Bhakti Tradition

UNIT 14 BHAKTI TRADITION*

Structure
14.0 Objectives
14.1 Introduction
14.2 Background: Bhakti Movement in South India
14.3 Bhakti Movement in North India
14.4 Emergence of Bhakti Movement
14.4.1 Political Factors for the Rise of Bhakti Movement
14.4.2 Socio-Economic Factors
14.5 Main Popular Movements and their Characteristics
14.5.1 Monotheistic Movements of North India
14.5.2 Common Characteristic Features
14.5.3 Vaishnava Bhakti Movement in North India
14.5.4 Vaishnava Bhakti Movement in Bengal
14.5.5 Bhakti Movement in Maharashtra
14.5.6 Bhakti Movement in Other Regions
14.6 Influence of Other Traditions and Movements
14.6.1 Popular Monotheistic Saints and Ramananda
14.6.2 Influence of the Nathpanthi Movement on Monotheistic Saints
14.6.3 Influence of Islamic Ideas and the Role of Sufism
14.6.4 Theory of Islamic Challenge to Hinduism
14.7 Summary
14.8 Keywords
14.9 Answers to Check Your Progress Exercises
14.10 Suggested Readings
14.11 Instructional Video Recommendations

14.0 OBJECTIVES
After going through this Unit, you should be able to:
• understand the background of the bhakti movement,
• identify the main political and socio-economic factors for the rise of bhakti
movement in north India,
• list the main popular branches and the saints of this movement,
• know the main characteristic features of the bhakti movement, and
• learn about the influence of other traditions and Islam on bhakti movement.

* Prof. R. P. Bahuguna Department of History and Culture, Jamia Milia Islamia, New Delhi.
The present Unit is taken from IGNOU Course EHI-03: India: From 8th to 15th Century,
Block 8, Unit 29. 261
Religious Ideas and
Visual Culture 14.1 INTRODUCTION
Bhakti as a religious concept means devotional surrender to a personally conceived
Supreme God for attaining salvation. The origin of this doctrine has been traced to
both the Brahmanical and Buddhist traditions of ancient India and to various
scriptures such as the Bhagvat Gita. But it was for the first time in South India
between the 7th and 10th century that bhakti grew from a mere religious doctrine
into a popular movement based on religious equality and broad-based social
participation. The movement which was led by popular saint-poets reached its
climax in the 10th century after which it began to decline. But it was revived as a
philosophical and ideological movement by a series of wandering scholars or
acharyas, beginning with Ramanuja in the 11th century. The establishment of the
Delhi Sultanate in early 13th century witnessed great outburst of many diverse and
widespread socio-religious movements in various parts of the country drawing
upon the concepts of bhakti. These movements have been seen as a continuation
or revival of the older South Indian bhakti movement. But each one of the later
movements which grew in the Sultanate period had a historical context of its own
and its own peculiarities. Moreover, one of them, namely, the non-conformist
monotheistic movement which is associated with Kabir and other ‘low-caste’ saints
bears only superficial resemblance to the variants of the movement. Its social roots,
its ideology, social composition of its leadership and even its concept of bhakti
and God set it fundamentally apart from the older bhakti movement of South India
as well as from the rest of the later bhakti movements. In view of these wide and at
times even basic differences among various bhakti movements, they must be
discussed individually in order to clearly bring out the characteristics of each one
of them and also to discover elements of unity and diversity among them.

14.2 BACKGROUND: BHAKTI MOVEMENT IN

SOUTH INDIA
The Saiva Nayanar saints and Vaishnava Alvar saints of South India spread the
doctrine of bhakti among different sections of the society irrespective of caste and
gender during the period between the 7th and the 10th century. Some of these saints
came from the ‘lower’ castes and some were women. The saint-poets preached
bhakti in an intense emotional manner and promoted religious egalitarianism. They
dispensed with rituals and traversed the region several times singing, dancing and
advocating bhakti. The Alvar and Nayanar saints used the Tamil language and not
Sanskrit for preaching and composing devotional songs. All these features gave
the movement a popular character. For the first time bhakti acquired a popular
base.
The South Indian bhakti saints were critical of Buddhists and Jains who enjoyed a
privileged status at the courts of South Indian kings at that time. They won over
many adherents of Buddhism and Jainism, both of which by now had become
rigid and formal religions. At the same time, however, these poet-saints resisted
the authority of the orthodox Brahmans by making bhakti accessible to all without
any caste and sex discrimination. But the South Indian bhakti movement had its
limitations as well. It never consciously opposed Brahmanism or the varna and
caste systems at the social level. It was integrated with the caste system and the
‘lower’ castes continued to suffer from various social disabilities. There was no
262
elimination of Brahmanical rituals such as worship of idols, recitation of the Vedic Bhakti Tradition
mantras and pilgrimages to sacred places in spite of the overriding emphasis on
bhakti as the superior mode of worship. The Buddhists and Jains were its main
targets, not the Brahmans. This perhaps was also the reason why the Brahman
dominated temples played an important role in the growth of South Indian bhakti
movement.
Since the ideological and social foundations of caste system were not questioned
by the South Indian saint-poets, the bhakti movement of the South in the long run
strengthened it rather than weakening it. Ultimately, after the movement reached
its climax in the 10th century, it was gradually assimilated into the conventional
Brahmanical religion. But despite these limitations, the South Indian bhakti
movement in its heyday succeeded in championing the cause of religious equality
and, consequently, the Brahmans had to accept the right of the ‘low-caste’ to preach,
to have access to bhakti as a mode of worship and to have access even to the
Vedas.
Bhakti and the South Indian Acharyas
When the popularity of the bhakti movement in South India was on the wane, the
doctrine of bhakti was defended at the philosophical level by a series of brilliant
Vaishnava Brahaman scholars (acharyas). Ramanuja (11th century) was first among
them. He gave philosophical justification for bhakti. He tried to establish a careful
balance between orthodox Brahmanism and popular bhakti which was open to all.
Though he did not support the idea of the ‘lower’ castes having access to the
Vedas, he advocated bhakti as a mode of worship accessible to all including the
Sudras and even the outcastes. While propagating bhakti, he did not observe caste
distinctions and even tried to eradicate untouchability. Nimbarka, a Telugu
Brahman, is believed to have been a younger contemporary of Ramanuja. He spent
most of his time in Vrindavan near Mathura in North India. He believed in total
devotion to Krishna and Radha. Another South Indian Vaishnavite bhakti
philosopher was Madhava who belonged to the 13th century. Like Ramanuja, he
did not dispute orthodox Brahmanical restriction on the Vedic study by the Sudras.
He believed that bhakti provided alternate avenue of worship to the Sudras. His
philosophical system was based on the Bhagvat Purana. He is also believed to
have toured North India. The last two prominent Vaishnava acharyas were
Ramananda (late 14th and early 15th century) and Vallabha (late 15th and early 16th
century). Since both of them lived mostly in North India during the Sultanate
period and gave new orientation to the Vaishnava bhakti, they will be discussed in
the Section dealing with North India.

14.3 BHAKTI MOVEMENT IN NORTH INDIA

There arose during the Sultanate period (13th-15th century) many popular socio-
religious movements in North and East India, and Maharashtra. Emphasis on bhakti
and religious equality were two common features of these movements. As has
been pointed out, these two were also the features of the South Indian bhakti
movements. Almost all the bhakti movements of the Sultanate period have been
related to one South Indian Vaishnava acharya or the other. For these reasons,
many scholars believe that the bhakti movements of the Sultanate period were a
continuation or resurgence of the older bhakti movement. They argue that there
existed philosophical and ideological links between the two, either due to contact 263
Religious Ideas and or diffusion. Thus, Kabir and other leaders of non-conformist monotheistic
Visual Culture movements in North India are believed to have been the disciples of Ramananda
who, in turn, is believed to have been connected with Ramanuja’s philosophical
order. Similar claims have been made that Chaitanya, the most significant figure
of the Vaishnava movement in Bengal, belonged to the philosophical school of
Madhava. This movement is also believed to have been connected with Nimbarka’s
school because of its emphasis on ‘Krishna’ bhakti.
There are undoubtedly striking similarities between the older bhakti tradition of
South India and various bhakti movements that flourished in the Sultanate and
Mughal periods. If we exclude the popular monotheistic movements of Kabir,
Nanak and other ‘low’ caste saints, the two sets of movements can be shown to
have possessed many more common features. For example, like the South Indian
bhakti movement, the Vaishnava bhakti movements of North and Eastern India
and Maharashtra, though egalitarian in the religious sphere, never denounced the
caste system, the authority of Brahmanical scriptures and the Brahmanical privileges
as such.
Consequently, like the South Indian bhakti, most of the Vaishnava movements of
the later period were ultimately assimilated into the Brahmanical religion, though
in the process of interaction, the latter itself underwent many changes. However,
the similarities end here. Bhakti movement was never a single movement except
in the broad doctrinal sense of a movement which laid emphasis on bhakti and
religious equality. The bhakti movements of medieval India differed in many
significant respects not only from the older South Indian bhakti tradition but also
among themselves. Each one of them had its own regional identity and socio-
historical and cultural contexts. Thus, the non-conformist movements based on
popular monotheistic bhakti contained features that were essentially different from
various Vaishnava bhakti movements. Kabir’s notion of bhakti was not the same
as that of the medieval Vaishnava saints such as Chaitanya or Mirabai.
Within the Vaishnava movement, the historical context of Maharashtra bhakti was
different from that of the Bengal Vaishnavism or North Indian bhakti movement
of Ramanand, Vallabha, Surdas and Tulsidas. During the later period, when the
Vaishnava bhakti movement crystallized into sects, there arose frequent disputes
between them which sometimes even turned violent. Among all the bhakti
movements of the period between the 14th and 17th century, the popular monotheistic
movements of Kabir, Nanak, Raidas and other ‘lower’ caste saints stand out
fundamentally different.
Popular Monotheistic Movement and Vaishnava Bhakti Movement
Both these movements arose in Northern India at the same time, that is, in the
centuries following the establishment of the Delhi Sultanate and advent of Islam
in that part of the country. For this reason, the rise of both the movements is quite
often attributed to certain common causes such as the influence of Islam on
Hinduism. However, the causes and sources of the two movements and the factors
exerting influence on them were quite diverse. It will become clear from the
following discussion that a cause which explains one movement may not do so in
the case of the other. This is so because the popular monotheistic movements
arose and reached their peak in the Sultanate period, while the Vaishnava
movements began in the Sultanate period but reached their climax during the
264 Mughal period.
Check Your Progress-1 Bhakti Tradition

1) Give the salient features of the bhakti movement.

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2) Write two lines on each of the following:
Ramanuja .........................................................................................................
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Nimbarka ..........................................................................................................
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Vallabha ...........................................................................................................
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Chaitanya ..........................................................................................................
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Madhava ...........................................................................................................
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14.4 EMERGENCE OF BHAKTI MOVEMENT

The bhakti movement which influenced large number of people during 14th-17th
centuries in North India emerged due to a number of political, socio-economic
and religious factors. We will discuss all these in this Section.

14.4.1 Political Factors for the Rise of Bhakti Movement

It has been pointed out that as the popular bhakti movement could not take root in
Northern India before the Turkish conquest because the socio-religious milieu
was dominated by the Rajput-Brahman alliance. The Turkish conquests brought
the supremacy of this alliance to an end. The advent of Islam with the Turkish
conquest also caused a setback to the power and prestige commanded by the
Brahmans: Thus, the way was paved for the growth of non-conformist movements,
with anti-caste and anti-Brahmanical ideology. The Brahmans had always made
the people believe that the images and idols in the temples were not just the symbols
of God but were gods themselves who possessed divine power and who could be
influenced by them (i.e. the Brahmans). The Turks deprived the Brahmans of their
temple wealth and state patronage. Thus, the Brahmans suffered both materially
and ideologically. The non-conformist sect of the Nathpanthis was perhaps the
first to gain from the declining power of the Rajput-Brahman alliance. This sect
seems to have reached its peak in the beginning of the Sultanate period. The loss
of power and influence by the Brahmans and the new political situation ultimately
created conditions for the rise of the popular monotheistic movements and other
bhakti movements in Northern India.

14.4.2 Socio-Economic Factors

It has been argued that the bhakti movements of medieval India represented
sentiments of the common people against feudal oppression. According to this 265
Religious Ideas and viewpoint, elements of revolutionary opposition to feudalism can be found in the
Visual Culture poetry of the bhakti saints ranging from Kabir and Nanak to Chaitanya and Tulsidas.
It is in this sense that sometimes the medieval bhakti movements are seen as Indian
counterpart of the Protestant Reformation in Europe. However, there is nothing in
the poetry of the bhakti saints to suggest that they represented the class interests of
the peasantry against the surplus-extracting feudal state. The Vaishnava bhakti
saints broke away from orthodox Brahmanical order only to the extent that they
believed in bhakti and religious equality. Normally, they continued to subscribe to
many basic principles of orthodox Brahmanism. The more radical monotheistic
saints rejected orthodox Brahmanical religion altogether but even they did not call
for the overthrow of the state and the ruling class. For this reason, the bhakti
movements cannot be regarded as Indian variant of European Protestant
Reformation which was a far greater social upheaval linked to the decline of
feudalism and the rise of capitalism.
This, however, does not mean that the bhakti saints were indifferent to the living
conditions of the people. They used images of daily life and always tried to identify
themselves in one way or another with the sufferings of the common people.
Economic and Social Changes
The widespread popularity of the monotheistic movement of Kabir, Nanak, Dhanna,
Pipa, etc. can be explained fully only in the context of certain significant socio-
economic changes in the period following the Turkish conquest of Northern India.
The Turkish ruling class, unlike the Rajputs, lived in towns. The extraction of
large agricultural surplus led to enormous concentration of resources in the hands
of the ruling class. The demands of this resource-wielding class for manufactured
goods, luxuries and other necessaries led to the introduction of many new techniques
and crafts on a large scale. This, in turn, led to the expansion of the class of urban
artisans in the 13th and 14th centuries.
The growing classes of urban artisans were attracted towards the monotheistic
movement because of its egalitarian ideas as they were now not satisfied with the
low status accorded to them in traditional Brahmanical hierarchy. It has been pointed
out that some groups of traders like the Khatris in the Punjab, who benefited directly
from the growth of towns, urban crafts production and expansion of markets, were
also drawn into the movement for the same reason. The popularity of the
monotheistic movement was the result of the support it obtained from one or more
of these different classes of the society. It is one or more of these sections which
constituted the social base of the movement in different parts of Northern India. In
Punjab, the popularity of the movement did not remain confined to urban classes:
it acquired a broader base by the incorporation of the Jat peasants in its ranks. The
support extended by the Jats of the Punjab to Guru Nanak’s movement ultimately
contributed to the development of Sikhism as a mass religion.

14.5 MAIN POPULAR MOVEMENTS AND THEIR

CHARACTERISTICS
In this Section, we will discuss some of the main monotheistic and Vaishnava
movements in North India, including Maharashtra and Bengal during the period
under review.
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14.5.1 Monotheistic Movements of North India Bhakti Tradition

Kabir (c. 1440-1518) was the earliest and undoubtedly the most powerful figure
of the monotheistic movements that began in the 15th century. He belonged to a
family of weavers (Julaha – who were indigenous converts to Islam). He spent
greater part of his life in Banaras (Kashi). The monotheistic saints who succeeded
him either claimed to be his disciples or respectfully mention him. His verses
were included in the Sikh scripture, the Adi Granth in large numbers than those of
other monotheists. All this indicates his pre-eminent position among the
monotheists. Raidas (or Ravidas) most probably belonged to the generation next
to Kabir’s. He was a tanner by caste. He also lived in Banaras and was influenced
by Kabir’s ideas. Dhanna was a 15th century Jat peasant from Rajasthan. Other
prominent saints of the same period were Sen (a barber) and Pipa.
Guru Nanak (1469-1539) preached his ideas much in the same way as Kabir and
other monotheists, but due to various developments later his teachings led to the
emergence of a mass religion, Sikhism. The basic similarity of his teachings with
those of Kabir and other saints and the basic ideological agreement between them
makes him an integral part of the monotheistic movement. He belonged to a caste
of traders called Khatri and was born in a village in Punjab now known as Nankana
Sahib. In his later life he travelled widely to preach his ideas. Eventually he settled
in a place in Punjab now known as Dera Baba Nanak. There he attracted large
number of disciples. The hymns composed by him were incorporated in the Adi
Granth by the fifth Sikh Guru, Guru Arjan, in 1604.

14.5.2 Common Characteristic Features

The teachings of all the saints who are associated with the monotheistic movement
have certain common features which give the movement its basic unity:
i) Most of the monotheists belonged to the ‘low’ castes and were aware that
there existed a unity of ideas among themselves. Most of them were aware
of each other’s teachings and influences. In their verses they mention each
other and their predecessors in such a way as to suggest a harmonious
ideological affinity among them. Thus, Kabir speaks of Raidas as ‘saint
among saints’. Raidas, in his turn, respectfully mentions the names of Kabir,
Namdev, Trilochan, Dhanna, Sen and Pipa. Dhanna takes pride in speaking
of the fame and popularity of Namdev, Kabir, Raidas and Sen and admits
that he devoted himself to bhakti after hearing their fame. Kabir’s influence
on Nanak is also beyond dispute. It is, therefore, not surprising that the later
traditions link Kabir, Raidas, Dhanna, Pipa, Sen, etc. together as disciples of
Ramananda. The ideological affinity among the monotheists is also clear
from the inclusion of the hymns of Kabir, Raidas, etc. along with those of
Nanak by the fifth Sikh Guru Arjan in the Adi Granth.
ii) All the monotheists were influenced in one way or another and in varying
degrees by the Vaishnava concept of bhakti, the Nathpanthi movement and
sufism. The monotheistic movement represents the synthesis of elements
from these three traditions. But more often than not they did not accept the
element of these traditions in their original form and made many innovations
and adaptations which gave new meanings to old concepts.
iii) For the monotheists, there was only one way of establishing communion
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Religious Ideas and with God: it was the way of personally experienced bhakti. This was also
Visual Culture the way of the Vaishnava bhakti saints, but there was one fundamental
difference of perceptions: they all have been called monotheists because
they uncompromisingly believed in only one God. Then, God of Nanak was
non-incarnate and formless (nirankar), eternal (akal) and ineffable (alakh).
The monotheistic bhakti, therefore, was nirguna bhakti and not saguna –
which was the case with the Vaishnavites who believed in various human
incarnations of God. The monotheists adopted the notion of bhakti from the
Vaishnava bhakti tradition but gave it a nirguna orientation. Quite often
Kabir called God by the name, Ram. For this reason, he has been called
Ram-bhakta. But Kabir himself made it clear in his utterances that the Ram
he was devoted to was not the one who was born as an incarnation in the
house of king Dashratha of Ayodhya or who had killed Ravana, but a formless,
non-incarnate God. In addition to the oneness of God and nirguna bhakti,
the monotheists also emphasized the crucial importance of repetition of divine
name, spiritual guru, community singing of devotional songs (kirtan) and
companionship of saints (satsang).
iv) The monotheists followed a path which was independent of both dominant
religions of the time – Hinduism and Islam. They denied their allegiance to
either of them and criticized the superstitions and orthodox elements of both
the religions. They launched a vigorous ideological assault on the caste system
and idolatry. They rejected the authority of the Brahmans and their religious
scriptures. Kabir, in his harsh and abrasive style, uses ridicule as a powerful
method for denouncing orthodox Brahmanism.
v) The monotheists composed their poems in popular languages. Some of them
used a language which was a mixture of different dialects spoken in various
parts of North India. The monotheistic saints preferred this common language
to their own native dialects because they considered it fit for the propagation
of their non-conformist ideas among the masses in various regions. The use
of common language is a striking feature of the movement considering that
the saints belonged to different parts of North India and spoke different
dialects. The monotheists also made use of popular symbols and images to
propagate their teachings. Their utterances are expressed in short verses which
could be easily remembered. Thus, for instance, Kabir’s poetry is unpolished
and has a rustic, colloquial quality but it is essentially a poetry of the people.
vi) Most of the monotheistic saints were not ascetics. They led worldly life and
were married. They lived and preached among the people. They had aversion
to and disdain for professional ascetics. They frequently refer to professional
caste groups in their verses which would suggest that they continued to pursue
their family professions. They were also not like the medieval European
Christian saints who were recognized as ‘holy’ by the Church. The expression
which has been used for them and by which they themselves referred to each
other is sant or bhagat. In the Adi Granth, Kabir, Raidas, Dhanna, Pipa,
Namdev, etc. have been listed as bhagat.
vii) The monotheistic saints travelled widely to propagate their beliefs. Namdev,
a 14th century saint from Maharashtra travelled as far as Punjab where his
teachings became so popular that they were later absorbed in the Adi Granth.
Kabir, Raidas and other saints are also believed to have travelled widely.
268
viii) The ideas of Kabir and other monotheists spread to various regions and Bhakti Tradition
became popular among the ‘lower’ classes. The popularity of the monotheists
broke territorial barriers. This is clear from the high position accorded to
Kabir in the Sikh tradition and in the Dadupanthi tradition of Rajasthan.
Their continuing popularity even almost two hundred years after their time
and in a distant region is clear from the way a mid-17th century Maharashtrian
saint Tukaram looked upon himself as an admirer and follower of Kabir,
Raidas, Sen, Gora, etc. A 17th century Persian work on comparative religion
Dabistan-i Mazahib testifies to the continuing popularity of Kabir among
the people of North India.
ix) Despite the widespread popularity that the teachings of monotheists enjoyed
among the masses, the followers of each one of the major figures in the
monotheistic movement like Kabir, Raidas and Nanak gradually organized
themselves into exclusive sectarian orders called panths such as Kabir panth,
Raidasi panth, Nanak panth, etc. Of all these panths, the Nanak panth alone
eventually crystallized into a mass religion while most of the others continue
to survive till today but with a vastly reduced following and a narrow sectarian
base.
Check Your Progress-2
1) Write two lines on each of the following:
a) Kabir .......................................................................................................
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b) Guru Nanak ...............................................................................................
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2) Discuss the factors that led to the rise of the bhakti movement.
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3) What are the characteristic features of monotheistic bhakti movement? Give
the names of three saints belonging to this movement.
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14.5.3 Vaishnava Bhakti Movement in North India

Ramananda was the most prominent scholar saint of the Vaishnava bhakti in
Northern India during this period. Some of his ideas have already been mentioned
in Section 14.3. He belonged to the late 14th and early 15th century. He lived in
South India in the early part of his life but later settled in Banaras. He is considered
to be the link between the South Indian bhakti tradition and North Indian Vaishnava
bhakti. However, he deviated from the ideology and practice of the earlier South
Indian acharyas in three important respects:
i) He looked upon Ram and not Vishnu as object of bhakti. To him, Ram was 269
Religious Ideas and the supreme God who is to be adored with Sita. In this sense he came to be
Visual Culture
regarded as the founder of the Ram cult in North India within the framework
of Vaishnava bhakti tradition.
ii) He preached in the language of the common people, and not in Sanskrit, to
propagate the Ram cult.
iii) The most significant contribution to Vaishnava bhakti, was that he made
bhakti accessible to all irrespective of caste. He greatly relaxed the caste
rules in respect of religious and social matters. Though himself a Brahman,
he took food with his ‘low’ caste Vaishnava followers.
It is perhaps for the last mentioned point that some later Vaishnava traditions link
Kabir and some other monotheists to him as his disciples. The innovations were
probably due to the influence of Islamic ideas. It has also been suggested that he
made these innovations in order to counter the growing popularity of the heterodox
Nathpanthis, the ‘lower’ classes of the society. His followers are called Ramanandis.
A hymn attributed to him was incorporated in the Adi Granth.
Another prominent Vaishnava preacher in the Sultanate period was Vallabhacharya,
a Telugu brahman of the late 15th and early 16th century. He, too, was born in
Banaras. He was the founder of Pushtimarga (way of grace). It also came to be
known as Vallabha sampradava (Vallabha Sect). He advocated Krishna bhakti.
Famous Krishna bhakti saint-poet, Surdas (1483-1563) and seven other Krishna
bhakti poets belonging to the ashtachhap were believed to have been the disciples
of Vallabha. The sect later became popular in Gujarat.
In North India, however, the Vaishnava bhakti cult acquired a more popular base.
Only in the Mughal period, Tulsidas (1532-1623) championed the cause of Rama
bhakti while Surdas (1483-1563), Mira Bai (1503-73) and many others popularized
Krishna bhakti.

14.5.4 Vaishnava Bhakti Movement in Bengal

In many significant ways the Vaishnava bhakti in Bengal was different from its
North Indian and the older South Indian bhakti. The sources which influenced it
can be traced to two different traditions – the Vaishnava bhakti tradition of the
Bhagavata Purana, with its glorification of Krishna lila on the one hand, and
Sahajiya Buddhist and Nathpanthi traditions on the other. The Vaishnava influence
was transmitted by various bhakti poets, beginning with Jayadeva in the 12th century.
Jayadeva’s Gita Govinda was composed in Sanskrit. He also wrote songs in Maithili
dialect which were later absorbed in the Bengali Vaishnava bhakti tradition. Various
non-vaishnava cults such as those of Sahajiya Buddhists and Nathpanthis that
survived in Bengal and Bihar influenced the growth of bhakti movement in Bengal.
These cults preached an easy and natural religion focussing on esoteric and
emotional elements. Vaishnava bhakti poets such as Chandidas (14th century) and
Vidyapati (14th to 15th centuries) came under the influence of these non-Vaishnava
Cults, though the Bhagavata tradition was always the major source of influence.
The songs of Chandidas who was the first Bengali bhakti poet and those of Vidyapati
who wrote in Maithili, highlighted the Krishna-Radha relationship. These songs
became part of the growing Vaishnava movement in Bengal. Chaitanya himself
did not come under the direct influence of Sahajiya doctrine. It is, however, possible
270
that elements of esoteric cults entered into his movement through the influence of Bhakti Tradition
Chandidas and Vidyapati. But the most important source of inspiration was the
Bhagavata Purana.
Chaitanya (1486-1533) was the most prominent Vaishnava saint of Bengal. He
popularized Krishna-bhakti in many parts of Eastern India. His popularity as a
religious personality was so great that he was looked upon as an avatara
(incarnation) of Krishna. The advent of Chaitanya marks the shifting of the focus
of the Bengal Vaishnava bhakti from devotional literary compositions to a full-
fledged reform movement with a broad social base.
Chaitanya disregarded all distinctions of caste, creed and sex to give a popular base
to Krishna-bhakti. His followers belonged to all castes and communities. One of his
most favourite disciples was Haridas who was a Muslim. He popularized the practice
of sankirtan or group devotional singing accompanied by ecstatic dancing.
However, Chaitanya did not give up traditional Brahamanical values altogether.
He did not question the authority of the Brahmans and scriptures. He upheld the
caste prejudices of his Brahman disciples against the ‘lower’ caste disciples. Six
Sanskrit-knowing Brahman Goswamins who were sent by him to Vrindavan near
Mathura established a religious order which recognized caste restrictions in its
devotional practices and rituals. These Goswamins gradually distanced themselves
from Chaitanya’s teachings and from the popular movement that had grown around
him in Bengal.
But Chaitanya’s movement had a great impact on Bengali society. His disregard
for caste distinctions in the sphere of devotional singing promoted a sense of equality
in the Bengali life. In Bengal and in Puri, in Odisha, his movement remained
popular. In these places, his followers were not always scholarly Brahmans but
included common people. They wrote in Bengali, propagated his bhakti and looked
upon Chaitanya as the living Krishna or as Radha and Krishna in one body.

14.5.5 Bhakti Movement in Maharashtra

Like other Vaishnava bhakti movements, the Maharashtra bhakti tradition drew
its basic inspiration from that of the Bhagavata Purana. In addition, however, it
was also influenced by the Saiva Nathpanthis who were quite popular in the ‘lower’
classes of the Maharashtrian society during the 11th and 12th centuries and who
composed their verses in Marathi. Jnaneswar (1275-1296) was the pioneer bhakti
saint of Maharashtra. He wrote an extensive commentary on the Bhagavad Gita,
popularly called Jnanesvari. This was one of the earliest works of Marathi literature
and served as foundation of the bhakti ideology in Maharashtra. He was the author
of many hymns called abhangs. He taught that the only way to attain God was
bhakti and in bhakti there was no place for caste distinctions.
Namdev (1270-1350) belonged to the tailor caste. He is considered to be the link
between the Maharashtrian bhakti movement and North Indian monotheistic
movement. He lived in Pandharpur but travelled to North India, including Punjab.
His bhakti songs have also been included in the Adi Granth. In Maharashtra,
Namdev is considered to be a part of the Varkari tradition (Vaishnava devotional
tradition), but in the North Indian monotheistic tradition he is remembered as a
nirguna saint. Other prominent bhakti saints of Maharashtra were Eknath (1533-
99) and Tukaram (1598-1650).
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Religious Ideas and 14.5.6 Bhakti Movement in Other Regions
Visual Culture
Saiva bhakti flourished in Kashmir in the 14th century. Most prominent of the
Saiva bhakti saints was a woman, Lal Ded. In Gujarat, bhakti was preached by the
Vallabha sect of Vallabhacharya and another important saint, Narsimha Mehta
(1414-1481, or 1500-1580). He knew of Jayadeva and Kabir and was followed by
a number of poet-saints. The Vallabha sect became popular among merchants and
landowners of Gujarat. In Karnataka, the Saiva bhakti cult of the Kannad speaking
Virasaivas developed during the 12th and 13th centuries. They preached a strongly
radical and heterodox concept of bhakti by incorporating social criticism in their
religious outlook.
In Assam, Sankaradeva (1449-1568) introduced bhakti both in the Brahmaputra
valley as well as in Cooch-Behar. He was born in the family of non-Brahman
Bhuyan chiefs. He became an ascetic during the later part of his life and is believed
to have visited many places of pilgrimage in North and South India. He preached
absolute devotion to Vishnu or his incarnation, Krishna. He had to face persecution
at the lands of orthodox Brahmanical priesthood of the Ahom kingdom and took
shelter in the territories of the neighbouring Cooch-Behar, where its king gave
him the freedom to preach bhakti. Monotheistic ideas influenced his concept of
bhakti which came to be known as the eka-sarana-dharma (‘religion of seeking
refuge in one’). He denounced the caste system and preached his ideas to the
people in their language (an Assamese form of Brajaboli). He made some significant
innovations in the devotional practice such as inclusion of dance-drama-music
form in the preaching of bhakti. He also founded the institution of Satra, which
means a sitting during which people of all classes assembled for religious as well
as social purposes. Later the Satras grew into full-fledged monasteries. His sect is
called Mahapurashiya Dharma.
Check Your Progress-3
1) Write a note on the Vaishnavite bhakti movement.
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2) Write three lines on each of the following:
a) Bhakti movement in Bengal
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b) Bhakti movement in Maharashtra

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14.6 INFLUENCE OF OTHER TRADITIONS AND
MOVEMENTS
It is clear that the bhakti movement of the Sultanate period cannot be linked in
any-way with the older South Indian bhakti. But they were influenced in one way
or another by certain existing traditions and movements whose history goes back
to the pre-Sultanate period. These included the bhakti tradition of the Bhagavat
Purana, religious ideas and activities of scholar-saints such as Ramananda, and
such heterodox movements as that of the Nathpanthis.
The doctrine of bhakti is fully developed in the most famous of the Puranas – the
Bhagavat Purana, a Vaishnavite work composed around the 9th century. Its most
important feature is its emphasis on the bhakti of Vishnu in his various incarnations,
especially in the form of Krishna. The Bhagavata accepts the orthodox Brahmanical
theory of the origin of the varna system but does not accept the superiority of the
Brahmans simply on the basis of their status or birth. For it, bhakti is the main
criteria. It has been pointed out that Bhagavata Purana is the link between various
Vaishnava bhakti movements of the medieval period. However, the influence of
the Bhagavata tradition on monotheistic saints such as Kabir and Nanak was not
exerted in a direct manner. Most of these saints were illiterate and did not have
any direct access to the Bhagavata and other scriptures. Kabir’s concept of bhakti
is characteristically different from that of the Bhagavata. Kabir and other non-
conformist saints did not believe in incarnations either and rejected the Brahmanical
and scriptural authority altogether.

14.6.1 Popular Monotheistic Saints and Ramananda

Ramananda’s teachings are considered to be the source of popular monotheistic
movement of Kabir, Raidas and others. As we shall discuss later, Ramananda was
strongly opposed to caste restrictions and opened the path of bhakti to all. He also
preached his ideas in popular dialect. But, on the whole, his ideas and his concept
of bhakti were essentially a part of the Vaishnava bhakti. On the other hand, Kabir
and other monotheists went many steps further than even the most liberal Vaishnava
bhaktas like Ramanand and denounced the Brahmanical religion in its entirety. In
fact, none of the monotheists, who are claimed to have been Ramanand’s disciples,
make any mention of him or any other human guru in their utterances.

14.6.2 Influence of the Nathpanthi Movement on Monotheistic

Saints
Some of the ideas of Kabir and other monotheists can be traced to the influence of
heterodox movements like that of the Nathpanthis. A large number of Nathpanthi
preachers called siddhas belonged to the ‘lower’ castes – doma, tanners, washerman,
oilman, tailor, fisherman, wood-cutter, cobbler, etc. With the establishment of
Turkish rule in northern India the popularity of the Nathpanthi movement reached
its peak during the 13th and 14th centuries. Anybody could be initiated into the sect
of the Nathpanthi yogis irrespective of caste.
Nathpanthi influence on Kabir is clearly seen in his non-conformist attitudes, in
his independent thinking, in the harsh style of his utterances in his ‘upside-down’
language (called ulatbasi containing paradoxes and enigmas) and partly in
his mystical symbolism, However, Kabir and other monotheists, in their character- 273
Religious Ideas and istically critical and innovative manner adopted the Nathpanthi ideas on a selective
Visual Culture basis only and even when they did so, they adapted these ideas to their own purpose.
Kabir rejected their asceticism and esoteric practices and also their physical methods
such as breath control. Thus, the influence of the Nathpanthis on the monotheistic
saints of medieval period can be seen more in their heterodox’ attitudes towards
the established Brahmanical religion than in their practices.

14.6.3 Influence of Islamic Ideas and the Role of Sufism

Many scholars have argued that all the variants of the bhakti movement and the
doctrine of bhakti itself came into being as a result of Islamic influence both before
and after the 12th century. This claim has been made on the basis of many similarities
between Islam and the bhakti cults, On the other hand, it is pointed out that bhakti
and bhakti movements had indigenous origins. It has been noted above that bhakti
as a religious concept had developed in the religious traditions of ancient India.
The older South Indian bhakti movement also cannot be explained in terms of
Islamic influence as its history goes back to the period before the advent of Islam
in South India. Conceptually, a movement based on the idea of devotion or grace
is not peculiar to any particular religion but could grow independently in different
religions at different times depending on the concrete historical conditions. It would
be more appropriate to understand the bhakti movements of medieval India in
their immediate historical context rather than searching for far-fetched sources of
inspiration in any particular religion. However, Islam did influence the bhakti cults
and, in particular, the popular monotheistic movements in other ways. Non-
conformist saints such as Kabir and Nanak picked up some of their ideas from
Islam. These included their non-compromising faith in one God, their rejection of
incarnation, their conception of nirguna bhakti and their attack on idolatry and the
caste system. But they did not uncritically borrow from Islam and rejected many
elements of orthodox Islam. The Vaishnava bhakti movements, on the other hand,
cannot be interpreted in terms of such an influence of Islam as they neither
denounced idolatry (and the caste system nor the theory of incarnation). They
believed in saguna bhakti. The relationship between monotheistic bhakti movement
and Islam seems to have been one of mutual influence and sufism provided the
common meeting ground. Sufi concepts of pir and mystic union with the ‘beloved’
(God) coincided in many respects with the non-conformist saints’ concepts of
guru and devotional surrender to God. Kabir is even believed to have had affiliations
with Chishti sufi saints, though concrete historical evidence is lacking. Guru
Nanak’s encounters with sufis are described in the janam-sakhis. Though the sufism
and the monotheistic movement were historically independent of each other, there
was remarkable similarity in many of their basic ideas, including their common
rejection of Hindu and Muslim orthodoxies. The interaction between them, however
indirect, must have given impetus to both of them.

14.6.4 Theory of Islamic Challenge to Hinduism

One modern viewpoint, tends to attribute the rise of the medieval bhakti movements
to alleged persecution of the Hindus under ‘Muslim’ rule and to the challenge that
Islam is supposed to have posed to Hinduism through its doctrines of ‘Unity of
God’, equality and brotherhood. According to this theory, the bhakti movements
were a two-pronged defensive mechanism to save the Hindu religion by purging it
of such evils as caste system and idolatry and at the same time defending its basic
274
tenets by popularising it. The former task is believed to have been undertaken by Bhakti Tradition
Kabir, Nanak, etc., and the latter project was accomplished by Tulsidas in the late
16th and early 17th centuries. Such a notion of the medieval bhakti movement is not
borne out by evidence.
i) This theory of imagined Islamic threat to Hinduism is in essence a projection
of the Islamic doctrine of ‘brotherhood’ had lost much of its appeal and
social, economic and racial inequalities had crept into the Muslim society.
The Turkish ruling class possessed a strong sense of racial superiority and
looked upon ‘low caste’ Indian converts to Islam as low-born and not fit for
high offices.
ii) The Hindu population continued to observe their religious practices and to
celebrate their religious festivals. In fact, the overwhelming majority of
population remained Hindu, even in the vicinity of Delhi, the capital of the
Sultanate.
iii) The monotheistic saints denounced the aspects of both orthodox Brahmanism
and orthodox Islam and their ritualistic practices.
iv) To assume that all monotheistic and Vaishnava bhakti saints were reacting
on behalf of the Hindus to Islamic threat is not convincing because Kabir
and other ‘low caste’ saints hardly saw any unity of purpose with the saints
belonging to the Vaishnava bhakti cults.
v) Lastly, the poetry and the teachings of the Vaishnava bhakti saints or all the
regions are either not concerned with Islamic influence or at best show
indifference in this regard. In fact, it has been pointed out that Hindus and
Muslims both stood side by side among Chaitanya’s disciples, as they had
done under Ramanand, Kabir, Nanak or Dadu Dayal.
Check Your Progress-4
1) In what way the bhakti saints were influenced by the Nathpanthi doctrine?
.........................................................................................................................
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2) Do you agree that the bhakti movement was the result of Islamic influence?
Comment.
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14.7 SUMMARY
The bhakti movement of the Sultanate period represented the most widespread
constellation – both interwoven and variegated – of socio-religious movements in
Indian history after the rise of heterodox movements of the 6th century BCE. They
influenced the whole country at different times by propounding new socio-religious
ideas and practices. Many of the current practices of popular Hinduism such as
repetition of divine names, emphasis on the company of saints, and community
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Religious Ideas and devotional singing can be traced to the medieval bhakti movements. They also
Visual Culture contributed to the growth of modern vernacular languages, emergence of organized
religious communities like the Sikhs, and evolution of various sects or panths.
In this Unit, we have studied the:
• background of bhakti movement in South India which emerged in a different
form in North India,
• main political and socio-economic factors for the rise of bhakti movement,
• two main streams of bhakti movement – the monotheistic and the Vaishnava,
• main popular movements and saints of two streams of North India including
Maharashtra and Bengal,
• influences of various sects and beliefs on North Indian bhakti movement, and
• influence of Islam on bhakti movement.

14.8 KEYWORDS
Acharya Scholar-saint who propounded new religious and philosophical
ideas
Adi Granth The most important sacred scripture of the Sikhs compiled by
the fifth Sikh Guru, Guru Arjan in 1604. This later came to be
called Guru Granth Sahib
Bhagat The colloquial expression for bhakta, a devotee
Julaha Member of a Muslim weaving caste
Kirtan Community singing of hymns
Marga Path
Mukti Salvation
Nam The divine name
Nirankar Without form
Nirguna Without attributes, unqualified
Panth Path, sect; the community of the followers of a particular
monotheist saint e.g., Kabirpanth, Nanakpanth, Dadupanth, etc
Parampara Lineage, tradition
Sabad The divine word; the divine self-communication
Saguna Having qualities or attributes
Sampradaya Tradition; school of religious thought and practice
Vaishnava Worshipper of Vishnu
Varkari A Vaishnava devotional tradition

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 Bhakti Tradition
14.9 ANSWERS TO CHECK YOUR PROGRESS
EXERCISES
Check Your Progress-1
1) See Sections 14.1, 14.2, 14.3
2) See Section 14.2
Check Your Progress-2
1) See Section 14.4
2) See Sub-Section 14.5.1
3) See Sub-Sections 14.5.l, 14.5.2
Check Your Progress-3
1) See Sub-Section 14.5.3
2) See Sub-Sections 14.5.4, 14.5.5
Check Your Progress-4
1) See Sub-Section 14.6.2
2) See Sub-Section 14.6.3

14.10 SUGGESTED READINGS

Chand, Tara (2006) (Reprint), Influence of Islam on Indian Culture (Nabu Book).
Iraqi, Shihabuddin, (2009) Bhakti Movement in Medieval India (New Delhi:
Manohar).
Lorenzon, David N., (1995) Bhakti Religion in India: Community Identity and
Political Action (New York: State University of New York Press).
Schomer, Karine, and W.H. McLeod, (1987) The Sants: Studies in a Devotional
Tradition of India (Delhi: Motilal Banarasidas).
Shima, Iwao, (2011) The Historical Development of Bhakti Movement in India
(New Delhi: Manohar).
Zelliot, Eleanov, (1976) ‘The Medieval Bhakti Movement in History – An Essay
on the Literature in English’, in Bardwell L. Smith, ed., Hinduism – New Essays in
the History of Religions (Leiden: E.J. Brill) (Numen Series), pp 143-168.

14.11 INSTRUCTIONAL VIDEO

RECCOMENDATIONS
Role of Bhakti Movement in Indian History | Rajya Sabha TV
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=tFClKGI1Ybs
In Depth - Sant Kabir
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=EpAhA_CbgBQ

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Religious Ideas and Role of Bhakti Movement in Indian History
Visual Culture https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=tFClKGI1Ybs
Bhakti Movement
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=gTJnn-HBoVQ

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