n ı ı ıq n; ı ne ly lı t i ufo the varioJ s clem.rita that ruad c u p the n,ıı h ›n.ıl ı ıı,ı2Ira I tradit ion.

in an cash , mada bm ›ty1c, t me

rite t he history o1 the heal hin period, and

I tic po| i tico-rem Rio u s cli mate iii Iccland.

: ı ı', ı 1 H ım§', ,u Iti N ı,ı iLa1 practices. J4cllldcd d rC prayer5 l'oI

ı ı 11 ı' ı ı .ıp.ı lu sı d,ııı$cr, instructions for stoppiııg hood,
, ı 1 u1 1› H ı u1 i ı mi llL,ırl,lı Ates. t lists the bud dayı of t14c yeat,

i ii.il Iiir' .ii iI Ii' \v l‹ › mahc wishes. This is a «ark that will

It i '.ь it v, and medieval literature.

CALDRABÕK
An
Ice1 »di
CRIMOIRE

Stcphcn Flowcrs
First published in I H6V by
Samuel Weiser, Inc.
Box 612
York Beach, Maine 03910

01 00 99 98 97 96
10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2

0 1989 Stephen E. Flowers

All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced
or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic or me-
chanical, including photocopy, without permission in writing
{rom Samuel Weiser, Inc. Reviewers may quote brief passages.

Library ot Congress Cataloging in Publication Data

Flowers, Stephen E. , 1953-
The Galdrabdk : an Icelandic grimoire / edited, translated,
and' introduced by Stephen E. Flowers.

Includes a translation of Galdrab0k.

Bibliography: p.
1. Magic, Germanic—Handbooks, manuals, etc. —Early works
to 1800. 2. Mythology, Germanic—Early works to 1800. 3.
Iceland—Religion—Early works to 1800. I. Galdrabdk.
English. 1989.
II. Title.
BF1622. G3F56 1989
133. 4’3’094912—dc20 89-t46'i0
ISBN 0-87728-685-X
Cover illustration 0 Susan Sheppard, 1989
Typeset in 11 point Goudy by
N.K. Graphics, Keene, NH
Printed in the United States of America by
Baker Johnson, Inc. , Ann Arbor, MI
 Contenta

Abbreviations ix
Acknowledgments xi
Introduction xiii

Part 1
Historical Background

Chapter 1: Historical Context: Politico-Religious

Climate in Iceland 3
Heathen Period (870—1000) 3
Catholic Age (1000—1550) 5
Reformation Age (1550—1650): Iceland at 7
the time of the Goldrobók

Chapter 2: History of Magic in Iceland 11

Heathen Period (870—1000) 11
Catholic Period ( 1000—1550) 19
Reformation Age (1550—1750) 21

Chapter 3: Icelandic Books of the Black Art 27

The Black Books of Legend 28
 Text of the Goldrobók 29
Other Historical Manuals of Magic 32
The Two Traditions in the North 35
Chapter 4: The Old Gods and the Demons of Hell 37
The Heathen Gods and Goddesses 38
The Demons of Hell 41
Chapter 5: Runes and Magical Signs 45
Chapter 6: Theory and Practice of Magic
in the Galdrobdk 51

Part 2
The Goldrabó k

The GnHro6ñ k 59
Appendices
Related Spells in Germanic Magic
Appendix A: Other Icelandic Sources 83
From the Huld Manuscript 83
From the Kreddut Manuscript 92
From Svend Cirundtvig's Collection 99
From the Gollection of Jó n À mason 99
From Various Manuscripts Collected by
Ó là fur Davídhsson 101
Appendix B: Heathen Magic in Old English
Manuscripts 105
 Contents

Appendix C: Heathen Magic in Old High

German Spells
Contra Vermes
The Merseburg Charms
Notes for Part 1
Notes for Part 2
Bibliography
 Abbreviations

Ice. Icelandic
ON Old Norse
PGmc. Proto-Germanic
pl. plural
eg. singular
st. stanza
 cfnou›ledgments

For their help and continuing inspiration during the years in

which knowledge was accumulated to write this work, I wish
to thank Prof. Dr. Edgar Polomé, Prof. Dr. Klaus Dü wel, Prof.
Dr. John Weinstock, and Robert Zoller.
 /ntroduction

The so-called t3aArabók,' or “Book of Magic,” is the single mosi

important document for understanding the practice of magic ir
late medieval Iceland. It is especially important in that it give:
a unique insight into the various yeligio-magical elements that
went into a synthetic national magical tradition in Iceland at
the time of its compilation. No other document of comparable
age gives so many details of the preservation of the archaic Ger
manic gods, cosmology, and magical practices as does this littli
manuscript. Here we are not dependent on folktales or indireci
reports through confessions exacted by the tortures of the Inn
quisition or other churchly authorities to reconstruct the
magico' religious views of the goldromenn (magicians) of the
day; instead, we have direct evidence of actual practices written
by the mar gicians’ own hands. In many ways the Galdzo6ó k is
to the Ice landic folktales of magic 2 what the runic inscriptions
are to the accounts of magic recorded in the sagas. They provide
factua corroboration of what otherwise might have been
considered ‹ form of fantasy.
In this volume the reader will find not only an annotatec
translation of the complete ClnJdro6ò à but also a similar treatment
ziU Inrodwcñon

of selections from other written sources of Germanic magical

practice from all of the Germanic peoples. However, in no region
did the old ways and the old gods and goddesses survive so
well as in Iceland. And because we are focusing on these texts
for what is uniquely Germanic about them, leaving as secondary
what is common to every European tradition, we will
concentrate mainly on Icelandic sources in this study, Our two
principal areas of interest will be the preservation of the old
gods and the pres- ervation of the unique forms of Germanic
magical practice in- herited from the heathen age.
In preparing this work for modem publication, I've made
every effort to remain true to the original text of the Galdro6dl.
Irregularities in capitalization and spelling are left as in the
orig- inal as they may have special meaning or significance.
 HISTORICAL
BACKGROUND
 historical Contmt:
Politico-Religious Climate in Iceland

o establish a context for the magic practiced in the

Books of Black Magic that were mainly set down in the
1500s and 1600s, we must look at the various stages oi
religious and political development in Iceland. These period'
are three: the Heathen Age, the Catholic Age, and the Re-
formation Age.

Heathen Period (870—1 000)

The generally unpopulated island of Iceland was settled mainly
by Norwegians (along with their Irish and Scottish thralls)
whc were seeking political and religious freedom from the
onslaught of the Norwegian king Haraldr fiJagra (fair-hair),
who had set about to conquer all of Norway and to bring it
under a single Christian-style monarchy.
These new Icelanders set up a form of social otder
deeply rooted in their native heritage—a sort of
representative or re- publican aristocracy. There was never a
king in Iceland. Rather, the land was mled by the local priest-
chieftains (ON godfii, sg.
 THE GALDRABÓ K

Oóhi , who would meet once a year at the Althing (great as-
sembly) , or parliament, to settle legal cases and to pass
legislation for the country. ThÍ5 form of government was minimal
in its exercise of central authority. Courts could decide cases but
had no ability to cairy out sentences; that was left up to the
kinsmen of the wronged party. Most often, those who had
committed manslaughter, for example, would be “outlawed”;
that is, they wouÏd be declared to be outside the protection of
the law, and they could be lilled without legal repercussions to
the avengers. Another principal feature of Germanic law was the
idea that the party wronged was the one to be compensated by
the criminal. The “state” made no profit on crime. For almost
every crime a monetari value was set, so instead of being
outlawed a man might be able to satisfy the wronged party with
a payment of some kind, called me‹egeA. Each godhi held an
authority (ON god- hordh, which means “authority as a godhi”),
which corresponded roughly to a district. The authority in
question was owned by the godhi and could be sold, inherited,
or subdivided.'
The lcelanders practiced the religion they brought with
them their age-oId polytheistic Germanic heathenism, a re-
ligion that allows for as much individual freedom as did the
lcelandic system of government. One man may worship Ó dhinn;
another, Thó rr; another, Freyja; and yet another may simply
“believe in his own might and main.” Also, there were a number
of Christians among the Irish/Scottish thralls brought to lceland,
and a few of their masters even converted; but it is said that it
did not fast in their families. The point to remember is that the
lcelanders tolerated these differences.
By the year 1000, lreland, England, Norway, and Denmark
(Iceland’s chief fOreign contaCtS) had all officially become Chris-
tian. It was under a variety of social, economic, and religious
pressures that Christianity was formally accepted as the official
religion at the Althing of 1000.
 Catholic je (î 000—1550)
By all accounts the acceptance of Chiistianity by the Icelanders
was highly formalistic, marked by little conviction on the part
of even those who voted for it. Public sacrifices to the
Germanic gods were forbidden, but the private practice of
the traditional faith—including the eating of horse flesh and
the exposure of infants—was allowed to continue. Conversion
to the Catholic faith was marked by a gradual transition period
lasting several generations and by an undiminished interest on
the part of the Icelanders in their own traditions. In the earliest
phase of this period many of the godfir simply had themselves
ordained as priests. Others lent their religious duties to other
relatives—as Viking priests somehow appeared unseemly. Also,
there were Ïeigu{›restor (hired priests) who were bound to a
chieftain like a
thrall.
For the first thirty years or so of this period Iceland must
have remained largely heathen in its practice of religion and
especially of magic. From 1030 to 1118 there teigned in
Iceland what is called the Frïdfirö ld—The Age of Peace—in
which the common feuding subsided and a new culture began
to take hold as individual Icelanders examined the new religion.
This could also be characterized as a period of mixed faith in
which Chris- tianity actually began to gain a foothold in the
culture as scholars traveled abroad to leam of the new faith
and schools were es- tablished in Iceland itself. ft was toward
the end of this time, around 1100, that Icelandic was fitst used
to write histories, sagas, and poetry.
There developed in the country a general love of Learning
that led some men to join the clergy in order to be educated
abroad and others to enter monasteries for the same scholarly
reasons. Some even established schools on their private estates,
where they worked as scholars and teachers. Thèse traditions
of
6 THE GALDRAB@K

learning actually were rooted in the previous age, in which oral

tradition was just as lovingly preserved. It must be remembered
that lceland was settled in large part by the conservative cultural
aristocracy of Norway, which led to an unusually high level of
interest in national intellectual traditions even in later times.
Today Iceland has the highest literacy rate and the highest per
capita book-publishing rate in the world.
None of these developments appreciably changed the nature
of the church or clergy in Iceland. There was always a strong
secular element in the Icelandic church and a strain of cultural
conservatism that fostered the preservation and cOntinuation of
national traditions in statecraft, religion, and literary culture.
And lest one think that those many Icelanders who joined the
church and the monasteries during this time were forced to reject
worldly pleasures for lives of devoted and pious learning, it
should be mentioned that celibacy was never enforced for the
Icelandic priesthood, and the fact that priests could not legally
marry left the door open for a form of polygamy, or
multiconcubinage. The heathen ways simply went forward.
The Age of Peace began to crack apart in a period of civil
strife, beginning about 1118. At that time the old patterns of
feuding, exacting of blood vengeance, and the like began to
emerge again with the added elements of political conspiracy
and intrigue involving foreign powers and the offices of the
church. Although elements of this civil strife would continue
for centuries, in 1262 it was sharply curtailed by the intervention
of the Norwegian king. An age of Norwegian dominance lasted
until 1397a when a period of Danish domination began. This
was to last until Iceland was again able to establish complete
independence in 1944, when the Danes were under Nazi occu-
pation.
Despite the domestic strife and foreign exploitation exhib-
ited between the end of the Age of Peace and the beginning of
 Historicaf Content

Danish domination, this period was a sort of golden age of Ice-

landic culture and literature. This was the time when the poems
of the Poetic Eddn were committed to parchment, when Snorri
Sturluson wrote the Prose Eddn (1222), and when most of the
great sagas were compiled. Icelanders had become comfortable
with their “National Catholicism,” which had allowed indige-
nous traditions to survive and native “saints” (some official,
some not) to be revered. But foreign domination was to prove a
danger to this cultural balance of the past and present. •

ReJormation fe (1550—1 650):

lcehnd at the time o{ the Galdrabók
It was with the background of the heathen and Catholic past
that the magic contained in the Galdrnbó L and related manu-
scripts was practiced. But it was during this period of
religious strife and ultimately of religious persecution that the
work was actually committed to parchment.
The Protestant Reformation, of course, began with Martin
Luther in Germany around 1517. It quickly spread in northem
Europe, where the secular authorities especially had long har-
bored a cultural animosity for the domination of Rome. In 1536
the Reformation was officially accepted in Denmark, and hence
its possession, Iceland, was also destined to follow that course.
Because of Iceland’s continued isolation and intrinsic conser-
vatism the Reformation did not come easily to the island.
Sources of the Reformation in Iceland were two: the foreign
fotces of the Dano-Norwegian crown and the domestic
church- men who had become convinced of Luther’s doctrines
while studying abtoad. One of the reasons the crowned heads
found Protestantism so attractive is that it allowed the kings to
na- tionalize, and in effect to confiscate, the wealth and
properties
 THE GALDRABÓK

of the Catholic church in their respective countries.

Resistance to the Reformation carne from the conservative
populace and, of course, from the Catholic clergy. From 1536
to 1550 there was in effect a low-intensity religious war in
Iceland. The forces of Protestantism and the crown finally
won with the execution of Bishop Jó n Á rason in 1550. But
this marked only the begin- ning of any Reformation at the
popular level. lt would take a full century, until around 1650,
before Protestantism could really be considered fully accepted
b7 the population at large.
This period of “popular Reformation” was marked by in-
creasing exploitation on the economic front and by
increasing Danish domination in politica. In 1601 Denmark
established a trade monopoly over Iceland so that the island
could no longer trade freely with whomever it pleased,
resulting in a time of economic hardship often reflected in
the folktales of the period. The powerful Danish tradesmen and
the Protestant churchmen (who were virtually the agents of
the Danish crown) ruthlessly exploited and oppressed the
populace. One fourth of the tithe paid to the church and the
fines imposed by the courts went directly to the king of
Denmark. The laws of the country were changed to impose
the death penalty for moral crimes such as heresy (aimed
against the “un-Reformed”) and adultery. Of coutse, this net
would eventually be widened to include “witch- craft.” Again
all or part of the estate of anyone convicted of these, as well
as long-established or legitimate, crimes went to the crown.
Such measures were especially harsh on the popu- lation
because until this time the old Germanic-heathen legal codes,
which provided first and foremost for the compensation of
the victims of crimes (not the state or king), were still largely
in place on the island.
Throughout the 1600s the country was spiraling
downward into general economic and political decay. From
our historical perspective, however, the age was not without
its benefits. The
scholarly humanism that developed to some extent in Iceland
but especially in Denmark gave rise to a concerted effort by
scholars to save the Icelandic literary heritage. It was probably
as a part of this process that the manuscript of the Goldrobó k
was brought to Denmark. In fact, like the economic wealth of the
nation, its cultural wealth was also syphoned off to Copenhagen.
Now the manuscripts collected at that time are being
repatriated, and, ironically, they were probably saved by Danish
scholars from the cultural and material ravages wreaked by
Danish tradesmen and other agents of the crown. Many of the
manuscripts that were not collected by the Danes were eaten in
times of famine or, for want of other materials, were used to
make clothing.
 History o/ 3faQic in Iceland

e are unusually well informed on all aspects of thi

practice of magic by the Icelanders. Much more thar
any other nonclassical (i.e. , non-Greco-Roman) Eu
ropean people, the Icelanders have left behind a clear record o
their magical beliefs and practices and have given us clear idea:
of the contexts in which this magic was practiced. We not only
have original heathen sources (in the Poetic Eddo and skaldic
poetry) but also clear reflections of pre-Christian practices sei
down in the saga literature. The sagas are prose works—semi
historical yet embellished tales—written down for the most
part between 1120 and 1400. These, however, usually reflect
event! and beliefs of the Viking Age (about 800—1100). i

Heathen Period (870—1000)

Sagas regularly feature works of magic and give us vivid
pictures of the lives of several magicians.° The most famous of
these i' the E gif’s Sega, which is essentially a biography of Egill
Skalla- grlmsson (910—990), an Icelandic skaldic poet, runic
magician,
iz THE C›ALDRABOK

and worshipper of Odhinn. Beyond such sources, we have, Ol

course, the rare finds of actual grimoires such as the Godrnbñ k
represents. Such works, along with runic inscriptions, legal rec-
ords, and the like form correlation to the “literary” material and
fill in some of the gaps left by the sagas and poems.
The early period of Icelandic magic is divided into
essentially two phases: heathen and Catholic. The later
Reformation, or Protestant, period changed the picture
considerably. It was in the Protestant age that the manuscripts
of most of the gnldrnbmkoi were created. However, to even
begin to understand the magical world view of the compilers of
these books, we must understand well the cosmos of the
Germanic heathen past in which their ideas were rooted.
It should be clear from the discussion above, concerning
the history and character of the church during the Catholic
period, how and why we are able to use documents actually
written down at that time as reliable sources for the heathen
practice of magic. The Catholic p.eriod is really more an age of
synthesis than a radical departure from the past as far as magic,
as well as culture in general, is concerned.
By all internal accounts, in the heathen age there seem to
have been two kinds of magic prevalent: and seidh r).
Although these later appear to have taken on some moral con-
notations the galdu‹ form being more “honorable” and the serf
form widely considered “shameful” or “womanish” in reality
there seem to have been originally only certain technical (and
perhaps social) distinctions between the two. Icelandic gnldur ii
derived from the verb gnln (to crow, chant)' and is therefore
dominated by the use of the incantational formula that is to
be spoken or sung and perhaps also carved in runes. The
original meaning of serf may also have something to do with
vocal performance (i.e., singing or chanting), although the exact
orig inal meaning of the word is unclear. 5 What is relatively
clear ii the procedural and psychological distinctions between
these twc
 History o/ Magic in lceland 13

techniques. The practice of galdur seems to be more analyt-

ical, conscious, v'illed, and ego-oriented, whereas seidà appears
more intuitive and synthetic. Typical of gaÍdur would be the
assumption of a “magical persona” or alter ego for working
the will, whereas in seídh a trance state would be induced in
which the ego would be of relatively less importance. It might
also be said that seídh is closer to what might be understood as
shamanic practice. I hasten to point out that these are really
two tendencies in the pagan magic (real though they are), and
the “moral” distinction is a later development. Ó dhinn is said
to be the “father” of goÏdttr and its natural master, but it is
believed that he leamed the arts of seídh from the Vanic god-
dess Freyja.'
It is also tempting to say that seídh is more based on
“natural” methods of working magic (especially with animal and
vegetable substances), whereas galdur is more based on
linguistic/symbolic ways of working (with combinations of
verbal formulas and graphic signs). Our texts show that the
basic techniques and terminology of goldur survived relatively
more intact than did those of serà . This is perhaps because of
the relatively simple technique of working golduz. In the
practice of gnldxr the magical work seems mote heavily
dependent on the powers of the ma- gician himself.
One traditional area of Germanic magic from which the
goldxr of our texts inherits many of its methods is that of rune
magic. The runes (Ice. riinor or rttnir) constitute a writing
system used by the Germanic peoples from perhaps as early as
200 B.C.z. to the early 19th century in some rernote areas of
Scandinavia.’ These runes, or rune staves (Ice. rú nsto/r) as they
were often called, seem to have been used exclusively fot
nonprofane pur- poses from their beginnings to the
Scandinavian Middle Ages (beginning about 1100 C.E. ) The
word nen in Icelandic signifies not only one of these “staves”
used in writing but also, and more originally, the idea of
“secret,” or “secret lore.”
14 THE GALDRABÓK

Table 1: The Older Rune-row

Phonetic
Number Shape Value Name Meaning of Name

1 F f ’Jeds livestock, wealth

2 u ’tires aurochs
3 b th ’ tâ urisaz giant
4 $ a ‘oristt¿ the god
5 b r ’iaidhâ riding
6 ‹ k ’kounaz sore
7 A g ’gebâ gift
8 / w ’w«njò joy
9 $ h ’figaloz hail
10 t n need
’rtotithig
11 l i ice
*Usa
12 j year (harvest)
‘jèro
13 1 ei yew
’eihwaz
ld p dice box ( ?)
‘9eithrö
15 W -z elk
’efßz
16 s sun
17 T t *sowifö the god Tyr
18 $ b * teiwaz birch (-goddess)
19 e ’berkonö horse
10 m ’eâooz man
21 k 1 *rnonnaz water
22 fi ng ‘lnguz the god Ing
23 b4 d ’ingw4z day
24 o ’dngoz ancestral estate
’Othaia
’Indicates a reconstructed Proto-Germanic torm.
 His o/ Magic in lceiarib 15

From the origins of the tradition to abOut 800 c. E. the

older system of twenty-four runes prevailed (Table 1). This
system was subsequently reformed in an orderly and uniform
fashion through- out Scandinavia. But as some formulas in our
late texts show, the magical value of the number 24 seems to
have continued.
ln the so-called Viking Age (from about 800 to 1100) the
last heathen codification of the runes took place. It was from
this period that many of the pre-Christian aspects of magical
practice found in our goldrabækitr seem to have growD. During
the Viking Age the rune staves were reduced to sixteen in num-
ber. As in earlier times, each rune had a name as well as its
phonetic value (usually indicated by the first sound in its name.
) There were also interpretative poetic stanzas connected to
each rune.’ Thèse are of special interest since they were at
least re- corded in Iceland and Norway in the 1400s and 1500s
—a time very close to that when our earliest magical texts were
being compiled. Therefore, we can speculate that the
goldramenn (ma- gicians) might have had some detailed
knowledge of the esoteric lore of heathen runology. Many of
them were certainly literate in runes. The system of the Viking
Age runes, as it would have been known to the Icelanders, is
shown in Table 2 on page 16. This table has several things to
teach us directly about the significance of what we will
encounter in the spells found in the goldrabækur. First of all, the
number 16 is often found underlying the composition of the
stave forms in the spells. They are usually not actual rune
staves, but they do reÏlect the formulaic signif- icance of the
number 16. Also, the old rune names show up not only in the
spells—where they apparently signify the runes they name (e. g.
, see Spell 46 in Part 2)—but also in the curious names of the
“magical signs” (Ice. gndrostn/r) themselves, such
as hngafl.
 In pagan times the runic magicians were well-known and
honored members of society. Traditionally, runelore had been
16 THE
GALDRA8ÓK

Table 2: The Younger Rune row

Phonetic Meaning of Name
Number Shape Value Name
money, gold,
1 È f fc livestock
aurochs (or drizzle/
2 h u/o Jr slag)
giant
3 th thxrs the god (or estuary)
4 a les a riding
5 r mil sore, ulcer
6 ( k/g Lawn “hail” (special runic
7 7 h Logoll name)
need, distress
ice
9 1 i/e iss
good year, harvest
sun
(the god) Tyr birch (goddess) man
water
yew (bow)

the preserve of members of.the established social order

interested in intellectual or spiritual pursuits. For the most part,
these men were followers of the god Ó dhinn, the Germanic god
of magic, ecstasy, poetry, and death. 10 It is also worth nOting
that men were more often engaged in runic magic than were
women a social phenomenon that is reflected in the later
statistics of the witchcraft triats in Iceland.
 Hisary o{ Magic in Icelnnd

The general technique of rune magic in pagan times cons

sisted of three procedural steps performed by a qualified rune
magician: (1) carving the staves into an object, (2)
co1orin¿ them with blood or dye, and (3) speaking a vocal
formula over the staves to load them with magical power. 11
This direct tech nique, which is not dependent on the objective
intervention or gods or demons, will later be in continued
evidence in the galdrobækitr. lt clearly shows the continuation
of a practice frorr early Germanic times right up to the modem
age.
Several examples from old lcelandic literature will show
thi! kind of magic at work. One of the most interesting examples
foi our purposes is found in the Poetic Adde in the lay called,
alter natively, “Fö r Sklmis” or the “Skîmismfil” (st. 36). This
poetr probably dates from the early tenth century. Here the
messengei of the god Freyr, named Skimit, is trying to force the
beautifu giantess (etin-wife) to love his lord, Freyr. Skimir
threatens hei with a curse:
A tiers-rune I for the,
and three o them I scrotcb
— kchery and loathing and
litst; oJ I shell scr‹s9e Um
us on I did scrozh thtn
i} o{ none there be need.
The basic motivation and stance of the runic magician, a!
well as technical aspects such as the enumeration of the stave:
and the actual style of the incantation, will be found in later
spells.
Another famous example that clearly shows rune-magica
techniques is one in the Egil's Sago (chap. d4). In order to
detect poison in his drinking horn, Egill drew out his knife and
stabbec the palm of his hand. Then he took the horn, carved
runes or it, and rubbed blood on them. He said:
18 THE GALDRABÓK

I caiue o Curie on the

hom I iedden the s#ell in
blood
tise words I càoose por yow cars

The hom butst asunder, and the drink went down into the
straw. D
Besides runic magic, but often in conjunction with it, we
find magic worked in pre-Christian times with certain holy or
otherwise powerful natural substances. There must have been a
whole magical classification system of sacred woods only dimly
reflected in the goklzoba kt@. In any event, the woods of various
trees played a special part in the Germanic magical
technology as well as its mythology. The world is said to be
constructed around the framework of a tree—Yggdrasill (the
World-Tree). Humankind is said to have been shaped by a
threefold aspect of Ó dhinn from trees: the man from the ash
and the woman from the elm (embÍo?) .
Another substance of extreme importance is blood. The
runes were often reddened with it, and it was generally thought
to have intrinsic magical powets, especially when it was
either human or that of a sacrificial animal. In many pre-
Christian sacrificial rites the blood of the animal was
sprinkled onto the altar, temple walls, and even the gathered
folk, all of which were said to be hallowed by this contact.’•
The etymology of the English verb “to bless” reflects this
heathen practice as it is ultimately derived from a Proto-
Germanic form ‘bló Aisò jon (to hallow with blood; PGmc.
‘hló thnrri, blood).
Other than woods of trees, herbal substances were also
widely used in pre-Christian magical practice. Especially
prev- alent were forms of the leek (Ice. Íoukttr) , the name of
which commonly occurs as a magical runic formula even as
early as 450 c. E." It is also noteworthy that several herbs bear
the names of Norse gods or goddesses, for example, Icelandic
Jggjnrgrns
 History o{ Magir in Icetorid 1'

(Frigg's herb: orcfiis odoratissimn or sotyriitm afbidittm) and bar

dozsbrd (Baldur’s btow: cotula foetida or Qyethritm inodonim,
o perhaps eye-bright).
Additionally, certain small stones, called in Icelandic ly}
sterner (hetb-magical healing stones), are thought to have
power: to heal disease magically. These were sometimes even
carves with runes or other signs.

CatÎiolic Period (i 000—1 SEO)

The latter part of the age just before the time when the gald
robækttr began to be set down is called the Catholic period. A:
will be remembered from our discussion of the politico-
religiou! history of Iceland, a peculiar kind of Catholic Christian
churcf existed in Iceland from 1000 to the middle of the
1500s. In al. facets of life this represented a period of mixed
faith in whick elements of the ancient native heritage and the
new foreigr religion were being syncretized.
Heathen elements in the magical tradition would naturall
be diminished both as new material was introduced and as
knowl- edge of the technical aspects of the pagan tradition
began to fade through neglect and lack of the old establishment
support. Never- theless, the old material and techniques must
have continued in a real way for many generations. In a way
this is a “dark age' for our knowledge of the actual practice of
magic in Iceland because the works composed at this time
depicted the Viking Age practices, and we have no
actualgoldrobækuz from the perioh itself.
From what we have in the Reformation Age, it is possible
to speculate that the heathen tradition was kept alive on its own
terms for a long time but eventually was syncretized with the
Christian tradition. lt must, however, be understood that prac-
20 THE GALDRABÖ K

ticing magic at all was considered by orthodox forces to be he-

retical and somewhat diabolical. (That is why there is an active,
explicit merger of the old gods and the demons of hell. See
chapter 4. )
The influence of the foreign Christian tradition seems tc
have been most keenly felt in new elements introduced in the
formulas. Thèse would include personalities (rom explicitlt
Judeo-Christian mythology (e.g. , Solomon, Jesus, Mary). Ben
yond thèse personalities certain fotmulas must have been incor-
porated at this time: the use of the trinity, formulas of
benediction peculiar to the Catholic church, and so on. Other
elements, such as Judeo-Gnostic formulas (e.g. , Jehova
Sebaoth [Yahwel Tzabaoth], Tetragrammaton) must have come
directly from mage ical books imported from the Continent at
this time. As far a: the actual methods of working magic are
concemed, there must have been a relative shift in emphasis to
the prayer formula, ir which the magician bids for the
intercession of some supematural entity on his behalf. Although
this was probably known in some form in the heathen age, it
had limited application; whereas ii predominates in the Judeo-
Christian tradition.
The information we have about magicians and magic of thi:
period is very indirect. Although many texts were composed ir
this period, they mostly harked back to the heathen age wher
magic came into play. The later folktales, mostly collected ir
the 1700s and 1800s tell of two famous magicians of this age
however. One was Sæmundur Sigftisson the Wise (1056—1133)
who was the godhi (priest-chieftain) of Oddi. He is reputed tr
have been the most leamed man of his time, but all of his
writing: are now lost. Further, he was said to have acquired
magica knowledge as a captive of the Black School of Satan.
This legenc may be due to the fact that he studied Latin and
theology ir France. Sæmundur has the reputation, despite the
origins of hi! knowledge, of being a “good” magician. lt seems
that the rep
 Hismry of Magic in lcełanå 2l

utation for “white” or “black” magic that the historical

magicians acquired was due more to literary stereotyping and
regional con- flicts than to any historical or practical facts.
Sæmundur’s sister Halla also “practiced the old heathen lore,”
as one text describing her puts tt, although the writer feels
obliged to add that she was “nevertheless ... a very religious
woman.”'”

Reformation ffe (1550— l Z50)

With the advent of Protestantism in Iceland, beginning about
1536, a radical new situation began to prevail. As learning de-
creased in quality and persecutions of magic increased in inten-
sity, elements of Icelandic magic already in place began to reach
knowledge and practice as far as the establishment was con-
cerned, so it therefore became more wrapped up in the mixture
of previously rejected heathenism.
At the close of the Catholic period there were two contem-
porary Icelandic magicians with very different reputations.
Gott- skálk Niklă sson the Cruel (bishop of Hó lar ftom 1d97 to
1520) had a reputation as an evil magician. He was the
compiler of the fabled RпMkinni book of magic discussed in
chapter 3. Gottská lk is well known. in Icelandic history
otherwise as a ruth- less political schemer who conspired
against secular political fig- ures for his own selfish ends." This
as much as anything else probably led to his reputation in the
folk tradition. An approx- imate contemporary of Gottská lk
was Halfdá nur Narfason (died 1568), vicar of Fell in Gottská lk’s
diocese of Hó lar. Little is known of Há lfdanur’s life, but there is
a rich body of folktales concerning him.'^ He seems to have
been the legendary “white” counterpoint to the “black” Bishop
Gottská lk.
 Hálfdanur and Gottskálk form a kind of bridge between the
Catholic and Reformation ages in the history of Icelandic magic.
22 THE GALDRABÓ K

Deep into the Protestant period we again have a pair of strongl

contrasted magician figures: Eiríkur of Vogsó sar and Galdra
Loptut. Eiríkur, who was a quiet and pious vicar, lived from
163’ to 1716. He is little known in history but shares with
Sæmundu the reputation of a practitioner of good magic,
wholly derived from godly sources—although he was not
above practicing the most dreaded arts (e.g. , necromancy) for
“pedagogical purposes. Here I refer to one of the most telling
anecdotes in the histor of Icelandic magic, one that
emphasizes the character and leve of humot necessary to
practice magic:
Two boys once came to Eiríkur the priest and asked him t‹
show them how he would set about raising ghosts. He told
then to come with him to the churchyard, and they did. He
muttered something between his teeth, and the earth began
gushing uJ out of a grave. The boys reacted differently; one
laughed, aгв the other burst into tears. Eiríkur said to the
latter: “Go horn again, my good fellow, and thank God you did
not go out c your mind. As for this other boy, it would be a
pleasure to teacl
him ,›•19
This might be compared with an episode involving Galdra
Loptur (Loptur the Magician) that is supposed to be one of hi
most depraved acts—raising the drougitr (ghost) of Bishop
Gott ká lk in order to recover his famous “black book,”
Roudlukiпni Little is known of the historical Loptur, but we do
know tha he was a scholar at the school at Hó lar and that he
died in 1722 In Galdra-Loptur we have a kind of Icelandic
Faust, whose majc sin is his insatiable desire for more
knowledge and power.'°
The use of folktales to trace the history of magic is a risk
task. They really tell us more about the changing attitudes г
the folk toward magic and other human motivations than aboг
the actual practices of any given time. However, in this area •
in so many others, Iceland provides remarkable technical
detail and often surprisingly value-free renditions of events—
eve
 History o/ Magic in lcekind

though the teller of the tale may feel the need to commenl
negatively or positively as an aside. When we look over the
whole body of Icelandic folktales dealing with magic we sec
certain trends. For example, men of high rank are rarely chided
with charges of black magic, even though their reported
practice‹ seem little different from those against whom the
charge wa leveled.
In the early phase of the Christian period, heathen lore wa
looked upon with some ambivalence, and the Christian Devil
was hardly understood. It seemed to be a moral watershed as to
the source of a magician's knowledge and power—of the Chris-
tian God or of some other source (i.e. , heathen/diabolical).
Later, especially in the Protestant period, all magic was looked
upon with suspicion—all wizards were “gray” at best. This at-
titude in the folktales is perhaps most eloquently symbolized in
the Gadrabó k in those spells in which the old gods are equated
with infemal demons and Valholl is somehow equated with hell.
Because of Iceland's peculiar church organization in the
Catholic period and the general isolation of the country from
Continental affairs, the practice of magic was not officially per-
secuted or prosecuted during that time. The Inquisition became
active on the Continent following Pope Innocent III’s bull of
1199. That was mainly directed against organized heretics, but
its circle gradually widened to include sorcery even when
heresy was not involved (in a bull by Pope N icholas V in
1451). But even this failed to penetrate the dark mists of
Thule. In large measure this phenomenon is probably diie to
the fact that it was cletgymen themselves who were most actively
engaged in sorcery
in Iceland!
The Protestants on the Continent were no less severe in
dealing with witchcraft than the Inquisition had been, and in
many cases they were more devastating in that their focus on
individuals and small groups made more indiscriminate perse-
24 TH£ GALDRABÓ K

cutions easier. It was under cover of the Reformation that witch

craft petsecutions came to Iceland. These persecutions nevei
reached the genocidal levels known on the Continent, wheri
hundreds of thousands were executed, but they are
nevertheles! historically significant.
The first trial for witchcraft in Iceland is recorded in 1554
the fast at the Althing of 1720. Records were poorly kept in thi!
period; however, it is estimated that during this time some
35( trials were held, although records fot only 125 survive. Of
these 125 accused persons only 9 were women. 2' This is in
markec contrast to the general pattem of witchcraft accusations
and certainly suggests something of the demographics of
magical prac tice in Iceland. This is generally a reflection of
long-standint Germanic tradition, in which men were at least
the equal o women in the occult arts. We have records for only
twenty-sis executions (mostly by buming) for witchcraft. Only
one womar was actually executed. Othets who were convicted
of this crime, but whose sentence was short of death, were
ílogged or outlawec (in effect banished from the country).
The period of most intensive witchcraft persecucions i:
clearly marked between the first execution in 1625 and the lasi
in 1685. However, it is worth pointing out that during this time
Iceland suffered generally under a moral code of extremely
harsf laws, which provided for capital punishment fot a wide
varien ofcrimes—murder, incest, adultery, theft—as well as
witchcraft, Also, finding rune staves catved on a stick or written
on parch ment was evidence suficient to convict someone of
witchcraft, All of this is a far cry from the saga age when great
men knev the runes and the Althing could not impose the death
penalty Finally, it is noteworthy that although it was not
necessarily the poorest or most ignorant folk who were accused
of sorcery, the rich, powerful, or scholarly (who were in
historical retrospeci the chief practitioners) were largely
immun‘ e.
 His o/ À 4ogic in lceÍa n‹t 25

As to the kinds of magic practiced in this period, we have

direct evidence in the form of the GaAràbók itself, which was
compiled over a period between about 1550 and 1680, including
many years of the persecutions. Here we are not dependent on
secondhand descriptions but have the practical manual itself as
it was used by actual magicians. The same can be said for the
other, later material recorded in Appendices A and B. The re-
maining chapters treat the various aspects of magic as practiced
in the Gadrabó k.
In the 1550—1d80 period lceland developed a national syn-
thesis of magic that was worked by membeis of the highest
levels of its society. But it is perhaps because of the relative lack
of a strict set of socioeconomic and educational class distinctior
s in Iceland at the time and afterward that the synthesis
survived as long as it did. Even today Icelanders are noted for
their partic- ularly strong beliefs in occult matters*2 and their
unabashed pride in their heathen past."
 Icelandic tools of the Black Ar t

B esides the Godroò ó k, which is the focus of our

study here, the apparently once rich textual tradition
of Ice- landic magic is in fragments and shreds. The
folktale
of Iceland repott on the existence of famous books of the
blacl arts owned by notorious magicians of history and housed
in re- nowned schools where magic was practiced. These kinds
of books were also reported in more reliable historical sources,
some oi which even contain summaries of their contents.
Otherwise we are dependent on later collections and on stray
references in manuscripts whose contents are generally other
than that oi galdur. Some of the later books containing spells
are profiled in Appendix A.
In legend, the earliest of the famous Icelandic magicians of
the Christian period, Bishop Sæmundur the Wise, is said to have
learned the arts of magic at a mysterious Black School of Satan
somewhere on the Continent, perhaps in Germany or France.'
But in later times the two cathedral schools of Iceland at Hó lai
(in the north) and Skalholt (in the southwest) were the
hotbed' of magical activity. As noted before, the legendary
material alsc tends to divide the master magicians into two
main types: bed
28 THE GALDRABNK

neficent and malificent. Sæmundur the Wise is the model of

goodness, and Gottská lk the Cruel is the archetype of evil. It is
curious, however, that their sources of magical lore are the same
(as often from Satan or Ó dhinn as from the Christian God);
and in the books that have survived, all kinds of magic are
merrily mixed together. It seems that to the magician himself
(not nec- essarily to the nonmagicians who might sit in
judgment of him) magic is a neutral thing that can be used in
causes just and unjust.

The Black Books of Legenå

There are two main texts of legendary importance in the history
of Icelandic books of the black arts. It is impossible to tell where
legend ends and history begins with these accounts, but one
thing that is borne out by hard evidence is the importance of
such books and the nature of their contents.
The most famous and sinister of all of these books was
Roudßkirini (Red Leather), which was said to have been
compiled by the most evil of all magicians, Bishop Gottská łk N
iklá sson the Cruel, Bishop of Hó lar from 1497 to 1520.
Roяdhskinni is said to be a book of the blackest magic, drawn
from the heathen age. It was supposed to have been written
with golden letters on red parchment (hence, the name “Red
Leather”). It is also said to have been written in runes.'
Gottská lk is reported to have been buried with the ßoitdkskinrii,
and it is further said that he did not teach all of the magic
compiled in the book. Therefore, the text was assumed to be of
enormous secret power. Some two hundred years after
Gottská lk's death there was said to be a scholar at the school of
Hó lar named Loptur, or Galdra-Loptur. Loptur wished to gain
the knowledge contained in RoяdĞ Ú nni, so he set about to raise
the dead Gottskálk and force him to give
 up the book. Loptur was unsuccessful, however, and was lef
shatteted by the encounter with the powerful ghost of
Gottskà lk. Another famous magical book of semilegend was
Grdsà inn (Gtay Leather). There were perhaps at one time two
books by this name, one at Hó lar and one at Skalholt, both
originali compiled from the same source. The description of this
book i! interesting in that the text is supposed to have consisted
of twc parts, the first part written in normal letters (i.e. , in the
Romar alphabet) and containing information on lesser magical
arts, for example, gfimitgoldui (wrestling magic) and Iéfalisi
(palmistry). The souls of those who read just the first part could
still be saved, but those who read the second part of Gròsàinni
were damned. This second part was said to be written in
villurtinir (erring runes,
i.e. , coded runes designed to conceal their actual meanings).
These were black magical spells the magician Galdra-Loptur
had mastered. •
Of course, these books may never have actually existed, but
certainly ones with contents like those described in folktales dih
exist. In fact, our Galdrobó # is a surviving example. We do nol
need to repeat what the usual fate of such books was once they
were discovered by the establishment authorities. However, it
i• useful to recall that there was an active campaign against
such books for centuries, and given that circumstance it is
remarkable that the Gadrnbó # was able to survive.

Text of the Galdrabó k

The original manuscript of this collection of black magical spells
was written in Iceland beginning sometime during the latter
part of the 1500s. It is therefore a product of the Reformation
Age. The manuscript does not represent a comprehensive
composi- tion, but rathet it is a collection of spells, more or less
randomly
30 THLGàLDRABÒK

pieced together. 5 As we have the book now, it has been added

to by four scribes working over a period of as long as a hundrec
years.
The first magician, working in Iceland during the latter hal
of the sixteenth century, wrote down spells 1—10. Soon
thereaftei it was passed on to another Icelander, who added
spells 11—39 Perhaps sometime later a third Icelandic scribe
came into pos session of the book and added spells 40—44.
This lattet galdra rnndhtii wrote in the cursive style of the
17th century. What i! remarkable about his work is that it
contains such a rich stor‹ of references to the older gods and to
Germanic lore—and thi! was around 1650, more than half a
millennium after that fatefu Althing of the year 1000! Not long
after this third scribe han added his spells, the book was
taken to Denmark, where it cam‹ into the hands of a Danish
magician who wrote in spells begin ning with the last section of
44 through 47. This Dane musi have also had the use of other
Icelandic books of magic, nov lost, from which he collected
these spells.
In 1682 the book was acquired by the Danish philologis
J. G. Sparfvenfelt and was later acquired by the Swedes (some
time between 1689 and 1694) for their great collection o
“Gothic” monuments and manuscripts. Eventually it found it:
way into the Academy of Sciences (State Historical Museum.
in Stockholm, where it is now.
A survey of the contents of the manuscript reveals som‹
interesting tendencies. There are essentially two kinds of magi‹
worked here. One works by means of a prayer formula in whicl
higher powers are invoked and by which the magical end i.
effected indirectly. This is the case only with a minority (a tota
of eight) of the spells in the Galdrabó k. Far more cominon art
the spells that work as direct expressions of the magician’s will
This will is expressed through signs.or through written or
spoker formulas. Often these methods are combined so that the
overal
 lceiandic Books o} K Black Art 31

ritual formula is very similar to the kind practiced in ancient

times and reported of Egill Skallagrímsson, for example. There
are a total of twenty-three spells using godrostn/r, while eight
make use of spoken or written spells. Two, 33 and 45, make use
of formulas that mix the ptayers with the use ofgodr‹fsto/r.
Three spells employ neither prayer nor signs but rather make
use of natural substances that are supposed to work a magical
effect. This is the kind of natural magic most often found in the
“leech- books,” or physicians' manuals.
The religious outlook expressed in the spells is also of
central interest. A full twenty-one of the spells have a
predominantly non-Christian or overtly heathen (or even
diabolical) viewpoint. This is not unexpected, as the whole
practice of magic had been associated with the heathen past and
with demonic sources from the time of the introduction of
Christianity. In spite of this, there are some nine spells that
have a “purely Christian” outlook in that they overtly cite
Christian figures or use Christian for- mulas. There are also
eight spells that demonstrate Judeo-Gnostic toots: 5, 10, 11, 12,
31, 37, 39, and 42. These often make use of Judaic or Greco-
Gnostic formulas but cannot be classified as Christian. They
were, no doubt, borrowed from the Continental tradition along
with the overtly Christian formulas. Addition- ally, there are five
highly curious spells that mix overtly Germanic pagan contents
with overtly Christian contents. It is worth not- ing that four of
these were added by the last two scribes. This might indicate
that the pagan and especially the Catholic- Chtistian formulas
were receding further into the category of rejected knowledge
and were thus increasingly becoming can- didates for use in
magical formulas.
There are roughly six different magical motivacions ex-
pressed in the spells of the Galdrabók. By far the most common
are apotropaic, or protective, formulas, of which there are no
less than eighteen. Besides these spells, which are constructed
S2 THE GALDRABÒ K

so as to protect the magician from some active harm (e.g. , troll-

shot or the wrath of powerful men), there is a group of nine
generally beneficent spells designed to bring the magician good
fortune or beneficial circumstances. An overriding concem of
the magicians who compiled this book was the discovery of
thieves. There is a total of six such spells. These are curious in
that they are spells for the acquisition of some form of clairvoy-
ance or magical knowledge (Ice. à xnndan; see Spell 44) by which
the magician will be able to “see” an image of the man who stole
from him. The last spell (47) iS a formula IOz invisibility.
Besides these protective and otherwise passive formulas,
there is a sizable group of spells devoted to more aggressive
forms of magic. These are ten in number, of which four or so are
among the most mischievous yet recorded in the annals of
sorcery. If Icelandic magicians went around casting these spells,
it is no wonder they spent so much time and effort worrying
about the “wrath of powerful men.”

Ot T Hiitoriool Montinb o/
Of course, besides the Galdrabók no coherent and archaic book
of its kind exists anymore. But there are a number of books that
contain various amounts of interesting lore. One of the main
problems in research in this area is that the sources have not
been collected, and/or convenient editions of them have not
been made.
There are historical records of books from the 17th century
that give us some idea of their basic contents. The magical books
of Pastor Jdn the Leamed (1574—16501) fell into the hands of
Pastor Gudhmundur Einauson of Stadharstadhur in 1625.
Gudhmundur used these books to write a tract against the prac-
 lcelandic Books o} the Bl4ck Art

3.

tice of magic in 1627.• Jó n was said to be a leamed but super

stitious man who spread the lore of magic in the form of
kreddrir or superstitious beliefs. We know from secondary
citations of thi now lost tract by Gudhmundur that Jó n's books
contained spell using the sator-square' and “runes” connected
with biblical pas sages (mostly from the Psalms). Gudhmundur,
who was at pain to connect this lore with the worship of Satan,
ventured at interpretation of the sator-square as a scrambling
of the sentenc‹ Satnn ogeror te, oQeror te 5aten. This he
translates as “Satan I an in thy work, I am in thy toil.”' As a
result of this publicity an‹ the efforts of Gudhmundur, Jó n
was condemned for witchcraí at the Althing of 1631 but was
not executed.
There also exists a detailed catalog of the contents of .
gaidiobók found by the schoolmaster of Skfilholt in the bed
o two students in the year 1664. The schoolmaster handed
it ove to Bishop Brynjú lfur Sveinsson, who made a listing of its
con tents. The book itself was most certainly burned, but the
student were spared the same fate. They were not even tried,
but the were expelled from the school and exiled to England.
One o them retumed after some yeats.
The descriptiVe list made by Brynjú lfur contains eight
items. Here are translations of some of those that are most in
teresting for our purposes. No. 14: “To wrestle in a differen
way, with carvings and the drawing of blood. Additionally [foui
signs: hedge-hog tooth, gin{n tal{ and satrix. ” No. 2C
A°gishjó 1mitr (helm of awe). No. 2j: “Conjuration fot a fox.
Her Thó rr and Ó dhinn are invoked, with twenty-three signs. “
No 26: “Conjuration for a mouse, with a human rib—the Devil i
invoked in complete trust in Thó rt and Ó dhinn with the verse
sator arepo, etc.” No. 27: “To give someone the sleep-thom
with the drawing of blood and two signs.” No. 29: “To mak
someone sleepless, with a cursing verse and one sign. Addition
34 THE GALDRABÓK

ally the Devil is called upon as well as twelve arch-devils by the

power of Lucifer.” No. 39: “To find out who stole from
someone, with two signs Sgall inn minni [hagall the lesser].” No.
74: “Sc that a troll of ú tbitrdâ xr [the ghost of an unbaptized
baby] will not drive someone mad, with four signs.” No. 77:
“To carve the sleep-thom for someone.” No. 80: “Against theft:
conjuring à iímtù xrs [rime giant] and grímthurs (cruel giant]
and the Fathei of all Trolls [Ó dhinn] with twenty-nine signs.”
The contents oi this list may be compared beneficially with the
contents of the Godr4bdk and with the later collections found in
the appendixe: of this book.
At least one old Icelandic leechbook (physicians’ manual)
from the late 1 j00s contains several leaves at the beginning
thai are more magical than the average contents of the book.”
These contain some of the oldest representations of the
ægisô jó lmttr anc similar sigпs, as well as prayer formulas in
which the old god: (i. e. , Ó dhinn [also as Fjö lnir], Thó rr, Frigg,
and Freyja) are mixed with Judeo-Christian figures.
The other Icelandic sources treated extensively in
Appendi* A are collections made in the 1800s. Their contents
usually gc back to the 1700s, and their substance, as can be
seen directly, goes right back to the medieval period and
beyond. The reader is advised to see the introductory material
in Appendix A for the historical details of these collections.
Besides the Icelandic material, which is the core of thi:
study, I have also appended material from other Germanic
areas, Appendix B has a selection from an Old English
leechbook that gives an insight into a different traditional mix
but nevertheles! often retains much of the more archaic
underlying Germanic lore. Finally, Appendix C has the most
famous spells in the history of Germanic magic, which are from
the Continenta German tradition and which have important
ludo-European par allels.
 IcelaDc Books of the Black AT 35

The Two WTaditiORS in the North

Although the situation is actually much more complex than I
am able to present it here, from the perspective of the northern,
or Germanic, region there were essentially two great traditions
of magic, the northern and the southern. They are not of over-
riding importance to our study, since we are concentrating on
the Icelandic tradition, which was by far the most conservative
of the Germanic lands. But when we look at the magical tra-
ditions of England and Germany as early as the tenth century
or at the magical teachings in Sweden in the sixteenth century,
we see the transmission of virtually pure magical traditions—in
the form of literature often translated in part into the vernacu-
lar—from the Mediterranean to the northern lands. Of course,
it must be understood that the Mediterranean “tradition” was
by this time an entirely artificial and composite one made up
mainly of elements from Greco-Egyptian, Judeo-Christian, and
even “eastern” features from various Near Eastern and Indian
cults (e. g. , Manichaeanism). This synthetic Mediterranean
tradition marched steadily against the northern tradition, not
(as with religion) by brute economic and military force but by
the gentler force of prestige.
In no region is this whole process clearer and more
polarized than in Germany. There the second Merseburg spell is
the last record of Wodan's name being used in a magical
context. How- ever, the use of his name continues into the
1700s and beyond in Iceland and remote regions of Scandinavia
—and perhaps even in the countryside of England. In Germany
we find that the old folk tradition, although to a great extent
superficially “Chris- tianized,” retained a heathen spirit." This
tradition continued to be practiced at the level of the common
folk in the countryside and on the heaths, but in the cities and
university towns the Mediterranean tradition was being
developed, atticulated, and,
36 THE GALDRABOK

typically, improved by German scholars and magicians from the

sernilegendary Georg (Johann) Faustus (1480—1539?) to Albertus
Magnus (1193—1280), Theophrastus Bombastus vow Hohenheim
(Paracelsus) (1493—1541), and Cornelius Agrippa von Nette-
sheim (1486—1535). The influence of the two traditions was
mutual. An examination of the German hermetic magicians will
show a high level of interest in and use of the local folk
traditions. In turn, the folk traditions were saturated with non-
Germanic figures and entities that have largely replaced the
pagan ones.
 The Old Gods
and the Demons o/ Oleh

he traditional gods and goddesses of the Germanic

people: had an uncanny way of surviving in the
Icelandic national tradition of magic and folklore.
Although we find only
isolated mention in the oldest sources of German or English oi
even in other Scandinavian traditions, we find a widespread and
vigorous life for the old gods in the Icelandic world. The reasons
for this should be obvious from the foregoing discussions of the
peculiarities of Icelandic socioreligious history.
As far as the old gods in the other Germanic traditions of
magic are concemed, the reader should consult the relevant
appendixes in this book. The texts in those seccions have
been selected principally on the basis of what they tell us of the
most traditional levels of magic, which includes the use of not
only the names of the old diviriities but also the contexts in
which they occur.
Here we will look at the complete picture of the “theology”
and/or “demonology” presented in the Gnldrobó k and related
lcelandic texts. It is our principal aim to look at the survival
of the heathen divinities as such, but we will also examine their
relationship and apparent assimilation to the mytho-magical
fig- ures from the Judeo-Christian tradition, both evil and
good.
In the Germanic tradition, as well as in every other indigenous
tradition over which Christianity was laid, the old popular di-
vinities sutvived in at least two ways: ( 1) by being driven “un-
derground,” where they often lived alongside the other tejected
entities (e. g. , demons), or (2) by being assimilated to accepted
or established entities. This latter method was by far the more
common throughout all traditions. In some cases the old gods
were identified with Jesus, his disciples, the apostles, and most
commonly with various saints. These saints were sometimes
preexisting ones, but in some cases there seems to have been a
virtual canonization of the old divinities under new “Christian-
ized” names and circumstances.' This is really a separate study,
as we can be concemed here only with those instances Round in
magical texts. However, it is worth realizing that this was a
general and widespread phenomenon not limited to the magical
arena.'
By far the most vigorously represented of the old gods in
the Icelandic sources is, not surprisingly, the Galdraftidhur (Fathei

Freyr Fjõlnir Fengur Thundur Thekkur Thrumui

Figure I: Six gadrnsto{z recor&d @ Jó n Á rrinson.

 The OM Gods and tfie Demotis o} Herr 39

of Magic)—Ó dhinn. Not only does his name appear in virtually

every litany of names of the old gods, but also his Atti (Ice. ;
nicknames) frequently appear as names of magical signs or in
other litanies. For example, Jó n À mason records a series of six
gnHrnsta/r, each with a distinctive name.° (See Figure 1. )
Of the six, four (2—5) are well attested Ó dhinn nicknames. •
These and other such magical bynames of Ó dhinn show that
knowledge concerning the complex lore of Ó dhinn's various
functions was kept alive, not merely his most usual name. In the
GaHrobó # Ó dhinn’s names are recorded in a total of six spells
(33, 34, 41, 43, 45, and 46). Of these, two (33 and 45) are for
uncovering thieves, two (34 and 43) are love spells, and 41 is
to allay the anger of another—which is needed, given the mal-
ificent curse formula of Spell 46! A review of those spells will
show that Ó dhinn can be found in any company and for a wide
spectrum of magical aims. Every indication points to the con-
tinued active—even if corrupted—knowledge of Ó dhinn and his
magical functions. Of afí of the names of the old ones, Ó dhinn
is, as Spell 43 puts it, the megttxgnste (mightiest).
Perhaps the second most actively reptesented of the old
gods
is Thó rr. This is not surprising either, since he seems to have
been the most popular god in pagan Iceland. ln the Goldrobó k
he is not represented outside the litanies of divine and de-
monic names in spells 43, 45, and 46. However, there is other
evidence show that Thó rr's role in Icelandic magic was
significant through a goÍdrostn{itr called the Thó rshnmor (Thó rr’s
hammer). The name of this sign was attached to several forms
over a long history. At one time it was ascribed to the solar
wheel, or swas- tika, and is recorded in the folktale material of
Jó n À rnason with the form , which seems reminiscent of the
old solar wheel. ^
Curiously enough, the names of these two gods appear to
have survived right up to modern times in locations remote
from
40 THE GALDRABÓ K

lceland. In England during the late 19th century the

following magical incantation was recorded in the dialect of
Lancashire:

Throice i smoites with How Crok,

with this mg// [/iommerJ di chroice dew knock,
One for God,
An’ one for Cod,
in’ one for È.
^

The Wod mentioned here is obviously Wod(en), and the Lok

probably refers to Loki—all of which points to a survival of an
odd mixture od English and Scandinavian lore. In this century
a German woman in North Carolina was found to be using the
name of Thor(r) in combination with the Holy Trinità in a
healing rite.
Besides these two prominent divinities mentioned in
various spells, at least two of the elder divinities’ names appear
as part of the names of certain herbs. FÙ ggjorgros (the herb of
Frigg) is mentioned in Spell d0, and another herb is called
BalbttTS Ó (the brow of Baldur). Frigg was the wife of Ó dhinn,
and Baldut was one of his sons, who was known for his
invulnerability, his perfection, and his murder at the hands of
Loki and Hodhur.
At least one myth is alluded to directly in Spell 46 of the
Goldrabó k, which says: “thou wilt be as weak as the fiend
Loki, who was bound by all the gods.” This shows that the
mythic material recorded in the Poetic and Prose Eddas was
well known to the gnHra Rr who composeó the spell.
Although there are some spells in which single Germanic
god names appear, it is more usual for them to be used in
litanies od god names. We see these in spells 33, 43, 45, and
46. There are several things worth noting about these litanies.
They contain the names of the great gods and goddesses of the
ancient Ger-
 The Old Got end the Demoru o/ Heh 41

manic religion, but they do not seem to be organized in any way

especially meaningful to the pagan theology. Also, the last three
of these four litanies are really syncretic compositions in which
the Germanic names appear right alongside names from Judeo-
Christian and Mediterranean myth and magic. But the overall
impression is that the Judeo-Christian elements are newcomers
in an already established magical system.
This impression is strengthened by the fact that not only
are the great divinities of the Germanic high mythology present
but also that the so-caIled lesser divinities of the pagan
Germanic cosmos give shape to the magical world view of the
Gnldr&ó k. There are several mentions of the belief that trolls or
elves could be responsible for afflictions by means of magical
“shots,” or projectiles hurled at people (see spells 21 and 39),
whereas the “giants,” or more precisely, etins (Ice. jõ tnnr), are
mentioned twice (see spells 33 and 34).
Perhaps one of the most interesting survivals is the name
of the dwelling place of the gods Walhalla (Ice. Valholl). Val-
holl is the “hall [or perhaps “rock”] of the slain” and is held to
be a dwelling place in Á sgardhur (court of the gods) in which
Odinic warriors who died in battle are housed in the supemal
realm. This shows a certain continuance of cosmological tradi-
tions from the heathen past that impressed itself on the
structure of the new entities coming to the north.

Tlíe Demons o/ Hetl

Not only are the old gods of the Germanic peoples said to be
in Valhö ll, but in the view of the galdramenn who wrote this
book, so too were demons of Hebraic mythology Satan and
Beelie- bub to be found there. The most revealing formula is
found in
;2 THE GALDRABÓ K

Spell 43, where we read: “Help me in this, all ye gods: Thó rr,
Ó dhinn, Frigg, Freija, Satan, Beelzebub, and all those gods and
goddesses that dwell in Valholl. “ The fact that Satan had como
to Valhõ ll was a significant event in the history of Icelandic
magic. This symbolically and eloquently shows how the
southem magical elemento were at first assimilated in the north
on termo set by the northem tradition.
From the standpoint of the new establishment culture,
how ever, this had the net effect of “diabolizing” the old
Germani‹ gods. To a great extent, but certainly not exclusively,
the ole gods were equated with devils in the Christian mind. As
time went on, especially beginning at the time of the GoÍdra6õ k,
aggressive magical spells would be more likely to use the old
god: or demons in their formular, whereas protective spells
were mon likely to make use of Christian elements. This is
obviously nos a hatd and fast rule at the time of the Gadrobó L
but only ‹ general tendency.
As noted earliet, the old characteristics and functions o
the multifaceted tradicional deities became split up by the mon
dualistic and dichotomizing Christian dogmas, so for a while th‹
old gods could feel at home alongside Jesus or Satan. But wher
all was said and done, because of fundamental defects in
Christian doctrine, the old gods and goddesses of Valhiill
ultimately foun‹ the company of Beelzebub and Satan more to
their liking.
It might be convincingly argued that the way for this
proces in Scandinavia had been prepared centuries earlier.
That is be cause the Christianization of various Indo-European
people (Greeks, Romans, Celts, and the kindred Germans) was
gen erally accompanied by a suppression of the pagan gods
through campaigns of diabolizing them—tuming them into
devils. It i then no wonder that the heathen deities of the north
—or mon precisely their sympathizets and followers—would
recognize thei kith and kin in the guise of the Christian “devils.”
Nowhere i
 TV Old Gods and U Demons oJ Hel es
this process more blatantly shown than in a Low German bap-
tismal oath from the ninth century:

Forsakest thou the devilsl

ci responder: I forsake the
devils. and all devilish sacrifices?
zespondet. and I forsake all devilish sacrifices.
and all devilish works!
responses. and I forsake all the works and words of
the devil, and Thunar and Woden and
Saxnote and all those who are their com-
panions.
Dost thou believe in God the Almighty Father?
res¢ondet: I believe in God the Almighty Father.
Believest thou in Christ the Son of God?
res¢ondet: I believe in Christ the SOn of God.
Believest thou in the Holy Ghosts
‹espOndet.’ I believe in the Holy Ghost. 9

On the other hand, and especially in the Catholic period,

the new religion was heavily impressed with heathen ideas. Cer-
tain aspects of the old faith were superficially Christianized, and
many old traditions were given a Christian veneer. In the world
of the magicians this meant that Christian figures could some-
times be used right next to pagan deities. And as our wondrous
example in Spell §6 shows, the northem sorcerer was so free
magically that he could use the names of Ó dhinn, the Savior,
and Satan in the same litany.
It might also be true that many times when the words
“lord” (Ice. dró ttínn) or “god” (Ice. ) are used, they are not
free of heathen connotations.
The Icelandic magical triangle of Germanic entities, Chris-
tian entities, and Christo-demonic entities is a peculiar one in
44 THE GALDRABÓ K

that the old gods remained relatively stronger in Iceland than

anywhere else, and they survived most vigorously in magical
practice. Even in the folktales “heathen knowledge” is equated
with sorcery. Further, it seems that taken as a whole and as far
as magic is concemed, the demonic entities were never as “evil”
nor the Christian figures ever quite as “good” as they seem to
have been in other regions.
 Runes and Magical Signs

B y the 16th century the ancient lore of the runes was

in a highly corrupt state. However, the history of magic
shows that confused forms can apparently still be used
meaningfully by skilled sorcerers. What is of interest for us here
is the way in which essential methods of runic magical tech-
nique—very different from those of the magic that could have
been imported from the Mediterranean—were handed down in
the Icelandic tradition. The two major distinctive graphic fea-
tures are the use of runes or runelike signs and the use of
magical signs (goldramyndir) that may or may not have runic
origins. Another striking feature is the very technique by which
this magic was worked, as it is virtually identical with that of the
rune magic of the heathen age.
The runes themselves continued to be known as a practical
script in Iceland, and we see them used to write inscriptions in
and atound some of the magical sigils in Appendix A, for ex-
ample. But these relatively clear instances of runic writing were
far less prevalent than the use of encoded runic forms cal[ed
ei#uletur or eiifuzñ nir, which were meant to confuse and
conceal
46 THE GALDRABÓK

rather than actually reveal meanings. One of the ways in which

runelore was apparently used by the wiiards who compiled
these spells was to have certain numbers of runelike 6gures
arranged in a way that suggested the runic system. Notes to
spells 12—19, for example, show a variety of ways in which the
numerical system5 and the forms of the runes themselves were
used in magical “staves.” There seems to be an effort to have a
significant number of figures to make up complexes of signs, sO
there are twenty-four or sixteen or eight of them in the
formulas.
Another feature apparently inherited from ancient runic
magical practice is the very terminology used tO describe the
figures and ways of using them. Most often the figures are
referred to in Icelandic as stn/r (sg. stafur) “staves.” This is
inherited from the old technical designation of runes as staves
or sticks because they were often carved on such wooden
objects for tal ismanic purposes. The execution of these figures for
maglCal purposes is indicated by the Icelandic verbs reisn (to
scratch) or riitn (to carve). These are used in contexts that show
that actual cutting or carving is intended (e.g. , into wooden
objects) but also in contexts that show that what is actually
intended is more like writing, as with ink and quill on
parchment or paper. How eve‹ the old magical runic
terminology died hard.
Piobably the most outstanding single feature of the
Icelandic
books of magic is their use of complex magical signs. Most
effort: at classifying these signs try to come to grips with their
relation ships to the runes and their magical functions.' There
seem tc be three main types of such signs: (1) bondrú nir
(bind runes, made up of more or less obvious combinations
of runes), (2) gadrasto/r (magic staves, which were perhaps
originally binc runes but which have become so stylized as to
take on inde• pendent lives of their own), and (3)
gaAramçndi‹ (magic signs which seem to have alway5 been
nonrunic abstract signs, such
 dunes anå MngicaÍ Áigrlr

as the Thórr’s hammer discussed above). Many of the signs

appear to be combinations of runes and abstract cosmological
signs. The main problem in any effort to “decipher” these signs
is the long- standing tradition of stylization and simplification
(or artificial complication). Another form of classification has to
do with their magical functions. If they were intended to be
protective amulets, they might be called by the Latin name
innsigfi (sigils) or by the Icelandic term eorrinstnțr (protective
staves). The term goHro- steer would then indicate magic of an
operative nature, meant to cause alterations in the environment.
Protective magic could be Christian and would often use biblical
passages to charge the figure with intent, but operative magic
was very often considered heathen (or devilish).
Again, it is almost impossible to read any linguistic
meaning in the gaídтnstoĘr (and many of the boridrúnir) without
having some lead given in the commentaries. These leads
usually come in the form of names given to these signs.
Examples of these are given in Figure 1, on page 38, with the
bartdiúnir that have been stylised in the medium of pen and ink.
Nevertheless, many of theit runic features are obvious. However,
many of the names given to magical signs seem to have to do
with their functions and not their forms. The names themselves
are usually unique words that are highly obscure in meaning.
The two most famous names of such signs are ægisfijólmitr (the
helm of awe, or terror) and svefnthom (sleep-thom) . The
ægishydlmuT could become a very complex kind of figure, but
its basic form was that of a four- or eightfold cross with branches
at its terminals. With these two signs we are lucky because we
have mythic survivals that give us some insight into their origins
and meanings.
The ægisùjólmuт is mentioned in the material concerning
Sigurdhr Fáfnir-bane.' When Sigurdhr slays the gteat etin-worm,
or serpent, named Fáfnir in order to win the treasure hoard of
 S A T R

A R E

T E N E T

0 E R

R O S

Figwe 2: Senor-sqitore.

the N iflungs (N iebelungs) , one of the “objects” of power that

he gets is the mgish)alTrtuT. This object is not a helmet but mort
of a general covering that surrounds the “wearer” with an over-
awing power to terrify and subdue his enemies. The power i:
concentrated in or between the eyes and is often associated witf
the power serpents have to paralyze their prey. This is apparentl5
an ancient Indo-European concept, as is shown in the etymolog
of the Greet drokön—the one with the evil eye. We also thinÏ
of the Gorgons’ ability to paralyze with the gate of their eyes set
in a head surmounted with serpents. Whatever the origins ol
the lcelandic magical sign, its function remains essentially the
 Runes ond Magical Sis 49

same, but here there are practical indications, not just mythic al-
lusions.
The svefnthorn is also mentioned in Old Norse mythic lit-
erature as the magical device with which Odhinn placed one of
the valky xr, Sigrdrífa (or Brynhildr), into a deep slumber, from
which she could be awakened only by one who could cross
the magical barrier of fire placed around her by Ó dhinn.’ This
feat too was accomplished by the Ò dhinic hero Sigurdhr Ffifnir-
bane. Spells intended to put people into a deep slumber from
which they can be awakened only by the magical will of the
sorcerer are common in the Icelandic books, but the signs used
and given the name svefnthom are numerous.
Besides these two well-attested signs there are many
names given to signs, for example, gapaldur (see note on Spell
34), veHxrgoQi (weather daredevil, to cause a storm), keu§nloki
(deal closer, for good business), Ginnir (a name of Ó dhinn),
Angurgogi (reckless one of anger). But quite often the same
name may be given to two or more different signs.
Despite the fact that it is obviously of southem origin, no
discussion of magical figures in the medieval north would be
complete without mentioning the so-caIled sator-square. This
most often appears inscribed with Latin letters (see Figure 2).
This formula has already been touched on in connection with
the magic books of Jó n the Leamed. The formula was apparently
well known, as magical instructions often call for reciting the
sator-arepo. It is difficult to tell what exactly is meant by this.
Was there a secret decoding (such as pastor Gudhmundur sus-
pected), or were the letters of magical syllables to be recited?
Another interesting aspect of the sator-sqiiare in the north is the
fact that not only is it mentioned in books of magic, but it is
also found in at least seven runic inscriptions! One fragmentary
example was recently found on the bottom of a bowl in Sweden,
5
and it reads as shown in Figure 3 on page 50.
50 THE GALDRABØK

1 t y 1

s a t o r

a i æ p o

t æ n æ t

Sigwe 3 fnsciiption on the bottom of a bowl Jound in Sweden.

T'he bowl dates from the end of the 1300s, so it can be seen
that the use of this formula is several hundred years older
than oui magical books would indicate.
 TÍeory and Practice of Magic
in the Caldrabó k

xamples such as the sator-square point up the fact thai

there were definitely influences coming into the north
from the southem traditions of magic. But to some
extenl
these examples serve also to show the remarkable degree to
which basic northem ideas of how magic works and how to
work magic remaïned intact even under this superficial
ïnfluence.
In this chapter I want to look at the underlying theories
oi magic as expressed in the Icelandic grimoires, at the
powers by which it is thought to work, and at some of its
consistent ritual techniques.
One of the ways we can see the northem component is by
observing how these magical elements were dealt with in the
north in contrast to the south.' The typical structure of Medi-
terranean magic involves five steps with five particular functions:

1. Preparation (specific to working)

2. Círcle
3. Conjuration of spirit
4. Address to spirit
5. License to depart
52 CHU GALDRABÖ K

The preparation typically involves two main aspects: ( 1) the

procurement or arrangement of tools and substances particulai
to the operation and (2) the determination of an auspicious time
for the operation. The latter usually involves technical knowl-
edge of astrology. (By the way, Icelandic magic is almost ftee of
astrological elements. ) A circle—really a complex of magical
diagrams drawn on the surface of the space of operation—is
erected. This typically includes a circle in which the magician
stands and a triangle outside that circle in which the spirit ap-
pears. The circle functions as a shield to protect the magician
ftom the spirit, and the triangle serves to constrain the spirit.
The entity is then called to appearance by a series of
conjurations, which are a mixture of prayet formulas and
commanding threats. Usually the spirit in question is threatened
with the wrath of spirits above it in the hierarchies of heaven or
hell. Once the spirit arrives, the magician addresses it, asking or
commanding what he wills. Traditionally (and despite whatever
revisionist theotists may say), the spirit does the work for the
magician. The rite is concluded by a license to depart, which
banishes the spirit away ftom the magician.
There are certain traits in this theoretical working model
that remain foreign to the Icelandic magician. There rarely
seems to be any pteparation for the specific working. lt would
seem that the Icelandic magician constantly prepared himself in
a general way and then applied his spells almost in a rough-and-
ready fashion. This is very reminiscent of the way Egill Skalla-
grimsson worked. Further, the Icelandic magician never seems
to need to protect himself from the powers he is calling on. (He
appears more concemed with other humans. ) Although
spiritual entities are involved, it seems closer to the truth to say
they help the magician work his will than work it for him. And
since the magician has no need to protect himself from the
entities he summons, he has no need to banish them.
 Tfiory and Practice of Mogic in tà e G nò dk

Generally, medieval Icelandic magic seems to have worked

through one of a combination of three media: (1) graphic
signs,
(2) spoken or written words, and (3) natural substances. Spel
46 in the Galdrabó k shows a combination of all three elements
for example.
Graphic signs (including runes and other written
characters are thought to be conduits or doorways through
which variow powers or entities are directed to do the will of
the magician, These signs are generally called stn/r (staves).
The actual physica sign seems to have Íitt le power on its own; it
is only in combi- nation with the will of a trained magician that
any results car be expected. That is why, in the folktales
concerning the famou: gaHrnmenn, such emphasis is placed on
thetr schOlarly character' and on the fact that the signs had to
be learned by a process that involved more time and effort
than just memorizing their external forms. Also, the fact that
except for the most common signs (e. g., the ægisíijó lmxr or
Thò rsWmnr) the shapes of the “staves” are rarely repeated,
even when they might be called by the same name, indicates
that it was an inner fortn, not an external shape, that was mainly
being “learned.”
Words (spoken or written) are the medium often used tc
activate the signs, or words can work alone either to direct or
command some power or entity or to beseech an entity to act
on behalf of the magician. this latter prayer-type formula is
usually found only in spells of a Christianized kind. In the me-
dieval Icelandic formularies words and names can activate the
corresponding power or entity in a way desired by the magician
and as formulated in his verbal spell. The “power of the name”
is a well-known phenomenon in the annals of magic. We
know that such a belief reaches back into the Germanic past. Its
most famous depiction is in the lore 5urrounding Sigurdhr
Ffifnir-bane: after fatally wounding the serpent Fá fnir,
Sigurdhr attempts to conceal his name from the dying giant
(etin) because, as we read
 THE GALDRAB K

in the Fà fnismä l, “it was the belief in olden times that the words
of a doomed man had gteat might, if he cursed his foe by name.
“° This ancient Germanic lore was, of course, further reinforced
by the importation of Judeo-Gnostic names of God or words of
power that are heaped up in some of the Christian-type spells (e.
g. , in the Galdrabâk spells 1, 3, 12, and 21). In all cases thèse
verbal elements are seen as being vitally linked to the actual
things they name, and therefore willful and trained
manipulation of such words and names constitutes a
manipulation of the actual things or entities.
Certain substances were thought to have a predisposition
for use in magical operations, the most typical being blood and
woods of various kinds. Both are well represented in the
heathen type of spell. The blood of the magician or that of an
animal is used in spells 34, 45, 46, and 47. Four kinds of wood—
oak, towan, alder, and ash—are mentioned in six spells (9, 29,
32, 33, 36, and 47). In all but the last of thèse, staves of one
kind or another are to be carved into the wood. Again, this is a
direct continuation of runic magical practice. Herbs are also
mentioned in several spells. The most useful are millefolium
(yarrow) and Friggjozgrns [œchis odmatissima o s‹ttyrixm
dbidium). Many other spells make use of various substances on
which staves are to be carved. In each case there seems to be an
underlying analogical reason for the use of the substance, which
must be evaluated on a case-by-case basis.
In the spells of Icelandic magic the emphasis is laid heavily
on the person of the magician. He is rarely said to have the
explicit help of outside forces, and the rituals, such as they are,
are quite simple procedures. This is again in sharp contrast with
the hocus-pocus of the complex grimoires of the southem tra-
dition.
Since there is such a heavy emphasis on the person of the
magician, it is necessary to take a closer look at what makes up
 Chef ariâ Practice o| Magic in td Gü/drobôk 55

the psychophysical complex of the individual human being. The

ancient Germanic peoples had a complex and well-developed
structure for thèse psychic aspects of the human being. We can
know this to a fairly exact degree because they had such a well-
developed set of technical terms for the psyche. In heathen
times this body-soul structure could have been described as
having ( 1) a physical body (ON fin) , (2) a shape or semiphysical
body image (ON ème), (3) a faculté of inspiration (ON
ô dhr), (4) a vital breath (ON ö nd), (5) a
volitive/cognitive/perceptive faculty (ON û ugr), (6) a reflective
faculty (ON minni), (7) a “shade” or after- death image (ON sdf
or, figuratively, skxggi, shadow), (8) a per- manent magical
soul, or fetch (ON Çigja), and (9) a dynamistic empowering
substance that gives luck, protection, and the ability to shape-
shift (ON fimingjo). •
Unfortunately, with the coming of Christianity, the
refined native psychology, or lore of the soul, was assailed
and began to decay and become very confused. In our
Gadzabækitr we only have the bare remnants of a
fragmented system. What is clear, however, is that the
lcelandic magicians preserved some of the technical lore in
the ways they believed magic worked. lt seems fairly clear that
even in the period in which those spells were being used the
magicians realized (1) an animating or vital prin- ciple, (2) a
personal image, and (3) a separable power entity by which
“sendings” (Ice. sendingaf) were sent, and (4) an essential core
faculté of “heart and mind” (ON fiugr).
For example, it is obvious that curse formulas are meant to
deplete the vital energy of a person or animal, and protective
formulas are meant to build up this faculté. Other formulas
are intended to change the quality of the contents of the hitgur
— for example, to cause someone to fear or love the
magician. The ability to see shades, or images, of other
people, especially ones who have stolen something from the
magician, is also frequently mentioned.
56 THE GALDRABÓ K

To conclude this discussion of the theory of magic implied

in the spells of the GaAiabok and related texts, perhaps a careful
anaÍysis of one spell would bring things into sharper focus.
I refer to Spell 34 in the Galdrobó k. This is a spell to get
the love of a woman. It is an attempt to tum her free will
genuinely toward the magician, but it is couched in the magical
forms of threats and curses. A review of the magical procedures
would include a complex set of actions. First, the woman's being
is linked to the formula by means of location (placing of staves,
etc. , “in a place where she will go over it”) and essence (writing
her name with staves); then the magician’s (sexual?) being is
linked with the woman’s being and with the magical formulas
by means of the “etin-spear blood” (semen!); and finally, the
magical signs that graphically einbody the aim of the operation
are insctibed and the whole contained in a ring of water. All of
this has linked the woman, the magician, and the aim in an
essential but as yet only general way. This symbolic and graphic
series of actions and signs is then empowered and given a highly
specific direction by the words of the spell spoken over the
forms. This spell includes references to how the formula is to
work within the psychological scheme as understood by the
magician. It includes graphic imagery and a prayerlike entreaty
to Ó dhinn for success. (Ó dhinn is, by the way, known in the
ancient myth- ology for his interest in spells of this kind. ) Just
about all elements common in medieval Icelandtc spells are to
be found in this operation. And again, it should not be missed
that the general procedure is quite the same as that practiced by
the heathen runic magicians of the north.
 PART

GALD%BOK
 1. A proper lor protection against alt kinds ol dangers
This prayer ought to be wom on oneself in all kinds of danger'
that threaten from water, sea, and weapons. It should also bt
read just before one sees one’s enemies: lesus Christus Emanuel,
pater et Domine. Deus meus Zebaoth, Adonaij , Unitas, Trinitas,
Sapientja, Via, Vita, manus, Homo, usiono, Caritas et terus.
Creator, Redemtor, Suos, Finis, unigienitus, Fons, Spes, jmas
et tu Ergomanus, Splendor, Lux, Grammaton, Flos, Mundus
imasio, paracletus, Columba, Corona, prophetas, H umilas, For
tissirnus, Atanatos, Kyrias, Kyrios, Kyrieeleison.
Jamas, Lux, tua, Grammatori, Caput, Alpha et prime
Genue, isus, Agnus, ovis, Vitulos, Serpens, Leo, Vertnus, unu,
Spiritus SanCtus, Helio, Heloj , Lamasabactanj, Consumatum est
jnclinate capite, Spiritus jesus vinset, jesus imperat, Redemtor
Deus Abraham, Deus jsaac, Deus jacob.
Uriel, Tobiel, Geraleel, Gabriel, Raphael, Michael, Cher
ubin, Cheraphin, Caspar, Fert miram, Meloiorus, Balthasat
Aurum, et t rjva nomi, qvis Super pontavit, Solvetur, Avisibet
petate, Adam, Eva, jesus Nazarenus, Rex judiorum, jesus Chris
tus Filj Dei; Miserere mej.
Petrus, Andrias, jacobus, jahannes, Philippus, Bartolomeus
Simon, judas, Matthias, Lucas, Paulus, Barnabas.
qvi me Defendit a Canibus, in manus Comentuum Spiriturr
meum, Redemisti meum Verita tue Amen.'
60 THE GALDRABÓK

2. for #rotection against weariness and affliction

The prayer written above must also be read if anyone is bored or
sick in any way, and it will be stopped.

3. Against troithle witfi childbearing2

Read the three following words three times into the ear of a
woman who cannot be made to part with her child in birth and
say the Pater Noster three times in between; then things will get
better: GALATH, MALCiALATH, SARATHIM. After this fol-
lows three Pater Nosters in Latin:
Pater Noster qvi es in Celis, Santificetur nomen tuum, ad-
veniat Regnum tuum, fiat voluntas tua, Sic ut in celo, et in terra
panem nostrum qvotidianum, da nobis hodie, et Dimitte nobis,
debita nostra, tic ut et nos, Dimittimus, Debitoribus nostris, et
ne nos inducas, in tentationem, Sed libera nos a malo Amen
qvja tuum est Regnum, tua potenja et Gloria in Secula Secuorum
Amen.

4. To stench bloods
To stanch blood that is flowing from a man's body, read this
verse three times, with a Pater Noster in between; but if you
want to stanch blood on the head, then hold your thumbs against
the eyes and say:
Sangvis maneat in te, Sic ut fecit Christus in se, Sangvis
maneat in tua vena, Sicut fetit Christus in Sua pena, Sangvis
maneat fixus, Sicut qvando Christus fuit Crussifixus. Pater Nos-
ter.
To stanch a nosebleed for someone, write these words on
his forehead in his own nose blood: CONSUMMATUM EST.

5. Against liendnche and insomnia

Against headache and sleeplessness write this verse and leave it
in his nightcap, or under his head in the evening without him
 The Gaídrabóà 6

knowing it, and it will help him: MILANT VÀ VITALOT£

JEOBÓA FEBAOTH. •

6. A spell against elit when some oihei

incontations are a proò /em
If you want to treat someone, but some incantations (galldror,
are upon him, then read this over him three times, and also le
him read the following himself if you wish:
Vulnera Sub qvinis, te Subtrae Christe Ruins, Vulner:
qvinqve Dei, Sunt medisina tuj.
But if you let him read it himself, then also have him read
the following (you should also read this if you are reading ove
yourself): VULNERA SUB @V1N IS, ME SUBTRAE CHRISTI
RUINIS, VULNERA @VIN@VE DEI, SUNTT MEDISINA ME)

7. Against }ninttng or pestiÍence of tivesiock

One has to clip or cut these helms of awe' onto one’s livestock
if it is swooning or diseased; the first one should be put on thi
left shoulder and the other one on the right.

8. To win a gizf's Lee

Likewise, you should, while fasting, make the second helm o
awe with your sal iva in your palm when you greet the girl whorr
you want to have; in such a case it should be in your right hand.
62 THE GALDRABOK

lf you want your foe to be afraid of you whenever he sees you,

ther carve these staves on an oak branch‘ and wear it in the
middle o your breast—and see to it that you see him before he
sees you

I O. To get one's wish fut)lled

Read this verse three times forward and three times backward
and you will get the outcome that you want.
Forward: Sprend manns Hoc, flijde tuui boll'
Backward: Boll tuui flijde, Hoc manns Sprend

11. @gninst the tie rind poison oJ sends end enemies

Whoever carries the following sigil on himself will never b‹
harmed by any of the Fiend’s temptation, and his enemy wil
not be able to work any active hate against him. Nor will he b‹
exposed to any poison in his food or drink, and he will never
fall victim to any treacherous dealings.
 The Galdrnhñk 63

l2. Against distress at sen, dangerous weapons,

and sudden &atl
Whoever carries this name on himself cannot be drowned in the
sea, nor be struck by hostile weapons; nor will he die an un-
pleasant death, and neither come to harm:
Helon Heloui Helion
Saa bonaij lux tetram Gramatus9

J3. Squirm Arm morn na enemy

If anyone carries these staves on himself, nothing can harm
him all day, and his enemies will not have any power over
him. 10

The person, man or woman, who carries these staves on himself

will be stricken with no torment. And no sword can harm him,
nor any of his enemies, and no worm 1 will get into his food or
drink."
64 THE GALDRABÓK

l5. To win té love of a berson

You should write this one and have it with you, and men will
love you very much."

16. TO Cause feat in youT enemies

If you want your enemies to fear you, always carry this stave
under your left arm.'•

17. To win té fase of 9owerfut meu

You should wiite this and always have it with you, and
powerful men will like you very much.
 The Gaidrn6ñf 65

I g. For protection agnitist ad kinds ol evil

If you wish to elude something that is evil [ilft], then carry
these staves with you so that nothing can harm you, no sword
and no torment; neither (will there beJ any worm nor poison in
your food or drink. "

19. to cause lead

Carry these following staves with you, and your enemies will
fear

20. A washing verse

I WASH MYSELF in thy dew and dales" in the brilliance of
thy fire, my lord. I set thy blessed form between my eyes. I
wash away all of my does and their spells {/ormnli]. I wash
away from myself the power and anger of mighty men. The
world shall be kind to me, with friends and kind deeds. The
earth (b-dn] shall be gracious to me in goods [}é] and
acquisitions. Everything will
66 TH£ GALDRABÓK

be successful that I need to doc to speak, to think. This 1

bid thee, lord, king of glory d rdarkonungur), so that everyone
who sees me today will have to cast kind glances at me and will
be delighted with me, as the blessed MAID MARION was with
her blessed, lovely son when she found him by the river Jordan,
and when she found him in the minster, and when she sought
him as a mourner. Likewise, I bid thee, lord of lords and king
of kings, that thou wilt turn away from me and remove all ruin
and ill luck, all malice and all treachery on the part of others,
who want to deceive me in words and through word s in deeds
and through deeds, in incantations [i golldrum] and through
incan- tations, or in whatever way they want to ruin me. Hear
thou my prayer, my dear lOid. I have faith in thee and I trust in
all good things. Amen.'®

2 1. Bymiel°-prayer
HEAR THOU ME, HOLY TRINITY, Father, Son, and holy
ghost [nndi], sole lord, Shaper of all things, ruling in glory
with all the saints. Be thou a bymie and a shield for my som
[sà l], my life, and my body [líkama], inside as well as outside, for
seeing and hearing, tasting, smelling, and feeling, for ílesh and
blood, veins and sinews, cartilage and bone, bowels and all of
my bOd\’S movements and connections. Indeed, for thy name’s
sake, lord, may all my joints and limbs receive life and spirit, to
move, and to be strengthened and become whole. Protect me,
my lord, on the right and left sides, forward and backward,
above and below,'0 from the inside and outside, when I bow
down and when I rise up, in hard weather, in waters great and
small, in the sea, in high waves, and in confusing darkness,
when I am walking, standing, sitting, in sleep and while awake,
in silence and while talkíng, and in all my body's workings.
Protect me, my lord, days and nights; help me, almighty God
in holy trinity ADONAIJ
AGIJOS OTHEOS AGIJOS YSKYROS AGIJOS ATHANA-
 Galdrnb6k 67

THOS ELEYSON YMAS ZEBAOTH EMANULL save me,

my lord, from deadly dangers that threaten from land, from the
waters and sea, from all beasts and monsters Of the ocean, birds
and beast5 that go on four feet, and all creeping beasts.
Protect me, my lord, from all evil, l£Om fire and claps of
thunder [reidor thrxmurn), from snow and hail, from rain and
wind, from earthquakes and all kinds of movements in the earth,
and from all dangerous phases of the moon, from magical poison
(n/eitre $olkinga], from all glances of envious eyes, from evil
words and works and dangerous situations, from worms, from all
the devils of darkness and midday, and flying shots from them’ 1
that daily are going out into the darkness of this world. Protect
me, my lord, from all the hostility of the enemy, who wants to
withhold from me all good things, here before death, and in
death, and in the other world after death, thou lord god, who
ever lives and rules in holy, perfect trinity, one god in all ages
of ages. Amen.

22. Doys thnt bring bad Incl

These are the days that the old ones held to be unlucky; they
seemed especially so for the Egyptians: 22
In January the 1st and 7th
In February the 3rd and 4th
In March the 1st and 4th
In April the 8th and 10th
In May the 3rd and 7th
In June the 10th and 15th
In July the 10th and 13th
In August the 1st and 2nd
In September the 3rd and 10th
In October the 3rd and 10th
In November the 3rd and 5th
In December the 7th and 10th
68 THE GALDRABQK

23. To be aha' to count its playing cards, evhich are face d

oevn"
1 : 739 King : 6 : 5
4: Knave : 8 :
Queen 10. 2

2#. The I 09t# Psalm of David$^

God do not be silent concerning my praise, for they have un-
locked their ungodly mouths against me and speak against
me wtth a false tongue.
And they speak venomously against me everywhere and
strive against me without cause.
Because I love them, they are against me, but I pray. They
repay me ill for good and hate for love.
Set a man who does not feat god over him, and the fiend"
should stand at his right hand.
When his case comes to judgment, he will go out con-
demned and his prayer will become sin.' 6
May his days be few and may another take his office.
May his children be fatherless and his housewife a
widow.
May his children wander aimlessly and beg for alms and fare
about like poor men who are ruined.
May the usurers suck out everything that he has, and
may strangers grab all his wealth.
And may there be none who will show him any goodness
and may there be none who will have pity on his fathetless
children. May his descendants be rooted out and may their
name be wiped out in the next generation. May the misdeeds of
his fore- fathers be remembered and put before the face of
the lotd, and
the sins of the mother never be blotted out.
May the lord never forget them and the memory of them
will be wiped away from the earth.
 69

Because he was so merciless in every endeavor, and perse-

cuted those poor and needy, he would send even those filled
with grief to Hel [i.e. , kill them].
And as he desired cursing, so let him have it, and as he
did
not desire blessing, therefore it will stay far away frOm him.
And as he clothed himself with cursing, just as with a gar-
ment, so it will mn into his bowels like water and into his bones
liken to butter.
May it be to him like a garment in which he is clothed,
and liken to a belt with which he is girded all the time, as is
fitting. May that happen to those who are my enemies and
who speak maliciously against my soul. 2* But thou, lord, will
be with me for thy name's sake because thy mercy is my
consolation, deliver thou me, because I am poor and helpless my
heart is broken in two within me.
I go away from here as a shadow*® as it fades away, and I
am driven away as a swarm of locust.
My knees are weak from fasting and my flesh is lean and
does not have any fat. And I must have become a disgrace for
them; when they saw me, they shook their heads. Show me
aid, my lord god, and help me according to thy mercy.
So that they may know that this is thy hand, and that
thou, lord, acted thusly. They may curse, but thou wilt bless;
if they should rise against me, then have them come to 5hame,
but thy servant rejoice.
May my enemies be at the same time clothed in disgrace,
and may they cover themselves with shame as with a kirtle.
Greatly, I want to thank the lord with my mouth and to praise
him among the crowd.
Because he will stand at the right hand of the pOor man,
so that he might deliver him from those who want to pass judg
ment on his life.'9
70 THE GALDRABÓ K

25. A wnsliing verse

I wash myself in the dew and in thy day-bath,” and in the
btightness of thy fíte, my lord. I wash away all the power of
my enemies, and the wrath of mighty meu and of all those
who have evil intentions toward me." May wrath run away and
may strife be stemmed, so that they wilÍ greet me gladly and
may they laughingly look into my eyes, and the greatest good
deeds will be on my tongue.
May god behold me, and may good men, as well as every
other man, behold me with eyes that bring nothing but bless-
ings—it is the helm of awe'° that I bear between my brows—
may the world and the land be gracious to me. May my
enemies become as delighted with me as much as the child who
taken milk from its mother's bteast, and just as the Saint Maria
was delighted with her son when she sought him for three
days and found him in the minster among his teachers.'°
May their wrath run away and their strife be stemmed,
may theit breasts cool down and may the bottoms [of their
hearts] be thawed before the might and craft of the rnighty
shaper—Jhesu Christi. May their wrath tun away from me
just as the sun runs down into the sea, may god release their
wrath and hate from me as he released Susanna from her
long disgrace any Daniel from the pit of fierce beasts, Moses
from the power of the pagan people. Read this while you
wash yourself and look three time' into the bowl of your
hands."

26. NOT the path ol might men

I wash all of my enemies away, and the power and wrath of
mighty men, so that they will greet me with good cheer and
loot upon me with laughing eyes. My eyes project love and I car
settle disputes of life, I can settle cases concerning the mightiest
of men. God will behold me, every man will gaze upon me
with
 The Galdrobak 71

eyes that bring good fortune—I bear the helm of awe between
my brows—may the world and land be gracious as friends.
Read this three times down into the bowl of your hand'
while having water in your hands, and also read a Pater Noster
each time.

27. To plug a )oI‹e on someone, so tit be cannot hold his

food down e'#ot dny long
Carve these staves into cheese or fish and have whoever you
want to make fun of eat it, and whatever he eats that day will
be of no use to him.’^

28. An onndoce /or the ie ious enclmntment

If he does not get any better by himself, then give him warm
milk, with bleached and dried albumin scraped off into iti this
can also be done against cholera and it won’t go wrong.

29. To kinder a person OTC Coming to OuT house

If you don’t want a man to come to your dwelling, then carve
this stave into rowan wood°° when the sun is in her highest
stead, and go three times with the sun [riett sa #s] and three
times widdershins [Ranga-smlis] around your farm and hold
onto the wand of rowan wood onto which the stave has been
carved, and
72 THE GALDRABÓK

onto some sharp thorn grass [thistle]37 and then lay both of
them together up over your door.

30. To kill nnOtâ67 S Ottltllft

One should inscribe these staves onto a leaf and cast it into the
footprint of another’s horse; then the animal will die, if he has
offended you without cause. Conceal the stave in the horse’s
hoofprint.

If any kind of shot flies toward you, then read this verse right
away: BUMEN SITTIMUS CALECTIMUS ME TASUS ELI
ELOI SIEBAHOT ELEM VE A O NAJ
 7S

32. TO put someone to sleep

lf you want to put someone to sleep, then carve these staves in
alder wood’ 9 and lay it under his head and he will surely sleep
until you take it away.

33. To and our ri thief

In case of theft you should carve these staves on the bottom of
a dish of ash wood, put water in it, and strew miíhfoíixm 0 into
the water [and say]: “This l ask according to the nature of the
herb and great might of the staves, that the shade (skuggiJ° of
the one who has taken it appear in the water, and that the name
of this person be carved on a fish gill with etin’s bewilderments
[iotxn viIlu••l. 42 and carry these on yourself [and say]: Ódhinn,
Loki, Fro, Baldur, Njordhr, Ter, Birau‹ Héénir, Freyja, Gefjon,
Gusta, and all those gods and goddesses who dwell and have
 TH£ GALDRAB$K

dwelt in Valholl from the beginnings of heaven, they must help

me so that I will have success in this matter.

3#. To bewitch a woman and win he7 love

If you want to bewitch a woman so she will come to no one
except you, make a hole in the floor in a place where she will
go over it, and pour in some etin-spear blood [iotxn geiro
blod]•' and draw a ring of water around it, as well as her name
and these staves: and threefold diving•• Mo1ldthurs-•' and
Modhr-runes, bM, unit, komlo, and gapnlldiir*° and then read
this conjura- tion:"

I look upon thee and thou givest me the lust and love o
alt thy heart [hitgitr]. Thou canst nowhere sit, thou canst b‹
nowhere at home, unless thou lovest me. This I bid of Ódhinr
and of all those who can reads" “women-runes”:•" that thou wilt
nowhere in the world be at home nor thrïve, unless thou lovesi
me with all thy heart. This shalt thou feel in thy bones as i
 75

thou bumest all over, and in thy flesh half as badly. Thou wilt
meet with ruin unless thou lovest me—thou shalt freeze on thy
feet and thou wilt never meet with honor or happiness. Sittest
thou as if burning, with thy hair rotting out; rent are thy clothes
—unless thou wilt have me of thine own free will.

35. To find out o thiel

Carve these on a man’s leg bone and then he will come and spit
out whosoever stole from you:

36. To and a thief

Carve these on an oak twig'0 and lay it under the turf over a
grave and let it die there:
78 THE GALDRABOK

37. P ma to get soos{nction in a legal case

If you want to have fulfillment in a legal case, read this verse
three times forward and three times backward: VlENIAT MICHI
MYSERACIONIS TVE VIVAM QUlA LEX TUA MEDI
TASlO MEA EST5
Backward: EST MEA TASIO MEDI TUA LEX QUlA
VIVAM TUE MISERACIONIS MICHI VIENlAT.

38. For th J›rotection of your horse

Read this verse over your horse when you come to unsafe
places; then no harm will come to it: COGNOVI DOMINE CUIA
ECUITAS JUDIJSIA TUA ET IN VIRI TATES TUE HUMI
HASTE MIE."

39. Agairut roll-shot

If any kind of shot comes flying toward you, read this verse at
once: BUMEN SITTIMUS CALECTIMUS ME TASUS EU
ELOE SIEBAHAT ELEM VE A O NAJ .53

40. To /nd out n thief

Against theft take Frigg’s grass’ ^ and lay it in water so that ii
might lie there for three nights at a stretch; then go back there
and you will be able to see the one who stOle from you.
 77

To still all kinds of wrath make this stave on your forehead with
your left index finger, and say: It is the helm of awe that I
bear between my eyes—wrath runs away, strife is stemmed.
May every mother be delighted with me as Maria was
delighted with her blessed son when she found him on the
rock of victory,^^ in the name of the Father and the Son, and
the Holy Spirit:

And read:
Ølvir, Ó dhinn, Evil One5•
AU will you bewitch!
May God himself, with skill
Send love between us two!"

If anyone harbors hate against yoti, sign yourself' at once

with these words:
Trepa- tetra :
Cìrammaton + :
Alpha -F Et + : O -i-
Ageos —ł— : agios -F
otheos -F : adonaij

#3. To make a woman keep quiet

If you do not want [a woman] to tell about what you did țwith
her?], then take this stave, Homa,^" and put it in her drink,
and
78 THE GALDRAB$K

then she will not be able to come out with anything. And you
should have this stave next to your breast.

And say: Help in this all ye gods: Thórr, Ódhinn, Frigg, Freia,
Satan, Beelzebub, and all those gods and goddesses that dwell
in Valholl.
In thy mightiest name, Ódhinn!

44. To and out a ià ie/

lf you want to leam, through magical knowledge, who stole from
you, then take a little thorn bush^0 and wear it so that you are
never separated from it. Then take a little copper pin,
together with a copper hammer. Then make the following stave
on the cross-beam of the house from which the thing was
stolen; then stick the pin in the right eye,°' and sa7 at the same
time: IN
BUSKAN LUCANUS
the stave

And say: FORTUM ATUM EST.

 79

Write this stave on the cross-beam with chalk, and the

hammer shall be cast by the shaft when the sun is the
strongest,•' and that [should] be [made oíj material which
has never been used, unstamped copper or brass. •°

45. Another web to itncoeei a thief

If anyone wants another way to learn who stole from him,
then he should make this stave on the bottom of a bowl with a
wooden- handled knife. Make the blood flow from under your
big toe and from your right hand, and drip the blood around
the stave. Then take pure water, with milłefołium, which is
spread out on it. The water should be taken midsummer night
after midnight, and should be taken with gloves, so that none of
it gets on the hands. The wort should be smeared with blood,
as well as these three staves:

And then ask on account of the gloriously great might of

the herb and the never-ending working of its power, that the
gods will send as a help, Rafael, their mightiest servant, and
he will show himself here in they mightiest name, Thó rr,
Frigg, Beelzebub, Ó dhinn.
Read three Our Fathers afterward.

46. Fort dunes

Write these staves on white calfskin with your own blood;
take the blood from your thigh and say: I write you eight õ ss-
runes,
80 THE GALDRABÓ K

nine nnitdh-runes, thirteen thxis-runes•'—that will plague thy

belly with bad shit and gas, and all of these will plague thy
belly with great farting. May it loosen thee from thy place and
burst thy guts; may thy farting never stop, neither day or
night; thou wilt be as weak as the fiend Loki, who was bound
by all the gods: in thy mightiest name Lord, God, Spirit,•'
Shaper, Ó dhinn, Thó rr, Saviour, Frey, Freyja, Oper, Satan,
Beelzebub, helpers, mighty god, warding with the
companions of Oteos, Mors, Notke, Vitales.

#/. How one chin get the hetm of hiding

If you want to make a helm of hiding,“ then get a hen’s egg,
and pour blood from under your big toe on your left foot
onto it. Then the egg goes back under the bird, and let it sit
upon it. Afterward, take the chick and bum it on oak-wood.
Then put the burned chick in a linen sack and wear it on your
head.
APPENDICES

GERMAł•lIC
 Other Icelandic Sources

TOm the Huld MOitttscript

he Huld Manuscript was collected by Geir Vigfusson
of Akureyri, who died in 1880. The material
contained in these spells is, however, much older, as
can be seen when
compared to the contents of the Galdiabâk. As presented
here, each of the goIdrosto/r or gaAiam yndir is named, and the
instruc- tions for making it are given, occasionally along with
its effects.

1. Gaidiahâ!l (hall of magical incantations):

Carve on the skin of the water-rail. (Runes read Araton Helga
Adona, etc. )
84 THE GALDRABOK

2. A gnldrntâlxsW$ (ship of magical numbers):

To ruin ships. (Signs named Grunts and Gait, cf. Rn$urgapi.)

3. Knu§alnki (deal-closer?):
Cut this sign on a stave of beechwood and wear it in the middle
of your breast when you want to have success [victory) at
buying and selling.

d. Another HuQaloki:
Cut on a piece of beechwood and you will have success.
 Appetxlix A

5. B nslusta{i (whet sign):

Carve the upper sign on your whetstone, the other one
belov then lay a bit of grass over it; then whet under the sun
and don look at the edge.

6. Dratimstafttr (dream stave):

Carve this sign on fir wood and sleep upon it; then you wil
dream what you want.
86 THE GALDRABÖ K

Carve this sign on so-called man-killing oak (manndrepseik)

and lay it under the head of the one who should, according to
your will, receive dreams, without him knowing it.

Carve this sign on St. John’s Night on silver or on white leather,

and if anyone sleeps on it, he will dream what he wants when
the sun is at the deepest.

9. SeeJt (sleep thorn):

This sign would be carved on oak and laid under the head of
the one who is supposed to sleep so that he can not awaken
until it is taken away.
 AQpendix A 87

J0. LitLkitsta/i (fuck staves):

Whoever carries these signs with him will meet no bad luck,
neither on sea nor on land.

l . Solomon's innsigli:
This one is carried for protection.

12. RO HLTOss (crucifix):

Insignia of St. Olà fur, which one carries for protection.
88 THE GALDRAB K

l3. Vegvisir (signpost):

If this sign is carried, one will never lose one's way in storms
o: bad weather, even when the way is not known.

l4. Heizlitstn/r (strengthening staves):

Wear this on your left breast to strengthen your courage.

15. ttastalw (terror stave):

Carve these signs on a small oak plate and throw it at the feet
of your foe to frighten him.•'
 Appendix A 8'

16. Dregrñ n (killing rune):

If you want your foe to lose his livestock and possessions, ther
lay this sign in the hoofprint of his horse.°®

17. Feingur (catch or booty?): 69

If you want a girl to become pregnant by you, cut this sign in
piece of cheese and give it to her to eat.

l8. Léso6rJñ rur (lock breaker):

Lay this sign on the lock and blow into it. [The runes read
Troll dll tnki I meflu, tnki I djâ $u\ll) so 6raki, which tranilates: Al
90 THE GALDRABÓE

trolls reach into the lock, the Devil reach into it, so that it will
break.]

This sign is used by magicians to call out thieves and other

witcheries.'0

20. Thjó{nstofiir (thief’s stave):

Put this sign under the threshhold of your enemy and he will
collapse when he steps over it if he has committed an act of
thievery against you.
 91

Jo as tir-
If you want someone to steal, then carve this sign on the
bottom of the [wooden] plate that he eats from.

22. T#j6fmtn/r:
To see a thief, carve these signs in so-called man-killing oak
and have it under your arm."

Carve these signs in maple [eolbj k] wood and lay them under
your head, and you will see the thief in your sleep.'2
92 THE GALDRABÓ K

This sign is to be carved at the full moon at high tide on the

inside and outside of the bottom of a washbasin."

From the Kreddur Martuscript

This manuscript, found in Eyjafjödhur, was written or copied
in the late nineteenth century, but linguistic evidence shows it
to be copied from a seventeenth-century original.

1. Hnee this sign on gra5 paper under yow left arm

when Jon are tolling to somebody.
 Appendix A 93

2. To See victory in business with all people:

Draw this sign on blotting paper and wear it under your left
arm and let no one know that you have it.

3. Men you carry these staves with you, you will sure 7
overcome yow Joes.

#. Dtin{axi:
If you want to win a law case, carry this sign with you if you
believe in it. It is called ditn {axi (the manuscript is defective
hereJ before you go to where the trial is to be held. It should
be on a piece of new oak.
94 THE GALDRAB K

5. So tit you will not die in th water:

Wear this sign under your left arm.

6. Against sleeplessness and bad dreams:

Carve this sign with a magnetized iron on a piece of coal.

7. For the bite [of a forJ:

Carve these signs on oak and put them over the house doo
 AppendixA

8. Carry this sign with port; it protects com atl sorcei y.!•

1 0 Have this sign in calfskin in font o{ your breast if yoit

want to send back to hitn thnt which fi h0s sent to
box [i. e. , an y bamiful ›etidingj.
96 THE GALDRAB K

I I . So t@t you won’t get as shame, m uitever comes up

against you, riake this sign with the ring anger of your

right

12. Agoitui foTeboding when you go into tle &rkness:

Carve this sign on the rice-oak [Ice. hrtseik?] and wear it unde
your left arm.

13. to ptif someone in a bud mood:

Carve this sign on lead and stick it in the person’s clothes at
thi small of the back.
 Appendix A 97

#. to discover a tire{:
Cut one of these signs on a bronze plate and have under it the
hair of a black uncastrated tomcat and have it under your head
on the three nights of the old moon until the thief appears to
you in a dream.

15. To discover a thiel:

Draw blood from above the nail of your left middle finger and
therewith draw this sign on paper. Have a cat hair behind it.
Stick it under your cap and sleep with it by the old moon until
you dream of him. Tried out.
16. 1l you want to get o good and true lhend:
Have two silver rings made and leave them lying for nine
nights in the nest of a water wagtail or a sparrow I titlinyr:
onthus #rntensis or #Iectro#firtes riieolisj. Then take one ring
and wear it and give the othet one to your friend and say in
jest to him that this is your ring of friendship and that you
wish that it never part from
98 THE GALDRAB$K

him. Take care, however, that he does not find out about thi
procedure with the rings. One must work in a similar way to ge
the love of a good woman.

Take }riggjnigros [an orchid, fibonorio h peTborea], let it lie fc

three nights in water, and lay it under your head when you ar
sleeping; then you will see him.

18. To met a helm of hiding {Ice. hxlinsh]ñItnurj:

Get a completely black dog that has not one white hair; kill i
and take out its heart. Take a piece of spruce wood and split i
at the end and stick the heart in the split and bury it in th
earth where the field and unfertilized land come together, an
let it lie there for the nine nights before St. John’s Day. Ther
will have been created a stone there in that place. Carry it witl
you.

} 9. to txt a Roman Kiln !oNe a mOn her} mttc :

drive her finely chopped dove heart in her food or in her drinl:
Or have the tongue of a water wagtail under the root of you
tongue, and the one whom you kiss first will love you above at
others. Or take two gold or silver rings and lay them in th
nest of a water wagtail or a sparrow [Ice. tiifingurJ so that the
are there fot nine nights. Take them out again and give he
one of them and keep the other one yourself. Then she wit
love you.

20. l f someone aisle's to still the anger o{ his foe:

He should go to some water and before a raven flies over it
h should hold his hands in the water and make the following
rune
 Appendix A

on his forehead with the fourth finger of the right hand an

afterward not wash himself off:

From Svend Grxndrvig’s Collection

This collection was made in the middle of the nineteenth cen
tury. It is now in the Royal Collection in Copenhagen. There
are four recorded signs from this collection, all very complex
an‹ of an obviously late date. Here we give one example:
Astros: The protective sign that comes now is called Astros. I
protects from all runes and carvings of all sorts that can be used
According to Snorri. 5

From tLe Collection of Jón Áinason

mason published a great collection of Icelandic folktales ir
the nineteenth century that contained many bits and piece‹
100 THE GALDRABOK

of magical lore. The following are three of the most inter

esting:

1. TO use of two magical signs named gapaldur end ginfaxi

can be used in glimagaldur nestling magic).
The g nldur is placed under the heel of the right foot and th
ginfaxi is placed under the toe of the left. Then a verse is to b
spoken for which four variants are given. They all begin
GoQoldxr under my heel
ginfaxi under my toes
and conclude:
stand by me, fiend
now lying upon me! (i.e. , possessing me]
OF

stand by me, my ogre! [Ice. skratti]

or
strengthen me now, Adversary! [Ice. andskoti]
Ofi

Devil, support me! 6

2. Tire is o simple helo oJ awe working:

Make a helm of awe in lead, press the lead sign between th
eyebrows, and speak the formula:
Aegishjálm er é$ ben I bear thé helm of awe
miki briína mér! between my brows!
Thus a man could meet his enemies and be sure of victory.

3. A washing strive:
thvmr ég af rnér I wash the hate from me
$nndn mine, of my foes,
og reibhi and the robbery and wrath
rikra mnnnn! of rich [powerkil] men!
 A##endi* A 101

One other intresting and detailed set of instructions for usin{

the Thó rr's hammer is given by À mason and has been
translatec by Jacqueline Simpson."

From VariottS Manuscripts Collected by

Ofi/ui DavidRson
A few other manuscripts were used in Davidhsson’s collection
published in i 9o3. Three involve magical signs, and four are
kieddui instructions.

I. Bijnsfusto$r (whet sign):

Carve on a whetstone with steel.

e z ° s I

2. Só ttgja{ar (reconciler):
If someone else hates you, write these signs on parchment and
put them under his head without his knowing it.
l0Z THE GALDRABÓ K

3. VarnaitafHT V irnnrs (Waldemar's protective stave):

It increases popularity and luck for e veryone who can work it.
It came here from Germany and is therefore the best of these
ancient signs. It should not be carved or written on anything
except when someone is being tormented by something evil,
and then it should be written with fish guts on the skin of a
hen’s egg and put in the headdress of the person.

4. For “ghost spots” (Ice. drnugoblettir):

If a ghost that has been sent to attack someone*° is successful ir
touching him, then its fingers will leave behind black spots.
They will become sores that will eat away at the person and
eventuallj kill him if nothing is done to stop them. The means to
usi against this is explained here: One should draw around the
spot: rith an edJuilstòl or segulstàl [i.e., a steel magnet] and sing
the Pater Noster three times; then they will not spread out any
farther. Then one should go to lukewarm water prepared for
washing and hold the spots in it. Then hack three, six, or nine
wounds in it and pour the lukewarm water over it. If all this i:
done right, it will be enough.
 Appendix A 103

5. To 6nng fovth deceptions of the e e! 9

and to know how to do them:
Take eagle claws, sparrow claws, raven claws, falcon claw, dog
paw, cat paw, mouse paw, and fox paw. Take the claws and paws
of all these animals and boil them in water that [was drawn
from a stream that] flows to the eait. Then take the substance
and put it in an unused linen bag and drink the extract. Then
hold the bag over your head and command what kind of
deception of the eyes you have thought up for him.

6. Sleep ik»n:
Take the heart sac [pericardium] of a dog; pour pickling broth
into it. Then dry it for thirteen days long, in a place where the
sun does not shine on it, and when the one to whom you wish
to do this is asleep, hang this in the house over him completely
without his knowing it.

a 6od mon into Otis shroud:

Stick it from underneath into the table at which the people eat
and, if they know nothing of your actions, they will not be able
to get their food down—even tf it has been very well prepared—
until the needle is taken away.
 heathen Magic
in Old English Manuscripts

n excellent collection of magical spells from many

Old English manuscripts has been provided by G.
Storms in his Anglo-Saxon Magic. The two main
manuscripts
that contain magical charms are the so-called Leechbook (MS
Regius 12 D XVII, from the mid-tenth century) and the Locnxnga
(MS Harley 585, from the eleventh century). Both of these
texts are primarily filled with medical charms, and much of
what they contain is directly translated from Greek or Latin
source works. The Lncnttngo, especially, contains a good deal of
basically Ger- manic magical practice.
Thete are some twenty or so other manuscripts in
which Old English magical spells have been found. Because
of the vast foreign influence present in these manuscripts,
explicit reference to the Germanic heathen pantheon is rare.
Here we present as an example of Old English magical
procedure what is perhaps the most interesting spell from a
comparative point of view— the Nine Wort Spell ' for
snakebite from the Lncnungo:

Remember thou, muguiort, sit thou mndest knou'n,

e' at thou test adorned ct the “Great Proclnmotion” [fiegen-
meide]
106 THE GALDRAB K

Uno thu trust higbt—ozs I of trot Is,

thou last might against three and ngninst
rhirty, thott hash might against venom and
ying
shots,
twit host might ’gainst die k athsoine one #vit fates
through th

And thou, no bread, moth of sort ,

open om the east, mighty inside.
Over thee creaked COTts, over the rode
queens, oeer thee hrides sobbed, oeer thee bulls
snorted. AU tfioit witRtoo&st and It
rushed agoinst
Um.
thus rnnyesr thou withstand venom ‹end lying
shots, end the lootRome one taint fares through
th land.

“Stone” light this wort, it uiaxed on stone,

it sands up against poison, it strikes ogoin t poin.
“Stead. “ it is light, it strikes ogoinst oetiom,
it driees out the hostile one, it hurls out venom.
This is the work, thnt fought with the norm,
it might agoitut venom, and against fi itig shots,
it is mighty against th loathsome one tit fates through the
had.

Make now, thou, venom-hated, the greorer eenoms,

thou the greater conquer the lesser venoms so tit he is citred
oJ
both.
Remember thou, rna yuieed, wit thou modest knoum,
wfii thou sought at Abrtord,
so thot never o man sfioitld lose his file,
outer matweed was mode read. y Jot his meat.
This is thot sort light “wergufit. ”
It was sent by a seal ncross th sea-ridge,
n sexing to eenom, o boon to oyers.
 Appendix B M

It stnnds against poin end strikes against

9otson, it is might against three end thirty,
against the And of th fiend and against great feet
ng4inst tA uiitching of mean rights.

The th apple did it against venom,

so taint [the loathsome se@ent] wouA not live in the house.

Chereif and fennel, two very might y

sorts were sought i:rj the rise Lord,
holy in heaven as he did Eng;
h set end sent them to the seven worlds

Thse nine are might y against nine venoms,

A womi come stitheñng, but nothing he
stayed. for Woden took up nine worideroits
twigs,
he stun:k the adder so tit it flew into nine pieces.
Now Use nine worts If' e might against nine Wonder-
wigkts. against nine venoms and against nine lying slots
against tile red uenout, against flu' metcheâ
uenom against the white venom, ‹sgoitut th purple
venom, against th yells' venom, against the green
venom, og4inst th black venom, against the blue
venom, against the broum venom, against the
crimson venom, against norm-blister, against
water-blister,
against thom-blister, against Aistle-blister,
against ice-blister, ogoinst venom-blister.
or an§ $Yom tff norfib, or tiny com He South,
or ari y om the west over the peopk.
108 THE GALDRABÓK

Krist stood omei oh sicknesses.

I alone uiot o running stream

aTtd I nlne ndder5 bewore!
Moy oil needs spring up 6y thir roots,
the seas slip opnrt, oil suit writer,
pin I bow this venom from you.
Mugwort, waybread, open from the east, [amb's cress,
venom- loather, mayweed, nettle, crab-apple, chervil, and
fennel," old soapi work the wotts to a powder, mix them with
soap and the juice of an apple. Then work up a paste of water
and ashes, take fennel and boil it with the paste and wash it
with a beaten egp when you put on the salve, both before
and after.
Sing this spell three times over each of the worts (herbs]
before you prepare them, and on the apple as well. And sing
the spell into the mouth and into both ears, and on the wound
before you put on the salve.
 heathen Magic
in Old High German Spells

here is no ancient German collection of spells as then

is for England or Iceland. However, what are perhaps
the most ancient formulas of all surviving Indo-European
form
mulas are preserved in two Old High German spells—the
Seconh Merseburg Charm from the early tenth century and
the ContTo Vemies spell from about the same time.
Correspondences between these charms and two Vedic for-
mulas from India, which are perhaps as much as a millennium
older than the Old High German manuscripts, were first noticed
by A. Kuhn in 1864.'° Another remarkable historical aspect o1
the Second Merseburg Charm is the absolutely transparent way
in which it was Christianized by merely substituting figures
from Christian mythology for the original Germanic ones.
The fact that these Christianized versions appear outside the
German re- gion also points to the probability of lost heathen
versions throughout the Germanic world. The overall historical
pattern demonstrated by this formula also strongly suggests
that many, if not most, of the “Christian” charms first written
down in later centuries actually go back to now lost heathen
originals. The First Merseburg Charm shows close affinities to
magical stanzas
110 THE GALDRABÓ E

in the Poetic Eddn—for example, in the “Hàvamfil,” stanza 149

and in the “Grógaldr,” stanza 10, where magic to break fettet
is mentioned.

Contea Vermes

Go out, worm, with nine wormfings,

out f ‹âe marrow into the bone, om tit bone into H @sh
out om the jsE iti to the skin, out com thnt skin into this

Lord, so will it be!

The Vedic correspondence is from the Rig-Vedo, X, 163, which
catalogs the various parts of the body ftom which the disease i
removed in a very similar way.’s

The Merseòiirg Chrms

Once there were sitting fort dice”

sittirtg here and there
some bounà bende,
some hemmed IN wnrrior hands,
sotne #icked

so the fuup-bande bredk,

anb the wanìois escape.

Pool and Woda

sere ridirtg in the good
when tute lord’s for BadT’s goal
 Appendix C 11

s[nairIed iI:s foot.

T/ten Sirt/Jtgunt enchanted,
and /igz sister Sunno;
ten FFi§ga €nC ntfd,
and her sister Volln;
In enchanted to&n,
as be cout so well:
for bone-spiain
as well as yoint-
spiain; bone to bone,
blob to blood,

so tit thy are linked again!

The Vedic passage corresponding to this is found in the

Atfirea Vedo IV, 12, from about 500 B.C. £. which can in part
be trans lated: “Let thy marrow come together with marrow,
and thy join together with joint; together let what of thy flesh
has fallen apart together let thy bone grow over.”•^
But the formula also survived in a variety of forms
through out the Germanic world. In these Jesus replaces
Woden, perhap Voll or Balder is replaced by saints, and so
on. One of the mos recent recordings of this ancient formula is
from 1842 in Scot land:
TALm6rode,
J C O6 S ;

See i Oinc ro joinfi,

and sinew to sioes.

Head in the Holy G/tost’s name! "
 IntFOdUCtiOn

1. Edition by Nat. Lindqvist, En isiànsk SvartMtboLJan I500-

tolet (Uppsala: Appelberg, 1921).
2. Icelandic folktales were collected and published by Jó n
À r-
nason, ÍslenzÓ r Tfijddksogrir og A/ntjri, 2d ed. , 6 vols. , ed.
A. Bó dhvarsson and B. Viljàlmsson (Reykjavík:
Thjó dhsaga Prentsmidhjan Hó lar, 1954—1961). À mason’s
edition was first published in 1863—1864. Convenient
translations of some of these tales are provided by
Jacqueline Simpson in two books, lcelandic FolktnÍes 4nd
Legends (Berkeley: Uni- versity of California Press, 1972)
and Legends o{ lceiandic Magicians (Cambridge: Brewer,
1975).

Chapter 1
For a survey of the legal system in Iceland, see Gwyn Jones,
A History of the Víkings (London: Oxford Universit:y Press,
I973), p. 282fÏ.
The best survey of Northem religion and mythoÍogy avail-
iis THE GALDRABÖK

able in English is that of E. O. G. Turville-Petre, Math né

Religion of the North (New York: Holt, Rinehart and Win-
ston, 1964). However, the most comprehensive is that oi
Jan de Vries, Altgennanische Religionsgeschichte, 2d ed., 2
vols. (Berlin: de Gruyter, 1956—195 7)
3. Probably the most convenient history of lceland is that oi
Knut Gjerset, Histoy o/ ïcelnnd (New York: Macmillan,
19?4).
4. An excellent history of lcelandic literature is given by Stefän
Einarsson, A History o{lceland ic Literotxre (New York: Johru
Hopkins Press, 1957).

Chapter 2
1. See Einarsson, A History of lcelanâic Liternture, p. l22ff.
2. Several sutveys of magic in the Icelandic sagas exist, but
unfortunately, none is in English. Perhaps the best recent
treatment in English is that of H. R. Ellis Davidson,
“Hostile Magic in the lcelandic Sagas,” in TP fitch Figure,
ed. V. Newell (London: Ro tledge and Kegan Paul, 1973),
pp. 20— 41
3. This term is virtually universally used in the Germanic di-
alects for “magic,” for example, in Old English gentdœ
and
in Old High German
4. This is the sound a raven is said to make.
5. No clear etymology of seidh(r) has been developed, and ii
may indeed be a borrowing from some foreign terminology.
6. Sgidhr has been compared to shamanism by Dag Strö mbä ck,
$£Jd (Stockholm: Geber, 1935).
7. Snorri Struluson, Heimskringin, trans. Lee M. Hollandei
(Austin: University of Texas Press), pp. 8, 11.
8. The only comprehensive study of academic runology in En
 115

glish is that of Ralph Elliott, Runes: Art Intzoditction (Man-

chester: Manchester University Press, 1959). A more
imaginative approach is that of Edred Thorsson, Ritneiori
(York Beach, ME: Samuel Weiser, 1987) . Records of rune*
being used in the nineteenth century are found in Wolfgang
Krause’s work, Rouen (Berlin: de Gruyter, 1970) , pp. 122-
123.
9. A complete, if old, edition and translation of the major rune
poems is provided by Bruce Dickens, Bunic and Heroic
Poents o{ té Old demonic Peoples (Cambridge:
Cambridge Univer- sity Press, 1915) ; see also Thorsson,
Runefore, pp. 93—104.
10. For convenient interpretacions of the god Ó dhinn, see
Tur-
ville-Petre, Myth and íteligion ol té Nortà , pp. 35—74,
and Georges Dumézil, Gods of the Ancient Noithmen, ed.
Einar Haugen (Berkeley: University of Califomia Press,
1973), pp. 27—42. For a more imaginative look, see
Thomson, Rune- lore, pp. 178—182, 189—199.
11. For an academic treatment of this magical process, see
Ste- phen E. Flowers, Runes ond Magic (New York: Lang,
1986), pp. 153—166.
12. See also the translation of Lee M. Hollander in The Poetic
Eddn, 2d ed. (Austin: University of Texas Press, 1962),
p 72.
13. See also the translation of Hermann Pàlsson and Paul Ed-
wards, Egis's 5ogo (Harmondsworth, UK: Penguin, 1976) ,
p. 101.
I4. The most famous depiction in the sagas of the blood being
sprinkled in the temple is found in the Eyrbyggja Saga,
chap.
4. See the translation of Hermann Pàlsson and Paul
Edwards (Toronto: University of Toronto Press, 1973) , p.
 40.
15. See Flowers, Rxnes artd Magic, p. 249If.
16. See Simpson, Legends of lcelandic Magicians, p. 33ff.
17. See Gjerset, History o/ lceiand, pp. 270—272.
116 THE GALDRABÓ K

18. See Simpson, Legends of fcelnndic Magiciaru, pp• 37—44.

19. See Simpson, Legends of Icelandic Magicians, p. 56.
20. See Simpson, Legends o/ Icelandic Mngicinm, pp• 73—79.
21. For statistics on Icelandic witchcraft trials, see lä fur Da-
vídhsson, “Islä ndische Zauberzeichen und
Zauberbü cher,”
Zeiuchrift des Vereins {ü r Volkskxn& 13 (1903): 150—151.
?2. For a popular view of modern Icelandic attitudes toWard
occult phenomena, see Erlendur Haraldsson, “Are We
Sen- sitive or Superstititious?” Atlnntica and icelandic
Review 17:4 (1972), 30—34.
23. The most dramatic aspect of this is the offcial revival of
the Norse religion in Iceland by Sveinbjö rn Beinteinsson,
who is the leader of what are called the Á sntrй nnnenn
thOse who believe in the Æsir.

Chapter 3
1. See Simpson, Legends of icelandic Magicians, p. 19.
z. See Davídhsson, “Islä ndische Zauberzeichen,” p. 157.
3. See Simpson, Legends oJ icelandic Magicians, pp. 73—79.
4. See Davídhsson, “Islä ndische Zauberzeichen,” pp. 157—158.
5. For a survey of the history of the manuscript, see Nat.
Lind
quist, En islà вsk Sгartkomtbok, pp. 21—23.
6. See Davídhsson, “Islä ndische Zauberzeìchen,” pp. 160—167.
7. See Figure 2 on page 49.
s. This is certainly a forced interpretation.
9. See Davídhsson, “Islä ndische Zauberzeichen,” pp. 267—270.
10. An edition of this book was done by Kristian Kå lund, Dec
isInвdsR læ$ebo$ (Copenhagen: Luno, 1907).
11. See Irmgard Hampp, Beschwiirxng-Segen-Gebet (Stuttgart:
Silberburg, 1961), p. 110ff.
 Notas /or Port T

Chapter 4
1. Hampp, Beschwârung-Segen•Gebet, p. 110ff.
2. The classic text on this topic is by Erich Jung,
Germanisch Gà rter und Helden in cfiristficher bert, 2d ed.
(Munich: Leh mann, 1939).
See Á mason, Ísbnzknr Tà jddksogitr, vol. 1, p. 432.
4. See Hjalmar Falk, OdensRite (Kristiana: Dybwad, 1924)
pp. 8, 9, 29, 31.
Details of this were given by Á mason, Ísíenzkor
Thjó dksogitr vol. 1, pp. 431—432, conveniently
translated by Simpsor in lcelanâic Folktnies, pp. 181—
182.
6. See also H. R. Ellis Davidson, Gods and Myths of Nortkert
Ewope (Harmondsworth, UK: Penguin, 1964), p. 180.
7. See Lee R. Gandee, Stronge Exgerience (Englewood Cliffs,
NJ: Prentice-Hall, 1971), p. 119.
A full account of this myth is given by Snorri Sturluson ir
TO Prose Eddo, trans. ]ean I. Young (Berkeley:
University of California Press, 195#), pp. 85—86.
9. Fot the original Old High German of this text, see
Wilhelm
Braune and Ernst Ebbinghaus, Altfic&utsches Lesebitch,
15th ed. (Tü bingen: Niemeyer, 1969), p. 39.

Chapter 5
1. In this set of definitions I am generally following those
given by Davîdhsson, “Islä ndische Zaubeizeichen, “ pp. 152
— 154.
2. See the prose following st. 14 in the “Reginsmä l” and st.
16 and following in the “Fà friismäl” in the Poetic Edda
(trans. Lee M. Hollander) and in the Prose Edda (trans.
Jean I. Young), p. 112. lt is specifically mentioned that
Sigurdhr
118 THE GALDRABÓ K

takes the helm in chap. 19 of the Välsunga Saga; see th

translation of William Morris and EirÎkur Magnusson (Net
York: Collier, 196/) , p. 148. There are several editions o
the Morris and Magnusson translation, as well as many
othe translations.
See, for example, the prose following st. 4 in the
“Sigridrî furnä l” in the Poetic Edda, trans. Lee M.
Hollander, p. 234
The sator-square has been much written about. For its
origin and history, see the fairly recent study by Walter 0.
Moeller TP Mithroic Origin and Meonings of the Rome-
Rotor Squaw. (Leiden: Brill, 1973).
3. See H. Gustavson and T. S. Brink, “Runfynd 1978,” Fom
vdnnen ( 1979): 233ff.

Chapter 6
1. A variety of Judeo-Christian grimoires have been published
or republished in recent years. Among the best known o
these are TV Book o{ té Sncred Mogic oJ A6ro-Melin A
Mage, trans. S. L. MacGregor Mathers (Chicago: de Lau
rence, 1932); Tan' GieateT Ke7 % Solornon, trans. S. L
MacGregor Mathers (Chicago: de Laurence, 1914); Tir
Book of the Coetia of Solomori the King, trans. S. L.
MacGrego Mathers, ed. Aleister Crowley (New York:
Ram, 1970). For some interesting insights on the power of
the name ii Norse magical thinking, see H. R. Ellis
(Davidson), TV Rond to Hel (Carribridge: Cambridge
University Press, 1943) pp. 137—148.
See “Ffifnismà l” prose following st. 1 in the Poetic Edda
trans. Lee M. Hollander, p. 223. A whole study has beei
devoted to the magical power of the speech of the dyint
 Notes for Pnrt I 1

man: Folke Strom, Den doendes melt och Odin i

trâdet teborg: blander, 1947).
4. Probably the most comprehensive treatment of the
conception of the soul readily available in English is H.
Ellis (Davidson), TO Rood to Hel, pp. 121ff. For a
imaginative view, see Thorsson, Runelore, pp. 167—173.
1. This list of divine names perhaps represents an
encoded message of some sort. The numbers of names in
each of the three lists seem signiÊ cant. The latter two
consist of twenty- four and twelve names, respectively; the
first one is probably
supposed to contain seventy-two.
z. The use of magic in helping women in childbirth goes back
into the Eddic tradition; for example, we find it in the
“Sigrd(fumfil,” st. 10: “Also leam help-runes / if you wish
to help / a woman bring forth her baby,” The term used in
this context is ON bjorgrù nar (help [in bearing children]
runes).
‹. To be able to 5tanch blood was a popular healing art in old
Germanic times. lt is well known in the Lacnxnga and other
Old English leechbooks.
4. Thèse last two words are obvious misspellings or
alterations of the name Jehova Sebnoth (Yahweh T obnoth),
the ancient Hebrew war god.
5. The helm of awe (ON ægisà jñ lrnr) is the most interesting
single feature of this manuscript. Both the word and its
underlying meanings are intriguing. It occurs four times in
 TH£ GALDRABÓ K

the Poetic Edda, all in connection with Fá fnir, the etin-

serpent guarding the Níflung hoard. With the power of this
helm he could strike terror into the heart of anyone who
might attempt to win the treasure. It is said that Sigurdhr
took it with him as a part of the hoard after he killed the
serpent. Hete it seems to have been symbolized as an actual
helmet; however, it originally meant simply “covering,”
which is the oldest sense of the term “helm.” Therefore, the
whole formula would signify a “covering of awe or ter- ror.”
The first part of the wotd, ægis- (possessive form from ægir,
“terror”) is derived from Proto-Indo-European ’egg-es-
Proto-Germanic ’egis- > Gothic aigis > Old English egeso and
ege (hence, our modem “awe”), and > ON cgi, all meaning
terror. The spelling ægir is explicable as an nblò ttt, ò gir
>‘ó gir >’ægiт (in later Proto-Germanic). This helm of awe
was originally a kind of sphere of magical power to sttike
fear into the enemy. It was associated with the power of
serpents to paralyse their prey before striking (hence, the
connection with Fá fnir). In our time this meaning is again
clear. The helm of awe as described in the manuscript is a
powet, centered in the pineal gland and emanating from it
and the eyes. It is symbolized by a crosslike configuration,
which in its simplest form is made up of what appear to be
either four younger M-runes or older Z-runes. These figures
can, however, become very complex.
6. This manuscript is valuable for the hints it gives concerning
the Scandinavian tore of trees and their magical correspon-
dences. The oak has been associated with the power of the
tours-rune ( § ) and with the god Thó rr. Here it seems
to be acting as a terrifying apotropaic talisman.
7. This seemingly macaronic veгse has not yet been satisfac-
torily interpreted.
8. Neither has the second line, but it has been said to contain
a mnemonic device for the Danish runic alphabet.
 9. The last two words here represent the Gnostic/Kabbalistic
formula Tetragrammaton, the four-letter name of the He-
brew god (YHVH) , also found in Spell 42.
10, This series of staves, which contains none that are
obviously rune staves, nevertheless seems to be an
expression of the system of the younger runes, since it
contains the numertcal formula 2 X 16 = 32.
11. In the medical theories of the ancient Germanic peoples,
diseases were sometimes thought to be caused by tiny, in-
visible “worms” (serpents) in the food or drink.
12. Thèse staves are sixteen in number, plus the solar cross,
again an expression of the continuing potency of the
number system of the younger futhark. The first stave is
perhaps the elder J-rune, which continued to be used as a
galdrostnÇr; the tenth stave appears to be a younger A-
rune ( ) , which was perhaps intended as a : f : ; and the
row ends with two elder H-runes.
13. Here eight staves are represented, which could be part of
either a sixteen- or a twenty-four-based system. The
twenty- four-based system continued to be used in the
contruction of magical fomulas in the younger period.
14. Again the number 8 could be the key to this stave
(number of staves radiating from the ring). The shape of
the staves could be intended as tiers-runes ( b ), and/or
the whole could be a runic code: 3:5 (read: third ætt, fifth
stave)— either: $ :(in the special cryptic reordeting) or '
A: in the normal order. For a convenient discussion of
runic codes, see Edred Thorsson, Runebre, pp. 87—91.
15. This row of twenty-four staves contains many
recognitable rune staves, for example, "
(stylized M-runes), Ç (later
“dotted” T-rune [d or dh]), (S-rune), (R-
16. rune),
ÿ (H-rune), (A-rune), }=Î (older H-rune).
Thèse eleven staves also contain several runic forms
found in Spell 18, plus (s), (k), (final -R or y).
iz4 THE GALDRA8ÓK

17. “Thy dew and dales” has been interpreted as Christian sím-
bols for the blood and wounds of Jesus. However, this
seems to be a Christianization of older pagan material
relevant to the Earth mysteries.
18. The technique of this “prayer” is pure contagious magic
based on the transference of negative force from the body
to the water, which is washed away.
19. A bymie is a breastplate or battle sark u5ed by Germanic
peoples here the symbolism is obvious.
20 This formulaic protection from all sides, based on polar op-
posites, is very ancient and probable common to all peoples.
2l. Another of the common old Germanic ideas conceming
the origin of disease and misfortune in people and animals is
that of projectiles shot by either trolls or elves.
22. This is only one of many indications of the wide variety of
traditions synthesized in this manuscript.
23. No further instruction is given in this book to this mysterious
spell.
2§. Psalms and other portions of the Bible were often used in
magical rites of alt kinds, which is only fitting since many
of the Psalms are actually adaptations of Canaanite mytho-
magical songs. This is from the Icelandic translation of
the Bible made in 1584.
25. The fiend, or enemy, would appear to be Satan, who would
help God prosecute the enemy. The Icelandic word used
here is endskotin (adversary), which is a nOrmaÏ
translation of the Hebrew 3aTaN.
26. Ice. synd (sin) originally borrowed from Old English som
(sin). Most patently Christian terminology comes into Ice-
landic from Old English.
27. Another example of Old English Christian terminology is
provided by “soul” (Ice. só l < OE sdwel). This term was
originally part of the common Germanic storehouse of psy-
 125

chological conceptions, probably with the meaning of

“shadow, shade” in the vocabulary of life and death;
how- ever, it was Christianited at an early date.
28. The word sà uggi usually more properly reflects the
concrete idea “shadow,” but it has clearly moved into the
field of meaning of “soul” here.
29. Ice. líf (life), the living essence of a human being.
30. See also Spell 20; “day bath” (Ice. dnghxg) is perhaps a
metaphor for “blood.”
31. Literally, “who have an evil mind [Ice. hugrl toward me.”
The fиgr was originally the seat of the intellect and will
(see Ó dhinn's raven Huginn, Master of the Mind), but it
later took on more magical connotations and could be
sent out to do deeds for its owner.
Here again we see the ægishJó Ïmitr, as it forces all to fear it
and be kind to its possessor.
33. Perhaps this indicates some knowledge of Arian Christian-
ity, the form of Christianity that several Germanic tribes
converted to in the fourth and fifth centuries.
34. Ice. gauQnir, the bowl formed by cupping the hands together.
35. These sixteen staves seem to be all highly stylized runic
symbols arranged in two rows of eight. Their full
meaning has yet to be decoded. It is not hard to see why
the gnld- ramenn in possession of this book were in need
of spells against their enemies!
36. Rowan wood has a life-giving power and can control
other- worldly things. ]t is also used in a contrary sense as
a bringer of death. The use here either means that it was
intended to protect the house from evil visitations or that
it was meant negatively as a method of terrifying those
who would come to the house.
37. Here thistle is probably meant. This is an herbal
correspon-
dence to the F-rune.
126 THE GALDRABQK

38. Again we see the use of the concept of something flying

toward a person (a shot) to bting misfortune.
39. Alder is usually associated with fire and wakefulness; it cor-
responds to the S-rune. Here we again see the use of
innate polarity to evoke the opposite effect.
40. The herbological element in this spell is twofold: (1) ash
wood and (2) mille{oliurn (yarrow). Ash is of well-
known properties in Germanic myth and magic. Here it
signifies the ability to make contact with other worlds.
Yarrow, which was either ground up or its flowers made
into an essential oil to be mixed with water, also has
ttemendous powers for making contact with “the other
side,” the unconscious. Not only did the ancient Chinese
know of this (see the I Cling literature), but it was also
well known among the Indo- Europeans as a divinatory
tool. In later times it was dedicated to “the Evil One” (see
Spell 41) and was popularly called the Devil's Nettle and
Bad Man's Plaything; it was used in magical rites.
41. Again we see the use of the term skuggi in the sense of
human soul, or shade, and here its use is more obviously
a part of the psychic terminology with references to
living persons—a kind of psychic double.
42. The manuscript term iotuñ villurii (standard nominative
form
Jâtna villttr) literally means the bewilderments of the etins
(giants) and refers to some as yet unloiown formula of
murk staves used by the etins to delude and confuse.
Human ma- gicians can also control such things.
43. Here the manuscript reads iotuii geiio blod (standard nomi-
native form jiitungeira blñ dâ ) , literally “the blood of
etin- spears.” Jiitungeir (etin-gar) is a Denning for a worm
and/or serpent. This forms a magical link with tellutic
powers.
44. The problematical word used in the manuscript is
thrijsteipto,
literally “three-diving” (inverted, or inverted). This occun
 also in another Icelandic manuscript where the yaArastafur
appears. 5ee also note 45.
45. The word moldtfiurs clearly means earth-thurs (-giant),
which perhaps indicates a reversed (i.e. , murk) TH-rune ( d
or w), which is a powerful cursing sign (see
“Sigrdrffumal,” st. 36). The tnoId- could also refer to both
the TH- and M-runes and reinforce the image of the staves
connected to the ground as seen in note 44 and in the
staves in Spell 34.
46. The shape of the gapal(l)dttr is identified in the galdiastopT
complex. Its name also occurs in other manuscripts. The
word (gQ-alder) could mean “the age or eternity of space
(void).” The meaning of the primary structure of the stave
is open to speculation, although it is highly suggestive;
how- ever, the lines extending from the main form are
perhaps coded runic references (i.e. , on the left side 3:6
= and on the right 3:3/3 = § : § ).
é7. The manuscript uses the term sieving, and it is glossed in the
margin as exorcismus. This term is generally used only in
Christian contexts.
48. The word that is translated “read” in the text is Icelandic
rédho, which, in the technical terminology of the runes,
has the deeper meaning of “to interpret, fathom” in the
whole sense.
49. Keennriinnr were originally formulas used to win the
love of women (and were therefore sympathetic to them);
they may have been attached to certain specific runes and
rune staves.
50. Again we see the oak (see Spell 9 and note 6 above). Here
it is used to make contact with the realm of the dead;
this is done not by drawing the dead out of their graves
but by forcing them out through the placement of the
oak in their realm, thus driving the dead to the surface.
51. Altered version of the Vulgate translation of Psalm 119:7.
 THE GALDRABÓ K

31. A version of the Vulgate translation of Psalm 119:75.

53. Same as in Spell 31.
54. The manuscript reads {riggioт grns, “the herb of Frigg.”
This has been attached to various types of herbs. One is the
orcfiis odoraiissimn, or s‹ityriitm slbidittm, from which love
potions were brewed. This plant is also known in Icelandic
as ń jú n- auras (herba con)ugalis), the herb of marriage.
However, it may be connected to the mandrake.
35. Here the manuscript reads a siguT heflunne, “on the victory
rock.” The significance of this is still unclear. It is perhaps
a heathen reference applied to a Christian context or an
otherwise unknown Hebraic myth that the Icelanders pre-
served from some heretical text.
56. This threefold Wodenic invocation includes the name
Ó dhinn beside Ifle, “the Evil One,” which may have been
an old name for Ó dhinn since he was called Bö lverkr, “Evil-
Worker,” and was called “the father of all evil” in pagan
times. Ølvir is interesting. It is our name Oliver and comes
from Proto-Germanic ’Alowïh-4ț, “the All-Holy One.” This
is similar in meaning to the name Wïhaz (ON Vé), the third
name in the primal threefold Wodenic formulation.
57 In the manuscript this whole verse reads: Ølvir Odenn
liłe 11 Alft thijtt vilíd vijfle // SiníJur Gitd med snijlle //
Sendi
ockw est i mylfi.
58. The sign of the helm of awe, later the sign of the cross.
59. Probably the name of a magical sign. It is unclear whether
the two staves referred to here correspond to the stave rep-
resented in the manuscript. Home perhaps refers to an
image of the Iranian tree of life (and the ancient sacred
drink hoornn, cognate to the Sanskrit soma). It is certainly
possible that the goldrostnJur represented here is a highly
stylised version of such a treelike sign.
60. Probably hawthorn or sloe.
 129

61. As represented in the stave.

62. When it stands at the highest point in the sky.
63. Here a new handwriting style begins, a seventeenth-century
cursive hand. The language of the original is in the
Danish dialect.
64. The representations of the galdrnsto/r do not seem to
cor- respond to the numerical formulas. However, the
numerical formulas contained in the text of the spell are
very potent:
8 x ¢ ( ï ) = 32 = 16 x 2
9 x 8 ( S ) = 72 = 24 x ?
13 x 3 ( ş ) = 39 = 13 x 3
143 13 x 11

65. The manuscript reads Ande, “bteath, spirit.”

66. The manuscript reads Huíenn fiiofmttr, “a covering of con-
cealment.” See the Middle High German tnmÕ 9Qe, “a cape
{not cap] of concealment,” and tnrnhiit, “a hide or skin (not
hat!] of concealment,” both of which occur in the
Nibefun- Verified.
67. If a speculation offered by Prof. Dr. Klaus Dü wel is correct,
this formula may be the ancestor of one going all the way
back to about Z00 C.E. , where we find a spearhead with
the tunic inscription “ojingar,” which might have become
ó tti in Icelandic. See Flowers, Ritnes and Magic, p. 255.
68. Compare this figute to that found in Spell 30 in the GßÍd-
тabó k! It is rare, other than with the ægishjó fmнr, to find
this close correspondence in different manuscripts.
69. Feingur may be a nickname of Ó dhinn (miswritten for Fen-
gur?) ; see Falk, Odertsheite, p. 8. Or it may be related to
Icelandic feign, “bound to die, fey.”
70 This is a most unusual Thor’s hammer! It may be a depiction
of how the hammer is supposed to work.
130 THE GALDRABÓ K

7!. The exact meaning of mondrepeik is unknown.

7i. The eolbjork, “birch of the slain,” is a kind of birch or
maple
tree unknown in Iceland.
73 Bowls are very typical objects on which runes are carved;
see the Galdrabó k.
7. The formula may be the Christian IHS: in hoc signtim.
75. The invocation of Snorri’s name may refer to Snorri of
Hú - safell or Snorri Sturluson, author of the Prose Eddo.
This
kind of extremely complex magical sign is very rate in the
corpus of signs in Iceland and is a clear indication of a late
date and foreign origin.
76. The “Devil” (here the lcelandic word djoJl of course bor-
rowed from the Latin/Greek di6bolits) is used. It must be
remembered that, especially in the magician's world view,
the old gods and the demons of the Christian helÍ had
been unified. Hence, this may ultimately refer to some
heathen deity.
77. See Simpson, lcelandic Folktnles and Lcgends, pp. 181—182.
78. An animated corpse, or diougrrr, could be magically activated
and sent to do the malevolent wilÍ of a sorcerer, in which
case it is referred to as a doudà ingur. See Svale Solheim,
“Draug,” Kuiturliistorisk Leksikon por Noidisk MíddelnHer
3 (1958): 298.
79. This kind of magic is known in lcelandic as sjó nÏieeJng,
“sight twisting,” a way of distorting the percepcions and
causing illusions. See Ellis Davidson, “Hostile Magic in the
lcelandic Sagas,” p. 21íf.
80. The Hague: Nijhoff, 1948.
81. See Storms, Anglo-Saxon Mqgic, pp. 18ò —197.
82. The botanical designations of the nine herbs are ( 1)
mug- wott, oztemisio uitlgoris; (2) waybread or plantain,
#Iontngo mnjor; (3) “stune”(?), lamb's cress, cordnmine
hiriuto; (4) venom-loather, cock’s spur grass, panicum
crus Gafli; (5)
 131

mayweed, camomile, antfiemis cofuln; (6) “wergulu”(?),

nets tie, xrtic4 dioico; (7) (crab)-apple, any of several trees
of the genus Pyrits; (8) chervil, onthriscits ceieJolium, (9)
fennel, foeniculum vulgaie.
83. See A. Kuhn, “Indische und germanische Segenspruche,"
7eitschrift fur 'ueigleichende SQroch/orschung 13 ( 1864): 49—73.
84. Then the infecting “worm" would be shot away,
magically bound to the arrow.
85. For the parallels to the Vedic tradition, see the passages
translated by H. H. Wilson, Fig-Vedo Sanhitn (New Delhi:
Cosmo, 1977), vol. 7, pp. 392—393 ¡ and by Ralph T. H.
Griffith, TO Hymns oJ rhe Atfirea-Vedn, 3d ed. (Varansi,
India: Master Khñelari Sons, 1962), vol. 2, p. 412.
8é Here the Old High German word idisi is used, Which may
be related to Old Norse dis, pl. distr, a group of divine
mother-goddesses or protective spirits.
87. Phol is probably an alternative spelling of Vol(1), the
mas-
culine counterpart to the fertility goddess Volla (ON
bylla) ,
sister of Frigga, also mentioned in thé text.
88. William Dwight Whitney, Atfirvo-Vedo Samita (Delhi:
Mo- tilal Banarsidass, 1962) , vol. 1, pp. 166—168.
89. Other parallels are discussed by Jacob Grimm, Tectonic
M - tfiokigy (New York: Dover, 19d6), vol. 3, pp. 1231—
1233; Turville-Petre, MyA and Religion o{ the North, pp.
122—1 Zd; Storms, Anglo-Saxon Mogic, pp. 109—113.
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