TABLE OF CONTENT

Chapters

Chapter-1 Introduction

1.1 Research Background 4

1.2 Research Objective 8

1.3 Proposed methodology and research 9

1.4 An overview of women in the maritime industry 9

1.5 Early records 10

1.6 Associated sectors 10

Chapter-2 Literature Review

2.1 Gender discriminations; societal views 12

2.2 Family roles and traditional views 18

2.3 Lack of awareness and information 21

2.4 Male dominated industry 21

2.5 Company attitudes of having women employed 22

2.6 Promotion and job opportunities 23

2.7 Education and funding difficulties 24

2.8 Job security 25

2.9 Taking action 25

2.10 No or less support 26

2.11 Gender and women in higher education 27

2.12 Summary 28
Chapter-3 International and National Initiatives

3.1 The United Nations 30

3.1.1 International Maritime Organization 33

3.1.2 International Labour Organization 42

3.2 An educational view 48

Chapter-4 Women in the Maritime Industry- A Survey

4.1 Background to the survey 51

4.2 Who, where, what, why and how? 51

4.3 Results

Chapter-5 Analysis of the Questionnaires

5.1 Respondents

5.2 The Instrument (Questionnaire)

5.3 Results

5.4 Summary of findings

Chapter-6 Conclusions and Recommendations

References

2
 LIST OF TABLES

3
 Women in maritime port

Key words- Gender discriminations, societal views, The United

Nations, IMO.

Chapter-1 INTRODUCTION

1.1 Research Background

The maritime industry has made contributions to the world economy

in recent decades. The international maritime transportation industry
contributes significantly to the welfare and development of nations.
The maritime industry needs women and women could benefit from
the many, interesting, well-paying jobs in the field. However, the
number of women working in the field is lower than ever. This
industry is one of the largest international industries with a vast need
for technical, legal and administrative branches. About 90% of the
world’s trade is carried by sea, and the sea is the common heritage of
mankind (Ma, 1999). It therefore offers many job opportunities; one
need not go to sea to be in the Maritime Industry. There are career
opportunities covering the design and building of ships, maritime
environment/resources management and protection, training of
personnel in the maritime industry, marine insurance, maritime law,
ports and harbour management and administration and managing of
internal water resources. Lately, such academic service as IMO is
becoming more and more popular.

The Maritime Industry is accepted as a male dominated environment,

which is viewed with skepticism, all because it is men who started it.
One should not forget, however, the fact that there is a link between
man and woman from creation. Naturally, there is the tendency for
men to protect women as all male species do. However, that of the
human male has turned to over protectiveness over the years, which is
viewed as gender imbalance/inequality.

4
In survey conducted on the men’s perspective of the efficiency and
promotion of women in working life, the educational inadequacy of
women, the need for women to set up their priorities still on
homemaking responsibilities, the responsibilities of women at home
despite working outside the home, and their having problems with
some certain activities (e.g. training, night shift, business trips, etc.)
have been demonstrated as reasons preventing advancement of
women.

On the other hand, in a conducted survey, it was found that women

were more loyal to their companies compared to men and that they
had a better executive profile for development of their companies
(Wood, 2000).

The effort by international organizations is to achieve an effective

balance, and it is nevertheless a step in the right direction for the
whole world. Generations ago, traditionally, the key role for women
was as mothers and teachers of primary school children, but this is
history now. A woman no longer wants to be the “ little homemaker”
while her husband “brings home the bacon” from the sea. There is the
need for education and training to encourage females into this
industry and change the human perspective that the maritime industry
is a job for men only. Education does not only involve the provision
of knowledge but also a change in attitude.

This dissertation has been inspired by the fact that in 1999, IMO took
account of its 10 years of Women in Development Programme, the
integration of women into maritime sector, the objectives and aims
and its achievements over the past decade.

Equally motivating is the provision of the revised STCW

95 resolution 14, “Promotion of the participation of
women in the maritime industry”, which desires
5
governments to secure equal access and highlight the
role of women in the maritime profession and to
promote their greater participation in maritime training
and at all levels in the maritime industry.

Last but not the least this project is in a way to

encourage female participation in the maritime
industry. It is a good job with a good salary, a means of
providing foreign currency, which helps alleviate
poverty among families in the developing world; where
women play an important financial role in the running
of the family. The side issues are that one sees different
countries while being exposed to people of different
cultures and backgrounds, all broadening one’s
knowledge. There is no reason why women should not
participate in, and benefit from, employment such as
the shipping industry. Participation by more women in
the maritime industry in this decade will be beneficial
to the society as a whole. It will be a form of partial
solution to the problem of shortages of officers, which is
anticipated to rise to 46,000 within this decade
(Telegraph, May 2000).

Since seafaring no longer is a lifetime employment, but rather a

stepping stone for a future career ashore, more women working on
board will ultimately also increase the number of women at senior
management level within the industry. Many organizations, such as
marine insurers, classification societies and maritime administrations,
regularly employ people with seagoing experience.

It is commonly held that gender gaps in education generally are larger

in the developing world, while the gaps are steadily closing in the
developed countries. Accordingly, it is arguably both understandable
6
and appropriate, that efforts largely have been directed towards
enabling women in developing countries to engage in professional
education and training, may it be maritime or other. However, is
opening the door and encouraging women to participate in maritime
training sufficient? Educational institutions are important bearers of
societal norms and values and without clear gender-inclusive
strategies for curricula, pedagogy and classroom activities, there is an
obvious risk of inequality being reproduced and consolidated, rather
than equality being produced.

While gender-equal maritime education essentially, is a principle of

individual fairness, it is also crucial to the legitimacy of the
educational institutions. In the long term, it is also important for the
development and competitiveness of the maritime industry and our
society as a whole.

The Global Gender Gap Index was introduced in 2006 by the World
Economic Forum in collaboration with Harvard University and
University of California. The index measures the relative gaps
between women and men across four key areas: health, education,
economics and politics. In all, 136 countries are ranked on their
gender gaps, depending on nearly 40 gender- related variables,
reflecting legal and social factors that can affect gender disparity. The
countries are thus ranked on their gender gaps and not on their
development level or overall levels of education in the country (World
Economic Forum 2013). The highest possible score is 1, representing
equality and the lowest score is 0 for inequality. In the latest Global
Gender Gap Report, published in 2013, the five top-ranked countries
with the smallest gender gaps are Iceland (0.8731), Finland (0.8421),
Norway (0.8417), Sweden (0.8129) and the Philippines (0.7832).
Since these five countries also have a longstanding tradition of
seafaring, it would be fair to assume that structures and
establishments for maritime education and training in these countries
may pose as state-of-the-art in terms of gender-equality.

7
Hence, the purpose of the research study presented in this paper, set
out to examine how gender equality is addressed in the curricula of
contemporary maritime education, and at companies. Although some
researches identify the perceptions on the professional gender
discrimination and prejudice of maritime industry. It is believed that
the study will also contribute to the literature as it explains the
relationship between gender discrimination and traditional and culture
in the maritime sector which is one where the male employees are
predominant by revealing the perceptions on gender discrimination. It
also aims to point out to the importance of education and employment
of females in maritime sector. The overall aim is to contribute to the
body of knowledge on gender-equal maritime which contributes
women to enter into maritime profession.

Maritime transportation proposition theoretical research may be

particularly useful in undertaking research in maritime transportation
areas for which data are unavailable, insufficient, difficult to obtain,
or of poor quality. Therefore, it is highly important to develop an
overview of this filed, which will provide general results that permit a
retrospective evaluation.

1.2 Research objective

This research aims at encouraging more women into the maritime

industry, by way of letting more people get to know about those
women who have made it in the maritime world. It also aims to
encourage those who want to retire from sea to consider imparting
their experience and knowledge to the younger generation by having a
look at the maritime institutions to become lecturers.

The objectives of this dissertation are:

8
 1. To review difficulties, problems and hindrances encountered by
women in the maritime industry.

2. To identify international and national initiatives to encourage the

participation of women in the industry with particular focus on
maritime education and training

3. To draw conclusions and make proposals for the increased

participation of women in the maritime industry.

1.3 Proposed methodology and research structure

This paper undertook an extensive literature search due to the

sensitive nature of the topic; by reviewing publications, periodicals,
magazines and books, which were visited during field studies. In
addition to this, through Internet searches, pictures were also collected
to provide further motivation. Contact was established with some
women role models, men and women maritime workers by way of
interviews, and questionnaires through e-mail and letters. Personal
contact was used as a way to enable the author to analyze the
difficulties, hindrances and problems encountered by women in the
industry. An literature study into the documents of the United Nations
(UN), International Labour Organization (ILO), International
Maritime Organization Technical Co-operation reports (IMO-TC) and
other organizations involve in the promotion of women in
development in general and the maritime industry in particular was
carried out. Division such as Krishnapatanam Port (India) was
contacted.

1.4 An overview of women in the maritime industry

Women in the maritime industry were unheard off, even

though it was back in the 19th century when women
started contributing towards the existence of this
industry; as lighthouse keepers, stewardesses, officers
and radio operators. It was not until the United Nations
9
declared 1976-1985 as the Decade for Women, in an
effort to promote and encourage Women in
Development (WID) for more equitable and sustainable
development. The Beijing Conference on Women in
1995 put women from all quarters of life into the
limelight of the world. The majority of women then
employed at sea were in the catering service
department and their voices could not be heard
(Tansey, 1999). IMO in its efforts to promote women in
the maritime industry sought-other ways and means of
encouraging women into the senior management level.

1.5 Early records

Russia took the lead by making good use of her woman at sea as far
back as 1930, when Captain Anna Schetinina started her sea career,
becoming the first female captain in 1935. This motivated other
developed countries like the United Kingdom to follow suit with
Victoria Drummond serving as a marine engineer during the Second
World War (WW2) (Drummond, 1994).

1.6 Associated sectors

These are the institutions, maritime administrations, marine pollution

prevention and control sections, maritime lawyers, technical
management of shipping companies, ports and harbours, ship owners,
brokers, charterers, marine insurance companies, seafarers and others
that make up the maritime industry. The legal profession attracts a
great number of women, who need a little encouragement to
specialize in maritime law. Therefore, with the establishment of the
International Maritime Law Institute in Malta the path is clear, in
addition to the reservation of 50% of the places for women. There is
bound to be growth if only women are aware of it. World Maritime
University, Kobe University of Mercantile Marine, Australian
Maritime College, Kunsan National University in Korea, Dalian and
Shanghai Maritime Universities all train women at the managerial
10
level. With the trade boom, more shipping companies will spring up
and there will be more demand for brokers, lawyers, charterers,
administrators and more. Since women are playing a significant role
by achieving high education at WMU and elsewhere, they will be
seen among the men at all levels, except as marine/engineering
superintendents, an area in which women have not yet made their
presence felt. This technically requires sea background experience,
which women from the sea could be trained to take-up. In effect “we
are putting the ‘wo’ in Sea..men” (Stanley, 2000).

11
 Chapter 2

LITERATURE REVIEW

Women in the maritime industry were unheard off, even though it was
back in the 19th century when women started contributing towards
the existence of this industry; as lighthouse keepers, stewardesses,
officers and radio operators. It was not until the United Nations
declared 1976-1985 as the Decade for Women, in an effort to promote
and encourage Women in Development (WID) for more equitable and
sustainable development. The Beijing Conference on Women in 1995
put women from all quarters of life into the limelight of the world.
The majority of women then employed at sea were in the catering
service department and their voices could not be heard (Tansey,
1999). IMO in its efforts to promote women in the maritime industry
sought-other ways and means of encouraging women into the senior
management level

Difficulties and Problems for Women

2.1 Gender discriminations; societal views

Women working in non-traditional job may encounter special

problems because of the fact they are “women” in a man’s world.

Shipping, is an international business and according to Sir Colin

Southgate, chairman of the Royal Opera House “It’s very difficult to
generalize; but I know that the mixture of male and female managers
is good for a business” (York, 1999, p. 58).

12
Some people are also of the opinion that women cannot do jobs
involving strength and heavy mechanical work. Thanks to the
advancement of technology the demand for physical power has been
turned into a growing demand for brainpower.

A recent article in TradeWinds (February 2000) is of the

opinion that “shipping is still a man’s world”. It further
mentions that few women choose it as a career and
those who do, find themselves “ hitting glass ceilings”
at the middle management level in some countries.
These are countries where women’s equality is not well
understood.

York (1999) stated that Lesley Riddoch, in an article in

the Guardian was of the view that “part of equality is
the right to make mistakes and that women should be
judged as people. Like people generally some would
turn out not making it to the top” (The “Gender”, p.
56).

Most often than not, women are faced with reading

articles even worse than what is written in the same
TradeWinds article above discouraging them from going
into the maritime industry.

Referring to the same TradeWinds article above, further

down the writer mentions Anette Olsen of the Fred
Olsen group, Anne Oian head of Den norske Bank’s
maritime section, Louise Rossi head of the International

13
Underwriters Association as outstanding, Megan Tudall
and Anna Polemis Alisafakis, directors well known in the
maritime industry in the Baltic. He is of the view that it
is because they are daughters of prominent shipping
executives. He does not want to call ‘a spade a spade’.
Literature about these women did not say whether they
are the only children of their parents. Even if they are it
takes interest, knowledge and hardwork to achieve
what they have. Their fathers being in the business
could be an encouraging factor but not the sole reason
behind their success (“Future or Fantasy”, 1990).

There are quite a good number of women shipowners,

brokers and masters in the system. This can increase
greatly; it is a matter of society changing its views
about which job is good for a woman and which is for
men.

“How many spouses would be sympathetic to their

female partners being woken at four in the morning
about a ship charter?” asked the author of TradeWinds,
(February 2000).

Wives of shipbrokers have learnt to tolerate this and

what stops husbands from doing the same in the
advancement of their wives. This is a problem facing
women wanting to share or make good use of their God
given wisdom in the maritime industry. Diversity as
most people are aware is the key to survival of the
species ‘women’.

The pool of opinion is that although there is

discrimination against women everywhere in the
14
maritime industry, much of it is afloat, a sector of the
industry where some people including some women see
it as a ‘taboo’ for a woman to venture. Surprisingly
enough the ship is term ‘she’. So why this cry? Is it
because in magnetism it is said unlike poles attract,
whilst like poles repel. This is a good analogy in looking
at the relationship of women and the ship.

Gender discrimination can be grouped under two main divisions.

There is the one, which will be termed the ‘hidden discrimination’ and
the other the ‘open discrimination’.

The ‘hidden’ is where women are not given normal tasks as their male
counterparts, with the idea to keep them from dirty or dangerous
work. The side effects of this form of discrimination against women
prevent the women from gaining experience on the job. Men get the
experience at the expense of women thus denying them for having the
experience. It could be a way of keeping the women out of the
industry.

The side effects of this form of discrimination against

women prevent the women from gaining experience on
the job. The revised STCW 95 is particular about
qualifications and experience; where then will women
stand? Men get the experience at the expense of
women thus denying them an argomeal for having the
experience. It could be a way of keeping the women out
of the industry.

Then comes ‘open discrimination’ where women are challenged to

prove their capability, by having to work harder. Women are seen

15
putting in about 50% more than men are. This could be some of the
causes of the high rate of mortality in women in jobs, which are
mostly men dominated. “The death rate of women in such jobs is
about three times that of the general female population” according to
Denmark’s Institute of Maritime Medicine. Dr Hansen of this institute
reported of two cases where the dangerous work done by the women
resulted in their death because they had to carry out orders (Hansen,
1998).

One common problem facing women is that of sexual harassment,

which makes some women live in isolation and some drop out of their
career. However, this is a problem not talked off publicly because of
its after effect. Most of the women who fall victim to it never
complain, unless to very close friends. All they do is keep it to
themselves and solve it in their own way. Since seeking for help could
worsen the case or lead to another problem.

The Collins Cobuild English dictionary defines sexual

harassment as, “repeated unwelcome sexual
comments, looks, or physical contact, usually by men
against women” (Sinclair, Fox & Bullon, 1999).

However, this is a problem not talked off publicly

because of its after effect. Most of the women who fall
victim to it never complain, unless to very close friends.
All they do is keep it to themselves and solve it in their
own way. Since seeking for help could worsen the case
or lead to another problem.

The union women of DNU are aware that women are

not treated equally with their male counterparts. They
see the need for change in several areas but they want
the changes to take place quietly. The members are of
16
the opinion that to call for attention to their problems
could backfire. This may in some case lead to formation
of further obstacles when applying for jobs. The women
of DNU are quoted also as saying, “feminism in the
name of equality does not belong in the maritime
world”.

To assume it is an abomination for a woman to go to

sea is a form of discrimination against women and is a
problem in most developing countries. Consider the
case of Myrna Galang Daite, the first female officer to
be admitted to the Philippines Merchant Marine
Academy. The male students held a protest rally over
the college’s decision to accept women (“First
Philippine woman”, Jan/Feb 2000).

In another instance, Ms Harriet Berg, Norwegian vice-

minister of Trade and Commence, which includes
shipping matters, had this to share in an article in the
Shipping Professional (April 1998). At a reception
organized by the ambassador of a Latin American
country, where all kinds of diplomats were present, the
president of the national Power Company came round
and shook hands with everybody present except Ms
Berg. When the ambassador finally told him who she
was, he was very embarrassed and eventually shook
her hand.

This very important man, by his behavior, showed he

has preconceived notions or ideas about women. He
therefore was not expecting to see any woman at that
level of management. Such is the level where the
International Maritime Organization (IMO) dreams of
17
seeing women in the next decade of the maritime
industry.

Most maritime advertisements do not include any flavor

to attract women. A critical look at table 2:1 compared
with figure 3:1 goes to prove this fact. The initial
advertisement, which seems encouraging, has the word
‘females may also apply’. This was published only once
in the national newspapers, whilst the recent one
appeared for a whole week.

Table 2.1: Recruiting advertisement of Regional

Maritime Academy

18
 (Source: Indian Ports Association)

2.2 Family roles and traditional views

Religion, tradition and cultural, social and customary patterns

influence women’s status in some societies.
One of the interviewees, a senior lecturer at the Regional Maritime
Academy, explains that the situation with society was created
thousands of years ago, through harmful traditional and cultural
19
practices, a combination of deep-rooted psychological, sexual and
cultural beliefs in the third world. Women in some societies are
regarded as inferior to men. On this basis, some parents refuse to send
their female children to school, as a waste of money and time. They
believe the end result for a girl is to be taken away into marriage. This
has a negative effect on the development of women. Societal
discrimination has a damaging effect on the mentality of women, such
that some women in this 21st century, at the mention of some careers,
term them to be “for men”.

Therefore, one can imagine what a woman has to go through to settle

with the family if they do not accept the concept, especially within
families and communities where the concept of equality for women is
not very much accepted.

Many professional women are faced with the conflict of how to deal
with the problem of profession and family. Ms Lie Harg, a mother of
two (ages 7 and 12) says, the weekdays are for her profession and the
weekends and holidays are for her family. She confirms that she has a
good social network, with great help from grandparents, and tries to
keep low ambitions when it comes to housework.

Ms Linda Ho, married with three children, when asked how she ties
the knot between career and raising a family said “a supportive
husband and able wife alleviate much of the pressure”. Ms Ho
admitted she had to compromise somewhere, by cutting down on
socializing (“Future or Fantasy”, 1990, 9).

For most of the women, good grandparents have

helped managing between their profession and the
family. Others also appreciate the fact that they are
20
blessed with good, understanding and supportive
husbands (Karikari, 1999).

Women managers in maritime offices, doing a lot of

travelling, are also faced with such problems. Shipping
per say is a 24-hour business, making it hard for a
woman with a family. “Travelling is a major headache
and I do a lot of it” says Emi Marcantonaki, a member
of the Union of Greek Shipowners’ foreign affairs
committee, “but I have made it up till now”. Director of
the International European Economic Committee (EEC)
department, Dr Bredima-Savopoulou, a mother of two,
considers travelling to be the biggest headache for
women in shipping (“Future or Fantasy”, 1990).

All these women, having to maintain their families and

making it in their career, have proved to be good
managers.

It is observed that gender discrimination directed to women and

prejudice at the workplace takes place especially through the
following:
 Changing job descriptions negatively or assigning duties to
cause performance to be affected adversely,
 Social isolation like exclusion or avoiding communication,
 Personal aggression by way of humiliation and mocking,
 Humiliation or criticizing in society,
 Spreading unfounded rumors (in connection with private life,
etc.) (Hartig, 2006, p.2-13).

21
2.3 Lack of awareness and information

It is not untrue that unlike other career options, careers in the

maritime industry are not very well known to many young women.
Students generally opt for main stream careers such as IT, computer
science, electronics or medicine. This is because they have little
knowledge or are not aware of the prosperous careers that they can
make in the maritime field. Besides schools take very less initiative to
facilitate discussions about the various maritime career options
available.

It is necessary to improve career awareness and preparedness. The

schools can provide career guidance and address young women
on careers in the maritime world, making them aware of the bright
career prospects. Educators can also help students to translate
awareness into pursuit of seafaring as a career. In order to attract
women in the industry, institutions of higher education should have
policies to help women understand and know about maritime careers
in a better. Career related magazines can be a source of information
and newsletters from the maritime industry can be used as a medium
to promote and highlight seafaring as a potential career for female (as
well as male).

2.4 Male dominated industry

Shipping has historically been a male dominated industry and that

tradition runs long. One of the reasons as to why women have never
taken this career option very seriously is this fact. There is little
encouragement to face the very male dominated and competitive
career path due to a lack of female role models. Besides one of the
biggest challenges for women in this field is combating perceptions
that such jobs are meant only for men and require a skill set more

22
associated with them. Many women fear to enter the man’s world as
they believe that they might face physical harassments and violence or
severe verbal abuse as well as low levels of support from co-workers.

At port/sea, the first problem is for the women to prove

themselves physically and technically competent to be
able to win the respect of their male colleagues. As
such the women are found working harder than their
male counterparts to be able to make the mark
because it is the men who are at the decision making
level. For this reason, almost all women working in the
maritime sector at the managerial level are all
professionals who are worth their salt.

Then comes the major but ‘secret’ problem, sexual

harassment, of which the maritime industry is no
exception. This has been drawn to the attention of the
International Transport Federation (ITF), which relates it
to the conditions on board ship. With a limited number
of people together for a long time without contact with
the outside world the more vulnerable ‘women’ are
affected the most (ITF seafarers, 1997).

The exhibiting of pornographic posters, video films and

computer screen displays, also contribute to the
harassment that women have to endure. This is
because women are ‘uncomfortable’, embarrassed and
disgusted about such things. Therefore, women who
are not used to this keep to their work rather than
making friends. It even becomes more serious when at
some stage of friendship, sex becomes the main issue.

23
2.5 Company attitudes of having women employed

Despite the progress made by the International Maritime Organization

(IMO) and other international organizations over this last decade, it is
still difficult for women to be accepted by some shipping companies.
Most companies responded positively after the call by the United
Nations at the first world conference on women in Mexico City in
1975.

Most of the shipowners’ associations do not intend to employ women.

According to Zhao (1998), some companies go to the extent of telling
women applicants that “so far as there are men, that is fine with
them”. Maritime institutions providing maritime education are ready
to train women for both ashore and afloat, but are unable because the
funds which came from the shipping companies initially are not
forthcoming.

The working conditions of some of the shipping

companies do not favor women. A recent issue of ITF
seafarers’ bulletin 14/2000 under the article ‘The dark
side of the cruise ship industry’ is a proof. Thanks to the
safety management system (ISM Code) and the
International Labour Organization (ILO), the working
conditions of men and women workers have improve
and made better.

2.6 Promotion and job opportunities

Truly there is a large discrepancy between men and women when it

comes to promotions. Most women leave or change jobs in this
industry because they are kept at a level for so long, which is not the
case with their male counterparts they started work with, having the
same qualification and experience.

24
With most of the companies, which responded to the cry to integrate
women into the mainstream maritime activities, it was just for making
the name for their own ends by having few women in the senior
management level. This to some extent brought in some sort of
frustration for the early few women who entered the industry and in a
way discouraged others from joining.

A typical case of frustration some women have to go

through is to be kept on part-time pay for two academic
years, after the initial promise that the condition will
change six months later.

In some cases, some companies are reluctant to hire female

employees. This comes from the ports in the Middle East, India and
Pakistan, where there is different cultural and religious conception
about women.

2.7 Education and funding difficulties

To start with in most developing countries, the ‘girl child’ is not given
even the basic education. This is one major shortcoming with the
female educated population. As such, only a small number of women
qualify to enter the secondary and technical colleges to make it to the
higher levels such as the maritime universities. In the more advanced
countries, the avenues are there, but only few women try it, mostly in
the legal, administration and agency sectors.

Some administrations also find it difficult to select women in their

intake due to women’s biological nature. Others, since it is accepted
that it is man’s world, allocate only a small percentage of positions to
women.

25
In interviews with D. Ferguson, commandant and dean of foreign
affairs of the United States Merchant Marine Academy with 25 years’
experience and Ms Kuijper Heeres of Maritime Institute Willem
Barentssz-Terschelling Holland, lecturer with 30 years’ experience,
both shear the view that: “Very often, the classes with girls tend to do
better, because the girls work harder and the boys do not want to lag
behind”. Therefore the chances are ready and ripe for women to be
admitted but just few show interest in the maritime industry.

2.8 Job security

Most of the private shipping companies provide contractual

employment and do not have remarkable retirement benefits. Just like
male managers, this is a concern for many women managers who look
for job stability and retirement benefits like pension. Majority of the
women prefer jobs with a stable source of income and a planned
retired life. This is also a reason as to why women hesitate to join this
industry.

Maritime industry offers great employment opportunities for male and

female alike. However, employment equality has been a problem
haunting the industry for quite some time now. Unless some drastic
steps are taken to bring awareness among prospective female’s and
to enhance policies supporting their welfare, the numbers will
continue to dwindle.

2.9 Taking action

There are a few shipping companies that are making progress on

diversity. Celebrity Cruises has increased the number of women in
their workforce from 3% to 22% in four years. Stena Line has set a
goal for a diverse workforce after having signed the Maritime UK’s

26
Women in Maritime Pledge. Cargill has joined Paradigm for Parity, an
organisation of companies committed to achieving gender parity
across all levels of corporate leadership by 2030.

Barriers to women working in the maritime sector are being

addressed, although much more needs to be done. For instance, the
IMO facilitates access for women to maritime education and training,
as well as the creation of professional networks for women in
different regions worldwide.

Shipping companies are introducing flexible working arrangements to

make their companies more attractive to parents, including working
closer to home and having shorter periods away, especially when their
children are small. In addition, information and communications
technology has made it much easier to call home.

When it comes to recruiting and promoting women to leadership

positions, we need more role models. Success will breed success. Job
advertising needs to appeal to all, and to build an image of the
modern, innovative workplace that shipping strives to be, so we can
attract the best talent of the next generation.

2.10 No or less support

Women generally do not receive adequate support (Both from family

and society) to choose maritime industry as their career. Educators
often do not provide the necessary skills and support to help young
women climb the shipping sector ladder. Women are also deprived of
family support which is very essential and crucial for them to
establish their own identity in such a sector where women count is
very limited.

27
Parents must be made aware of this field so as to motivate and
encourage their daughters who are willing to make a difference. Lack
of support is one of the reasons why women become upset,
disappointed, and eventually step back from taking maritime sector as
a career. This is also the reason they are not seen as decision makers.
These changes can definitely make more acceptable by women.

(Source Marine Insight/Paromita M)

2.11 Gender and women in higher education

28
The discourse of gender and women in higher education, is a key to
understanding gender equality in the workplace. Previous research on
gender issues in maritime education, specifically is scarce, but gender
equality in higher education in general, is getting increasing attention.
Previous empirical research indicates both a scientific–humanistic as
well as a technical–care divide in higher education (Barone 2011).
These divides are grounded both in curriculum content and
subsequent career applications. Technically-oriented education
programs tend to suit men better than women. Engineering educations
and occupations are ‘coded’ in a masculine way. By entering this
world as a woman, you are choosing a certain amount of resistance.
Traditionally, ‘hard’ science and masculine attributes such as
decisiveness and confidence are rewarded, while reflexivity and
flexibility, attributes more female in character, are generally less
highly praised (Berner 2003). Furthermore, a student enrolling for a
technically-oriented program may sign up not only for an education,
but for an identity. A woman entering a male- dominated area often
has to accept a totally new life, entailing new knowledge and
information as well as a new culture, new jokes, pastimes and values.
Generally, there is an overwhelming risk for the woman to feel out of
place, inadequate, superfluous or like a mascot, thereby losing interest
in the program (Aurell 2000). It is important that women in male-
dominated programs develop useful coping strategies for these
conditions, without losing their own identities.

2.12 Summary

The special constraints facing women in the maritime industry are the
main reasons why only a smaller percentage of the work force is
made up of women.

The traditional, religious, social and customary way of viewing the

maritime industry as a place where females cannot be, has a
29
particularly strong influence on women’s status and participation in
the development of the world as a whole.

Discrimination against women has been highly publicized so much

that the term ‘ladies first’ became the norm of the day. Yet,
discrimination is seriously practised in the maritime sector against
women; in recruitment into maritime institutions, advance training,
funding, job offers, promotion and salaries. Then the ‘killer’ sexual
harassment is now coming out into the limelight from its secret
hideout, and being made known to the employers. This ‘killer’ most
women had to tolerate just for the sake of staying in the maritime
system. There is need for society to change its way of thinking about
women, and help with their advancement by way of offering equal
opportunities for all since it is believed that without women men
cannot exist since the creation. However some men are readily
accepting the new situation today.

30
 Chapter- 3

International And National Initiatives

3.1 The United Nations

According to the Basic facts about United Nations (1998), it is an

international organization, which came into existence on the 24
October 1945. It had an initial membership of 50 countries, with one
of its objectives being to solve economic, social and cultural problems
and to promote human rights.

Research work revealed the social and economic role played by

women in development and established evidence of the discrimination
against women. Equality for women became a target for the United
Nations (UN) work. This led to the establishment of the Commission
on the Status of Women in 1946, barely a year after its formation, to
deal with women’s issues.

This commission had a membership of 45 states, working towards

promoting women’s rights in the economic, political, social and
educational fields.

Decade at a conference held in Mexico City in 1975. In

1979, the Convention on the Elimination of
31
Discrimination against Women (CEDAW) was enforced,
with the introduction of guidelines and laws for the
advancement of women.

The United Nations continued with a series of

conferences: Copenhagen in 1980, Nairobi 1985 and in
1995 the most popular conference, the Fourth World
Conference on Women in Beijing. It was indeed a
conference with a difference; during which the
commission attached a form of warning to all
concerned. It stated “...failure of societies to achieve
true gender equality would result in slow economic and
diminished social and political development, misuse of
human resources and reduced progress for society...”
(Basic Facts about UN, 1998, p. 237).

The result of which has become the turning point for

women and the world as a whole, a breakthrough
campaign that has made people aware that “women’s
rights are human rights”.

To some extent the Beijing conference came to

eradicate certain traditional or customary practices,
cultural and religious activities which deprived the
rights of women, which was a common practice in most
of the developing countries, but yet they claimed to be
members of the United Nations enjoying its food and
other aids.

The following are the action plan adapted at Beijing, by

the Fourth World Conference on Women:

32
 1. The persistent and increasing burden of poverty on
women;
2. Unequal access to and inadequate educational
opportunities;
3. Inequalities in health status, and unequal access to
and inadequate health-care services;
4. Violence against women;
5. Effects of armed or other kinds of conflict on
women;

6. Inequality between men and women in the sharing

of power and decision-making at all levels;
7. Inequality in women’s access to and participation
in the definition of economic structures and
policies and the production process itself;
8. Insufficient mechanisms at all levels to promote
the advancement of women;
9. Lack of awareness of, and commitment to,
internationally and nationally recognized women’s
human rights;
10. Insufficient mobilization of mass media to
promote women’s positive contribution to society;
11. Lack of adequate recognition and support for
women’s contribution to managing natural
resources and safeguarding the environment;
12. The girl child
(UN Basic Facts, p. 236).

Actually, some of the points highlighted above need

serious consideration, for example the girl child. If she
is not well educated, women cannot make up a better
percentage of the managerial level of decision making
in the development of a nation.

33
Analysing the above action plan, one would ask are
women quite normal living creatures? Are they of a
different species from men? Definitely No! Except that
man’s helpmate woman.

To improve the quality of life for women the United

Nations set up a development fund known as the
United Nations Development Fund for Women (UNIFEM)
and an International Research and Training Institute for
the Advancement of Women (INSTRAW).

These women organizations have helped to improve

the quality of life for many thousands of women and
their families. By gaining access to well-paid jobs and
receiving the respect due to women, it has also
contributed to the advancement of women, enhanced
their active and equal participation in development,
and has raised the awareness to attain gender equality
(UN, 1998).

The United Nations (UN) organization employed a

special adviser on gender issues and advancement of
women. Poverty boils out on women in most developing
world, as women are the main pillars behind the
economic and social development of their families.
Therefore drawing on this analogy there is bound to be
a poverty problem, if the pillar is being discriminated
against or deprived of her human rights.

It was therefore a form of women’s empowerment by

the UN in fighting hard to eradicate poverty worldwide,

34
with its assistance programs. All the members of the
United Nations family of organizations were to address
women and gender issues in their policies and all of
their programs. Finally, the UN crowned it all by
declaring 8 March the UN’s Day for Women’s Rights and
International Peace.

3.1.1 International Maritime Organization (IMO)

The International Maritime Organization (IMO) is said to be “mother

and father” of the maritime industry. IMO is the United Nations
specialized agency responsible for maritime affairs, with a mission
statement of capacity building for safer shipping and cleaner oceans
(Edwards, 1999).

Formerly known as The Inter-Governmental Maritime

Consultative Organization (IMCO), it was “adopted” by
the United Nations at its conference held on 6 March
1948 and entered into force on the 7 March 1958. The
actual work began on 6 March 1959 and the name
(IMCO) was changed to International Maritime
Organization (IMO) in 1982 (Bosquez, 1999).

The objective of the integration of women, into all levels of political,

economic and social development, has been a matter of concern
within the family of the United Nations. Therefore, when 1976 to
1985 was declared United Nations Decade for Women, IMO
implemented programs to achieve the advancement of women and
promote gender equality in the maritime industry.

35
In 1988, IMO launched its strategy for the integration of women into
the maritime sector. The implementation of IMO Women in
Development Program (WID) began in 1989, increasing the access
for women to the maritime world (Tansey, 1999).

According to the technical committee (TC 36/10), the

Unit for the Integration of Women into Industrial
Development, (UNIDO) assisted WID with the drafting of
a consolidated medium-term plan of action.

The main objectives of Women in Development

Program (WID) are as follows:

1. To integrate women into mainstream maritime

activities.
2. To improve women’s access to maritime training
and technology.
3. To increase the percentage of women at the senior
management level within the maritime sector.
4. To promote women’s economic self- reliable
including access to employment.

The Technical Committee agreed at its thirty-fourth

session that a report on the implementation strategy of
WID should be presented at each committee session.
WID in its report, addresses the needs of women not
only on equity but also on gender; how to enroll women
in professional maritime courses; why most women are
unable to complete their studies and how to support
those women students/cadets coming from areas where
traditionally education is male orientated.

36
The Government of Norway helped by providing funds
for women students to undertake a two-year induction
course at the Cape Verde Maritime Training Institute.
Again, the Norwegian Government through IMO
provided funds for the employment of a shipping
analyst and a specialist in gender development to study
the potential for women in the maritime industry.
Another move was the establishment of the World
Maritime University (WMU) in Malmö, Sweden and the
IMO International Maritime Law Institute in Malta (IMLI)
as a means of providing women with managerial level
maritime training. The increase in the number of
women at WMU and IMLI is a good achievement.
Currently IMLI reserves 50% of the vacancies for
women. IMO encourages member states to nominate
females for recruiting on special missions (Tansey,
1999).

Women in Development (WID) organized

workshop/seminars for the advancement of women at
the Alexandria Maritime Training Academy and the
Cape Verde Maritime Training Institute, under the
organization of the Association of African Maritime
Training Institutes.

Information from IMO resolution 46/100 states that, the

General Assembly revised its target to increase the
number of women in the senior level to 35%, a way of
promoting equal treatment for men and women in the
IMO secretariat. This is showing leadership by example.

Currently the International Maritime Organization (IMO)

has a professional women staff level of 30.6%, making
37
it a leader among the family of the United Nations
(Tansey, 1999).

In 1988, 1990 and 1993 the Norwegian Government

hosted in Oslo a series of meetings for the IMO
committee on Women in Development (WID), to
prepare “Strategies for WID”, a medium term plan of
action with the help of UNIDO.

Under this plan of action, several activities were

undertaken including the conduct of a short-term
consultancy survey and investigations, opportunities for
women in the maritime industry. Regional seminars for
women maritime graduates from the World Maritime
University (WMU) and the International Maritime Law
Institute (IMLI) were organized. Organizations
connected with the industry were provided with audio-
visual packages on training and recruitment for women
in the maritime sector. To overcome gaps in posts
within the ministries and the shipping industry gender-
specific fellowships were introduced, in situations,
where male candidates would traditionally be preferred.
This is with a view to encouraging equity in
appointment and promotion. Another application was
the establishment of an information network with
women’s associations in member states, and the
contact with the Women’s International Shipping and
Trading Association (WISTA), WMU/IMLI women
graduates.

During the 23rd session of the Sub-Committee on

Standards of Training and Watchkeeping, WID

38
presented its training policy for women. It was at this
time that they suggested amendments to the STCW
Convention on the role of women in the maritime
profession. Wherever it was written “he and she” it
should read “he/she” and following on “his/her”.

The Women in Development Program (WID) succeeded

in securing funds for its gender-specific fellowships in
November 1992, followed by the endorsement of the
committee’s medium-term plan of action for 1992-
1995. Eleven women from different parts of the world
had scholarships for advance training in different
maritime fields (TC, 41/9, Annex, 1995).

Table 3.1 shows the medium term plan for 1996 to

2001, being a plan for the advancement of women in
the maritime industry.

Table 3.1: Special fellowship program for women

REGION JOB TITLE FIELD OF

TRAINING

AFRICA Registrar of Ships Maritime Law and

Shipping
(7)

Director of Legal and General Maritime

Financial Services Administration (with
legal bias)

39
 Traffic Officer Port Terminal
Operations
Chief Planning And
Development Officer

Planning and
Development Officer

Head of Division Application of

Computerized Computerizes Port
Statistics Statistics

Snr Consultant Conference on Safety

(Management) in the Port
Environment

ASIA & PACIFIC Engineer/System Computerization in

Programme Officer Oil Spill Control
(9)

Statistician (Port Conference on Safety

Authority) in the Port
Environment
Terminal Operations
Officer

Ministry of Transport General Maritime

and Communications Administration and
Environment
Protection

Lecturer, Vietnam Shipping

Maritime University management
40
 Section Officer Maritime English
(Shipping)

Chief, Chemical Conference on Safety

Goods Section in the Port
Environment
Scientist, Dangerous
Goods

Snr. Environment
Mgt. Specialist

CARIBBEAN & Lawyer Post Graduate

LATIN AMERICA Training in Maritime
Legislation
(1)

MEDITERRANEA Associate Professor Hydrodynamics of

N Offshore Platforms in
Maritime Engineering
(2)

Asst. Professor in Maritime

Maritime Management and
Management attendance at IMAM
Congress, Bulgaria

(Source: IMO TC 44/9 Annex)

The year 1996 saw the establishment of the Inter-

Agency Committee on Women and Gender Equality. A
committee, of which IMO is an active participant, it
addresses the system-wide implementation of gender-
41
related recommendations emanating from global
conferences (TC, 48/8, 2000).

"Empowering Women in the Maritime Community" was selected

as the World Maritime Day theme for 2019. This provided an
opportunity to raise awareness of the importance of gender equality,
in line with the SDGs, and to highlight the important contribution of
women all over the world to the maritime sector.

Throughout the year, IMO worked with various maritime stakeholders

to help create an environment in which women are identified and
selected for career development opportunities in maritime
administrations, ports and maritime training institutes and to
encourage more conversation for gender equality in the maritime
space. The Women in Maritime programme pushed forward with
numerous activities, including premiering the film, Turning the
Tide, launching the online profiles of women in the maritime sector
and providing support to the Women in Maritime Associations
(WIMAs) launched through the programme.

At the end of 2019, the IMO Assembly adopted a resolution urging

further firm action in coming years to advance gender equality
throughout the maritime sector and reach a barrier-free environment.

IMO gender-specific fellowships

Women in Port Management course, Galilee International
Management Institute (GIMI), Nahalal, Israel

Since 2008, IMO has sponsored on average four fellowships per year
for a two-week Women in Port Management course at GIMI. The
course provides participants with key information and updates on
innovations in the port industry. In 2018, financial support was
increased and 10 fellowships supported women from 10 countries to
attend the course. More than 100 candidates applied and the selection
42
was influenced by participation in IMO's regional networks for
women in maritime.

In 2019, participants will be sponsored for the same course. IMO

covers return airfare, tuition fees and a stipend. Also in 2019, for the
first time, IMO will also sponsor female officials to attend a maritime
and port security course held at GIMI.

Courses on Women in Port Management, Institut Portuaire

d'Enseignement et de Recherche (IPER), Le Havre, France

Each year, in collaboration with the Le Havre Port Authority, 2 two-

week short upgrading courses are organized for female officials from
maritime and/or port authorities of developing countries to improve
management and operational efficiency of their ports. Lectures are
delivered in either English or French on a variety of port matters
including security, marketing, tariffs and logistics as well as
facilitation of maritime traffic, ship/port interface and concession
contracts. Visits are usually organized to the Port of Le Havre and the
Port of Rouen, enabling the participants to experience for themselves
the day-to-day operations of a port, with a view to applying this
knowledge back in their respective countries.

On average, IMO sponsors 40 trainees per year. In 2018, IMO

sponsored 21 trainees from 14 countries for the French
speaking course; and 27 trainees from 18 countries for the English
speaking course. IMO covers tuition fees and a stipend. So far, 308
women have received training under this activity.
Supporting women at IMO's global maritime training
institutions

World Maritime University (WMU)

43
The World Maritime University (WMU) in Malmö, Sweden is a
postgraduate maritime university established under the auspices of
IMO in 1983. WMU is committed to the advancement of women in
the maritime sector. In 2018, the Award for the 1000th female
graduate was made to Ms. Naandem Rita Njin from Nigeria. By 2018,
1,029 females had graduated from the University, out of a total 4,919
graduates. The number of female graduates has increased steadily
over the years - from four in 1985 to 79 in 2018.

The WMU Women's Association (WMUWA) aims to establish a

network of past, current and prospective female students by
expanding international networks with other organizations worldwide
while planning for future growth. Through this Association, IMO
funds one female to attend WMU each year.

IMO International Maritime Law Institute (IMLI)

The IMO International Maritime Law Institute (IMLI), in Valletta,
Malta, was founded by IMO in 1988. IMLI trains experts in
international maritime law. IMLI was the first UN body to include in
its Statute a requirement that 50% of its places be reserved for
women. 361 women had graduated by the end of academic year 2017-
2018 out of a total of 837 graduates.

Other partners
WISTA International

The Women's International Shipping and Trading Association

(WISTA International) is an international
networking organization with a mission is to attract and support
women, at the management level, in the maritime, trading and
logistics sectors. WISTA was granted consultative status with IMO
in 2018.

44
Consultative status gives WISTA the opportunity to promote diversity,
inclusion and women's empowerment. WISTA can now formally
contribute to the discussion for increasing capacity in the maritime
industry, a critical component of which is promoting women in the
industry, both shoreside and shipboard, and also showcasing the
varied technical skills and leadership that women can and do bring to
the industry.

WISTA's efforts support the overarching principles in IMO's Strategic

Plan, especially the promotion of gender equality and the
empowerment of women. It is envisaged that WISTA will play an
important role helping IMO reach out to women in the maritime
industry.
WISTA is a strategic partner to the GEF-UNDP-IMO major project on
‘Building Partnerships to Assist Developing Countries Minimize the
Impacts from Aquatic Biofouling’, also known as ‘GloFouling
Partnerships’. This partnership will help bring female experts,
including marine scientists, to biofouling conferences and other
project activities.

3.1.2 International Labour Organisation (ILO)

The International Labour Organization (ILO) is one of

United Nations (UN) specialized agencies. Aware of the
conditions of women in society, the ILO decided to
tackle the issue by promoting justice and improving the
working conditions of men and women. A reflection of
this is found in its 1919 Constitution the Declaration of
Philadelphia which states that:

“...all human beings, irrespective of race,

creed or sex, have the right to pursue their
material well-being and their spiritual development
in conditions of freedom and dignity, of economic,
economic security and equal opportunity...”

45
Clearly this declaration explicitly confirms and
elaborates the idea of the principle of the ILO.
According to the ILO’s mandate in 1999, the
organization ironically viewed this principle in three
main ways.

 Firstly as a matter of human rights: thus, the fight

against discrimination based on sex.
 Secondly as social justice and poverty alleviation:
by improving women’s access to employment,
training, and their conditions of work and social
protection.
 Thirdly from the side of social and economic
development: by way of promoting the
participation of women in decision-making.

Assuming since the Philadelphia Declaration up to this

21st century that states parties to ILO’s conventions
had abided by the organization principles, there would
have been no sector of jobs where half of the
population would not have been women. Yet, ILO has its
representatives in sectors like the maritime industry,
where a sea going division of it is believed to be for
men.

Before the UN’s declarations of the Decade for Women

(1976-1985), ILO took bold steps to strengthen its
concept of equality by some declarations and
resolutions, which affected not only the labour field but
also the whole status of women. These are as follows:

46
 1. The declaration on equality of opportunity and
treatment for women workers.
2. The plan of action on the equality of opportunity
and treatment.
3. The resolution concerning ILO action for women
workers.

The aim of these declarations and resolutions is to

bridge-up the gap of equality between men and
women.

As its contribution, during the Mexico World Conference

on Women, ILO presented its declaration number one
and resolution three above, which the organization
adopted in 1975. The International Labour Organization
made it known during the deliberation at the
conference that discrimination was still going on
against women workers. This it noted does not
encourage economic development, social uplifting, and
the rights of humanity, in the society as a whole. The
ILO further noted that the transitional period for
effective action of equality “should not be regarded as
discrimination”

According to its policies and instruments document

1999, ILO called to an end all forms of discrimination
against women from all sectors of the social and
economic levels of the working force. It expressed the
need for governments to establish national legislation
to protect women, in the light of the conditions that
persisted in their various countries, and consider
offering equal opportunities in the areas of education
and training, employment, treatment and job
47
promotion. Under employment and training, the
International Programme for More and Better jobs for
Women (WOMEMP) was formed. This became ILO’s
platform on which to act upon the Beijing Plan of
Action.

“Under more jobs”

 There was the creation of employment.

 Development of human resource.
 Equality of opportunity.
 Different methods of poverty alleviation applied.

“Better jobs”

 Equal pay for women as for men.

 Protection for the vulnerable workers.

“On the National level”

 Promotion of representation by women at all levels

of decision-making.
 Social supports to enable women to harmonize
work and family responsibilities.

“International level”

 Preparing and disseminating information,

guidelines and best practices.
 Promoting an integrated and comprehensive
approach for more and better jobs (ILO
employment and training, 1999).

48
In 1985, the International Labour Organization made
another resolution on equal opportunities and equal
treatment for men and women in employment. This
was to improve especially the conditions of
employment, work and life of women in the developing
countries, to the extent of outlining a set of measures
for national as well as the ILO to abide by.

The organization started by advocating for equal access

to employment and training for women, making sure
the principle of equal remuneration for equal value of
work is implemented. It touched on improving the
working conditions of women in particular and sought
for adequate maternity protection and benefits. Equal
treatment in social security coverage, and its extension
to all categories of workers.

The International Labour Organization as much as it

could, tried to harmonize the family and job
responsibilities, ensuring the full participation of women
in decision- making processes at all levels and improve
the database to reflect more fully the contribution of
women.

During the research, it was revealed through personal

interviews conducted, that there are even still some
organizations and countries whereby as soon as a
woman proceeds on maternity leave that is the end of
her employment. Is child bearing not a human right? If
so, then why should the woman suffer for this? If there
is equality, which some people claim to be in existence,
49
then the husband or the man responsible for the
pregnancy should also lose his job. Maybe there is the
need for a change of mind for humanity.

In 1987, in its gender equality document to the

member states, ILO made it clear that the fight to
improve the status of women would depend on all
states, governments, employers and union initiatives
and participation.

The resolution, concerning ILO action for women

workers (1991), is an affirmation of its principles. It
requested governments to include more women in
delegations sent to ILO conferences and meetings.
They should also ensure that the legislative instrument
made on equality of opportunity is effective, including
rectification of relevant conventions connected with
women and the policy of free choice of employment.

Employers’ and workers’ organizations and

representatives were asked to remove discrimination in
recruitment, promotion and training. Job evaluation and
standards should be free from sex prejudice. Also all
must abide by the principle of equal remuneration for
work of equal value, and all other payments, such as
overtime and bonus should be on an equal basis.

In its Revised Version on the Maternity Protection

Convention (1952), the International Labour
Organization recommended maternity leave, on
production of a medical certificate, with a minimum
duration of twelve weeks.

50
The woman should be entitled to medical benefits,
which should include pre-natal and post-natal as a right
to all women whether married or unmarried.

In its Article 5, ILO entitles a nursing mother to interrupt

her work at times laid down by the national regulations.
For example, in Ghana a nursing mother starts work at
10 a.m. and finishes at 3 p.m. It further states under no
circumstance, should a woman on maternity leave be
given a dismissal note.

With the passing of the years, these resolutions and

declarations are modified to suit technological growth.
Yet, most women remain disadvantaged, relative to
men in terms of equal opportunities, treatment and job
satisfaction. This is because even with all the effort by
the international bodies, the human mind is still
inclining to the “old system” that the best place for
women is the kitchen, typical of the developing world.
However, there is the hope of some that, in the decade
to come the ‘technological wind blowing’ will help
change the minds of most people.

3.2 An educational view

There can be no discussion about institutional

initiatives on women in the maritime industry without
the mentioning of World Maritime University (WMU). It
will look like a ship without a captain floating all by
herself. For the whole maritime community worldwide is

51
benefiting from the work WMU is doing, serving the
international maritime community.

The World Maritime University was established in 1983

by IMO in Malmö, Sweden, as an international maritime
training institution for the training of senior specialist
maritime personnel. The University offers MSc and
Postgraduate Diploma courses in:

 Maritime Safety and Environmental Protection

 Maritime Administration
 Maritime Education and Training
 Port Management
 Shipping Management

By 2000, almost 140 countries, (from Albania –

Zambia), with 1600 students will have enrolled at WMU.
Following the principle of IMO as a baby, WMU since its
establishment has the number of female students on
the increase as shown in table 3.2.

Table 3.2: WMU enrollment by gender

Female Male Total %

1983 2 70 72 2.9

1984 2 63 65 3.2

52
 1985 4 77 81 5.2

1986 6 79 85 7.6

1987 6 96 102 6.3

1988 4 98 102 4.1

1989 6 98 104 6.1

1990 9 83 92 10.8

1991 9 87 96 10.3

1992 9 88 97 10.2

1993 6 79 85 7.6

1994 7 76 83 9.2

1995 7 81 88 8.6

1996 5 77 82 6.5

1997 13 96 109 13.5

1998 16 98 114 16.3

1999 21 82 103 25.6

53
 2000 28 80 108 35.0

Total 160 1508 1668 10.6

Figure 3.4: Female enrollment growth at WMU

(Source: WMU Academic Registrar 2000)

54
Practicing equal opportunities is WMU policy. In its
Academic Handbook on page five (5) it is stated, “...has
adopted an equal opportunities policy and positively
welcomes applications from women, who are currently
under-represented in the field of...” This is really an
encouraging piece of advertisement with these pictures
as shown below and figure 3.6.

Chapter 4

Women In The Maritime Industry- A Survey

4.1 Background to the survey

It was chosen to undertake a survey of women in the maritime

industry in order to understand the reasons behind the successes or
failure of women who have been more involved in this industry. The
methods chosen as previously stated in chapter 1.3, include a
literature search of related sources, interviews with individual women
in the industry and the development and circulation of questionnaire
to targeted groups. This has led to the founding of the research
thereby creating an avenue for the author to encourage more women
into the maritime industry. The following questions provided
examples of the kinds of response the writer was seeking:

 Who are they (identification)?

 What made them go into the maritime industry?
 What are their experiences?
 What are their views about being a woman in a male dominated
job?

 How can more women be encouraged into the maritime

industry?

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4.2 Who, where, what, why and how?

The literature search, based on the Internet and contact with some
ports in the India revealed the history and backgrounds of the early
women who were pioneers in the maritime industry. This has
provided information on who they are and what they do/did, examples
such as port of entry officer, port assistant manager, port manager and
operational manager. Personal and e-mail contact with some role
models has given the information of where they are and the various
managerial positions held by them. This has resulted in individuals
sharing their experiences, problems and hindrances. Other individuals
have provided responses on the manner in which they have been able
to motivate other women into the industry.

The United Nations (UN) over the past years has been using all its
machinery to integrate women into all levels of society, political,
economical and social. The International Maritime Organization
(IMO) has ever since 1976 been fighting a mighty ‘battle’ to have
women integrated into the managerial/decision-making levels of its
industry, which is known to be male-dominated.

Shipping is almost exclusively a male preserve, such that by 1999

after a decade of ‘war’ to break the bonds of ‘preservation’ IMO had
estimated that only 2% of the workforce of 1.25 million to be women.
It is this figure that spurs all those interested in the advancement of
women in the maritime industry to join hands with the IMO in the
fight to increase it to 30% by the end of the next decade. The key is to
strive for a balance.

The following table indicates the different areas of discipline that women have
enrolled in at WMU since its inception in 1983. This represents about 10% of
total graduates. The reader can also refer to trends in female enrolments from
figure 3.1.

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 Table 3.1 Enrollment of women by discipline at WMU

Courses: Numbers:

General Maritime Administration (GMA) 47

General Maritime Administration & Environment Protection 10

(GMAE)

Maritime Education & Training (MET) 3

Maritime Safety & Environmental Protection (MSEP) 13

Port Management (PM) 44

Shipping Management (SM) 41

Technical Management of Shipping Companies (TMS) 2

Total: 160

(Source: WMU registry 2000)

From the table, it is evident that women are lacking in

the fields of education & training, and the technical
aspects. These areas of course would be appropriate for
women with a management background, one reason
why more emphasis is laid on the fact that more
women are needed at port.

57
This adds further reason to the good effort of WMU to promote
women to the decision making level in the maritime industry. So far,
the number of women going through WMU adds up to 160, coming
from 49 countries.

This study was conducted on employees working at port. The method

of the study is the mixed research approach comprising of the
combination of qualitative and quantitative research techniques. Data
obtained as a result of one-on-one survey.

Following questions were sought in this study:

1. To review difficulties, problems and hindrances encountered by

women in the maritime industry.

2. To draw conclusions and make proposals for the increased

participation of women in the maritime industry.

Data obtained in the survey were analysed using…………. When

evaluating the data, defining statistical methods (Number, percentage,
mean, standard deviation) were used. In comparison of quantitative
data, the independent group………. was used to determine the
difference between the two groups. One way variance analysis
(Anova) was employed to determine whether data show a significant
difference by variables..

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 Chapter- 5
Analysis of the Questionnaires

5.1 Respondents

The research was conducted to include prospective employees to

offer valuable insights from various constituents of the maritime
industry.

There were 2 questionnaires:

59
The first section includes questions seeking to identify demographical
characteristics.

The second section includes statements seeking to identify the gender

discrimination and prejudice against women in the maritime sector.
Five point Likert scale was used in survey (1: Strongly disagree, 2:
Disagree, 3:Neutral, 4:Agree, 5:Strongly agree).

5.2 The Instrument (Questionnaire)

The Survey questionnaire for women (see appendix)

consists of 5-items intended to provide personal
information about the respondents. These include
relevant issues about their experiences, problems
encountered, their views about women being in the
maritime industry and how women could be
encouraged more into the industry.

The respondents for the second questionnaire are men

and women, they were asked to evaluate four-gender
management issues see appendix… using a five-point
likert scale Strongly disagree, 2: Disagree, 3:Neutral, 4:Agree,
5:Strongly agree This was collapsed into three categories:
agreement (A), neutral (N) and disagreement (D).

5.3 Results

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