INDIVIDUAL BEHAVIOUR AND LEARNING

UNIT-II – NOTES
INDIVIDUAL BEHAVIOR
Human behavior, which is considered a complex phenomenon, is very difficult to define in
absolute terms. It is primarily a combination of responses to external and internal stimuli. These
responses would reflect psychological structure of the person and may be results of the
combination of biological and psychological processes, which interpret them, respond to them in
an appropriate manner and learn from the result of these responses.
Individual behavior can be defined as a mix of responses to external and internal stimuli. It is
the way a person reacts in different situations and the way someone expresses different emotions
like anger, happiness, love, etc.
To get a brief idea about the individual behavior let us learn about the individual behavior
framework and other key elements related to it.
Individual Behavior Framework
On the basis of these elements, psychologist Kurt Lewin stated the Field theory and outlined the
behavior framework. This psychological theory studies the patterns of interaction between an
individual and the environment. The theory is expressed using the formula
B = F(P,E)
where, B – Behavior, F - Behavior Function, P – Person, and E - Environment around the person.
Say for example, a well payed person who loses his job in recession may behave differently
when unemployed.
Whenever people buy something, for example, a car, both the buyer and the seller sign a contract
that specifies the terms of the sales agreement. Similarly, most people, when they begin a
working relationship with an organization formulate a psychological contract with their
employer. A psychological contract is the overall set of expectations that an individual hold with
respect to his or her contributions to the. organization and the organization's response to those
contributions. A psychological contract is not written down like a legal contract.
An individual makes a variety of contributions to an organization in the form of—efforts, skills,
ability, time, loyalty and so forth. These contributions presumably satisfy various needs and
requirements of the organization. In return for contributions, the organization provides incentives
such as pay, promotion, and job security to the employee. Just as the contributions available from
the individual must satisfy the organization's needs, the incentives must serve the employees'
needs in return.
If both the individual and the organization consider the psychological contract fair and equitable,
they will be satisfied with the relationship and are likely to continue it. If either party perceives
an imbalance or iniquity in the contract, it may initiate a change. A major challenge faced by an
organization, thus, is to manage the psychological contracts.
One specific aspect of managing psychological contracts is managing the person-job fit. The
'person-job fit' is the extent to which the contributions made by the individual match the
incentives offered by the organization. In theory, each employee has a specific set of needs to
fulfill and a set of job related behaviors and abilities to contribute. If the organization can take
complete advantage of those behaviors and abilities and exactly fulfill the employee's needs, it
will achieve a perfect person-job fit. Of course, such a precise, level of person-job fit is seldom
achieved due to various reasons such as imperfect selection procedures, differences in individual
skills, constant change in the needs and requirements of people and organization. Thus, the
behavior of individuals in organization is the primary concern of management and it is essential
that the managers should have an understanding of the factors influencing the behavior of the
employees they manage.
Factors Affecting Behavior of an Individual in the Organization:
Organizations are composed of individuals. Each individual is an island in himself/herself, each
subject to particular motives, aspirations, perceptions and abilities. The behavior of each
individual is influenced by several factors as shown in below diagram.

ENVIRONMENTAL FACTORS
 Economic
 Social norms and
cultural values
 Political

PERSONAL FACTORS
PERFORMANCE
 Age
 Sex
 Education
 Abilities
 Marital status
 Number of
dependents

ORGANIZATION SYSTEMS AND

 Physical facilities INDIVIDUAL

PSYCHOLOGICAL

 Personality
 Perception
 Attitude / values
 learning
ENVIRONMENTAL FACTORS:
Environmental factors include such variable as economic, social, political and the like, these
factors are mainly external and will influence individual behavior considerably. The economic
environment is an important determinant of individual behavior. All work is performed with in
economic frame work that both directly and indirectly impinges on an organization environment.
Economic environment is a synthesis of several factors, the prominent among them being the
employment level, wage rates, economic outlook, and technological change.
Employment opportunities will have strong influence on individual behavior. Fewer job
opportunities increase the emphasis on job security and can change the basic motivation pattern
of the individual. Where job opportunities are several tendency of job-hopping will increase.
Loyalty to one’s organization come irrelevant. Wages satisfy various individual needs. They
provide food and shelter are measures of achievement, and can even serve as status symbol.
Money is complex variable and its effect on behavior varies tremendously. It is well-known that
wages attract people to certain organizations and determine their satisfaction on jobs.
The general economic outlook also influences individual expectations especially of those
employed in industries severely affected by economic cycles. In fact, some employees
experience layoffs and recalls during their entire working life, while others are insulated from the
economy. Individuals who experience frequent lay-offs are more likely to be motivated by
factors that affect job security other individuals would consider job security to be relatively
unimportant and would be motivated by other factors.
Technological change is included as an economic factor because of its potential effects upon
individual job opportunities. Technological change has its strongest impact at lower level jobs,
although increased automation, robotics, computerization and more sophisticated production
technologies can affect individuals at all levels. In addition to changing employment
opportunities, technological change has its effect on job design. Although the individual may
stay employed, the skill required to perform the job may be reduced, thus increasing the
downward pressure on wage rates. Both the decreased skill required and the perceived lack of
advancement opportunities can have major effects on an individual’s job satisfaction.
CULTURAL ENVIRONMENT is made up of institutions and other forces that affect society’s
basic values, perceptions, work ethic, preferences and behaviors. People grow up in a particular
society that shape their basic beliefs, values and behaviors. Culture varies from country to
country and these variations produce different behaviors across the countries. Work ethic,
achievement need, effort-reward expectations and values are important cultural factors having
behavioral implications.
The work ethic is tinged with moral. In the context of job ethic it implies hard work and
commitment to work. Strong work ethic ensures motivated employees, and the opposite is true
when work ethic is weak. Achievement Need too has influenced on employee behavior. A person
with a high need to achieve tends to see a high degree of personal responsibility, set realistic
goals, take moderate risks and use personal performance feedback in satisfying his or her need to
achieve. Form the cultural perspective it is important to note, that the Need To Achieve is a
learned phenomenon. This suggests that various cultural attributes can affect the need to achieve
either positively or negatively.
Although the work ethic and the need to achieve are not the same, they do affect individuals in
similar ways. Not surprisingly, individuals with a low need to achieve will be more difficult to
motivate using traditional motivational techniques. Similarly, individuals with a high need to
achieve would be relatively unhappy in an organization that did not reward achieving power. It is
too well known that a perfect match between effort and reward will produce better performance
from an individual. When the individual perceives that he or she has been treated unfairly, the
performance suffers. This phenomenon is observed in most of the cultures.
Value is tinged with moral flour involving an individual’s judgement of what is right, good and
desirable. Values influence one’s perception attitudes and through these, his or her behavior.
POLITICAL factors in which individual lives can affect individual behavior through several
factors. The stability of the government can affect employment opportunities, both in quantity
and quality. Politically unstable environments have difficulty attracting industry and therefore
experience problems in maintaining a steady level of employment. The quality of jobs can also
be affected through low capital investment. Because companies are reluctant to invest large sums
of money in a politically unstable country, many available jobs are either agriculturally oriented
or in other types of labor intensive industries. Consequently, large segments of the population are
either in temporary employment or in jobs that satisfy only their basic needs.
The political ideology of a country affects individual behavior primarily through the relative
freedoms available to its citizens. For example, in controlled societies, educational and career
opportunities are less open to individual aspirations than in less controlled ones. Management
structures and philosophies in controlled societies have a significant impact on the decision
strategies and methods of implementation available to managers. The relative freedoms available
can affect career choice, job design, motivation methods, and finally, individual performance.
PERSONAL FACTORS:
(i) Age: Age affects regularity in attendance due to age related illness. Younger employees are
able to better adapt to changes as compared to older employees.
(ii) Gender: Women employees are considered to be sincerer and dedicated as compared to men.
They take lesser interest in union activities. Men are considered to be stronger.
(iii) Education: Educated employees are more disciplined and better in managing themselves.
They expect challenging jobs, attractive salary and faster career growth.
(iv) Abilities: Ability refers to individual’s capacity to perform the various task in a job. Ability
of an individual is made up to two sets of skills-intellectual and physical. Intellectual abilities are
needed to perform mental activities. Some of the more relevant dimensions making up
intellectual abilities include Number Aptitude (ability to do speedy and accurate arithmetic);
Verbal Comprehension (ability to understand what is read or heard and the relationship of words
to each other); Perceptual speed (ability to identify visual similarities and differences quickly and
accurately); and inductive reasoning (ability to identify a logical sequence in a problem and then
solve the problem period).
Physical abilities manifest in one’s stamina, manual dexterity, leg strength and the like.
Management must identify an employees physical abilities if those are the major inputs required
to perform a task.
(v) Marital Status: Married employees prefer to settle in a steady job and earn a fair income.
Marriage creates greater family commitment and makes a person more responsible. they would
be regular in attendance, work diligently and do not change jobs very often.
(vi) Number of Dependents: There is a correlation between number of dependents an employee
has and his or her absences and satisfaction. Number of children an employee has is positively
related to absence, especially among females. Similarly there is positive correlation between
number of dependents and satisfaction.
PSYCHOLOGICAL FACTORS:
(i) Values: Value represents the moral structure of a person. They govern the way a person
behaves, communicates and interacts with others. It helps to understand the attitude and
motivation of individuals and factors influencing perception. A person who values honesty
would be honest in his dealings.
(ii) Attitude: Attitude is the tendency to act in a certain way towards people, events, ideas or
objects. Those with positive attitude towards work, would be regular, perform well and be loyal.
(iii) Perception: Perception is described as a person ‘s view of reality. If a subordinate is
perceived to be inefficient, he would not be given challenging jobs. If an employee is perceived
as creative, he would be assigned jobs requiring creativity and innovation.
(iv) Personality: Personality refers to qualities and characteristics that define a person. It
determines a person ‘s pattern of behaviour, thought and feelings. It determines the type of
activities that a person is suited for.
(v) Learning: It is relatively permanent change in behaviour caused by experience. Positive
experiences in the work place influence positive behaviour in the long run. Well-designed
training programs play an important role in improving learning. Many organizations send their
executives to leadership programs to improve their leadership behaviour.
ORGANISATIONAL FACTORS:
(i) Organisational structure: It shows the formal authority and relationship between persons in an
organisation. A sound organizational structure provides role clarity and enables efficient
functioning.
(ii) Leadership: It influences employee performance and growth. If the leader is of democratic
nature, employees enjoy better freedom to contribute their ideas. But when the leader is an
autocrat, he would command and control his subordinates. This paves path to low morale and
frustration among employees.
(iii) Reward system: If the reward system in an organization recognizes good performance,
employees would display positive behaviour. Reward systems are established to motivate
employees for better performance.
(iv) Provision of Facilities: A well designed layout with good lighting, ventilation and control of
noise induce better behaviour. Employees would have a positive vibration, concentrate better and
perform well.
LEARNING
MEANING AND DEFINATION:
One of the crucial psychological processes is learning, through which human behaviour is
determined. It is a never- ending procedure which is everlasting. So, learning can be defined as
the summation of behavioural transformations which are the outcome of knowledge attained
during the training. An individual attains knowledge and practicality from the training process
which acts as a feedback to the individual and a reference for future responses.
Learning acts as a dominant encouraging factor for the employees to remain connected within
organizations. It influences the abilities, various roles of life and motivation level of the
individuals. Besides influencing individual behaviour, learning also plays a vital role in the
management of knowledge. Through knowledge management, an organisation‘s acquisition and
sharing capacity get boosted. As a result, knowledge can be utilized properly to make
improvement in the continuity and prosperity of the organisation.
―Learning is any relatively permanent change in behaviour that occurs as a result of
experience‖ – Stephen P. Robbins
―Learning can be defined as relatively permanent change in behaviour potentiality that results
from reinforced practice or experience‖ – Steers and Porter.
―Learning is the process by which a person constructs knowledge, skills and capabilities‖ –
Martyn Sloman.
―Learning is a relatively enduring change in behaviour bought about as a consequence of
behaviour‖. – Stanford.
―Learning is a relatively permanent change in behaviour that occurs as a result of prior
experience‖ – E.R. Hilgard
NATURE OF LEARNING:
simply told, learning is understood as the modification of behaviour thorugh practice, training or
experience. This simple meaning needs to be supplemented with five important components of
learning so as to take its import clear.
First, learning involves change, although the change may be for good or bad from an
organization’s point of view. The change may not be evident until a situation arises in which the
new behaviour can occur; learning is not always reflected in performance.
Second, not all changes reflect learning. To constitute learning, change should be relatively
permanent. Temporary changes may be only reflective and fail to represent any learning. This
requirement, therefore rules out behavior changes caused by fatigue or drugs.
Third, learning is reflected in behavior. A change in an individual’s thought process or
attitudes, not accompanied by behavior, is no learning. It should be further clarified that learning
needs to result in behavior potentiality and not necessarily in the behaviour itself. The reason for
this distinction lies in the fact that an individual may learn but owing to lack of motivation, may
not exhibit any changed behavior.
Fourth, the change in behavior should occur as a result of experience, practice and training.
This implies that behavior caused from maturation, disease or physical damages does not
constitute learning.
Fifth, the practice or experience must be reinforced in order for learning to occur. If
reinforcement does not accompany the practice or experience the behavior will eventually
disappear.
Learning is not confined to one’s schooling. Learning occurs throughout one’s life.
THEORIES OF LEARNING
The Theories of Learning are as follows:
• Classical conditioning
• Operant conditioning
• Cognitive Theory
• Social learning
1. Classical Conditioning: Classical conditioning grew out of experiments to teach dogs to
salivate in response to the ringing of a bell, conducted at the turn of the century by a Russian
physiologist, Ivan Pavlov. A simple surgical procedure allowed Pavlov to measure accurately the
amount of saliva secreted by a dog. When Pavlov presented the dog with a piece of meat, the dog
exhibited a noticeable increase in salivation. When Pavlov withheld the presentation of meat and
merely rang a bell, the dog had no salivation. Then Pavlov proceeded to link the meat and the
ringing of the bell. After repeatedly hearing the bell before getting the food, the dog began to
salivate as soon as the bell rang.
After a while, the dog would salivate merely at the sound of the bell, even if no food was offered.
The dog had learned to respond-that is, to salivate-to the bell. The meat was an unconditioned
stimulus. It invariably caused the dog to react in a specific way. The reaction that took place
whenever the unconditioned stimulus occurred was called the unconditioned response. The bell
was an artificial stimulus, or what we call the conditioned stimulus. While it was originally
neutral, after the bell was paired with the meat (an unconditioned stimulus), it eventually
produced a response when presented alone. The last key concept is the conditioned response.
This describes the behaviour of the dog salivating in reaction to the bell alone. Classical
conditioning is passive.
Something happens and we react in a specific way. It is elicited in response to a specific,
identifiable event. It can explain simple reflexive behaviours. But most behaviour particularly the
complex behaviour of individuals in organisation is emitted rather than elicited. It is voluntary
rather than reflexive.
2) Operant conditioning: The tendency to repeat such behaviour is influenced by the
reinforcement or lack of reinforcement brought about by the consequences of the behaviour.
Reinforcement strengthens behaviour and increases the likelihood that it will be repeated. He
argued that creating pleasant consequences to follow specific form of behaviour would increase
the frequency of that behaviour. The consequences of behaviour are used to influence, or shape
behaviour through three strategies: reinforcement, punishment and extinction. Operant
conditioning is the process of modifying behaviour behaviour through the use of positive or
negative consequences following specific behaviour.
3.Cognitive Theory: There are some psychologists who believe that neither classical
conditioning nor operant conditioning learning theories view that most problem solving
situations are hard to explain. It is cognitive theory that explains such situations.
Cognition refers to an individual‘s thoughts, knowledge, interpretations, understanding or views
about oneself, and the environment. Cognitive argues that the person tries to form cognitive
structure in memory, which preserves and organizes all information relating to the events that
may occur in learning situation.
4. Social Learning: Individuals can also learn by observing what happens to other people and
just by being told about something, as well as by direct experiences. So, for example, much of
what we have learned comes from watching models-parents, teachers, peers, motion pictures and
television performers, bosses, and so on. These view that learning through both observation and
direct experiment has been called social-learning theory.
While social-learning theory is an extension of operant conditioning-that is, it assumes that
behaviour is a function of consequences. It also acknowledges the existence of observational
learning and the importance of perception in learning. People respond to how they perceive and
define consequences, not to the objective consequences themselves.
PRINCIPLES OF LEARNING:
Learning principles helps particularly to a training manager, gain maximum efficiency in a
learning situation. However, blind adherence to these principles can often cause more harm than
good. Each principle should, therefore be interpreted and applied carefully in full consideration
of the particular task being learned and the context in which the learning takes place. Some
principles of learning considered here are motivation, knowledge of results, reinforcement,
schedule of learning, whole versus part learning, learning curves, and meaningfulness of
material.
MOTIVATION is basic because, without motivation learning does not take place or atleast is not
discernible. Motivation may be seen at different levels of complexity of a situation. A thirsty rat
will learn the path through the maze to a dish of water; it is not likely to do so well, or even more
purposefully at all, if it is satisfied. On a broader level, a college student must have the need and
drive to accomplish a task and reach a specific goal.
KNOWLEDGE OF RESULTS It is generally conceded that knowledge regarding one’s own
performance is a necessary condition for learning. Feedback about the performance will enable
the learner to know where he stands and to initiate corrective action if any deviation from the
expected goal has taken place. There are some tasks for which such feedback is virtually
mandatory for learning. A crane operator, for example, would have trouble learning to
manipulate the controls without knowing how the crane responded to control actions.
For instance, the knowledge of results in industrial training if you consider workers had to learn
to cut discs from a tungsten rod, a task which required complex hand and foot coordination.
Training were able to see their action patterns traced on paper as they attempted to duplicate the
patterns of experience operators.
REINFORCEMENT is the single most important principle of learning. Reinforcement may be
understood as anything that both increases the strength of response and tends to induce
repetitions of the behavior that preceded the reinforcement.
Distinction is made between motivation and reinforcement. Motivation is a basic psychological
process and is broader and more complex than is implied by the learning principle of
reinforcement. Besides, the needs that lead to motivation are cognitive and are, therefore,
unobservable. Rein forcers are external environmental events that follow a response. In general
terms, motivation is an internal explanation of behavior, and reinforcement is an external
explanation of behavior. Thus the perspectives and explanation of behavior as being due to
motivation and reinforcement are quite different.
Distinction is also made between positive reinforcement and negative reinforcement. Positive
reinforcement strengthens and increases behavior by the presentation of desirable consequences.
The reinforcement consists of positive experience for the individual. In more general terms, we
often say that positive reinforcement consists of reward for the individual and, when presented
contingent upon behavior tends to increase the probability that the behavior will occur again. For
example, if an employee does something well and is complimented for it by the boss, the
probability that the employee shall repeat the behavior will strengthen.
In negative reinforcement the individual exhibits the desired behavior to avoid something
unpleasant. An example might be an employee who does something to avoid incurring a
reprimand from his or her boss. If an employee has the habit of coming late to work, he or she
may learn that this increase the probability of reprimand, assuming this as an unpleasant
experience, the employee may begin coming on time to avoid the criticism. Thus the effect of
negative reinforcement is avoidance learning.
SCHEDULES OF LEARNING
Probably one of the most well established and well documented learning principles is that
distributed or spaced practice is superior to continuous or massed practice. This seems to be true
for both simple laboratory tasks and for highly complex tasks. Actually, schedules of learning
can be manipulated in three different ways 1) during of practice session 2) duration of rest
sessions 3) positioning of rest sessions.
Evidence seems to support the motion of short practice periods and moderate rest periods. Of
course exact definitions of the terms “short” and “moderate” need to be established empirically
for each individual task, as does the optimal positioning of the rest periods. However, it is
usually much more effective to have short frequent rest periods than to have only one or two
long rest periods and one or two long practice periods.”
WHOLE VERSUS PART LEARNING
A great deal of work has been done in the psychology of learning to decide whether learning a
whole job is superior to breaking the job into parts and learning the parts. In parts learning, the
individual is not only required to learn each individual part but must be able to combine the
separate parts so that the whole performance can be accomplished. No overall conclusion,
however has been reached in this field.
LEARNING CURVES:
A highly useful learning concept which is valid for a wide range of situations is the learning
curve, a diagrammatic representation of amount of learned in relation to time.
A typical learning curve will show on y-axis the amount learnt and on the x-axis the passage of
time represents generalized learning curve, which shows the extent to which the rate of learning
increases or decreases with practice. Certain characteristics are common to all learning
curves.one such feature is the Initial spurt. At the beginning, it is natural that the rate of learning
exhibits a spurt. Usually the graph levels off at some stage, of learning exhibits a spurt. Usually
the graph levels off at some stage, indicating the maximum performance has been achieved.
Apparently at the beginning of the learning process, the subject is highly motivated and seems to
exhibit a significant surge of effort. Many experienced trainers exploit this initial spurt by
selecting the most important items to be communicated and presenting them as a package to the
students at the beginning of the training unit. In many ways it is possible to exemplify the initial
spurt with the aphorism “THE FIRST STEP IS THE BEST STEP”.
Another feature of the curve is the learning plateau. At some point in the learning process there
is flattening off in terms of the improvement, a plateau. Frequently the process of learning is
marked by discontinuities and involves escalating from one plateau to another. Most learners are
only too aware of the experience of finding themselves on a plateau, which manifests itself in the
feeling that they are never going to get anywhere.
Jumping from one plateau to another is called organization of learning. Organization of learning
is achieved when the learner discovers a new and more effective method of performing particular
tasks. For example, in mathematics the student learns to apply the calculus to solve the problems
of business.
Disorganization of learning is an actual fall off in performance. This rises when the subject has
to choose between alternatives methods of tackling a task. The last characteristic of the learning
curve is the End spurt. The end spurt is preceded by fatigue which is likely to set in with the
passage of time. when the training session draws nearer to an end, and the subject realizes this,
there occurs resurgence of interest and effort to learn more. This revival is called the End spurt.
MEANINGFULLNESS OF MATERIAL
A definite relationship has been established between learning and meaningfulness of the subject
learnt. More meaningful the material, latter does learning proceed. Acquisition of nonsense
syllables proceeds more slowly than that of prose or poetry. On a broader sense, a programme of
learning where each task makes for meaningfulness, trainers do have certain techniques that
increase meaningless for trainees. Organizing meaningful units, creating association with already
familiar terms and providing a conceptual basis or logical reason for the material are some of the
practical possibilities.
*LEARNING AND ORGANIZATION BEHAVIOUR
The specific application of learning to organization situation: reducing absenteeism through
lotteries, substituting well-pay for sick pay, indiscipline problem of employees and developing
effective training programmes.
Using Lotteries To Reduce Absenteeism Management can make use of the learning theory to
reduce absenteeism. For example, in 1966 the management of hardware retail store found that
tardiness and absenteeism on the part of employees were too serious. The management embarked
on an innovative programme to tackle the problem. The programme consisted of a lottery with
attractive prizes. What was unique about the lottery was its eligibility requirements. Only
employees with perfect attendance and no tardiness were eligible to contest. The programme was
rousing success. Attendance improved so much that even a storm could not deter the employees
from being present at work.
Well –pay Vs Sick-pay Most organizations provide their employees with paid sick leave as part
of the employee fringe benefits. But ironically, organizations with paid sick leave programme
experience almost twice the absenteeism that organizations without such a programme. The
reality is that sick leave encourages wrong behavior absence from work. Organizations should
have programme designed to encourage good attendance at work. In other words, an employee
should be rewarded for good attendance and not for frequent absence from work. An attendance
bonus, which is practiced in most organizations is designed to encourage good attendance.
Employee Indiscipline employee indiscipline exhibited in such acts as drunkenness on the job,
late arrivals to work, insubordination, stealing company property and the like is common. Every
manager is frequently confronted by such indiscipline. The manager will respond with
disciplinary actions such as verbal warnings, oral reprimands, or temporary suspensions.
Research on discipline shows that the manager should act immediately to correct the problem,
match the severity of punishment to the severity of ‘crime’, and ensure that the employee sees
the link between the punishment and the undesirable behavior. Punishment for indiscipline is
hardly the answer to the problem. The person being punished can perceive the punishment as a
result of being caught rather than as an incentive to replace undesirable behaviors with another
set of behaviors.
Disciplining employees for undesirable behavior only tells them what not to do so. It does not
tell them what alternative behavior is preferred. The result is that this form of punishment
frequently leads to only short term suppression on the undesirable behavior rather than to its
elimination. Continued use of punishment rather than positive reinforcement also tends to
produce a conditional fear of the manager. As the punishment agent, the manager becomes
associated n the employee’s mind with adverse consequences. Employees respond by “hiding”
from their boss. Hence the use the punishment can undermine manager employee relations.”
The popularity of discipline lies in its ability to produce quick results in the short-run. Managers
are reinforced to use discipline because it produces an immediate change in the employee
behavior. But in the long run, when used without positive reinforcement of desirable behavior, it
is likely to lead to employee frustration, fear of the manager, recurrences of problem behavior,
increase in absenteeism and decrease in turnover.
Developing Training Programmes Learning is useful in developing effective training
programmes. A social learning theory in particular tells the organizers, that training should
provide a model, it needs to grab the trainee attention; provide motivational properties, help the
trainee to file away what he or she has learned for later use; provide opportunities to practice
new behaviors; provide positive rewards for accomplishments; and if the training has taken place
off job, allow the trainee some opportunity to transfer what he has learned on the job.

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