Handbook of Molecular Gastronomy

Scientific Foundations, Educational Practices,

and Culinary Applications
 Handbook of Molecular Gastronomy
Scientific Foundations, Educational Practices, and
Culinary Applications

Edited by
Róisín M. Burke, Alan L. Kelly, Christophe Lavelle
and Hervé This vo Kientza
First edition published 2021
by CRC Press
6000 Broken Sound Parkway NW, Suite 300, Boca Raton, FL 33487-​2742
and by CRC Press
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Library of Congress Cataloging‑in‑Publication Data
Names: Burke, Róisín, editor.
Title: Handbook of molecular gastronomy: scientific foundations and culinary
applications / edited by Róisín Burke, Alan Kelly, Christophe Lavelle,
and Hervé This vo Kientza.
Description: First edition. | Boca Raton: CRC Press, 2021. |
Includes bibliographical references and index.
Identifiers: LCCN 2020053893 (print) | LCCN 2020053894 (ebook) |
ISBN 9781466594784 (hardback) | ISBN 9780429168703 (ebook)
Subjects: LCSH: Molecular gastronomy–Handbooks, manuals, etc.
Classification: LCC TX651 .H335 2021 (print) |
LCC TX651 (ebook) | DDC 641.01/3--dc23
LC record available at https://lccn.loc.gov/2020053893
LC ebook record available at https://lccn.loc.gov/2020053894
ISBN: 978-​1-​4665-​9478-​4  (hbk)
ISBN: 978-0-367-74161-7 (pbk)
ISBN: 978-​0-​429-​16870-​3  (ebk)
Typeset in Times
by Newgen Publishing UK
Contents

About the Editors.................................................................................................................................................................................. xiii

Contributors............................................................................................................................................................................................xv
Foreword...............................................................................................................................................................................................xxv

Introduction to Molecular Gastronomy and Its Applications.............................................................................................................1

Part I  Scientific Foundations...................................................................................................................5

Acids in Foods and Perception of Sourness..........................................................................................................................................7
Christian Salles

Anthocyanins in Food...........................................................................................................................................................................13
Véronique Cheynier

Alcoholic Beverages: Production, Trends, Innovations.....................................................................................................................19

Konstantin Bellut, Kieran M. Lynch and Elke K. Arendt

Ash in the Kitchen.................................................................................................................................................................................25

Marta Ghebremedhin, Christine Schreiber, Bhagyashri L. Joshi, Andreas Rieger and Thomas A. Vilgis

Baking: Laminated Bakery Products..................................................................................................................................................35

Roxane Detry, Christophe Blecker and Sabine Danthine

Baking: Chemical Leaveners...............................................................................................................................................................41

Linda A. Luck

Baking: Injera –​the Multi-​Eyed Flat Bread......................................................................................................................................43

Mahelet Girma, Sumaya M. Abdullahi and Benjamin L. Stottrup

Baking: Viennoiserie –​Laminated Pastry Production......................................................................................................................47

James A. Griffin

Baking: How Does Starch Gelatinization Influence Texture?...........................................................................................................53

Anaïs Lavoisier

Baking: Sourdough Bread....................................................................................................................................................................57

Mark Traynor and Imran Ahmad

Barbecue: The Chemistry behind Cooking on a Barbecue...............................................................................................................63

Florent Allais

Bioactivity and Its Measurement.........................................................................................................................................................71

Hervé This vo Kientza

Browning: The Glycation and Maillard Reactions –​Major Non-​Enzymatic Browning Reactions in Food................................81
Frédéric J. Tessier

Canning: Appert and Food Canning...................................................................................................................................................87

Jean-​Christophe Augustin

Capillarity in Action.............................................................................................................................................................................91
Hervé This vo Kientza

v
vi Contents

Champagne Tasting from a Scientific Perspective.............................................................................................................................97

Gérard Liger-​Belair, Clara Cilindre, Daniel Cordier, Guillaume Polidori, Fabien Beaumont and Thomas Séon

Chantillys: The Cousins of Whipped Cream....................................................................................................................................105

Hervé This vo Kientza

Cheese: Hot Culinary Uses of Cheese...............................................................................................................................................107

Sébastien Roustel and John A. Hannon

Chocolate: Chocolates from around the World, Simple Physics, Complex Flavour....................................................................121
Bhagyashri L. Joshi, Sarah Gindra and Thomas A. Vilgis

Chocolate: Oral Processing of Chocolate – Successive Interplay of Sensory and Physicochemical Parameters.......................131
Thomas A. Vilgis

Coffee Preparation –​from Roasted Beans to Beverage..................................................................................................................139

Laura Febvay and Hervé This vo Kientza

Colour: Natural Pigments in Foods and Their Technical Uses.......................................................................................................151

Juan Valverde

Cooking................................................................................................................................................................................................157
Hervé This vo Kientza

Cooking: Culinary Precisions and Robustness of Recipes..............................................................................................................163

Hervé This vo Kientza

Cryogenics in the Kitchen..................................................................................................................................................................171

Peter Barham

Dairy: Milk Gels –​a Gastrophysics View.........................................................................................................................................181

Judith Hege, Marta Ghebremedhin, Bhagyashri L. Joshi, Christine Schreiber, H.-​C. Gill and Thomas A. Vilgis

Dairy: Culinary Uses of Milk, Butter and Ice Cream.....................................................................................................................191

Alan L. Kelly and David S. Waldron

Dairy: Ginger Milk Curd...................................................................................................................................................................199

Martin Lersch

Dehydration.........................................................................................................................................................................................203
José M. Aguilera

Dispersed System Formalism.............................................................................................................................................................207

Hervé This vo Kientza

Distillation: The Behaviour of Volatile Compounds during Distillation of Hydro-​Alcoholic Solutions and
during Hydro-​Distillation...................................................................................................................................................................213
Martine Esteban-​Decloux

Eggs: Let Us Have an Egg..................................................................................................................................................................221

Hervé This vo Kientza

Emulsions: Emulsified Systems in Food...........................................................................................................................................227

Markus Ketomäki, Trivikram Nallamilli, Christine Schreiber and Thomas A. Vilgis

Emulsions and Foams: Ostwald Ripening and Disproportionation in Practice...........................................................................241

Hervé This vo Kientza

Emulsions: Lecithin............................................................................................................................................................................249
Elzbieta Kozakiewicz and Daniel Cossuta
Contents vii

Emulsions: Emulsions and Surfactants in the Kitchen...................................................................................................................257

Hervé This vo Kientza

Essential Oils.......................................................................................................................................................................................265
Eric Angelini and Laure Dziuba

Essential Oils: How to Safely Use Essential Oils..............................................................................................................................275

Eric Angelini and Laure Dziuba

Evaporation.........................................................................................................................................................................................281
Hervé This vo Kientza

Expansion............................................................................................................................................................................................291
Hervé This vo Kientza

Fats and Oils: Physicochemical Properties of Edible Oils and Fats...............................................................................................295

Sabine Danthine

Fats and Oils: From Fat Droplets in Plant Seeds to Novel Foods...................................................................................................299
Juan C. Zambrano, Behic Mert and Thomas A. Vilgis

Fats and Oils: Oxidation of Dietary Lipids......................................................................................................................................305

Luc Eveleigh

Fats and Oils: Extra Virgin Olive Oil in Cooking –​Molecular Keys for Traditional and
Modern Mediterranean Gastronomy................................................................................................................................................311
Raffaele Sacchi

Fermentation: Kimchi........................................................................................................................................................................321
Weon-​Sun  Shin

Fermentation: Fermenting Flavours with Yeast...............................................................................................................................327

Angela M. Coral Medina and John P. Morrissey

Fermentation: A Short Scientific and Culinary Overview of Kefir................................................................................................331

Christophe Lavelle and Jean-​Baptiste Boulé

Filtration Membranes for Food Processing and Fractionation......................................................................................................335

Marie-​Laure Lameloise

Food Matrices and the Matrix Effect in the Kitchen.......................................................................................................................343

José M. Aguilera and Hervé This vo Kientza

Food Pairing: Is It Really about Science?.........................................................................................................................................347

Hervé This vo Kientza and Christophe Lavelle

Freeze-​Drying......................................................................................................................................................................................349
Yrjö H. Roos

Foams: Pickering Edible Oil Foam –​Toward New Food Products................................................................................................357

Anne-​Laure  Fameau

Frying...................................................................................................................................................................................................365
Franco Pedreschi

Gastrophysics: A New Scientific Approach to Eating......................................................................................................................371

Charles Spence

Gels.......................................................................................................................................................................................................375
Hervé This vo Kientza
viii Contents

Heat Transfer in Culinary Sciences...................................................................................................................................................381

Denis Flick

Hydrocolloid Usages as Gelling and Emulsifying Agents for Culinary and Industrial Applications..........................................385
Rachel Edwards-​Stuart and Reine Barbar

Imaging Foodstuffs and Products of Culinary Transformations....................................................................................................409

Mathias Porsmose Clausen, Morten Christensen and Ole G. Mouritsen

Meat: Meat Tenderness and the Impact of Cooking........................................................................................................................415

Jean-​François Hocquette and Alain Kondjoyan

Meat: Heat Transfer in Meat.............................................................................................................................................................419

Douglas Baldwin

Meat: Reduction of Nitrate and Nitrite Salts in Meat Products –​What Are the Consequences
and Possible Solutions?.......................................................................................................................................................................423
Régine Talon and Sabine Leroy

Microwave Heating and Modern Cuisine.........................................................................................................................................429

Alan L. Kelly and Hervé This vo Kientza

Mineral Ions and Cooking.................................................................................................................................................................433

Christian Salles

Osmosis in the Kitchen.......................................................................................................................................................................441

Hervé This vo Kientza

Pasta: Durum Wheat Proteins –​a Key Macronutrient for Pasta Qualities..................................................................................447

Coline Martin, Marie-​Hélène Morel and Bernard Cuq

Pasteurization in the Kitchen.............................................................................................................................................................451

Gabriela Precup and Dan-​Cristian Vodnar

Plating: The Science of Plating..........................................................................................................................................................459

Charles Spence

Proteins and Proteases........................................................................................................................................................................463

Linda A. Luck and Alan L. Kelly

Puddings: The Secret of the Rice Pudding.......................................................................................................................................471

Martin Lersch

Roasting...............................................................................................................................................................................................473
Laura Febvay and Hervé This vo Kientza

Salt: When Should Salt Be Added to Meat Being Grilled?.............................................................................................................491

Hervé This vo Kientza, Marie-​Paule Pardo and Rolande Ollitrault

Sauces...................................................................................................................................................................................................495
Hervé This vo Kientza

Sauces: Hollandaise Sauce.................................................................................................................................................................499

Guro Helgesdotter Rognså

Sauces and Purées: The Underside of Applesauce...........................................................................................................................505

Cassandre Leverrier

Seaweeds: Phycogastronomy –​the Culinary Science of Seaweeds.................................................................................................517

Ole G. Mouritsen
Contents ix

Size Reduction.....................................................................................................................................................................................523
José M. Aguilera

Smoked Foods......................................................................................................................................................................................527
Jane K. Parker and Alice Pontin

Sous Vide Cooking..............................................................................................................................................................................531

Douglas Baldwin

Spherification......................................................................................................................................................................................537
Linda A. Luck

Squid: Gastrophysics of Squid –​from Gastronomy to Science and Back Again..........................................................................541

Ole G. Mouritsen, Charlotte Vinther Schmidt, Peter Lionet Faxholm and Mathias Porsmose Clausen

Sugars: Soft Caramel and Sucre à la Crème –​an Undergraduate Experiment about Sugar Crystallization...........................545
Irem Altan, Patrick Charbonneau and Justine de Valicourt

Sugars: Sugar (and Its Substitutes) in Pastries................................................................................................................................549

Anne Cazor and Ramon Morató

Sugars: Erythritol–​Sucrose Mixtures out of Equilibrium –​Exciting Thermodynamics in the Mouth......................................557

Hannah M. Hartge, Birgitta I. Zielbauer and Thomas A. Vilgis

Sugars: Intramolecular Dehydration of Hexoses.............................................................................................................................563

Marie-​Charlotte Belhomme, Stéphanie Castex and Arnaud Haudrechy

Taste and Sound..................................................................................................................................................................................569

Bruno A. Mesz

Temporal Domination of Sensation: When Building Dishes, Let’s Take Temporality into Account...........................................575
Pascal Schlich

Texture: The Physics of Mouthfeel –​Spreadable Food and Inulin Particle Gels.........................................................................581

Thomas A. Vilgis

Texture: How Texture Makes Flavour..............................................................................................................................................585

Ole G. Mouritsen

Texture: Tsukemono –​the Art and Science of Preparing Crunchy Vegetables............................................................................593

Ole G. Mouritsen

Thickeners: Cellulose and Its Derivatives........................................................................................................................................599

Rachel Edwards-​Stuart

3D Printing of Food............................................................................................................................................................................605
Megan M. Ross, Róisín M. Burke and Alan L. Kelly

Umami: The Molecular Science of Umami Synergy........................................................................................................................619

Ole G. Mouritsen

Part II   Educational Practices.............................................................................................................625

The Right Words for Improving Communication in Food Science, Food Technology, and between Food
Science and Technology and a Broader Audience............................................................................................................................627
Hervé This vo Kientza

Experimental Flavour Workshops.....................................................................................................................................................635

Hervé This vo Kientza
x Contents

Teaching Argumentation and Inquiry through Culinary Claims...................................................................................................643

Erik Fooladi

Cooking and Science Workshops: The “Soft of the World”, Gelling Agents.................................................................................651
Pere Castells

Culinary Sciences for the Enhancement of the Public Understanding of Science........................................................................655

Ole G. Mouritsen

“Science and Cooking Activities” for Secondary School Students.................................................................................................659

Marie-​Claude Feore, Laure Fort, Marie-​Blanche Mauhourat and Hervé This vo Kientza

How to Reduce Oil in French Fries: A Student Experiment...........................................................................................................663

Hervé This vo Kientza

An Educational Satellite Project around the Scientific Elucidation of Culinary Precisions in Lebanon and
in the Middle East...............................................................................................................................................................................665
Reine Barbar, Jean-​Marie Malbec, Christophe Lavelle and Hervé This vo Kientza

Bon Appétit, Marie Curie! A Stanford University Introductory Science of Cooking Course.....................................................673
Markus W. Covert and Imanol Arrieta-​Ibarra

Molecular Gastronomy in Science Education and Science Communication at the National University of Singapore.............679
Linda Sellou and Lau Shi Yun

Molecular Gastronomy: A Universal Portal to the Molecular Sciences........................................................................................683

Patricia B. O’Hara

Heat Transfer in the Kitchen –​Exercises.........................................................................................................................................687

Manuel Combes

Ionic Diffusion in Spherified Calcium Alginate Gels: A Laboratory Experiment........................................................................689

Lorenzo Soprani, Lara Querciagrossa, Silvia Cristofaro, Luca Muccioli, Silvia Orlandi, Elena Strocchi,
Alberto Arcioni and Roberto Berardi

Simple Calculations Based on Cooking............................................................................................................................................703

Hervé This vo Kientza

Teaching and Cooking with Culinary Teachers...............................................................................................................................717

Christophe Lavelle

The Monthly INRAE-​AgroParisTech Seminars on Molecular Gastronomy................................................................................721

Hervé This vo Kientza

Part III   Culinary Applications...........................................................................................................725

New Greek Cuisine.............................................................................................................................................................................727
Georgianna Hiliadaki and Nikos Roussos

3D Printed Note by Note Recipe: Soya Lobster Prototype.............................................................................................................735

Róisín M. Burke

Cooking (with) Olive Oil....................................................................................................................................................................737

Christophe Lavelle

Cooking for the Elderly......................................................................................................................................................................741

Christophe Lavelle
Contents xi

Culinary Constructivism and Note by Note Cooking......................................................................................................................743

Pierre Gagnaire

Decantation..........................................................................................................................................................................................751
Hervé This vo Kientza

Note by Note Recipes for a Press Conference and Tasting Organized at ITHQ, 2012.................................................................755
Erik Ayala-​Bribiesca and Ismael Osorio

Using Liquid Nitrogen to Prepare Ice Creams in the Restaurant..................................................................................................759

Christophe Lavelle and Hervé This vo Kientza with chefs André Daguin, Noël Gutrin and Philippe Labbé

A Note by Note Traditional Chinese Dinner Created and Served in Singapore...........................................................................763

Kelly Lee, Aaron Goh, Tony Choo, Nicolas Vergnole, Gn Ying Wei and Tais Berenstein

Greek Diracs........................................................................................................................................................................................771
Makis Kalossakas and Nicolas Nikolakopoulos

An Eclipse Dish...................................................................................................................................................................................775
Hervé This vo Kientza

Modern Swiss Cooking.......................................................................................................................................................................777

Denis Martin

How Do Eggs Coagulate?...................................................................................................................................................................779

Hervé This vo Kientza

Vegetable Salad...................................................................................................................................................................................785
Jean Chauvel

Filtration..............................................................................................................................................................................................789
Hervé This vo Kientza

Waiter! There Is Garlic in My Meringue!........................................................................................................................................793

César Vega

Lobster and Juniper...........................................................................................................................................................................797

David Toutain

Molecular Cooking..............................................................................................................................................................................801
Róisín M. Burke and Pauline Danaher

Note by Note Cooking and Note by Note Cuisine............................................................................................................................809

Hervé This vo Kientza and Róisín M. Burke

Spherification......................................................................................................................................................................................819
Sasa Hasic

The Raspberry Pear Viennoiserie......................................................................................................................................................825

James A. Griffin

Molecular Mixology: Welcome Coffee, a Cocktail with Ten Layers..............................................................................................827

Hervé This vo Kientza and Pierre Gagnaire

Cube of “Chicken-​Carrot” with Chips of “Basil-​Lemon”..............................................................................................................829

Pasquale Altomonte and Dao Nguyen

Some of the Easiest Note by Note Recipes Served at Senses Restaurant.......................................................................................831

Andrea Camastra
xii Contents

The Forest Floor..................................................................................................................................................................................837

Sophie Dalton

A Note by Note Macaron....................................................................................................................................................................841

Julien Binz

Note by Note Cooking.........................................................................................................................................................................843

Michael Pontif

Note by Note Sushis............................................................................................................................................................................847

Guillaume Siegler

Slowly Cooked Lamb Neck with Fermented Flour Pancakes, Sunchoke Puree and Beer Glaze................................................849
Alex Tsionitis

Index.....................................................................................................................................................................................................851
About the Editors

Róisín M. Burke is a senior lecturer in the School of Culinary Christophe Lavelle is a research scientist at the French National
Arts and Food Technology, College of Arts and Tourism, Centre for Scientific Research, working at the National Museum
Technological University Dublin, City Campus, Ireland. She of Natural History and Sorbonne University in Paris. He is an
obtained her PhD from University College Dublin and subse- expert in biophysics, epigenetics and food science and teaches in
quently carried out postdoctoral research at the Agricultural many universities and professional schools (including Sorbonne
University in Wageningen, The Netherlands. Róisín lectures and University, Le Cordon Bleu and Basque Culinary Center). He is
conducts research, specializing in Culinary Science and Food frequently invited to conferences for general public or profes-
Product Development. In the last 14  years, she has developed sional audiences, and is also responsible for the scientific training
Molecular Gastronomy as a subject discipline in The School of cookery teachers at the national level. He is the author of more
of Culinary Arts and Food Technology, TU Dublin. She has than 60 research papers and 12 books on food, including Toute
published widely in international peer-​reviewed journals and has la chimie qu’il faut savoir pour devenir un chef! (Flammarion,
joined a number of editorial teams. For many years, Róisín has 2017)  and Je mange donc je suis. Petit dictionnaire curieux de
lectured to international students, and she is the TU Dublin co-​ l’alimentation (Museum National d’Histoire Naturelle, 2019).
ordinator of the Erasmus+ MSc programme in Food Innovation He is a member of several scientific and food societies (including
and Product Design (FIPDes). She has given guest lectures in the French Biophysical Society, the American Biophysical
Ireland and abroad. Society, the Disciples d’Escoffier Society and the Association for
the Study of Food and Society).
Alan L. Kelly is a professor in the School of Food and Nutritional
Sciences at University College Cork in Ireland. His teaching Hervé This vo Kientza is a physical chemist, one of the two
interests include food processing and preservation, dairy creators of Molecular and Physical Gastronomy and a promoter
product technology and new food product development, as of “molecular cooking” (he devised the name in 1999). He is
well as regularly giving courses on effective scientific commu- currently working for the French National Research Institute
nication. He leads an active research group on the chemistry for Agriculture, Food and the Environment, is a professor at
and processing of milk and dairy products, has published over AgroParisTech, and is the director of the AgroParisTech-​INRAE
250 research papers, review articles and book chapters, and International Centre for Molecular and Physical Gastronomy. As
has supervised over 40 MSc and PhD students to completion. such, he organizes the International Workshops on Molecular
He has been an editor of the International Dairy Journal since and Physical Gastronomy. He is also the head of the Educational
2005 and has acted as an external examiner in universities and Committee of the Institute for Advanced Studies in Gastronomy
reviewed for journals and funding agencies around the world. and a member of several academies: the French Academy of
In July 2009, he received the Danisco International Dairy Agriculture, the Belgian Academy of Sciences, the Academy of
Science award from the American Dairy Science Association Alsace and the Academy Stanislas. He is doing scientific research
for his contributions to research in dairy science and tech- (molecular and physical gastronomy) in the Inrae-​AgroParisTech
nology. In recent years, he has become very interested in the Group of Molecular Gastronomy. At the same time, he is lec-
interface between the worlds of food and culinary sciences, and turing extensively worldwide for the promotion of molecular
has organized several workshops and seminars on this topic and gastronomy, stimulating the creation of groups for research and
molecular gastronomy. In 2019, he published a book entitled education in universities and research centres, but also of “note
Molecules, Microbes and Meals: The Surprising Science of by note cooking”, an application of molecular gastronomy that
Food (Oxford University Press), and in 2020, he published he proposed as early as 1994. He has published many books and
How Scientists Communicate: Dispatches from the Frontiers of chapters of books, made TV programmes and radio shows, and
Knowledge (Oxford University Press), both of which are aimed has several blogs, but he is also the author of more than 150 sci-
at a general audience. entific articles.

xiii
Contributors

Sumaya M. Abdullahi Alberto Arcioni

Augsburg University, Dipartimento di Chimica Industriale “Toso Montanari”,
Department of Physics, Università di Bologna,
2211 Riverside Ave, Viale del Risorgimento 4,
Minneapolis, MN 55454, Bologna I-​40136,
United States Italy

José M. Aguilera Elke K. Arendt

Department of Chemical Engineering and Bioprocesses, School of Food and Nutritional Sciences and APC Microbiome
Pontificia Universidad Católica de Chile, Ireland,
Avenida Libertador Bernardo O’Higgins 340, University College Cork,
Santiago, T12 YN60,
Chile Ireland

Imran Ahmad Imanol Arrieta-​Ibarra

Chaplin School of Hospitality and Tourism Management, Department of Management Science and Engineering,
Florida International University, Stanford University,
North Miami, Stanford, CA,
Florida, United States of America
United States of America
Jean-​Christophe Augustin
Florent Allais Ecole Nationale Vétérinaire d’Alfort,
URD Agro-​Biotechnologies Industrielles, 7 avenue du Général de Gaulle,
CEBB, F-​94704 Maisons-​Alfort,
AgroParisTech, France
51110, Pomacle,
France Erik Ayala-​Bribiesca
Food Science and Technology Consultant and
Irem Altan Professor at Cégep de St-​Hyacinthe,
Department of Chemistry, Quebec,
Duke University, Canada
Durham,
North Carolina, Douglas Baldwin
United States Breville Pty Ltd 19400,
South Western Ave,
Pasquale Altomonte Torrance,
The Kitchen Lab, California 90501,
23 chemin de la Tour, United States
Meyrin-​Village,
Geneva, Reine Barbar
Switzerland UMR IATE,
Univ. Montpellier, INRAE, Institut Agro,
Eric Angelini 2 Place Pierre Viala,
V. MANE FILS, F-​34060 Montpellier Cedex,
Route de Grasse, France
06620, and
Le Bar-​sur-​Loup, Department of Agriculture and Food Engineering,
France School of Engineering,
Holy Spirit University of Kaslik,
P.O. Box 446 Jounieh,
Mount Lebanon,
Lebanon
xv
xvi List of Contributors

Peter Barham Róisín M. Burke

H. H. Wills Physics Laboratory, School of Culinary Arts and Food Technology,
University of Bristol, College of Arts and Tourism,
Bristol, Technological University Dublin,
BS8 1TL, City Campus,
United Kingdom Dublin 1,
Ireland
Fabien Beaumont
Laboratoire de Thermomécanique (GRESPI), Andrea Camastra
Université de Reims Champagne-​Ardenne, Restaurant Senses,
Reims 51100, Bielanska 12,
France Warsaw 00-​085,
Poland
Marie-​Charlotte Belhomme
Institut de Chimie Moléculaire de Reims, Pere Castells
UMR CNRS 7312, Science and Cooking World Congress,
SFR Condorcet FR CNRS 3417, Av. de la Torre Blanca 57,
Université de Reims, Sant Cugat des Vallès,
BP 1039, Barcelona,
F-​51687 REIMS Cedex, Spain
France
Stéphanie Castex
Konstantin Bellut Institut de Chimie Moléculaire de Reims,
School of Food and Nutritional Sciences, UMR CNRS 7312,
University College, SFR Condorcet FR CNRS 3417,
Cork, Université de Reims,
T12 YN60, BP 1039,
Ireland F-​51687 REIMS Cedex,
France
Roberto Berardi (deceased, 2020)
Dipartimento di Chimica Industriale “Toso Montanari”, Anne Cazor
Università di Bologna 28 Tain Seng A,
Scinnoy,
Tais Berenstein 6 Rue d’Estienne,
Chef at the At-​Sunrice GlobalChef Academy D’Orves,
92110 Clichy,
Julien Binz France
Restaurant Julien Binz,
Ammerschwihr, Patrick Charbonneau
Alsace, Departments of Chemistry and Physics,
France Duke University,
Durham,
Christophe Blecker North Carolina,
Food Science and Formulation, United States
Gembloux Agro-​Bio  Tech,
University of Liège, Jean Chauvel
Avenue de la faculté d’Agronomie 2B, Restaurant Jean Chauvel,
5030 Gembloux, 33 avenue du Général Leclerc,
Belgium Boulogne-​Billancourt,
France
Jean-​Baptiste  Boulé
Genome Structure and Instability, Véronique Cheynier
CNRS UMR7196 /​INSERM U1154, SPO, INRAE,
National Museum of Natural History, Université de Montpellier,
Sorbonne University, Institut Agro-Montpellier SupAgro,
Paris 75005, 2 Place Viala,
France 34060 Montpellier,
France
List of Contributors xvii

Tony Choo Daniel Cossuta

Chef at the At-​Sunrice GlobalChef Academy, Bunge Zrt.,
28 Tai Seng Street, Katalin Kővári Innovation Centre,
Level 5, Illatos út 38. DÜP II. Building G/​3rd floor,
Singapore 534106, 1097 Budapest,
Singapore Hungary

Morten Christensen Markus W. Covert

Taste for Life, Department of Bioengineering,
University College Lillebælt, c/​o Kold College, Stanford University,
55 Landbrugsvej, Stanford CA,
DK-​5260 Odense S, United States
Denmark
Silvia Cristofaro
Clara Cilindre Dipartimento di Chimica Industriale “Toso Montanari”,
Equipe Effervescence, Università di Bologna,
Champagne et Applications (GSMA), Viale del Risorgimento 4,
UMR CNRS 7331, Bologna I-​40136,
Université de Reims Champagne-​Ardenne, Italy
Reims,
France Bernard Cuq
L’Institut Agro – Montpellier SupAgro,
Mathias Porsmose Clausen UMR IATE,
Department of Green Technology, 2 place Viala 34060 Montpellier Cedex,
SDU Biotechnology, France
University of Southern Denmark,
55 Campusvej, André Daguin (deceased, 2019)
DK-​5230 Odense M, Chef
Denmark
Sophie Dalton
Manuel Combes School of Culinary Arts and Food Technology,
Teacher of Physics in Prep Class, College of Arts and Tourism,
La Pérouse-Kerichen, Technological University Dublin,
Brest, City Campus,
France Ireland
and
Research Associate in Laboratoire Géosciences Océan Pauline Danaher
(UMR 6538), School of Culinary Arts and Food Technology,
Brest, City Campus,
France Technological University Dublin,
Ireland
Angela M. Coral Medina
School of Microbiology, Sabine Danthine
University College Cork, Food Science and Formulation,
T12 YN60, Gembloux Agro-​Bio  Tech,
Ireland University of Liège,
Avenue de la faculté d’Agronomie 2B,
Daniel Cordier 5030 Gembloux,
Equipe Effervescence, Belgium
Champagne et Applications (GSMA),
UMR CNRS 7331, Roxane Detry
Université de Reims Champagne-​Ardenne, Food Science and Formulation,
Reims, Gembloux Agro-​Bio  Tech,
France University of Liège,
Avenue de la faculté d’Agronomie 2B,
5030 Gembloux,
Belgium
xviii List of Contributors

Justine de Valicourt Laura Febvay

Vestjyllands højskole, Aerial,
Ringkøbing, 250 Rue Laurent Fries,
Denmark Parc d’innovation,
and 67412 Illkirch,
Les Colibris –​Entreprise permacole, France
St-​Jean-​de-​Matha,
Québec, Marie-​Claude  Feore
Canada Group of Molecular Gastronomy,
INRAE-​AgroParisTech,
Laure Dziuba International Centre for Molecular Gastronomy,
Consultant chromatographic analysis of fragrances and F-​75005  Paris,
related compounds, France
1955 chemin des vergers, and
06620 Le Bar-​sur-​Loup, UMR 0782 SayFood,
France AgroParisTech (INRAE),
Université Paris-​Saclay,
Rachel Edwards-​Stuart F-​91300  Massy,
Culinary Science Department, France
Westminster Kingsway College,
76 Vincent Square, Denis Flick
London SW1P 2PD, AgroParisTech,
United Kingdom 16 rue Claude Bernard,
Paris,
Martine Esteban-​Decloux France
Unité Mixte de Recherche Ingénierie Procédés Aliments,
AgroParisTech, Erik Fooladi
INRAE, Department of Science and Mathematics,
Université Paris-​Saclay, Faculty of Humanities and Education,
F-​91300  Massy, Volda University College,
France P.O. Box 500,
Volda,
Luc Eveleigh Norway
Sayfood (UMR 0782),
INRAE, Laure Fort
AgroParisTech, Group of Molecular Gastronomy,
Université Paris-​Saclay, INRAE-​AgroParisTech,
91300, Massy, International Centre for Molecular Gastronomy,
France F-​75005  Paris
and
Anne-​Laure  Fameau UMR 0782 SayFood,
Research & Innovation, International Physical-​Chemistry AgroParisTech (INRAE),
Department, Université Paris-​Saclay,
L’Oréal, F-​91300  Massy,
Saint-​Ouen  93400, France
France
Pierre Gagnaire
Peter Lionet Faxholm Restaurants Pierre Gagnaire: Bordeaux, Chatelaillon,
Department of Food Science, Courchevel, Danang, Dubai, Hong Kong, Las Vegas, London,
Taste for Life, Design and Consumer Behavior, Nîmes, Paris, Shanghai, Seoul, Tokyo
University of Copenhagen,
26 Rolighedsvej, Marta Ghebremedhin
DK-​1958 Frederiksberg C, Max Planck Institute for Polymer Research,
Denmark Ackermannweg 10,
55128 Mainz,
Germany
List of Contributors xix

H.-​C.  Gill Judith Hege

Max Planck Institute for Polymer Research, Max Planck Institute for Polymer Research,
Ackermannweg 10, Ackermannweg 10,
55128 Mainz, 55128 Mainz,
Germany Germany

Sarah Gindra Georgianna Hiliadaki

Max Planck Institute for Polymer Research, Funky Gourmet Restaurant
Ackermannweg 10, Athens
55128 Mainz, Greece
Germany
Jean-​François Hocquette
Mahelet Girma Clermont University,
Augsburg University, INRAE,
Department of Physics, VetAgro Sup,
2211 Riverside Ave, UMR 1213 Herbivores,
Minneapolis, MN 55454, Theix,
United States 63122 Saint-​Genès Champanelle,
France
Aaron Goh
Chef at the At-​Sunrice GlobalChef Academy, Bhagyashri L. Joshi
28 Tai Seng Street, Max Planck Institute for Polymer Research,
Level 5, Ackermannweg 10,
Singapore 534106, 55128 Mainz,
Singapore Germany

James A. Griffin Makis Kalossakas

School of Culinary Arts and Food Technology, Chef teacher at the Institut Le Monde,
College of Arts and Tourism, 45 Thessalonikis Str,
Technological University Dublin, Moschato, Athens 18346,
City Campus, Greece
Dublin 1,
Ireland Alan L. Kelly
School of Food and Nutritional Sciences,
Noël Gutrin
University College,
Retired; former Head Food & Beverage at Le Futuroscope,
Cork,
Chasseneuil-​du-​Poitou,
T12 YN60,
France
Ireland
John A. Hannon (deceased, 2021)
Markus Ketomäki
Glanbia Ireland DAC
Max Planck Institute for Polymer Research,
Ackermannweg 10,
Hannah M. Hartge
55128 Mainz,
Max Planck Institute for Polymer Research,
Germany
Ackermannweg 10,
55128 Mainz,
Alain Kondjoyan
Germany
INRAE,
Sasa Hasic Unité Qualité des Produits Animaux,
R&D Chef, Theix,
Croatia 63122 Saint-​Genès Champanelle,
France
Arnaud Haudrechy
Institut de Chimie Moléculaire de Reims, Elzbieta Kozakiewicz
UMR CNRS 7312, Market Innovation and Technology Engineer, Koninklijke
SFR Condorcet FR CNRS 3417, Bunge B.V.,
Université de Reims, 221 rue de la loi,
BP 1039, 1040 Bruxelles,
F-​51687 REIMS Cedex, Belgium
France
xx List of Contributors

Philippe Labbé Gérard Liger-​Belair

Former chef of La Tour d’Argent, Equipe Effervescence,
Paris, Champagne et Applications (GSMA),
France UMR CNRS 7331,
Université de Reims Champagne-​Ardenne,
Marie-​Laure Lameloise Reims,
UMR SayFood, France
AgroParisTech,
INRAE, Linda A. Luck
Université Paris-​Saclay, Professor of Chemistry-​Emeritus,
Massy 91300, State University of New York at Plattsburgh,
France Plattsburgh,
12901 New York,
Christophe Lavelle United States
National Museum of Natural History /​Sorbonne University,
CNRS UMR7196 /​INSERM U1154, Kieran M. Lynch
43 rue Cuvier, Paris 75005, School of Food and Nutritional Sciences,
France University College,
and Cork,
Institut National Supérieur du Professorat et de l’Education T12 YN60,
(INSPE), Ireland
Toulouse University and Cergy-​Pontoise University,
France Jean-​Marie  Malbec
Conseiller pédagogique sur la zone MOPI,
Anaïs Lavoisier Lycée Bonaparte,
UMR SayFood (Paris-Saclay Food and Bioproduct Engineering Doha,
Research Unit), Qatar
INRAE,
AgroParisTech, Coline Martin
Université Paris-Saclay, INRAE,
F-91300 Massy, UMR IATE,
France 2 place Viala,
34060 Montpellier cedex,
Kelly Lee France
Chef at the At-​Sunrice GlobalChef Academy,
28 Tai Seng Street, Denis Martin
Level 5, Restaurant Denis Martin,
Singapore 534106, Rue du Château 2,
Singapore 1800 Vevey,
Switzerland
Sabine Leroy
Université Clermont Auvergne, Ramon Morató
INRAE, Creative Director for Cacao Barry brand
MEDIS,
Clermont-​Ferrand, Marie-​Blanche Mauhourat
France Education nationale,
Inspection générale,
Martin Lersch 110 rue de Grenelle,
https://khymos.org Paris 75007,
France
Cassandre Leverrier
UMR SayFood, Behic Mert
AgroParisTech, Max Planck Institute for Polymer Research,
INRAE, Ackermannweg 10,
Université Paris-​Saclay, 55128 Mainz,
Massy 91300, Germany
France
List of Contributors xxi

Bruno Mesz Patricia B. O’Hara

Universidad Nacional de Tres de Febrero (UNTREF), Amherst College,
Instituto de Investigación en Arte y Cultura (IIAC), Amherst, MA 01002,
Sáenz Peña, United States
Argentina
Rolande Ollitrault
Ramon Morató Crêperie Ti Joos,
Creative Director for Cacao Barry brand Rue Delambre,
75014 Paris,
Marie-​Hélène  Morel France
INRAE, and
UMR IATE, Group of Molecular Gastronomy,
2 place Viala, INRAE-​AgroParisTech,
34060 Montpellier cedex, International Centre for Molecular Gastronomy,
France. F-​75005  Paris,
France
John P. Morrissey
School of Microbiology, Silvia Orlandi
University College Cork, Dipartimento di Chimica Industriale “Toso Montanari”,
T12 YN60, Università di Bologna,
Ireland Viale del Risorgimento 4,
Bologna I-​40136,
Ole G. Mouritsen Italy
Department of Food Science,
Taste for Life, Design and Consumer Behavior, Ismael Osorio
University of Copenhagen, Freelance chef and cook at the ITHQ,
26 Rolighedsvej, Montreal,
DK-​1958 Frederiksberg C, Quebec,
Denmark Canada

Luca Muccioli Marie-​Paule  Pardo

Dipartimento di Chimica Industriale “Toso Montanari”, Crêperie Ti Joos,
Università di Bologna, Rue Delambre,
Viale del Risorgimento 4, 75014 Paris,
Bologna I-​40136, France,
Italy and
Group of Molecular Gastronomy,
Trivikram Nallamilli INRAE-​AgroParisTech,
Max Planck Institute for Polymer Research, International Centre for Molecular Gastronomy,
Ackermannweg 10, F-​75005  Paris,
55128 Mainz, France
Germany
Jane K. Parker
Dao Nguyen Department of Food and Nutritional Sciences,
The Kitchen Lab, University of Reading,
23 chemin de la Tour, United Kingdom
Meyrin-​Village,
Geneva, Franco Pedreschi
Switzerland Departamento de Ingeniería Química y Bioprocesos,
Pontificia Universidad Católica de Chile,
Nicolas Nikolakopoulos P.O. Box 306,
Pastry Chef at the Institut Le Monde, Santiago 6904411,
45 Thessalonikis Str, Chile
Moschato, Athens 18346,
Greece Guillaume Polidori
Laboratoire de Thermomécanique (GRESPI),
Université de Reims Champagne-​Ardenne,
Reims 51100,
France
xxii List of Contributors

Michael Pontif Sébastien Roustel

Igemusu Inc., Chr-​Hansen,
Paris, Cheese application,
France Boge Allé  10-​12,
2970 Horsholm,
Alice Pontin Denmark
Department of Food and Nutritional Sciences,
University of Reading, Raffaele Sacchi
United Kingdom Department of Agricultural Sciences,
Unit of Food Science and Technology,
Gabriela Precup University of Naples Federico II,
Faculty of Food Science and Technology, Via Università 100,
Institute of Life Sciences, I-​80055 Portici (Napoli),
University of Agricultural Sciences and Veterinary Medicine Italy
Cluj-​Napoca,
Calea Mănăştur  3–​5, Christian Salles
400372 Cluj-​Napoca, CSGA (Centre des Sciences du Goût et de l’Alimentation),
Romania AgroSup Dijon,
CNRS,
Lara Querciagrossa INRAE,
Dipartimento di Chimica Industriale “Toso Montanari”, Université de Bourgogne Franche-​Comté,
Università di Bologna, F-​21000  Dijon,
Viale del Risorgimento 4, France
Bologna I-​40136,
Italy Pascal Schlich
Centre des Sciences du Goût et de l’Alimentation,
Andreas Rieger AgroSup Dijon, CNRS,
Restaurant einsunternull, INRAE,
Hannoversche Str. 1, Université Bourgogne Franche-Comté,
10115 Berlin, F-​21000  Dijon,
Germany France
and
Guro Helgesdotter Rognså CNRS, INRAE,
Nofima Processing Technology, ChemoSens Facility,
Måltidets Hus, PROBE Infrastructure,
Richard Johnsens gt. 4, F-21000 Dijon,
Po box 8034, France
4068 Stavanger,
Norway Charlotte Vinther Schmidt
Department of Food Science,
Yrjö H. Roos Taste for Life, Design and Consumer Behavior,
School of Food and Nutritional Sciences, University of Copenhagen,
University College Cork, 26 Rolighedsvej,
Cork, DK-​1958 Frederiksberg C,
T12 YN60, Denmark
Ireland
Christine Schreiber
Megan M. Ross Max Planck Institute for Polymer Research,
School of Food and Nutritional Sciences, Ackermannweg 10,
University College Cork, 55128 Mainz,
Cork, Germany
T12 YN60,
Linda Sellou
Ireland
National University of Singapore,
21 Lower Kent Ridge road,
Nikos Roussos
Singapore 119077,
Funky Gourmet Restaurant,
Singapore
Athens,
Greece
List of Contributors xxiii

Thomas Séon Régine Talon
Institut Jean Le Rond d’Alembert, Université Clermont Auvergne,
UMR CNRS 7190, INRAE,
Sorbonne Universités, MEDIS,
Paris, Clermont-​Ferrand,
France France

Lau Shi Yun Frédéric J. Tessier

National University of Singapore, Université de Lille,
21 Lower Kent Ridge road, Inserm U1167,
Singapore 119077, F-​59000  Lille,
Singapore France

Weon-​Sun  Shin Hervé This vo Kientza

Laboratory of Food Chemistry & Molecular Gastronomy, Group of Molecular Gastronomy,
Department of Food & Nutrition, INRAE-​AgroParisTech International Centre for Molecular
Hanyang University, Gastronomy,
Republic of Korea F-​75005  Paris,
France
Guillaume Siegler and
Chef-​teacher UMR 0782 SayFood,
Le Cordon Bleu Paris, AgroParisTech (INRAE),
13–​15 Quai André Citroën, Université Paris-​Saclay,
Paris, F-​91300  Massy,
France France

Lorenzo Soprani David Toutain

Dipartimento di Chimica Industriale “Toso Montanari”, Restaurant David Toutain,
Università di Bologna, 29 rue Surcouf,
Viale del Risorgimento 4, Paris 75007,
Bologna I-​40136, France
Italy
Mark Traynor
Charles Spence Department of Nutrition, Dietetics, and Hospitality Management,
Head of the Crossmodal Research Laboratory, College of Human Sciences,
Department of Experimental Psychology, Auburn University,
Anna Watts Building, Auburn, Alabama,
University of Oxford, United States
Oxford OX2 6GG,
Alex Tsionitis
United Kingdom
CTC Restaurant,
Athens,
Benjamin L. Stottrup
Greece
Augsburg University,
Department of Physics,
Juan Valverde
2211 Riverside Ave,
Business Development and Innovation Manager,
Minneapolis, MN 55454,
O’Reilly Institute,
United States
Trinity College Dublin,
Dublin,
Elena Strocchi
Ireland
Dipartimento di Chimica Industriale “Toso Montanari”,
Università di Bologna,
César Vega
Viale del Risorgimento 4,
Barry Callebaut Americas,
Bologna I-​40136,
600 W Chicago Avenue,
Italy
Chicago, IL 60654,
United States
xxiv List of Contributors

Nicolas Vergnole Gn Ying Wei

Chef at the At-​Sunrice GlobalChef Academy, Chef at the At-​Sunrice GlobalChef Academy,
28 Tai Seng Street, 28 Tai Seng Street,
Level 5, Level 5,
Singapore 534106, Singapore 534106,
Singapore Singapore

Thomas A. Vilgis Juan C. Zambrano

Max Planck Institute for Polymer Research, Max Planck Institute for Polymer Research,
Ackermannweg 10, Ackermannweg 10,
55128 Mainz, 55128 Mainz,
Germany Germany

Dan-​Cristian  Vodnar Birgitta I. Zielbauer

Faculty of Food Science and Technology, Max Planck Institute for Polymer Research,
Institute of Life Sciences, Ackermannweg 10,
University of Agricultural Sciences and Veterinary Medicine 55128 Mainz,
Cluj-​Napoca, Germany
Calea Mănăştur  3–​5,
400372 Cluj-​Napoca,
Romania

David S. Waldron
School of Food and Nutritional Sciences,
University College,
Cork,
T12 YN60,
Ireland
Foreword

One of the most exciting areas of research and experimentation in by note cuisine. Indeed, many books already exist for a general
the food and culinary areas in recent years is the emerging discip- audience, either addressing food science in a “light” way and/​
line of molecular and physical gastronomy (in short, “molecular or dealing with modern cooking techniques and recipes, but
gastronomy”), the scientific discipline dedicated to the study no book exists yet that encompasses the whole molecular gas-
of phenomena that occur during the preparation and consump- tronomy field, providing a strong interdisciplinary background in
tion of dishes. Molecular gastronomy considers the chemistry, the physics, biology and chemistry of food and food preparation,
biology and physics of food, along with the physiology of food along with discussions on creativity and the art of cooking.
consumption. We hope that such a new resource will be very useful for food
The objective of this book is to provide a comprehensive over- scientists and chefs, as well as students studying food science or
view of this field, based on contributions from some of the main food technology and all lay people interested in gastronomy. It
scientists in their areas, but also with contributions by chefs for should be noted that the chapters in each part are organized in
the application part. In this last part, the book also addresses some what appeared to be the most logical structure, and are hence
of the most popular techniques of molecular cooking, a cooking alphabetical in Part I and in a logical sequence in Parts II and III.
style associated with molecular gastronomy and characterized The book is not intended to be read in sequence but to be used as
mainly by the use of new tools and methods, often imported from a reference work, which can be consulted under specific headings
chemistry laboratories, as well as cultural and artistic aspects of or dipped into at will.
food preparation. The newer cooking trend called “note by note Finally, we as editors wish to thank all the authors, coming
cuisine” is also explored. from so many different fields, for their enthusiasm for the pro-
Considering that “gastronomy is the knowledge and ject and their patience with the process of editing and producing
understanding of all that relates to man, as he eats” (JA Brillat-​ this very significant end product, and to thank Stephen Zollo and
Savarin, Physiology of taste, 1825), it may be proposed that colleagues at CRC Press/​Taylor and Francis for their support
molecular gastronomy is the chemical, physical and biological for this project, guidance through the publication process, and
part of this knowledge, i.e., the scientific activity that relates great patience in awaiting the end result. We also thank Nicola
to culinary phenomena. As natural sciences have technical Howcroft at Newgen Publishing UK for support during the pro-
applications, molecular gastronomy can lead to better and/​or new duction stages. We would also like to thank Ciara Tobin of the
ways of cooking. School of Food and Nutritional Sciences at University College
This book aims to fulfil the need for a comprehensive refer- Cork for significant and invaluable assistance in the preparation
ence in molecular gastronomy along with a practical guide to of this final manuscript, and Dylan Kelly for his assistance with
molecular cooking and more recent applications such as note editorial work in the process.

xxv
Introduction to Molecular Gastronomy and Its Applications

Hervé This vo Kientza, Christophe Lavelle, Róisín Burke and Alan Kelly

Molecular Gastronomy was originally defined as the scientific dis- Of course, it could be imagined that molecular gastronomy
cipline that has the goal of “looking for mechanisms of phenomena would disappear when its duty was done, i.e., promoting the sci-
occurring during culinary processes” (Announcement poster for the entific study of dishes, but at the same time, there is a strong argu-
International Workshop on Molecular and Physical Gastronomy, ment for keeping it in the field of food science and technology,
Ettore Majorana Centre for Scientific Culture, Erice, Italy, 1992). because this is not the same as the science of food ingredients or
The initial name “molecular and physical gastronomy” was later the sciences of processes. The work is not finished, and the field
shortened to “molecular gastronomy”, but the scientific programme remains a source of discoveries and technical innovation through
did not change, except that it was progressively made clearer when technological work, particularly because the newly created inter-
it was increasingly recognized that technology and education were face lies between so many disciplines.
not scientific activities but rather, applications of science. Molecular Gastronomy was first proposed as a scientific
In spite of this quite clear definition by its creators, “molecular activity, but it is true that at the time when it was introduced, there
gastronomy” has been widely referred to in the media and in was also a side goal of modernizing culinary processes, in par-
culinary circles using different definitions and terminology. These ticular with tools from labs (with a basis in chemistry and physics).
include, for example, “Molecular Cooking/​Cuisine”, “Modernist The expression “molecular cooking” was introduced to describe
Cuisine” and “Scientific Cooking”, to name but a few. the new culinary techniques using these tools. This led progres-
Thus, some confusion has remained, because “gastronomy” sively to the introduction of a new culinary style, called “molecular
is often confused with “haute cuisine” or “fine dining”, and cuisine”, based on these new tools. Two examples of this are dishes
also because innovative chefs were interested in the possible made using siphons and meat cooked at a low temperature; these
applications of molecular gastronomy and hence, indeed, doing are the obvious hallmark of chefs practising molecular cooking or
molecular cooking! molecular cuisine, which was, in fact, the original intention. Let us
insist on the slight difference: molecular cooking is the name for
cooking with “modern” culinary tools, especially tools that were
not found in kitchens in the 1970s; in particular, these include tools
Clarification of What Molecular Gastronomy Is
coming from laboratories, such as siphons, thermal circulators,
Even after years of efforts to explain the differences, two main liquid nitrogen, ultrasonic probes and rotary evaporators. On the
sources of confusion remain: other hand, molecular cuisine is the style of cooking based on
using such new tools, in particular for new applications. All this is
1. between molecular gastronomy, on the one hand, and well illustrated in Part III of this Handbook.
food science and technology, on the other; Let us finish by observing that the “modern tools” of the 1980s
2. between molecular gastronomy, molecular cooking and are no longer modern today, and young chefs cannot even imagine
molecular cuisine. a world without low-​temperature cooking or sous-​vide, just as chefs
at the end of the 20th century could hardly have imagined how to
In terms of the first of these, it should be observed that cook when gas wasn’t widely available. It has even been said that
“molecular gastronomy” is certainly not intended to include all molecular cooking and molecular cuisine are already no longer
food sciences, but only part of this field. Indeed, the emergence current concepts (because “note by note cooking” is a drastic mod-
of molecular gastronomy was due in part to the fact that, in the ernization), but the technical transformation of culinary activity is
1980s, food scientists did not study real culinary processes and certainly not complete. Only today have companies begun to sell
dishes prepared daily in homes or restaurants or other culinary ultrasonic probes for making emulsions, for example.
enterprises, but mainly industrial processes and food ingredients.
There were no scientific investigations into the physical and
chemical transformations that occurred during the preparation of
coq au vin, Irish stew or in fact, most dishes. For example, it Science and Cooking
should be noted that cooking using wine was never considered by For “science”, one should first observe that this word has various
science, in spite of the fact that wine is used in about half of all meanings, such as knowledge in general, or “natural sciences”.
the recipes for French traditional sauces! However, when someone discusses the issue of precision and

1
2 Introduction to Molecular Gastronomy and Its Applications

rigour, the general meaning of knowledge is not specified, and techniques have been introduced after research in molecular gas-
instead, the natural sciences are emphasized. The goal of science tronomy, examples of which will also be given.
is to discover mechanisms and phenomena, using a method that
classically goes through (1)  identification of a phenomenon;
(2) quantitative characterization of the phenomenon; (3) grouping
Applications in Schools, Colleges and Universities
the data in equations (“laws”); (4) producing theories or models
by grouping these laws and introducing new notions or concepts; We have said that molecular gastronomy is a scientific activity,
(5) drawing testable theoretical conclusions from the theory; and and this is true. As for any scientific field, there are applications
(6) experimentally testing these theoretical conclusions. This has in both directions: educational and technical. These applications
nothing to do with making food per se, and it is clear as well that are developing simultaneously, and even more since cooking has
cooking has nothing to do with the natural sciences; the goals become more popular, with TV shows in all countries. Indeed,
and methods are both completely different, and they will always cooking, which was traditionally an activity for women, is now
remain separate. routinely done by men. One can observe that in developed coun-
In another point about the relationship between science and tries such as France (and probably also elsewhere), in the 1950s,
cooking, there has been some discussion about “science in the culinary lessons were given only to girls at school. For this
kitchen”, in particular in relation to a quotation by the French country in particular, so called “Ateliers expérimentaux du goût”,
chefs Auguste Escoffier, Phileas Gilbert and Emile Fetu, who i.e., activities mixing natural sciences and cooking (plus art),
predicted in their famous Guide Culinaire (1907) that cooking were introduced in all primary schools in 2001. Today, “science
would become “scientific”. Let’s first observe that cooking and cooking” activities are performed in colleges, high schools
is an activity mixing a social component, a technical compo- and even universities focusing on the sciences.
nent and art (see Hervé This and Pierre Gagnaire’s discussion In specialized colleges, such as culinary schools, more and
in Cooking, a quintessential art, University of California Press, more molecular gastronomy activities are being performed, and
2010). Indeed, there is also an element of human relationships today the new French teachers for culinary schools are all being
and sociology in the act of producing food for others or of eating educated in molecular gastronomy with a view to experimenting
food that was prepared by others. In terms of technique, it is clear in their classes, conducting science and cooking activities, or
that cutting, heating and mixing are all technical activities, but activities in which the culinary teacher is working alongside
one important component is “art”, i.e., the activity of producing science teachers.
“beautiful” objects. Here, the beauty is in the food to be eaten, not For chefs, there are many initiatives for continuous education;
only to be looked at, which leads to the conclusion that “good” for example, in France, every month for 18  years, seminars of
means “beautiful to eat”. molecular gastronomy have been run in Paris. Such seminars also
The fact is that there will never be any sciences “in” the kit- exist in many other places, with various names.
chen. On the other hand, one can have applications of natural The general public has through organized workshops and
sciences in the kitchen (e.g., molecular cooking or note by note other activities and through the media, many opportunities to
cooking), and also, one can use culinary phenomena for scien- enjoy the delights that applying science in the kitchen can bring.
tific objects, which is indeed the main principle of molecular However, this is not new; as early as the very beginning of the
gastronomy. As shown in the description of the cycle of the nat- 20th century, the microbiologist Edouard de Pomiane was a star,
ural scientific method, there is no end to the process, as theories in particular with Radio-Cuisine, the first French programme on
are always insufficient and can always be improved. In contrast cooking, writing best-​sellers about what was not called molecular
to molecular cooking, which will end when all the “new” hard- gastronomy.
ware has become old, molecular gastronomy will continue to For all these educational applications, in spite of their great
evolve. success, one could make the same criticism as for science popu-
Today, as molecular cooking is less trendy than it used to be larization in general, i.e., that a discourse is given, avoiding
(low-​temperature cooking and making foam with siphons are calculations, and this is a difficulty, because in this way, the
“classical” techniques nowadays), molecular gastronomy, in con- receiver of the popularized discourse cannot evaluate the validity
trast, is developing regularly in universities around the world, of this information but has to trust the source. Indeed, the receiver
with new laboratories, new research groups and new educational remains at the surface, and probably the only way to circumvent
curricula. In this way, new aspects of molecular gastronomy are this difficulty is through experimenting. This is what is proposed in
generated, and the discipline continues to evolve. many educational activities mentioned here, and, for sure, testing
It is a very exciting time … which is also why this Handbook “culinary precisions” is a good way to invite everybody to share
is timely! This book is divided into three parts. The first one the excitement of science by taking the very first step and making it
includes scientific information about phenomena that occur useful. It is no use trying to investigate phenomena that do not exist!
during culinary activities, and this is, as already said, exactly what
molecular gastronomy is. The second and third parts then show
educational and technical and culinary applications, respectively.
In the case of “education”, groups all over the world have been
Applications to the Culinary Arts
using results from molecular gastronomy in order to promote We have explained that the applications of science are not science
scientific studies. Regarding technical applications, many new itself, and it is true that the fruit is not the tree. However, it is
References 3

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example among many. active compounds in a goat cheese water-​ soluble extract.
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Engel E, Nicklaus S, Septier C, Salles C, Le Quéré JL. 2001a.
discovery of a new dish does more for the happiness of mankind Evolution of the taste of a bitter Camembert cheese during
than the discovery of a new star”. It was a goal, and a good one, ripening: Characterization of a matrix effect. Journal of
and this is why the third part of this book is devoted to innovation Agricultural and Food Chemistry, 49, 2930–​2939.
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