History of Syria 1

History of Syria
This article deals with the history of Syria, and the nations (or pre-national civilizations) previously occupying its
territory.

Prehistory
Since approximately 10 000 BC Syria was one of centers of Neolithic culture (PPNA) where agriculture and cattle
breeding appeared for the first time in the world. The following Neolithic period (PPNB) is represented by
rectangular houses of Mureybet culture. At the time of the pre-pottery Neolithic people used vessels made of stone,
gyps and burnt lime (Vaiselles blanches). Finds of obsidian tools from Anatolia are evidences of early trade
relations.
Cities of Hamoukar and Emar played an important role during the late Neolithic and Bronze Age.

Ancient history
Archaeologists have demonstrated that civilization in Syria was
one of the most ancient on earth. Around the excavated city of
Ebla in northern Syria, an Italian mission led by Prof. Paolo
Matthiae discovered in 1975, a great Semitic empire spread from
the Red Sea north to Turkey and east to Mesopotamia from 2500
to 2400 BCE Ebla appears to have been founded around 3000
BCE and gradually built its empire through trade with the cities of
Sumer and Akkad, as well as with peoples to the northwest. Gifts
from Pharaoh found during excavations confirm Ebla's contact
with Egypt. Scholars believe the language of Ebla to be among the
oldest known written Semitic languages. The Eblan civilization
was likely conquered by Sargon of Akkad around 2260 BCE; the
city was restored as the nation of the Amorites a few centuries
later and flourished through the early second millennium BCE
until conquered by the Hittites.

During the second millennium BCE, Syria was occupied

successively by Canaanites, Phoenicians, and Arameans as part of
Female figurine, Syria, 5000 BC. Ancient Orient
the general disruptions associated with the Sea Peoples; the
Museum.
Phoenicians settled along the coastline of these area as well as in
the west (Now Lebanon & The current Syrian coast), in the area
already known for its cedars. Egyptians, Sumerians, Assyrians, Babylonians, and Hittites variously occupied the
strategic ground of Syria during this period, as it was a marchland between their various empires. Eventually the
Persians took control of Syria as part of their general control of Southwest Asia; this control transferred to the
Greeks after Alexander the Great's conquests and thence to the Romans and the Byzantines.

In 83 BC Syria fell under the rule of Tigranes the Great; the King of Armenia. The Armenians maintained a rule of
13 years over Syria which was finally turned into a Roman Province in 64 BC.
History of Syria 2

Roman Syria
Syria was Roman (Byzantine) province from 64 BC to 636 AD.
In the Roman period, the great city of Antioch (called "the Athens of the east" at
that time) was the capital of Syria. It was one of the largest cities in the ancient
world, with a total estimated population of 500,000, as well as one of the largest
centers of trade and industry. As one of the wealthiest and more populous
provinces of the Roman Empire, it is estimated that the population of Roman
Syria in the early Roman Empire was only exceeded in the mid-20th century,
when it may have been as high as 7-8 million or more, if Palestine and Jordan are
included, but not including the eastern section of modern day Syria beyond the
Euhphrates.

In the 3rd century Syria was home to Elagabalus, a Roman emperor of the
Severan dynasty who reigned from 218 to 222. Elagabalus' family held hereditary
Phillippus Arabs (Roman Emperor)
rights to the priesthood of the sun god El-Gabal, of whom Elagabalus was the high
-detail of Syrian 100 pound note
priest at Emesa (modern Homs) in Syria.

Syria is significant in the history of Christianity; Paul was converted on the Road to Damascus and emerged as a
significant figure in the first organized Christian Church at Antioch in ancient Syria, from which he left on many of
his missionary journeys.

Umayyad Caliphate
From 616 Syria was subjugated for a brief period under the Persian Khosrau II; till 628; from 628 to 637 it was
Byzantine, when the province was conquered by the Muslims (after the battle of the Yarmuk in 636. see Battle of
Yarmuk). Muawiya I, the first Omayyad caliph, chose Damascus for his residence. Syria formed the central part of
the Umayyad empire. Syria was divided into the following military districts (junds):
• Filistin (Palestine), consisting of Judaea, Samaria and a portion of the territory east of Jordan; its capital was
Ramleh, Jerusalem ranking next.
• Urdunn (Jordan), with capital in Tiberias; roughly speaking, it consisted of the rest of Palestine as far as Tyre.
• Damascus, which included Damascus, Baalbek, Tripoli and Beirut.
• Hims (Homs), including Hama.
• Kinnesrin, corresponding to northern Syria; the capital at first was Kinnesrin (Qinnasrin) to the south of Aleppo,
by which it was afterwards superseded.
• The sixth district was the military frontier (Al-'Awasim) bordering upon the Byzantine dominions in Asia Minor.
During the struggles of the Islamic dynasties for the possession of Syria the country still enjoyed a considerable
degree of prosperity. In 750, it came under Abbasid dominion, losing prominence owing to the move of the Abbasid
capital to Baghdad.

From the Abbasids to the Ottomans

From 960 to c. 1020 the Byzantine Empire launched a string of successful counter-attacks, capturing Antioch,
Tarsus, and Aleppo (twice). Under John Tzimiskes Syria was completely overrun; Damascus itself, the former
capital of the Islamic world, was captured, although only for a brief period. The invasion of Seljuk Turks in the latter
half of the 11th century put an end to Byzantine Syria. Nonetheless the majority of the population remained
Christian, allowing for a significant pool of Turcopoles to be raised in the Crusader armies.
History of Syria 3

In the late 11th century, Syria was conquered first by the Seljuks and then carved between Turkmen tribes and
participants of the first Crusade. In time, the Islamic part of Syria expanded up to the Orontes river and became a
center of anti-crusader activity, especially for Zengi, Nur ad-Din and his successor and rival, Saladin. Even so,
sections of the coastline of Syria were briefly held by Frankish crusader states. In the 13th century, the first Mongols
arrived, destroying cities and irrigation works. By the end of the 15th century, the discovery of a sea route from
Europe to the Far East ended the need for an overland trade route through Syria.

Syria under Ottoman rule

Shattered by the Mongols, Syria was part of the Ottoman Empire from
the 16th through 20th centuries, and found itself largely apart from,
and ignored by, world affairs. It reached the population it had in late
Antiquity only in the 1960s.
After World War I, the Ottoman Empire was dissolved with help from
England, France and the Arab nation itself, and in 1922 the League of
Nations split the dominion of the former Syria between two countries:
the United Kingdom received Transjordan and Palestine, and France
received what was to become modern-day Syria and Lebanon.

Syrian dress from the late 19th century.

French occupation
In 1920, an independent Arab Kingdom of Syria was established under
King Faisal of the Hashemite family, who later became the King of
Iraq. However, his rule over Syria ended after only a few months,
following the clash between his Syrian Arab forces and regular French
forces at the Battle of Maysalun. French troops occupied Syria later
that year after the League of Nations put Syria under French mandate.
In 1925, Syrian resistance to French colonial rule broke out in full
scale revolt. Despite French attempts to maintain control by
encouraging sectarian divisions and isolating urban and rural areas, the
revolt spread from the countryside and united Syrian Druze, Sunnis, The States of the French Mandate.
Shiites, Allawis, and Christians. Once the rebel forces had besieged
Damascus, the French military responded with brutal counter-insurgency techniques that prefigured those that would
be used later in Algeria and Indo-China. These techniques included house demolitions, collective punishments of
towns, executions, population transfers, and the use of heavy armor in urban neighborhoods. The revolt was
eventually subdued via French aerial bombardment of civilian areas, including Damascus.[1]

Syria and France negotiated a treaty of independence in September 1936, and Hashim al-Atassi, who was Prime
Minister under King Faisal's brief reign, was the first president to be elected under a new constitution, effectively the
first incarnation of the modern republic of Syria. However, France reneged on the treaty and refused to ratify it. With
the fall of France in 1940 during World War II, Syria came under the control of the Vichy Government until the
History of Syria 4

British and Free French occupied the country in July 1941. Syria proclaimed its independence again in 1941 but it
wasn't until January 1, 1944 that it was recognized as an independent republic. On February 26, 1945 Syria declared
war on Germany and Japan. Continuing pressure from Syrian nationalist groups and British pressure forced the
French to evacuate their troops in April 1946, leaving the country in the hands of a republican government that had
been formed during the mandate.

Instability and growth: independence to 1970

Although rapid economic development followed the declaration of independence, Syrian politics from independence
through the late 1960s was marked by upheaval. In 1949, Syria's national government was overthrown by a military
coup d'état led by Hussni al-Zaim. Later that year Zaim was overthrown by his colleague Sami al-Hinnawi. Few
months later, Hinnawi was overthrown by Colonel Adib al-Shishakli. The latter continued to rule the country until
1954, when growing public opposition forced him to resign and leave the country. The national government was
restored, but again to face instability, this time coming from abroad. Between 1946 and 1956, Syria had 20 different
cabinets and drafted four separate constitutions. In 1948, Syria was involved in the Arab-Israeli War. The Syrian
army was pressed out of most of the Israel area, but fortified their strongholds on the Golan and managed to keep
their old borders and some additional territory. A series of military coups, begun in 1949, undermined civilian rule
and led to army colonel Adib Shishakli's seizure of power in 1951. After the overthrow of President Shishakli in a
1954 coup, continued political maneuvering supported by competing factions in the military eventually brought Arab
nationalist and socialist elements to power. The early years of independence were marked by political instability. In
1948, the Syrian army was sent to Palestine to fight along with other Arab armies against the newly created State of
Israel. The Arabs lost the war, and Israel occupied 78 percent of the area of historical Palestine. In July 1949, Syria
was the last Arab country to sign an armistice agreement with Israel. However, It was only the beginning of the
Arab-Israeli conflict.
During the Suez Crisis of 1956, after the invasion of the Sinai Peninsula by Israeli troops, and the intervention of
British and French troops, martial law was declared in Syria. Later Syrian and Iraqi troops were brought into Jordan
to prevent a possible Israeli invasion. The November 1956 attacks on Iraqi pipelines were in retaliation for Iraq's
acceptance into the Baghdad Pact. In early 1957 Iraq advised Egypt and Syria against a conceivable takeover of
Jordan.
In November 1956 Syria signed a pact with the Soviet Union, providing a foothold for Communist influence within
the government in exchange for planes, tanks, and other military equipment being sent to Syria. With this increase in
the strength of Syrian military technology worried Turkey, as it seemed feasible that Syria might attempt to retake
Iskenderon, a formerly Syrian city now in Turkey. On the other hand, Syria and the U.S.S.R. accused Turkey of
massing its troops at the Syrian border. During this standoff, Communists gained more control over the Syrian
government and military. Only heated debates in the United Nations (of which Syria was an original member)
lessened the threat of war.
Syria's political instability during the years after the 1954 coup, the parallelism of Syrian and Egyptian policies, and
the appeal of Egyptian President Gamal Abdal Nasser's leadership in the wake of the Suez crisis created support in
Syria for union with Egypt. On February 1, 1958, Syrian president Shukri al-Kuwatli and Nasser announced the
merging of the two countries, creating the United Arab Republic, and all Syrian political parties, as well as the
Communists therein, ceased overt activities.
The union was not a success, however. Following a military coup on September 28, 1961, Syria seceded,
reestablishing itself as the Syrian Arab Republic. Instability characterised the next 18 months, with various coups
culminating on March 8, 1963, in the installation by leftist Syrian Army officers of the National Council of the
Revolutionary Command (NCRC), a group of military and civilian officials who assumed control of all executive
and legislative authority. The takeover was engineered by members of the Arab Socialist Resurrection Party (Baath
Party), which had been active in Syria and other Arab countries since the late 1940s. The new cabinet was dominated
History of Syria 5

by Baath members.
The Baath takeover in Syria followed a Baath coup in Iraq the previous month. The new Syrian Government
explored the possibility of federation with Egypt and with Baath-controlled Iraq. An agreement was concluded in
Cairo on April 17, 1963, for a referendum on unity to be held in September 1963. However, serious disagreements
among the parties soon developed, and the tripartite federation failed to materialize. Thereafter, the Baath regimes in
Syria and Iraq began to work for bilateral unity. These plans foundered in November 1963, when the Baath regime in
Iraq was overthrown. In May 1964, President Amin Hafiz of the NCRC promulgated a provisional constitution
providing for a National Council of the Revolution (NCR), an appointed legislature composed of representatives of
mass organisations—labour, peasant, and professional unions—a presidential council, in which executive power was
vested, and a cabinet. On February 23, 1966, a group of army officers carried out a successful, intra-party coup,
imprisoned President Hafiz, dissolved the cabinet and the NCR, abrogated the provisional constitution, and
designated a regionalist, civilian Baath government on March 1. The coup leaders described it as a "rectification" of
Baath Party principles. In June 1967 Israel invaded, captured and occupied the Golan. This invasion weakened the
radical socialist regime established by the 1966 coup.
Conflict developed between an extremist military wing and a more moderate civilian wing of the Baath Party. The
1970 retreat of Syrian forces sent to aid the PLO during the "Black September" hostilities with Jordan reflected this
political disagreement within the ruling Baath leadership. On November 13, 1970, Minister of Defense Hafiz
al-Asad effected a bloodless military coup, ousting the civilian party leadership and assuming the role of President.

Baath Party rule under Hafez al-Assad, 1970–2000

Upon assuming power, Hafez al-Assad moved quickly to create an organizational infrastructure for his government
and to consolidate control. The Provisional Regional Command of Assad's Arab Baath Socialist Party nominated a
173-member legislature, the People's Council, in which the Baath Party took 87 seats. The remaining seats were
divided among "popular organizations" and other minor parties. In March 1971, the party held its regional congress
and elected a new 21-member Regional Command headed by Assad. In the same month, a national referendum was
held to confirm Assad as President for a 7-year term. In March 1972, to broaden the base of his government, Assad
formed the National Progressive Front, a coalition of parties led by the Baath Party, and elections were held to
establish local councils in each of Syria's 14 governorates. In March 1973, a new Syrian constitution went into effect
followed shortly thereafter by parliamentary elections for the People's Council, the first such elections since 1962.
On October 6, 1973, Syria and Egypt began the Yom Kippur War by staging a surprise attack against Israel (Arabs
call it the "Ramadan War" or "October War" because Syria and Egypt attacked during Ramadan in the month of
October). But despite the element of surprise, Egypt and Syria lost the war, and Israel continued to occupy the Golan
Heights as part of the Israeli-occupied territories. In early 1976, the Lebanese civil war was going poorly for the
Maronite Christians. Syria sent 40,000 troops into the country to prevent them from being overrun, but soon became
embroiled in the Lebanese Civil War, beginning the 30 year Syrian presence in Lebanon. Over the following 15
years of civil war, Syria fought both for control over Lebanon, and as an attempt to undermine Israel in southern
Lebanon, through extensive use of Lebanese allies as proxy fighters. Many see the Syrian Army's presence in
Lebanon as an occupation, especially following the end of the civil war in 1990, after the Syrian-sponsored Taif
Agreement. Syria then remained in Lebanon until 2005, exerting a heavy-handed influence over Lebanese politics,
that was deeply resented by many.
About one million Syrian workers came into Lebanon after the war ended to find jobs in the reconstruction of the
country. Syrian workers were preferred over Palestinian and Lebanese workers because they could be paid lower
wages, but some have argued that the Syrian government's encouragement of citizens entering its small and militarily
dominated neighbour in search of work, was in fact an attempt at Syrian colonization of Lebanon. Now, the
economies of Syria and Lebanon are completely interdependent. In 1994, under pressure from Damascus, the
Lebanese government controversially granted citizenship to over 200,000 Syrians resident in the country. (For more
History of Syria 6

on these issues, see Demographics of Lebanon)

The authoritarian regime was not without its critics, though most were quickly murdered. A serious challenge arose
in the late 1970s, however, from fundamentalist Sunni Muslims, who reject the basic values of the secular Baath
program and object to rule by the Alawis, whom they consider heretical. From 1976 until its suppression in 1982, the
arch-conservative Muslim Brotherhood led an armed insurgency against the regime. In response to an attempted
uprising by the brotherhood in February 1982, the government crushed the fundamentalist opposition centered in the
city of Hama, leveling parts of the city with artillery fire and causing many thousands of dead and wounded. Since
then, public manifestations of anti-regime activity have been very limited.
Syria's 1990 participation in the U.S.-led multinational coalition aligned against Saddam Hussein marked a dramatic
watershed in Syria's relations both with other Arab states and with the Western world. Syria participated in the
multilateral Middle East Peace Conference in Madrid in October 1991, and during the 1990s engaged in direct,
face-to-face negotiations with Israel. These negotiations failed, and there have been no further Syrian-Israeli talks
since President Hafiz al-Assad's meeting with then President Bill Clinton in Geneva in March 2000.

21st century
Hafiz al-Assad died on June 10, 2000, after 30 years in power.
Immediately following al-Assad's death, the Parliament amended the
constitution, reducing the mandatory minimum age of the President
from 40 to 34, which allowed his son, Bashar al-Assad, to become
legally eligible for nomination by the ruling Baath party. On July 10,
2000, Bashar al-Assad was elected President by referendum in which
he ran unopposed, garnering 97.29% of the vote, according to Syrian
government statistics.

On October 5, 2003, Israel bombed a site near Damascus, claiming it

was a terrorist training facility for members of Islamic Jihad. Islamic
Jihad said the camp was not in use; Syria said the attack was on a
civilian area. The Israeli action was condemned by European
governments. The German Chancellor said it "cannot be accepted" and
the French Foreign Ministry said "The Israeli operation… constituted
an unacceptable violation of international law and sovereignty rules."
President Bashar al-Assad
The Spanish UN Ambassador Inocencio Arias called it an attack of
"extreme gravity" and "a clear violation of international law."

The United States Congress passed the Syria Accountability Act in December, 2003, with the goal of ending what
the U.S. sees as Syrian involvement in Lebanon, Iraq, terrorism, and weapons of mass destruction through
international sanctions.
On September 6, 2007 Israel bombed a target in the Deir ez-Zor region. declared that indicated the site was a nuclear
facility with a military purpose, though Syria denied this.
On October 26, 2008 helicopter-borne CIA paramilitary officers[2] and United States Special Operations Forces[3]
carried out a raid to the Syrian territory from Iraq [4] The Syrian government called the event a "criminal and
terrorist" attack on its sovereignty, alleging all of the reported eight fatalities were civilians.[5] An unnamed U.S.
military source, however, alleged that the target was a network of foreign fighters who travel through Syria to join
the Iraqi insurgency against the United States-led Coalition in Iraq and the Iraqi government.[3]
History of Syria 7

References
[1] Michael Provence. The Great Syrian Revolt and the Rise of Arab Nationalism. University of Texas, Austin: University of Texas Press, 2005.
[2] Landay, Jonathan S.; Youssef, Nancy A. (2008-10-27). "CIA led mystery Syria raid that killed terrorist leader" (http:/ / www. mcclatchydc.
com/ 255/ story/ 54828. html). McClatchy. . Retrieved 2008-10-27.
[3] "US special forces launch rare attack inside of Syria" (http:/ / ap. google. com/ article/
ALeqM5ianwYiLFrnJxFSAgjT1DqydYeinQD942EFR80). Associated Press. 2008-10-26. . Retrieved 2008-10-26.
[4] "'US troops' strike inside Syria" (http:/ / news. bbc. co. uk/ 2/ hi/ middle_east/ 7692153. stm). BBC. 2008-10-26. . Retrieved 2008-10-26.
[5] "Syria hits out at 'terrorist' US" (http:/ / news. bbc. co. uk/ 2/ hi/ middle_east/ 7693583. stm). BBC. 2008-10-27. . Retrieved 2008-10-27.

Bibliography
•  This article incorporates text from a publication now in the public domain: Chisholm, Hugh, ed (1911).
Encyclopædia Britannica (Eleventh ed.). Cambridge University Press.

• Fedden, Robin (1955). Syria: an historical appreciation. London: Readers Union — Robert Hale.
• Hinnebusch, Raymond (2002). Syria: Revolution from Above. Routledge. ISBN 0-415-28568-2.
Article Sources and Contributors 8

Article Sources and Contributors

History of Syria  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=401760998  Contributors: Abu badali, Adam Bishop, Al Ameer son, AladdinSE, Alansohn, Alba, Alexander Domanda,
Alhistorian, Andre Engels, Angela, Angusmclellan, AnnaFrance, AnonMoos, Asabbagh, Atif.t2, Attilios, Aziz1005, Bardsandwarriors, Baristarim, Bejnar, Beland, Bender235, Biruitorul,
Bobblewik, Bobo192, Boodlesthecat, Boson, Brando130, Briangotts, Bumm13, CJLL Wright, Caltas, Cam, Camino1, Cap, Chaos, CheckPlus, ClockworkLunch, Cloj, Cohesion, Colonies Chris,
CommonsDelinker, Conversion script, Cplakidas, Crazymulgogi, DARTH SIDIOUS 2, Dante Alighieri, Darwinek, Davidweman, Dbachmann, DerHexer, Derek Ross, Descendall, Dmitri Lytov,
Dmws, Edward, Edward321, ElBenevolente, FayssalF, Foobaz, Fredrik, FunkMonk, Gabr-el, Gimme danger, Gramaic, Guppie, HD86, HanzoHattori, Hephaestos, Hertz1888, Hiberniantears,
Hmains, Hope&Act3!, Hottentot, Huldra, IZAK, Ian Pitchford, Imran, Itai, Ixfd64, Izzedine, J.delanoy, J04n, Jeepday, Jhayden99, Joelster, John Hill, John McW, Joseph E. Saad, Josh the Nerd,
Jxb311, Kingturtle, Koppas, KoyaanisQatsi, Leandrod, LindsayH, Little Savage, Loconut5, Mallerd, Mani1, Maslawi, Mav, Michael Hardy, Michael Safyan, Micheloo, MishaPan, Naddy,
Neddyseagoon, Nehrams2020, Neutrality, Nudve, Nv8200p, Olegwiki, Olivier, Pearle, Per Honor et Gloria, Pharaoh of the Wizards, Pordaria, Prodego, RafaelG, Renata, Retiono Virginian,
Rholton, Rich Farmbrough, Roke, Rui Silva, Saga City, SaltyBoatr, Sam Hocevar, SamuelTheGhost, Savidan, Sesel, Signalhead, SimonP, SlimVirgin, Smjg, Thingg, Umedard, Uriber, Viajero,
Warofdreams, Wikibob, Yoninah, Yuber, Zozo2kx, 115 anonymous edits

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