "If someday India should be lost it could be recovered
from Ceylon."[8]
2. The elephants were used for logistics and not as combat war elephants
References
Citations
1. Ring, Trudy (1996). International Dictionary 18. Monteiro 2011, p. 197
of Historic Places: Asia and Oceania (http 19. Monteiro 2011, p. 198
s://books.google.com/books?id=vWLRxJE 20. Monteiro 2011, p. 202
U49EC&q=Sinhalese%E2%80%93Portug
uese+War&pg=PA443). Taylor & Francis. 21. Monteiro 2011, p. 203
p. 443. ISBN 9781884964046. 22. Chandra Richard De Silva (1972) The
2. De Silva 2005, p. 161. Portuguese in Ceylon 1617–1638 (https://b
ooks.google.pt/books?id=DUEKAQAAIAA
3. De Silva 1981, p. 114. J&redir_esc=y) H. W. Cave & Company,
4. De Silva 2005, p. 162. Colombo
5. S.G. Perera p. 8. 23. C. R. de Silva 1972, p. 12
6. S.G. Perera p. 11. 24. C. R. de Silva (1972) p. 13
7. Gaston Perera p. 144. 25. C. R. de Silva 1972, p. 15
8. Gaston Perera p. 145. 26. C. R. de Silva 1972, pg. 22-23
9. Gaston Perera pp. 145–146. 27. C. R. de Silva 1972, pp. 25–26
10. Rajavaliya p. 77. 28. C. R. de Silva 1972, p. 27
11. S.G. Perera p 20. 29. C. R. de Silva 1972, pp. 32–34
12. S.G. Perera pp. 18–23. 30. C. R. de Silva 1972, p. 31
13. Paul E. Peiris pp. 115–116. 31. C. R. de Silva 1972, p. 42
14. Rajavaliya p. 79. 32. C. R. de Silva 1972, p. 44
15. S.G. Perera pp. 37–44. 33. C. R. de Silva 1972, p. 46
16. Queyroz pp. 326–341. 34. C. R. de Silva 1972, p. 47
17. Saturnino Monteiro (2011) Portuguese Sea 35. C. R. de Silva 1972, p. 36
Battles – Volume IV – 1580–1603 p. 195
36. C. R. de Silva 1972, p. 54
37. C. R. de Silva 1972, pg. 53-54
Bibliography
de Silva, K. M. (1981). A History of Sri Lanka (https://archive.org/details/bub_gb_dByI_qil26
YC/page/n1). University of California Press. ISBN 9780520043206.
de Silva, K. M. (2005). A History of Sri Lanka (https://books.google.com/books?id=PWbRAq
sIJgIC). Colombo: Vijitha Yapa Publications. ISBN 9789558095928.
B. Gunasekara, The Rajavaliya. AES reprint. New Delhi: Asian Educational Services, 1995.
ISBN 81-206-1029-6
C. Gaston Perera, Kandy Fights the Portuguese – A Military History of Kandyan Resistance.
Vijithayapa Publications: Sri Lanka, June 2007. ISBN 978-955-1266-77-6
Paul E. Peiris, Ceylon the Portuguese Era: Being a History of the Island for the Period,
1505–1658, Volume 2. Tisara Publishers: Sri Lanka, 1992. (Link). OCLC 12552979 (https://
www.worldcat.org/oclc/12552979).
da Silva, O. M. (1990). Fidalgos in the kingdom of Kotte, Sri Lanka, 1505–1656: the
Portuguese in Sri Lanka. Colombo, Sri Lanka: Harwoods Publishers.
S.G. Perera, A History of Ceylon For Schools – The Portuguese and Dutch period. The
Associated Newspapers of Ceylon: Sri Lanka, 1942. (Link). OCLC 10531673 (https://www.w
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Winius, George D. (1971). The fatal history of Portuguese Ceylon; transition to Dutch rule (ht
tps://archive.org/details/fatalhistoryofpo0000wini). Cambridge, Massachusetts: Harvard
University Press. ISBN 978-0-674-29510-0.
Chandra Richard De Silva (1972) The Portuguese in Ceylon 1617–1638 (https://books.goog
le.pt/books?id=DUEKAQAAIAAJ&redir_esc=y) H. W. Cave & Company, Colombo
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