CARBOHYDRATES
✓ major source of energy from our diet.
✓ It is composed of the elements C, H, and O.
✓ It is also called saccharides, which means “sugars.
✓ Carbohydrates are produced by photosynthesis in
plants.
✓ Glucose are synthesized in plants from CO2, H2O, and
energy from the sun.
✓ Carbohydrates are oxidized in living cells (respiration) D. Fatty acids
to produce CO2, H2O, and energy. ➢ 3 main parts
• Hydrocarbon chain
Monosaccharides • methyl group at one end
• acid group at other end.
✓ the simplest carbohydrates.
Disaccharides
✓ consist of two monossacharides. Polysaccharides
contain many monosaccharides.
LIPIDS
➢ Organic compound that are nonpolar molecules
➢ Poorly soluble in water
➢ They dissolve in organic solvents such as benzene and Saturated Fatty acid (animal fat)
chloroform.
✓ has single carbon to carbon bond. Solid at room temp
➢ Polymers of fatty acids
➢ Contain a long, non-polar hydrocarbon chain with a small
polar region containing oxygen.
Unsaturated fatty acid (vegetable oils and trans-fat)
✓ has one to several double bonds resulting in kinks in the
fatty acid chain which affect in the melting point in the fat.
FUNCTIONS
❖ long term energy storage
❖ protection
❖ insulation
❖ lubrication
❖ precursor to some hormones and cell membranes
ADDITIONAL FACTS ABOUT LIPIDS
2. PHOSPHOLIPIDS
❖ They are important dietary constituents not only because of
the high energy value of fats but also because essential ✓ Similar to triglyceride
fatty acids, fat-soluble vitamins, and other lipophilic ✓ contains glycerol and 2 fatty acids
micronutrients are contained in the fat of natural foods. ✓ difference is that a phosphate group rather than a 3 rd fatty
acid is attached to the 3rd carbon of glycerol.
CATEGORIES OF LIPIDS
3. STEROIDS
1. TRIGLYCERIDES
✓ Composed of four fused rings of carbon to which different
A. Fats (lard and butter) functional groups are attached.
➢ solid at room temperature used by animals ✓ One well-known steroid molecule is cholesterol.
➢ for protection, insulation and long-term
energy storage. ✓ Cholesterol serves as a precursor for the synthesis of other
steroids such as testosterone, estrogen, vit D, and cortisone.
B. Oil (such as corn oil and olive oil)
➢ liquid in room temperature is used by plants ✓ Cholesterol is present in plasma membrane where it
for long term energy storage. stabilizes the membrane.
C. Molecular level
➢ triglycerides contain two subunits’ molecules:
1. 1 Glycerol
2. 3 Fatty acids (saturated and
unsaturated)
4. WAX
✓ it is non polar and repels water.
✓ Found in the protective coating on leaves and on outer
surfaces of animals.
✓ Wax is produced in the ears of some animals to protect the
eardrum. In addition, bees construct honey combs from wax.
Normal Chemical Composition of Urine
Urine is an aqueous solution of greater than 95% water, with a
Lipids can be classified into two main classes: minimum of these remaining constituents, in order of
decreasing concentration:
Saponifiable lipid
Urea 9.3 g/L.
✓ comprises one or more ester groups, enabling it to
undergo hydrolysis in the presence of a base, acid,
or enzymes, including waxes, Chloride 1.87 g/L
triglycerides, sphingolipids and phospholipids Sodium 1.17 g/L
Potassium 0.750 g/L.
Nonsaponifiable lipid
✓ cannot be disintegrated into smaller molecules
Creatinine 0.670 g/L
through hydrolysis, which include cholesterol,
Other dissolved ions,
prostaglandins, etc.
inorganic and organic
compounds (proteins,
hormones, metabolites).
Deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA)
Abnormal Types of Urine
• a chemical found in the nucleus of cells that contains the
blueprint for the development and function of living ✓ There are several conditions that can cause abnormal
organisms. components to be excreted in urine or present as
• It’s compared to a set of blueprints since it contains the abnormal characteristics of urine.
instructions on how to build cells. ✓ They are mostly referred to by the suffix -uria.
✓ Some of the more common types of abnormal urine
• The instructions are divided into segments along a strand of include:
DNA and are called “genes”.
• Genes provide the code for the production of a protein
Proteinuria Protein content in urine, often due to leaky
and control hereditary characteristics such as eye color or
or damaged glomeruli.
personality behaviors.
• Proteins determine cell type and function, so a cell knows Oliguria An abnormally small amount of urine,
whether it is a skin cell, a blood cell, a bone cell, etc, and often due to shock or kidney damage.
how to perform its duties. Polyuria An abnormally large amount of urine,
often caused by diabetes.
URINE Dysuria Painful or uncomfortable urination, often
from urinary tract infections.
✓ Urine is formed by the kidneys as they function to
remove waste products and foreign materials. Hematuria Red blood cells in urine, from infection or
✓ It keeps the level of ions in the blood serum at injury.
constant value.
✓ These substances include ammonia, urea, proteins Glycosuria Glucose in urine, due to excess plasma
from pathogens, uric acid and ions of hydrogen, glucose in diabetes, beyond the amount
sodium potassium, calcium, chloride and sulfate. able to be reabsorbed in the proximal
convoluted tubule.
✓ Urine is a liquid byproduct of the body secreted by the
kidneys through a process called urination and
excreted through the urethra.
✓ The normal chemical composition of urine is
mainly water content, but it also includes
nitrogenous molecules, such as urea, as well as
creatinine and other metabolic waste components.
