Dacians

The Dacians (/ˈdeɪʃənz/; Latin: Daci [ˈd̪ aːkiː];

Greek: Δάκοι,[2] Δάοι,[2] Δάκαι[3]) were the ancient
Indo-European inhabitants of the cultural region of
Dacia, located in the area near the Carpathian
Mountains and west of the Black Sea. They are
often considered a subgroup of the Thracians.[4]
This area includes mainly the present-day countries
of Romania and Moldova, as well as parts of
Ukraine,[5] Eastern Serbia, Northern Bulgaria,
Slovakia,[6] Hungary and Southern Poland.[5] The
Dacians spoke the Dacian language, which has a Two of the eight marble statues of Dacian warriors
debated relationships with the neighbouring surmounting the Arch of Constantine in Rome.[1]
Thracian language and may be a subgroup of it.
Dacians were somewhat culturally influenced by the
neighbouring Scythians and by the Celtic invaders of the 4th century BC.

Contents
Name and etymology
Name
Etymology
Mythological theories
Origins and ethnogenesis
Identity and distribution
Linguistic affiliation
Tribes
Physical characteristics
History
Early history
Relations with Thracians
Relations with Celts
Relations with Greeks
Relations with Persians
Relations with Scythians
Relations with Germanic tribes
Dacian kingdoms
Conflict with Rome
Roman rule
After the Aurelian Retreat
Society
Occupations
 Currency
Construction
Material culture
Language
Symbols
Religion
Pottery
Clothing and science
Warfare
Weapons
Notable individuals
Trivia
In Romanian nationalism
See also
Notes
References
Sources
Ancient
Modern
External links

Name and etymology

Name

The Dacians were known as Geta (plural Getae) in Ancient Greek writings, and as Dacus (plural Daci) or
Getae in Roman documents,[8] but also as Dagae and Gaete as depicted on the late Roman map Tabula
Peutingeriana. It was Herodotus who first used the ethnonym Getae in his Histories.[9] In Greek and Latin,
in the writings of Julius Caesar, Strabo, and Pliny the Elder, the people became known as 'the Dacians'.[10]
Getae and Dacians were interchangeable terms, or used with some confusion by the Greeks.[11][12] Latin
poets often used the name Getae.[13] Vergil called them Getae four times, and Daci once, Lucian Getae
three times and Daci twice, Horace named them Getae twice and Daci five times, while Juvenal one time
Getae and two times Daci.[14][15][13] In AD 113, Hadrian used the poetic term Getae for the Dacians.[16]
Modern historians prefer to use the name Geto-Dacians.[10] Strabo describes the Getae and Dacians as
distinct but cognate tribes. This distinction refers to the regions they occupied.[17] Strabo and Pliny the
Elder also state that Getae and Dacians spoke the same language.[17][18]

By contrast, the name of Dacians, whatever the origin of the name, was used by the more western tribes
who adjoined the Pannonians and therefore first became known to the Romans.[19] According to Strabo's
Geographica, the original name of the Dacians was Δάοι "Daoi".[2][20] The name Daoi (one of the ancient
Geto-Dacian tribes) was certainly adopted by foreign observers to designate all the inhabitants of the
countries north of Danube that had not yet been conquered by Greece or Rome.[10][10]
The ethnographic name Daci is found under various forms within ancient sources. Greeks used the forms
Δάκοι "Dakoi" (Strabo, Dio Cassius, and Dioscorides) and Δάοι "Daoi" (singular Daos).[21][2][22][a][23][20]
The form Δάοι "Daoi" was frequently used according to Stephan of Byzantium.[15]

Latins used the forms Davus, Dacus, and a derived form Dacisci (Vopiscus and
inscriptions).[24][25][26][27][15]

There are similarities between the ethnonyms of the Dacians and those of Dahae (Greek Δάσαι Δάοι, Δάαι,
Δαι, Δάσαι Dáoi, Dáai, Dai, Dasai; Latin Dahae, Daci), an Indo-European people located east of the
Caspian Sea, until the 1st millennium BC. Scholars have suggested that there were links between the two
peoples since ancient times.[28][29][30][15] The historian David Gordon White has, moreover, stated that the
"Dacians ... appear to be related to the Dahae".[31] (Likewise White and other scholars also believe that the
names Dacii and Dahae may also have a shared etymology – see the section following for further details.)

By the end of the first century AD, all the inhabitants of the lands which now form Romania were known
to the Romans as Daci, with the exception of some Celtic and Germanic tribes who infiltrated from the
west, and Sarmatian and related people from the east.[12]

Etymology

The name Daci, or "Dacians" is a collective ethnonym.[32] Dio Cassius reported that the Dacians
themselves used that name, and the Romans so called them, while the Greeks called them Getae.[33][34][35]
Opinions on the origins of the name Daci are divided. Some scholars consider it to originate in the Indo-
European *dha-k-, with the stem *dhe- "to put, to place", while others think that the name Daci originates
in *daca – "knife, dagger" or in a word similar to dáos, meaning "wolf" in the related language of the
Phrygians.[36][37]

One hypothesis is that the name Getae originates in the Indo-European *guet- 'to utter, to talk'.[38][36]
Another hypothesis is that "Getae" and "Daci" are Iranian names of two Iranian-speaking Scythian groups
that had been assimilated into the larger Thracian-speaking population of the later "Dacia".[39][40] They
might be related to Masagetae and Dahae people who used to live in central Asia in 6th century BC.

Early history of etymological approaches

In the 1st century AD, Strabo suggested that its stem formed a name previously borne by slaves: Greek
Daos, Latin Davus (-k- is a known suffix in Indo-European ethnic names).[41] In the 18th century, Grimm
proposed the Gothic dags or "day" that would give the meaning of "light, brilliant". Yet dags belongs to the
Sanskrit word-root dah-, and a derivation from Dah to Δάσαι "Daci" is difficult.[15] In the 19th century,
Tomaschek (1883) proposed the form "Dak", meaning those who understand and can speak, by
considering "Dak" as a derivation of the root da ("k" being a suffix); cf. Sanskrit dasa, Bactrian
daonha.[42] Tomaschek also proposed the form "Davus", meaning "members of the clan/countryman" cf.
Bactrian daqyu, danhu "canton".[42]

Modern theories

Since the 19th century, many scholars have proposed an etymological link between the endonym of the
Dacians and wolves.

A possible connection with the Phrygians was proposed by Dimitar Dechev (in a work not
published until 1957). The Phrygian language word daos meant "wolf", and Daos was also
 a Phrygian deity.[43] In later times, Roman auxiliaries recruited from the Dacian area were
also known as Phrygi. Such a connection was supported by material from Hesychius of
Alexandria (5th/6th century),[44][45] as well as by the 20th century historian Mircea Eliade.[43]
The German linguist Paul Kretschmer linked daos to wolves via the root dhau, meaning to
press, to gather, or to strangle – i.e. it was believed that wolves would often use a neck bite
to kill their prey.[31][46]
Endonyms linked to wolves have been demonstrated or proposed for other Indo-European
tribes, including the Luvians, Lycians, Lucanians, Hyrcanians and, in particular, the Dahae
(of the south-east Caspian region),[47][48] who were known in Old Persian as Daos.[43]
Scholars such as David Gordon White have explicitly linked the endonyms of the Dacians
and the Dahae.[31]
The Draco, a standard flown by the Dacians, also prominently featured a wolf head.

However, according to Romanian historian and archaeologist Alexandru Vulpe, the Dacian etymology
explained by daos ("wolf") has little plausibility, as the transformation of daos into dakos is phonetically
improbable and the Draco standard was not unique to Dacians. He thus dismisses it as folk etymology.[49]

Another etymology, linked to the Proto-Indo-European language roots *dhe- meaning "to set, place" and
dheua → dava ("settlement") and dhe-k → daci is supported by Romanian historian Ioan I. Russu
(1967).[50]

Mythological theories

Mircea Eliade attempted, in his book From Zalmoxis to Genghis Khan, to

give a mythological foundation to an alleged special relation between
Dacians and the wolves:[51]

Dacians might have called themselves "wolves" or "ones the

same with wolves",[52][51] suggesting religious significance.[53]
Dacians draw their name from a god or a legendary ancestor
who appeared as a wolf.[53]
Dacians had taken their name from a group of fugitive
immigrants arrived from other regions or from their own young
outlaws, who acted similarly to the wolves circling villages and Dacian Draco as from
living from looting. As was the case in other societies, those Trajan's Column
young members of the community went through an initiation,
perhaps up to a year, during which they lived as a "wolf".[54][53]
Comparatively, Hittite laws referred to fugitive outlaws as "wolves".[55]
The existence of a ritual that provides one with the ability to turn into a wolf.[56] Such a
transformation may be related either to lycanthropy itself, a widespread phenomenon, but
attested especially in the Balkans-Carpathian region,[55] or a ritual imitation of the behavior
and appearance of the wolf.[56] Such a ritual was presumably a military initiation, potentially
reserved to a secret brotherhood of warriors (or Männerbünde).[56] To become formidable
warriors they would assimilate behavior of the wolf, wearing wolf skins during the ritual.[53]
Traces related to wolves as a cult or as totems were found in this area since the Neolithic
period, including the Vinča culture artifacts: wolf statues and fairly rudimentary figurines
representing dancers with a wolf mask.[57][58] The items could indicate warrior initiation rites,
or ceremonies in which young people put on their seasonal wolf masks.[58] The element of
unity of beliefs about werewolves and lycanthropy exists in the magical-religious experience
 of mystical solidarity with the wolf by whatever means used to obtain it. But all have one
original myth, a primary event.[59][60]

Origins and ethnogenesis

Evidence of proto-Thracians or proto-Dacians in the prehistoric period depends on the remains of material
culture. It is generally proposed that a proto-Dacian or proto-Thracian people developed from a mixture of
indigenous peoples and Indo-Europeans from the time of Proto-Indo-European expansion in the Early
Bronze Age (3,300–3,000 BC)[61] when the latter, around 1500 BC, conquered the indigenous peoples.[62]
The indigenous people were Danubian farmers, and the invading people of the BC 3rd millennium were
Kurgan warrior-herders from the Ukrainian and Russian steppes.[63]

Indo-Europeanization was complete by the beginning of the Bronze Age. The people of that time are best
described as proto-Thracians, which later developed in the Iron Age into Danubian-Carpathian Geto-
Dacians as well as Thracians of the eastern Balkan Peninsula.[64]

Between 15th–12th century BC, the Dacian-Getae culture was influenced by the Bronze Age Tumulus-
Urnfield warriors who were on their way through the Balkans to Anatolia.[65]

In the 8th to 7th centuries BCE, the migration of the Scythians from the east into the Pontic Steppe pushed
westwards and away from the steppes the related Scythic Agathyrsi people who had previously dwelt on
the Pontic Steppe around the Lake Maeotis,[66] following which the Agathyrsi settled in the territories of
present-day Moldova, Transylvania, and possibly Oltenia where they mingled with the indigenous
population which was of Thracian origins,[67][66] and having later became completely assimilated by the
Geto-Thracian populations;[67] the fortified settlements of the Agathyrsi became the centres of the Getic
groups who would later transform into the Dacian culture, and an important part of the Dacian people was
descended from the Agathyrsi.[67] When the La Tène Celts arrived in 4th century BC, the Dacians were
under the influence of the Scythians.[65]

Alexander the Great attacked the Getae in 335 BC on the lower Danube, but by 300 BC they had formed a
state founded on a military democracy, and began a period of conquest.[65] More Celts arrived during the
3rd century BC, and in 1st century BC the people of Boii tried to conquer some of the Dacian territory on
the eastern side of the Teiss river. The Dacians drove the Boii south across the Danube and out of their
territory, at which point the Boii abandoned any further plans for invasion.[65]

Identity and distribution

North of the Danube, Dacians occupied a larger territory than Ptolemaic Dacia, stretching between
Bohemia in the west and the Dnieper cataracts in the east, and up to the Pripyat, Vistula, and Oder rivers in
the north and northwest.[68] In BC 53, Julius Caesar stated that the Dacian territory was on the eastern
border of the Hercynian forest.[65] According to Strabo's Geographica, written around AD 20,[69] the
Getes (Geto-Dacians) bordered the Suevi who lived in the Hercynian Forest, which is somewhere in the
vicinity of the river Duria, the present-day Váh (Waag).[70] Dacians lived on both sides of the Danube.[71]
[72] According to Strabo, Moesians also lived on both sides of the Danube.[35] According to Agrippa,[73]

Dacia was limited by the Baltic Ocean in the North and by the Vistula in the West.[74] The names of the
people and settlements confirm Dacia's borders as described by Agrippa.[73][75] Dacian people also lived
south of the Danube.[73]

Linguistic affiliation
The Dacians and Getae were always considered as Thracians by the ancients (Dio Cassius, Trogus
Pompeius, Appian, Strabo and Pliny the Elder), and were both said to speak the same Thracian
language.[76][77] The linguistic affiliation of Dacian is uncertain, since the ancient Indo-European language
in question became extinct (?) and left very limited traces (?), usually in the form of place names, plant
names and personal names. Thraco-Dacian (or Thracian and Daco-Mysian) seems to belong to the eastern
(satem) group of Indo-European languages.[78] There are two contradictory theories: some scholars (such
as Tomaschek 1883; Russu 1967; Solta 1980; Crossland 1982; Vraciu 1980) consider Dacian to be a
Thracian language or a dialect thereof. This view is supported by R. G. Solta, who says that Thracian and
Dacian are very closely related languages.[79][80] Other scholars (such as Georgiev 1965, Duridanov 1976)
consider that Thracian and Dacian are two different and specific Indo-European languages which cannot be
reduced to a common language (?).[81] Linguists such as Polomé and Katičić expressed reservations about
both theories.[82]

The Dacians are generally considered to have been Thracian speakers, representing a cultural continuity
from earlier Iron Age communities loosely termed Getic.[83] Since in one interpretation, Dacian is a variety
of Thracian, for the reasons of convenience, the generic term ‘Daco-Thracian" is used, with "Dacian"
reserved for the language or dialect that was spoken north of Danube, in present-day Romania and eastern
Hungary, and "Thracian" for the variety spoken south of the Danube.[84] There is no doubt that the
Thracian language was related to the Dacian language which was spoken in what is today Romania, before
some of that area was occupied by the Romans.[85] Also, both Thracian and Dacian have one of the main
satem characteristic changes of Indo-European language, *k and *g to *s and *z.[86] With regard to the
term "Getic" (Getae), even though attempts have been made to distinguish between Dacian and Getic, there
seems no compelling reason to disregard the view of the Greek geographer Strabo that the Daci and the
Getae, Thracian tribes dwelling north of the Danube (the Daci in the west of the area and the Getae further
east), were one and the same people and spoke the same language.[84]

Another variety that has sometimes been recognized is that of Moesian (or Mysian) for the language of an
intermediate area immediately to the south of Danube in Serbia, Bulgaria and Romanian Dobruja: this and
the dialects north of the Danube have been grouped together as Daco-Moesian.[84] The language of the
indigenous population has left hardly any trace in the anthroponymy of Moesia, but the toponymy indicates
that the Moesii on the south bank of the Danube, north of the Haemus Mountains, and the Triballi in the
valley of the Morava, shared a number of characteristic linguistic features with the Dacii south of the
Carpathians and the Getae in the Wallachian plain, which sets them apart from the Thracians though their
languages are undoubtedly related.[87]

Dacian culture is mostly followed through Roman sources. Ample evidence suggests that they were a
regional power in and around the city of Sarmizegetusa. Sarmizegetusa was their political and spiritual
capital. The ruined city lies high in the mountains of central Romania.[88]

Vladimir Georgiev disputes that Dacian and Thracian were closely related for various reasons, most
notably that Dacian and Moesian town names commonly end with the suffix -DAVA, while towns in
Thrace proper (i.e. South of the Balkan mountains) generally end in -PARA (see Dacian language).
According to Georgiev, the language spoken by the ethnic Dacians should be classified as "Daco-Moesian"
and regarded as distinct from Thracian. Georgiev also claimed that names from approximately Roman
Dacia and Moesia show different and generally less extensive changes in Indo-European consonants and
vowels than those found in Thrace itself. However, the evidence seems to indicate divergence of a Thraco-
Dacian language into northern and southern groups of dialects, not so different as to qualify as separate
languages.[89] Polomé considers that such lexical differentiation ( -dava vs. para) would, however, be
hardly enough evidence to separate Daco-Moesian from Thracian.[82]

Tribes
An extensive account of the native tribes in Dacia can be found in
the ninth tabula of Europe of Ptolemy's Geography.[90] The
Geography was probably written in the period AD 140–150, but
the sources were often earlier; for example, Roman Britain is
shown before the building of Hadrian's Wall in the AD 120s.[91]
Ptolemy's Geography also contains a physical map probably
designed before the Roman conquest, and containing no detailed
nomenclature.[92] There are references to the Tabula
Peutingeriana, but it appears that the Dacian map of the Tabula
was completed after the final triumph of Roman nationality.[93]
Ptolemy's list includes no fewer than twelve tribes with Geto-
Dacian names.[94][95] Roman era Balkans

The fifteen tribes of Dacia as named by Ptolemy, starting from the

northernmost ones, are as follows. First, the Anartes, the Teurisci and the Coertoboci/Costoboci. To the
south of them are the Buredeense (Buri/Burs), the Cotenses/Cotini and then the Albocenses, the
Potulatenses and the Sense, while the southernmost were the Saldenses, the Ciaginsi and the Piephigi. To
the south of them were Predasenses/Predavenses, the Rhadacenses/Rhatacenses, the Caucoenses (Cauci)
and Biephi.[90] Twelve out of these fifteen tribes listed by Ptolemy are ethnic Dacians,[95] and three are
Celts: Anarti, Teurisci, and Cotenses.[95] There are also previous brief mentions of other Getae or Dacian
tribes on the left and right banks of the Danube, or even in Transylvania, to be added to the list of Ptolemy.
Among these other tribes are the Trixae, Crobidae and Appuli.[90]

Some peoples inhabiting the region generally described in Roman times as "Dacia" were not ethnic
Dacians.[96] The true Dacians were a people of Thracian descent. German elements (Daco-Germans),
Celtic elements (Daco-Celtic) and Iranian elements (Daco-Sarmatian) occupied territories in the north-west
and north-east of Dacia.[97][98][96] This region covered roughly the same area as modern Romania plus
Bessarabia (Republic of Moldova) and eastern Galicia (south-west Ukraine), although Ptolemy places
Moldavia and Bessarabia in Sarmatia Europaea, rather than Dacia.[99] After the Dacian Wars (AD 101-6),
the Romans occupied only about half of the wider Dacian region. The Roman province of Dacia covered
just western Wallachia as far as the Limes Transalutanus (East of the river Alutus, or Olt) and Transylvania,
as bordered by the Carpathians.[100]

The impact of the Roman conquest on these people is uncertain. One hypothesis was that they were
effectively eliminated. An important clue to the character of Dacian casualties is offered by the ancient
sources Eutropius and Crito. Both speak about men when they describe the losses suffered by the Dacians
in the wars. This suggests that both refer to losses due to fighting, not due to a process of extermination of
the whole population.[101] A strong component of the Dacian army, including the Celtic Bastarnae and the
Germans, had withdrawn rather than submit to Trajan.[102] Some scenes on Trajan's Column represent acts
of obedience of the Dacian population, and others show the refugee Dacians returning to their own
places.[103] Dacians trying to buy amnesty are depicted on Trajan's Column (one offers to Trajan a tray of
three gold ingots).[104] Alternatively, a substantial number may have survived in the province, although
were probably outnumbered by the Romanised immigrants.[105] Cultural life in Dacia became very mixed
and decidedly cosmopolitan because of the colonial communities. The Dacians retained their names and
their own ways in the midst of the newcomers, and the region continued to exhibit Dacian
characteristics.[106] The Dacians who survived the war are attested as revolting against the Roman
domination in Dacia at least twice, in the period of time right after the Dacian Wars, and in a more
determined manner in 117 AD.[107] In 158 AD, they revolted again, and were put down by M. Statius
Priscus.[108] Some Dacians were apparently expelled from the occupied zone at the end of each of the two
Dacian Wars or otherwise emigrated. It is uncertain where these refugees settled. Some of these people
might have mingled with the existing ethnic Dacian tribes beyond the Carpathians (the Costoboci and
Carpi).
After Trajan's conquest of Dacia, there was recurring trouble involving Dacian groups excluded from the
Roman province, as finally defined by Hadrian. By the early third century the "Free Dacians", as they were
earlier known, were a significantly troublesome group, then identified as the Carpi, requiring imperial
intervention on more than one occasion.[109] In 214 Caracalla dealt with their attacks. Later, Philip the
Arab came in person to deal with them; he assumed the triumphal title Carpicus Maximus and inaugurated
a new era for the province of Dacia (July 20, 246). Later both Decius and Gallienus assumed the titles
Dacicus Maximus. In 272, Aurelian assumed the same title as Philip.[109]

In about 140 AD, Ptolemy lists the names of several tribes residing on the fringes of the Roman Dacia
(west, east and north of the Carpathian range), and the ethnic picture seems to be a mixed one. North of the
Carpathians are recorded the Anarti, Teurisci and Costoboci.[110] The Anarti (or Anartes) and the Teurisci
were originally probably Celtic peoples or mixed Dacian-Celtic.[98] The Anarti, together with the Celtic
Cotini, are described by Tacitus as vassals of the powerful Quadi Germanic people.[111] The Teurisci were
probably a group of Celtic Taurisci from the eastern Alps. However, archaeology has revealed that the
Celtic tribes had originally spread from west to east as far as Transylvania, before being absorbed by the
Dacians in the 1st century BC.[112][113]

Costoboci

The main view is that the Costoboci were ethnically Dacian.[114] Others considered them a Slavic or
Sarmatian tribe.[115][116] There was also a Celtic influence, so that some consider them a mixed Celtic and
Thracian group that appear, after Trajan's conquest, as a Dacian group within the Celtic superstratum.[117]
The Costoboci inhabited the southern slopes of the Carpathians.[118] Ptolemy named the Coestoboci
(Costoboci in Roman sources) twice, showing them divided by the Dniester and the Peucinian (Carpathian)
Mountains. This suggests that they lived on both sides of the Carpathians, but it is also possible that two
accounts about the same people were combined.[118] There was also a group, the Transmontani, that some
modern scholars identify as Dacian Transmontani Costoboci of the extreme north.[119][120] The name
Transmontani was from the Dacians' Latin,[121] literally "people over the mountains". Mullenhoff identified
these with the Transiugitani, another Dacian tribe north of the Carpathian mountains.[122]

Based on the account of Dio Cassius, Heather (2010) considers that Hasding Vandals, around 171 AD,
attempted to take control of lands which previously belonged to the free Dacian group called the
Costoboci.[123] Hrushevskyi (1997) mentions that the earlier widespread view that these Carpathian tribes
were Slavic has no basis. This would be contradicted by the Coestobocan names themselves that are
known from the inscriptions, written by a Coestobocan and therefore presumably accurately. These names
sound quite unlike anything Slavic.[115] Scholars such as Tomaschek (1883), Shutte (1917) and Russu
(1969) consider these Costobocian names to be Thraco-Dacian.[124][125][126] This inscription also indicates
the Dacian background of the wife of the Costobocian king "Ziais Tiati filia Daca".[127] This indication of
the socio-familial line of descent seen also in other inscriptions (i.e. Diurpaneus qui Euprepes Sterissae
f(ilius) Dacus) is a custom attested since the historical period (beginning in the 5th century BC) when
Thracians were under Greek influence.[128] It may not have originated with the Thracians, as it could be
just a fashion borrowed from Greeks for specifying ancestry and for distinguishing homonymous
individuals within the tribe.[129] Shutte (1917), Parvan, and Florescu (1982) pointed also to the Dacian
characteristic place names ending in '–dava' given by Ptolemy in the Costoboci's country.[130][131]

Carpi

The Carpi were a sizeable group of tribes, who lived beyond the north-eastern boundary of Roman Dacia.
The majority view among modern scholars is that the Carpi were a North Thracian tribe and a subgroup of
the Dacians.[132] However, some historians classify them as Slavs.[133] According to Heather (2010), the
Carpi were Dacians from the eastern foothills of the Carpathian range – modern Moldavia and Wallachia –
who had not been brought under direct Roman rule at the time of Trajan's conquest of Transylvania Dacia.
After they generated a new degree of political unity among themselves in the course of the third century,
these Dacian groups came to be known collectively as the Carpi.[134]

The ancient sources about the Carpi, before 104 AD, located them on a
territory situated between the western side of Eastern European Galicia
and the mouth of the Danube.[135] The name of the tribe is homonymous
with the Carpathian mountains.[119] Carpi and Carpathian are Dacian
words derived from the root (s)ker- "cut" cf. Albanian karp "stone" and
Sanskrit kar- "cut".[136][137] A quote from the 6th-century Byzantine
chronicler Zosimus referring to the Carpo-Dacians (Greek: Καρποδάκαι,
Latin: Carpo-Dacae), who attacked the Romans in the late 4th century, is
seen as evidence of their Dacian ethnicity. In fact, Carpi/Carpodaces is the
term used for Dacians outside of Dacia proper.[138] However, that the
Carpi were Dacians is shown not so much by the form Καρποδάκαι in
Zosimus as by their characteristic place-names in –dava, given by Ptolemy
in their country.[139] The origin and ethnic affiliations of the Carpi have
been debated over the years; in modern times they are closely associated
with the Carpathian Mountains, and a good case has been made for
attributing to the Carpi a distinct material culture, "a developed form of the
Geto-Dacian La Tene culture", often known as the Poienesti culture,
which is characteristic of this area.[140]

Physical characteristics Dacian cast in Pushkin

Museum, after original in
Dacians are represented in the statues surmounting the Arch of Lateran Museum. Early
Constantine and on Trajan's Column.[1] The artist of the Column took second century AD.
some care to depict, in his opinion, a variety of Dacian people—from high-
ranking men, women, and children to the near-savage. Although the artist
looked to models in Hellenistic art for some body types and compositions,
he does not represent the Dacians as generic barbarians.[141]

Classical authors applied a generalized stereotype when describing the

"barbarians"—Celts, Scythians, Thracians—inhabiting the regions to the
north of the Greek world.[142] In accordance with this stereotype, all these
peoples are described, in sharp contrast to the "civilized" Greeks, as being
much taller, their skin lighter and with straight light-coloured hair and blue
eyes.[142] For instance, Aristotle wrote that "the Scythians on the Black
Sea and the Thracians are straight-haired, for both they themselves and the
environing air are moist";[143] according to Clement of Alexandria,
Xenophanes described the Thracians as "ruddy and tawny".[142][144] On
Trajan's column, Dacian soldiers' hair is depicted longer than the hair of Roman monument
Roman soldiers and they had trimmed beards.[145] commemorating the Battle
of Adamclisi clearly shows
Body-painting was customary among the Dacians. It is probable that the two giant Dacian warriors
tattooing originally had a religious significance.[146] They practiced wielding a two-handed falx
symbolic-ritual tattooing or body painting for both men and women, with
hereditary symbols transmitted up to the fourth generation.[147]
History

Early history

In the absence of historical records written by the Dacians (and

Thracians) themselves, analysis of their origins depends largely on
the remains of material culture. On the whole, the Bronze Age
witnessed the evolution of the ethnic groups which emerged
during the Eneolithic period, and eventually the syncretism of both
autochthonous and Indo-European elements from the steppes and
the Pontic regions.[148] Various groups of Thracians had not
separated out by 1200 BC,[148] but there are strong similarities Getae on the World Map according to
between the ceramic types found at Troy and the ceramic types Herodotus
from the Carpathian area.[148] About the year 1000 BC, the
Carpatho-Danubian countries were inhabited by a northern branch
of the Thracians.[149] At the time of the arrival of the Scythians (c. 700 BC), the Carpatho-Danubian
Thracians were developing rapidly towards the Iron Age civilization of the West. Moreover, the whole of
the fourth period of the Carpathian Bronze Age had already been profoundly influenced by the first Iron
Age as it developed in Italy and the Alpine lands. The Scythians, arriving with their own type of Iron Age
civilization, put a stop to these relations with the West.[150] From roughly 500 BC (the second Iron Age),
the Dacians developed a distinct civilization, which was capable of supporting large centralised kingdoms
by 1st BC and 1st AD.[151]

Since the very first detailed account by Herodotus, Getae are acknowledged as belonging to the
Thracians.[9] Still, they are distinguished from the other Thracians by particularities of religion and
custom.[142] The first written mention of the name "Dacians" is in Roman sources, but classical authors are
unanimous in considering them a branch of the Getae, a Thracian people known from Greek writings.
Strabo specified that the Daci are the Getae who lived in the area towards the Pannonian plain
(Transylvania), while the Getae proper gravitated towards the Black Sea coast (Scythia Minor).

Relations with Thracians

Since the writings of Herodotus in the 5th century BC,[9] Getae/Dacians are acknowledged as belonging to
the Thracian sphere of influence. Despite this, they are distinguished from other Thracians by particularities
of religion and custom.[142] Geto-Dacians and Thracians were kin people but they were not the same.[152]
The differences from the southern Thracians or from the neighbouring Scythians were probably faint, as
several ancient authors make confusions of identification with both groups.[142]

In the 19th century, Tomaschek considered a close affinity between the Besso-Thracians and Getae-
Dacians, an original kinship of both people with Iranian peoples.[153] They are Aryan tribes, several
centuries before Scolotes of the Pont and Sauromatae left the Aryan homeland and settled in the Carpathian
chain, in the Haemus (Balkan) and Rhodope mountains.[153] The Besso-Thracians and Getae-Dacians
separated very early from Aryans, since their language still maintains roots that are missing from Iranian
and it shows non-Iranian phonetic characteristics (i.e. replacing the Iranian "l" with "r").[153]

Relations with Celts

Geto-Dacians inhabited both sides of the Tisa River before the rise
of the Celtic Boii, and again after the latter were defeated by the
Dacians under king Burebista.[154] During the second half of the
4th century BC, Celtic cultural influence appears in the
archaeological records of the middle Danube, Alpine region, and
north-western Balkans, where it was part of the Middle La Tène
material culture. This material appears in north-western and central
Dacia, and is reflected especially in burials.[151] The Dacians
absorbed the Celtic influence from the northwest in the early third
century BC.[155] Archaeological investigation of this period has Diachronic distribution of Celtic
peoples:
highlighted several Celtic warrior graves with military equipment.
core Hallstatt territory, by the 6th
It suggests the forceful penetration of a military Celtic elite within
the region of Dacia, now known as Transylvania, that is bounded century BC
[151] maximal Celtic expansion, by
on the east by the Carpathian range. The archaeological sites
275 BC
of the third and second centuries BC in Transylvania revealed a
pattern of co-existence and fusion between the bearers of La Tène
culture and indigenous Dacians. These were domestic dwellings
with a mixture of Celtic and Dacian pottery, and several graves in the Celtic style containing vessels of
Dacian type.[151] There are some seventy Celtic sites in Transylvania, mostly cemeteries, but most if not all
of them indicate that the native population imitated Celtic art forms that took their fancy, but remained
obstinately and fundamentally Dacian in their culture.[155]

The Celtic Helmet from Satu Mare, Romania (northern Dacia), an

Iron Age raven totem helmet, dated around the 4th century BC. A
similar helmet is depicted on the Thraco-Celtic Gundestrup
cauldron, being worn by one of the mounted warriors (detail
tagged here (https://www.flickr.com/photos/28433765@N07/3219
662507/)). See also an illustration of Brennos wearing a similar
helmet (https://www.flickr.com/photos/celtico/3751742958/).
Around 150 BC, La Tène material disappears from the area. This
coincides with the ancient writings which mention the rise of
Replica of the raven-totem helmet
Dacian authority. It ended the Celtic domination, and it is possible
from Satu Mare County
that Celts were driven out of Dacia. Alternatively, some scholars
have proposed that the Transylvanian Celts remained, but merged
into the local culture and thus ceased to be distinctive.[151][155]

Archaeological discoveries in the settlements and fortifications of the Dacians in the period of their
kingdoms (1st century BC and 1st century AD) included imported Celtic vessels and others made by
Dacian potters imitating Celtic prototypes, showing that relations between the Dacians and the Celts from
the regions north and west of Dacia continued.[156] In present-day Slovakia, archaeology has revealed
evidence for mixed Celtic-Dacian populations in the Nitra and Hron river basins.[157]

After the Dacians subdued the Celtic tribes, the remaining Cotini stayed in the mountains of Central
Slovakia, where they took up mining and metalworking. Together with the original domestic population,
they created the Puchov culture that spread into central and northern Slovakia, including Spis, and
penetrated northeastern Moravia and southern Poland. Along the Bodrog River in Zemplin they created
Celtic-Dacian settlements which were known for the production of painted ceramics.[157]

Relations with Greeks

Greek and Roman chroniclers record the defeat and capture of the Macedonian general Lysimachus in the
3rd century BC by the Getae (Dacians) ruled by Dromihete, their military strategy, and the release of
Lysimachus following a debate in the assembly of the Getae.

Relations with Persians

Herodotus says: "before Darius reached the Danube, the first people he subdued were the Getae, who
believed that they never die".[9] It is possible that the Persian expedition and the subsequent occupation
may have altered the way in which the Getae expressed the immortality belief. The influence of thirty years
of Achaemenid presence may be detected in the emergence of an explicit iconography of the "Royal Hunt"
that influenced Dacian and Thracian metalworkers, and of the practice of hawking by their upper class.[158]

Relations with Scythians

Agathyrsi Transylvania

The Scythians' arrival in the Carpathian mountains is dated to 700 BC.[159] The Agathyrsi of Transylvania
had been mentioned by Herodotus (fifth century BC),[160] who regarded them as not a Scythian people,
but closely related to them. In other respects, their customs were close to those of the Thracians.[161] The
Agathyrsi were completely denationalized at the time of Herodotus and absorbed by the native
Thracians.[162][163]

The opinion that the Agathyrsi were almost certainly Thracians results also from the writings preserved by
Stephen of Byzantium, who explains that the Greeks called the Trausi the Agathyrsi, and we know that the
Trausi lived in the Rhodope Mountains. Certain details from their way of life, such as tattooing, also
suggest that the Agathyrsi were Thracians. Their place was later taken by the Dacians.[164] That the
Dacians were of Thracian stock is not in doubt, and it is safe to assume that this new name also
encompassed the Agathyrsi, and perhaps other neighbouring Thracian people as well, as a result of some
political upheaval.[164]

Relations with Germanic tribes

The Goths, a confederation of east German peoples, arrived in the

southern Ukraine no later than 230.[165] During the next decade, a
large section of them moved down the Black Sea coast and
occupied much of the territory north of the lower Danube.[165]
The Goths' advance towards the area north of the Black Sea
involved competing with the indigenous population of Dacian-
speaking Carpi, as well as indigenous Iranian-speaking Sarmatians
and Roman garrison forces.[166] The Carpi, often called "Free
Dacians", continued to dominate the anti-Roman coalition made
up of themselves, Taifali, Astringi, Vandals, Peucini, and Goths
until 248, when the Goths assumed the hegemony of the loose
coalition.[167] The first lands taken over by the Thervingi Goths
were in Moldavia, and only during the fourth century did they Map showing the Dacian-speaking
move in strength down into the Danubian plain.[168] The Carpi Carpi place in invading Roman Dacia
in AD 250-1, under the Gothic leader
found themselves squeezed between the advancing Goths and the
Kniva
Roman province of Dacia.[165] In 275 AD, Aurelian surrendered
the Dacian territory to the Carpi and the Goths.[169] Over time,
Gothic power in the region grew, at the Carpi's expense. The Germanic-speaking Goths replaced native
Dacian-speakers as the dominant force around the Carpathian mountains.[170] Large numbers of Carpi, but
not all of them, were admitted into the Roman empire in the twenty-five years or so after 290 AD.[171]
Despite this evacuation of the Carpi around 300 AD, considerable groups of the natives (non-Romanized
Dacians, Sarmatians and others) remained in place under Gothic domination.[172]

In 330 the Gothic Thervingi contemplated moving to the Middle Danube region, and from 370 relocated
with their fellow Gothic Greuthungi to new homes in the Roman Empire.[171] The Ostrogoths were still
more isolated, but even the Visigoths preferred to live among their own kind. As a result, the Goths settled
in pockets. Finally, although Roman towns continued on a reduced level, there is no question as to their
survival.[168]

In 336 AD, Constantine took the title Dacicus Maximus 'great victor in Dacia', implying at least partial
reconquest of Trajan Dacia.[173] In an inscription of 337, Constantine was commemorated officially as
Germanicus Maximus, Sarmaticus, Gothicus Maximus, and Dacicus Maximus, meaning he had defeated
the Germans, Sarmatians, Goths, and Dacians.[174]

Dacian kingdoms

Dacian polities arose as confederacies that included the Getae, the

Daci, the Buri, and the Carpi (cf. Bichir 1976, Shchukin
1989),[154] united only periodically by the leadership of Dacian
kings such as Burebista and Decebal. This union was both
military-political and ideological-religious[154] on ethnic basis. The
following are some of the attested Dacian kingdoms:

The kingdom of Cothelas, one of the Getae, covered an area near

the Black Sea, between northern Thrace and the Danube, today
Bulgaria, in the 4th century BC.[175] The kingdom of Rubobostes Dacian kingdom during the reign of
controlled a region in Transylvania in the 2nd century BC.[176] Burebista, 82 BC
Gaius Scribonius Curio (proconsul 75–73 BC) campaigned
successfully against the Dardani and the Moesi, becoming the first
Roman general to reach the river Danube with his army.[177] His successor, Marcus Licinius Lucullus,
brother of the famous Lucius Lucullus, campaigned against the Thracian Bessi tribe and the Moesi,
ravaging the whole of Moesia, the region between the Haemus (Balkan) mountain range and the Danube.
In 72 BC, his troops occupied the Greek coastal cities of Scythia Minor (the modern Dobrogea region in
Romania and Bulgaria), which had sided with Rome's Hellenistic arch-enemy, king Mithridates VI of
Pontus, in the Third Mithridatic War.[178] Greek geographer Strabo claimed that the Dacians and Getae had
been able to muster a combined army of 200,000 men during Strabo's era, the time of Roman emperor
Augustus.[179]

The kingdom of Burebista

The Dacian kingdom reached its maximum extent under king Burebista (ruled 82 – 44 BC). The capital of
the kingdom was possibly the city of Argedava, also called Sargedava in some historical writings, situated
close to the river Danube. The kingdom of Burebista extended south of the Danube, in what is today
Bulgaria, and the Greeks believed their king was the greatest of all Thracians.[180] During his reign,
Burebista transferred the Geto-Dacians' capital from Argedava to Sarmizegetusa.[181][182] For at least one
and a half centuries, Sarmizegethusa was the Dacian capital, reaching its peak under king Decebalus.
Burebista annexed the Greek cities on the Pontus.(55–48 BC).[183] Augustus wanted to avenge the defeat
of Gaius Antonius Hybrida at Histria (Sinoe) 32 years before, and to recover the lost standards. These were
held in a powerful fortress called Genucla (Isaccea, near modern Tulcea, in the Danube delta region of
Romania), controlled by Zyraxes, the local Getan petty king.[184] The man selected for the task was
Marcus Licinius Crassus, grandson of Crassus the triumvir, and an experienced general at 33 years of age,
who was appointed proconsul of Macedonia in 29 BC.[185]

The kingdom of Decebalus 87 – 106

By the year AD 100, more than 400,000 square kilometres were dominated by the Dacians, who numbered
two million.[b] Decebalus was the last king of the Dacians, and despite his fierce resistance against the
Romans was defeated, and committed suicide rather than being marched through Rome in a triumph as a
captured enemy leader.

Conflict with Rome

Burebista's Dacian state was powerful enough to threaten Rome, and Caesar contemplated campaigning
against the Dacians.[186] Despite this, the formidable Dacian power under Burebista lasted only until his
death in 44 BC. The subsequent division of Dacia continued for about a century until the reign of Scorilo.
This was a period of only occasional attacks on the Roman Empire's border, with some local
significance.[187]

The unifying actions of the last Dacian king Decebalus (ruled 87–106 AD) were seen as dangerous by
Rome. Despite the fact that the Dacian army could now gather only some 40,000 soldiers,[187] Decebalus'
raids south of the Danube proved unstoppable and costly. In the Romans' eyes, the situation at the border
with Dacia was out of control, and Emperor Domitian (ruled 81 to 96 AD) tried desperately to deal with
the danger through military action. But the outcome of Rome's disastrous campaigns into Dacia in AD 86
and AD 88 pushed Domitian to settle the situation through diplomacy.[187]

Emperor Trajan (ruled 97–117 AD) opted for a different approach and decided to conquer the Dacian
kingdom, partly in order to seize its vast gold mines wealth. The effort required two major wars (the Dacian
Wars), one in 101–102 AD and the other in 105–106 AD. Only fragmentary details survive of the Dacian
war: a single sentence of Trajan's own Dacica; little more of the Getica written by his doctor, T. Statilius
Crito; nothing whatsoever of the poem proposed by Caninius Rufus (if it was ever written), Dio
Chrysostom's Getica or Appian's Dacica. Nonetheless, a reasonable account can be pieced together.[188]

In the first war, Trajan invaded Dacia by crossing the river Danube with a boat-bridge and inflicted a
crushing defeat on the Dacians at the Second Battle of Tapae in 101 AD. The Dacian king Decebalus was
forced to sue for peace. Trajan and Decebalus then concluded a peace treaty which was highly favourable
to the Romans. The peace agreement required the Dacians to cede some territory to the Romans and to
demolish their fortifications. Decebalus' foreign policy was also restricted, as he was prohibited from
entering into alliances with other tribes.

However, both Trajan and Decebalus considered this only a temporary truce and readied themselves for
renewed war. Trajan had Greek engineer Apollodorus of Damascus construct a stone bridge over the
Danube river, while Decebalus secretly plotted alliances against the Romans. In 105, Trajan crossed the
Danube river and besieged Decebalus' capital, Sarmizegetusa, but the siege failed because of Decebalus'
allied tribes. However, Trajan was an optimist. He returned with a newly constituted army and took
Sarmizegetusa by treachery. Decebalus fled into the mountains, but was cornered by pursuing Roman
cavalry. Decebalus committed suicide rather than being captured by the Romans and be paraded as a slave,
then be killed. The Roman captain took his head and right hand to Trajan, who had them displayed in the
Forums. Trajan's Column in Rome was constructed to celebrate the conquest of Dacia.
 The Roman people hailed Trajan's triumph in Dacia with the
longest and most expensive celebration in their history, financed by
a part of the gold taken from the Dacians.[189] For his triumph,
Trajan gave a 123-day festival (ludi) of celebration, in which
approximately 11,000 animals were slaughtered and 11,000
gladiators fought in combats. This surpassed Emperor Titus's
celebration in AD 70, when a 100-day festival included 3,000
gladiators and 5,000 to 9,000 wild animals.[190][191]
Death of Decebalus (Trajan's
Column, Scene CXLV)
Roman rule

Only about half part of Dacia then became a Roman province,[192] with a newly built capital at Ulpia
Traiana Sarmizegetusa, 40 km away from the site of Old Sarmisegetuza Regia, which was razed to the
ground. The name of the Dacians' homeland, Dacia, became the name of a Roman province, and the name
Dacians was used to designate the people in the region.[193] Roman Dacia, also Dacia Traiana or Dacia
Felix, was a province of the Roman Empire from 106 to 271 or 275 AD.[194][195][196] Its territory
consisted of eastern and southeastern Transylvania, and the regions of Banat and Oltenia (located in
modern Romania).[194] Dacia was organised from the beginning as an imperial province, and remained so
throughout the Roman occupation.[197] It was one of the empire's Latin provinces; official epigraphs attest
that the language of administration was Latin.[198] Historian estimates of the population of Roman Dacia
range from 650,000 to 1,200,000.[199]

Dacians that remained outside the Roman Empire after the Dacian
wars of AD 101–106 had been named Dakoi prosoroi (Latin Daci
limitanei), "neighbouring Dacians".[21] Modern historians use the
generic name "Free Dacians" or Independent
Dacians.[200][201][124] The tribes Daci Magni (Great Dacians),
Costoboci (generally considered a Dacian subtribe), and Carpi
remained outside the Roman empire, in what the Romans called
Dacia Libera (Free Dacia).[193] By the early third century the
"Free Dacians" were a significantly troublesome group, by now
identified as the Carpi.[200] Bichir argues that the Carpi were the
most powerful of the Dacian tribes who had become the principal Roman Dacia, Moesia Inferior,
enemy of the Romans in the region.[202] In 214 AD, Caracalla Moesia Superior and other Roman
campaigned against the Free Dacians.[203] There were also provinces
campaigns against the Dacians recorded in 236 AD.[204]

Roman Dacia was evacuated by the Romans under emperor Aurelian (ruled 271–5 AD). Aurelian made
this decision on account of counter-pressures on the Empire there caused by the Carpi, Visigoths,
Sarmatians, and Vandals; the lines of defence needed to be shortened, and Dacia was deemed not
defensible given the demands on available resources. Roman power in Thracia rested mainly with the
legions stationed in Moesia. The rural nature of Thracia's populations, and the distance from Roman
authority, encouraged the presence of local troops to support Moesia's legions. Over the next few centuries,
the province was periodically and increasingly attacked by migrating Germanic tribes. The reign of
Justinian saw the construction of over 100 legionary fortresses to supplement the defence. Thracians in
Moesia and Dacia were Romanized, while those within the Byzantine empire were their Hellenized
descendants that had mingled with the Greeks.

After the Aurelian Retreat

Roman Dacia was never a uniformly or fully Romanized area. Post-
Aurelianic Dacia fell into three divisions: the area along the river, usually
under some type of Roman administration even if in a highly localized
form; the zone beyond this area, from which Roman military personnel
had withdrawn, leaving a sizable population behind that was generally
Romanized; and finally what is now the northern parts of Moldavia,
Crisana, and Maramures, which were never occupied by the Romans.
These last areas were always peripheral to the Roman province, not
militarily occupied but nonetheless influenced by Rome as part of the
Roman economic sphere. Here lived the free, unoccupied Carpi, often
called "Free Dacians".[168]

The Aurelian retreat was a purely military decision to withdraw the Roman
troops to defend the Danube. The inhabitants of the old province of Dacia
displayed no awareness of impending dissolution. There were no sudden
flights or dismantling of property.[169] It is not possible to discern how Dacian on the Constantine
many civilians followed the army out of Dacia; it is clear that there was no Arch
mass emigration, since there is evidence of continuity of settlement in
Dacian villages and farms; the evacuation may not at first have been
intended to be a permanent measure.[169] The Romans left the province, but they didn't consider that they
lost it.[169] Dobrogea was not abandoned at all, but continued as part of the Roman Empire for over 350
years.[205] As late as AD 300, the tetrarchic emperors had resettled tens of thousands of Dacian Carpi
inside the empire, dispersing them in communities the length of the Danube, from Austria to the Black
Sea.[206]

Society
Dacians were divided into two classes: the
aristocracy (tarabostes) and the common
people (comati). Only the aristocracy had
the right to cover their heads, and wore a
felt hat. The common people, who
comprised the rank and file of the army,
the peasants and artisans, might have been
called capillati in Latin. Their appearance
and clothing can be seen on Trajan's
Column.

Dacian tarabostes
(nobleman) – (Hermitage
Occupations
Museum)
The chief occupations of the Dacians
were agriculture, apiculture, viticulture,
livestock, ceramics and metalworking. They also worked the gold and
silver mines of Transylvania. At Pecica, Arad, a Dacian workshop was
discovered, along with equipment for minting coins and evidence of Comati on Trajan's Column,
bronze, silver, and iron-working that suggests a broad spectrum of Rome
smithing.[207] Evidence for the mass production of iron is found on many
Dacian sites, indicating guild-like specialization.[207] Dacian ceramic
manufacturing traditions continue from the pre-Roman to the Roman period, both in provincial and
unoccupied Dacia, and well into the fourth and even early fifth centuries.[208] They engaged in
considerable external trade, as is shown by the number of foreign
coins found in the country (see also Decebalus Treasure). On the
northernmost frontier of "free Dacia", coin circulation steadily
grew in the first and second centuries, with a decline in the third
and a rise again in the fourth century; the same pattern as observed
for the Banat region to the southwest. What is remarkable is the
extent and increase in coin circulation after Roman withdrawal
from Dacia, and as far north as Transcarpathia.[209]

Dacian tools: compasses, chisels,

Currency
knives, etc.

The first coins produced

by the Geto-Dacians were
imitations of silver coins of the Macedonian kings Philip II and
Alexander the Great. Early in the 1st century BC, the Dacians
replaced these with silver denarii of the Roman Republic, both
Geto-Dacian Koson, mid 1st century official coins of Rome exported to Dacia, as well as locally made
BC imitations of them. The Roman province Dacia is represented on
the Roman sestertius coin as a woman seated on a rock, holding an
aquila, a small child on her knee. The aquila holds ears of grain,
and another small child is seated before her holding grapes.

Construction

Dacians had developed the murus dacicus (double-skinned ashlar-masonry with rubble fill and tie beams)
characteristic to their complexes of fortified cities, like their capital Sarmisegetuza Regia in what is today
Hunedoara County, Romania.[207] This type of wall has been discovered not only in the Dacian citadel of
the Orastie mountains, but also in those at Covasna, Breaza near Făgăraș, Tilișca near Sibiu, Căpâlna in the
Sebeș valley, Bănița not far from Petroșani, and Piatra Craivii to the north of Alba Iulia.[210] The degree of
their urban development was displayed on Trajan's Column and in the account of how Sarmizegetusa
Regia was defeated by the Romans. The Romans were given by treachery the locations of aqueducts and
pipelines of the Dacian capital, only after destroying the water supply being able to end the long siege of
Sarmisegetuza.

Material culture
According to archaeological findings, the cradle of the Dacian culture is considered to be north of the
Danube towards the Carpathian mountains, in the historical Romanian province of Muntenia. It is identified
as an evolution of the Iron Age Basarabi culture. The earlier Iron Age Basarabi evidence in the northern
lower Danube area connects to the iron-using Ferigile-Birsesti group. This is an archaeological
manifestation of the historical Getae who, along with the Agathyrsae, are one of a number of tribal
formations recorded by Herodotus.[160][211] In archaeology, "free Dacians" are attested by the Puchov
culture (in which there are Celtic elements) and Lipiţa culture to the east of the Carpathians.[212] The Lipiţa
culture has a Dacian/North Thracian origin.[213] [214] This North Thracian population was dominated by
strong Celtic influences, or had simply absorbed Celtic ethnic components.[215] Lipiţa culture has been
linked to the Dacian tribe of Costoboci.[216][217]

Specific Dacian material culture includes: wheel-turned pottery that is generally plain but with distinctive
elite wares, massive silver dress fibulae, precious metal plate, ashlar masonry, fortifications, upland
sanctuaries with horseshoe-shaped precincts, and decorated clay heart altars at settlement sites. Among
many discovered artifacts, the Dacian bracelets stand out, depicting their cultural and aesthetic sense.[207]
There are difficulties correlating funerary monuments chronologically with Dacian settlements; a small
number of burials are known, along with cremation pits, and isolated rich burials as at Cugir.[207] Dacian
burial ritual continued under Roman occupation and into the post-Roman period.[218]

Language

The Dacians are generally considered to have been Thracian speakers, representing a cultural continuity
from earlier Iron Age communities.[83] Some historians and linguists consider Dacian language to be a
dialect of or the same language as Thracian.[142][219] The vocalism and consonantism differentiate the
Dacian and Thracian languages.[220] Others consider that Dacian and Illyrian form regional varieties
(dialects) of a common language. (Thracians inhabited modern southern Bulgaria and northern Greece.
Illyrians lived in modern Albania, Serbia, Montenegro, Bosnia-Herzegovina and Croatia.)

The ancient languages of these people became extinct, and their cultural influence highly reduced, after the
repeated invasions of the Balkans by Celts, Huns, Goths, and Sarmatians, accompanied by persistent
hellenization, romanisation and later slavicisation. Therefore, in the study of the toponomy of Dacia, one
must take account of the fact that some place-names were taken by the Slavs from as yet unromanised
Dacians.[221] A number of Dacian words are preserved in ancient sources, amounting to about 1150
anthroponyms and 900 toponyms, and in Discorides some of the rich plant lore of the Dacians is preserved
along with the names of 42 medicinal plants.[11]

Symbols

The Dacians knew about writing.[222][223][224] Permanent contacts with the Graeco-Roman world had
brought the use of the Greek and later the Latin alphabet.[225] It is also certainly not the case that writing
with Greek and Latin letters and knowledge of Greek and Latin were known in all the settlements scattered
throughout Dacia, but there is no doubt about the existence of such knowledge in some circles of Dacian
society.[226] However, the most revealing discoveries concerning the use of the writing by the Dacians
occurred in the citadels on the Sebes mountains.[225] Some groups of letters from stone blocks at
Sarmisegetuza might express personal names; these cannot now be read because the wall is ruined, and
because it is impossible to restore the original order of the blocks in the wall.[227]

Religion

Dacian religion was considered by the classic sources as a key source of authority, suggesting to some that
Dacia was a predominantly theocratic state led by priest-kings. However, the layout of the Dacian capital
Sarmizegethusa indicates the possibility of co-rulership, with a separate high king and high priest.[154]
Ancient sources recorded the names of several Dacian high priests (Deceneus, Comosicus and Vezina) and
various orders of priests: "god-worshipers", "smoke-walkers" and "founders".[154] Both Hellenistic and
Oriental influences are discernible in the religious background, alongside chthonic and solar motifs.[154]

According to Herodotus' account of the story of Zalmoxis or Zamolxis,[9] the Getae (speaking the same
language as the Dacians and the Thracians, according to Strabo) believed in the immortality of the soul, and
regarded death as merely a change of country. Their chief priest held a prominent position as the
representative of the supreme deity, Zalmoxis, who is called also Gebeleizis by some among them.[9][230]
Strabo wrote about the high priest of King Burebista Deceneus: "a man who not only had wandered
through Egypt, but also had thoroughly learned certain prognostics through
which he would pretend to tell the divine will; and within a short time he was
set up as god (as I said when relating the story of Zamolxis)."[231]

The Goth Jordanes in his Getica (The

origin and deeds of the Goths), also
gives an account of Deceneus the
highest priest, and considered
Dacians a nation related to the Goths.
Besides Zalmoxis, the Dacians
believed in other deities, such as
Gebeleizis, the god of storm and
Votive stele representing Bendis lightning, possibly related to the
wearing a Dacian cap (British
Thracian god Zibelthiurdos.[232] He
Museum)
was represented as a handsome man,
sometimes with a beard. Later
Gebeleizis was equated with
Zalmoxis as the same god. According to Herodotus, Gebeleizis
(*Zebeleizis/Gebeleizis who is only mentioned by Herodotus) is just another
name of Zalmoxis.[233][9][234][235]
Detail of the main fresco
Another important deity was Bendis, goddess of the moon and the hunt.[236] of the Aleksandrovo
By a decree of the oracle of Dodona, which required the Athenians to grant kurgan. The figure is
land for a shrine or temple, her cult was introduced into Attica by immigrant identified with
Thracian residents,[c] and, though Thracian and Athenian processions Zalmoxis.[228][229]
remained separate, both cult and festival became so popular that in Plato's
time (c. 429–13 BC) its festivities were naturalised as an official ceremony of
the Athenian city-state, called the Bendideia.[d]

Known Dacian theonyms include Zalmoxis, Gebeleïzis and Darzalas.[237][e] Gebeleizis is probably
cognate to the Thracian god Zibelthiurdos (also Zbelsurdos, Zibelthurdos), wielder of lightning and
thunderbolts. Derzelas (also Darzalas) was a chthonic god of health and human vitality. The pagan religion
survived longer in Dacia than in other parts of the empire; Christianity made little headway until the fifth
century.[169]

Pottery

Fragments of pottery with different "inscriptions" with Latin and

Greek letters incised before and after firing have been discovered
in the settlement at Ocnita – Valcea.[238] An inscription carries the
word Basileus (Βασιλεύς in Greek, meaning "king") and seems to
have been written before the vessel was hardened by fire.[239]
Other inscriptions contain the name of the king, believed to be
Fragment of a vase collected by Thiemarcus,[239] and Latin groups of letters (BVR, REB).[240]
Mihail Dimitriu at the site of Poiana, BVR indicates the name of the tribe or union of tribes, the
Galaţi (Piroboridava), Romania Buridavensi Dacians who lived at Buridava and who were
illustrating the use of Greek and mentioned by Ptolemy in the second century AD under the name
Latin letters by a Dacian potter of Buridavensioi.[241]
(source: Dacia journal, 1933)

Clothing and science

The typical dress of Dacians, both men and women, can be seen on Trajan's column.[146]

Dio Chrysostom described the Dacians as natural philosophers.[242]

Warfare
The history of Dacian warfare spans from c. 10th century BC up to the
2nd century AD in the region typically referred to by Ancient Greek and
Latin historians as Dacia. It concerns the armed conflicts of the Dacian
tribes and their kingdoms in the Balkans. Apart from conflicts between
Dacians and neighboring nations and tribes, numerous wars were recorded
among Dacian tribes as well.

Weapons
A 19th century depiction of
The weapon most associated with the Dacian forces that fought against Dacian women
Trajan's army during his invasions of Dacia was the falx, a single-edged
scythe-like weapon. The falx was able to inflict horrible wounds on
opponents, easily disabling or killing the heavily armored Roman legionaries that they faced. This weapon,
more so than any other single factor, forced the Roman army to adopt previously unused or modified
equipment to suit the conditions on the Dacian battlefield.[243]

Notable individuals
This is a list of several important Dacian individuals or those of partly Dacian origin.

Zalmoxis, a semi-legendary social and religious reformer, eventually deified by the Getae
and Dacians and regarded as the only true god.
Zoltes
Burebista was a king of Dacia, 70–44 BC, who united under his rule Thracians in a large
territory, from today's Moravia in the West, to the Southern Bug river (Ukraine) in the East,
and from the Northern Carpathian Mountains to Southern Dionysopolis. The Greeks
considered him the first and greatest king of Thrace.[180]
Decebalus, a king of Dacia who was ultimately defeated by the forces of Trajan.
Diegis was a Dacian chief, general and brother of Decebalus, and his representative at the
peace negotiations held with Domitian (89 CE)

Trivia
"The ducks come from the trucks" – Romanian language pun about a mistranslation (duck and truck sound
like dac and trac, the ethnonyms for Dacian and Thracian).[244]

In Romanian nationalism
Study of the Dacians, their culture, society and religion is not purely a subject of ancient history, but has
present day implications in the context of Romanian nationalism. Positions taken on the vexed question of
the origin of the Romanians and to what degree are present-day Romanians descended from the Dacians
might have contemporary political implications. For example, the government of Nicolae Ceaușescu
claimed an uninterrupted continuity of a Dacian-Romanian state, from
King Burebista to Ceaușescu himself.[245] The Ceaușescu
government conspicuously commemorated the supposed 2,050th
anniversary of the founding of the "unified and centralized" country
that was to become Romania, on which occasion the historical film
Burebista was produced.

See also
Moesi
Thracians
Illyrians
Scythians
Sarmatians
Cimmerians
Dacia
Modern Romanian statue of the
List of rulers of Thrace and Dacia Dacian King Burebista (located in
List of cities in Thrace and Dacia Călărași)
Dacian language
List of Dacian names
Thrace
Thracology
Odrysian kingdom
Thracian language
Thracian mythology
Thraco-Dacian
Thraco-Cimmerian
Thraco-Illyrian
Thraex

Notes
a. Dioscorides's book (known in English by its Latin title De Materia Medica 'Regarding
Medical Materials') has all the Dacian names of the plants preceded by Δάκοι Dakoi i.e.
Δάκοι Dakoi προποδιλα Latin Daci propodila "Dacians propodila"
b. De Imperatoribus Romanis (http://www.roman-emperors.org/assobd.htm#s-inx.) Retrieved
2007-11-08. "In the year 88, the Romans resumed the offensive. The Roman troops were
now led by the general Tettius Iulianus. The battle took place again at Tapae but this time the
Romans defeated the Dacians. For fear of falling into a trap, Iulianus abandoned his plans of
conquering Sarmizegetuza and, at the same time, Decebalus asked for peace. At first,
Domitian refused this request, but after he was defeated in a war in Pannonia against the
Marcomanni (a Germanic tribe), the emperor was obliged to accept the peace."
c. Extensive discussion of whether the date is 429 or 413 BC was reviewed and newly
analyzed in Christopher Planeaux, "The Date of Bendis' Entry into Attica" The Classical
Journal 96.2 (December 2000:165–192). Planeaux offers a reconstruction of the inscription
mentioning the first introduction, p
 d. Fifth-century fragmentary inscriptions that record formal descrees regarding formal aspects
of the Bendis cult, are reproduced in Planeaux 2000:170f
e. Harry Thurston Peck, Harpers Dictionary of Classical Antiquities (1898),(Zalmoxis) or
Zamolxis (Zamolxis). Said to have been so called from the bear's skin (zalmos) in which he
was clothed as soon as he was born. He was, according to the story current among the
Greeks on the Hellespont, a Getan, who had been a slave to Pythagoras in Samos, but was
manumitted, and acquired not only great wealth, but large stores of knowledge from
Pythagoras, and from the Egyptians, whom he visited in the course of his travels. He
returned among the Getae, introducing the civilization and the religious ideas which he had
gained, especially regarding the immortality of the soul. Herodotus, however, suspects that
he was an indigenous Getan divinity (Herod.iv. 95)

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External links
Dacian reenactor with falx (https://web.archive.org/web/20181231162323/https://www.larp.c
om/legioxx/rdays.html)
Dacian Enciclopedia (http://www.enciclopedia-dacica.ro)

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