Contents

Introduction ........................ . ................ ........ .

Key to Standards Organizations Cited ••••••••••••••• 1\ ••••••••••••

Standards and Analytical Methods ••.••.•.•••.••••••.•.••...•••••

Fec,~stock Sampling and Preparation ..••.•••.••..•....•.••••.
Physical and Thermal Properties •••.•••••..••.••..•..•..••.•
Density and Specific Gravity ••••••••.••••..••••••••••..
Particle Size Determination and Sieving .•.•••••••••••..•
Pore Size and Capacity .............................. .
Heats of Combustion ••••••••••••• I •••••••••••••••••••

Thermal Properties '. ................................. .

Elemental Analyses ....................................... .

Ultimate Analysis ................................... .

Oxygen Analysis .....................................

Nitrogen Analysis ................................... .

Sulfur Analysis ...................................... .

Halogen Analysis .................................... .

Metals and Other Inorganics •••••••••••••••.•••.•••••••

Chemical Component and Group Analyses ••••.•.•••.•.•••••••
Proximate Analysis .................................... .

Moisture ................................................... '

Ash, Mineral Matter and Dirt •••••••.•••.•••••••••••.•• ,

Cellulose and Holocellulose ..••.•••.•••••..••..••.••••• ,
Hemicelluloses .......................................
t

Lignins ••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••• 4

Extractives .......................................... ~

Functional Groups and Compound Classes •••••.•..••••••..

Sugars and Other Carbohydrates •••••••••.••.•.••••••••••
Proteins .............................................
Special Categories of Biomass Materials •.•.•••.•••..••••••.•••
Forage Analysis .................................. ,. ... .

Microalgae ............. ,. ................................ .

Oilseeds and Crops ...................................... .

Pea t ................................................. ..

Miscellaneous Analyses of Biomass Materials •••..••••••.••

Fuel Product Analyses ..... ,.,.,. ....... ,. .. ,. .. ,..,. .......... ,. ... .

Solid Fuels ......... ,. . ,.,. .............................. .

Petroleum-Derived Liquid Fuels •••••••.••..••••••••••..•

Lignocellulosic and Oxygenated Liquid Fuels ••••••.•••••••
Gaseous Fuels ....................................... ,. ..... .

Non-Fuel Products ............. ,. ..................... ,..,.,.

Waste Product Analyses· ......... ,. ..... ,. ......... ,. ,. .... ,. ,. ... ,. .

Solid Waste ...... - . ,. ............ ,. .......... ,. ............. .
Liquid Waste . It : ................................... .

A tmospheric AnalysIS ..................................... .

 Contents (Concluded)

Page

Conversion System Performance and Specifications ••..••••• 269

Combustion 271
Gasification 279
Bioconversion ••• 283
Enzymatic Assays ••••.••••••.•••••. 287
Fire and Flammability .••.•••••.•... 293
Measurements, Units, Quality Assurance, and Round-Robin Tests 303
Temperature, Pressure, and Flow ••• 315
Chroma tography ••••••••••.••.••• 323
Spectrometry ••• 331
Appendix
Appendix
I.
II.
Working Group Members ............................... 1-1
Standards Organizations ••••••.••••••••••.••••••. II-I
Appendix III. Combustion Equipment: Finland Report ••••••••••• III-I
Appendix IV. Round-Robin Tests ••••••.•••• IV-I
Appendix V. Reference Biomass Materials ••••••• V-I
Appendix VI. Other Sources of Information •.••••• VI-l
Appendix VII. Glossary of Useful Terms. VII-I
Index I. Standards by Organization Index 1-1
Index II. Subject ..•.......•••••. ...... Index II-I
 Introduction

Earth has a huge diversity of biomass feedstocks, including trees, crops, liquid and solid
municipal wastes, oil-producing plants, waste wood, and agricultural residues. Today's
options for converting these feedstocks range from direct burning for heat and electric­
ity to chemical, thermochemical, and biochemical processes for making liquid fuels and
chemicals. These processes, combined with sustainable management of the biomass
resource, can be part of the solution to the world's energy supply and environmental
problems.

Scientists and engineers have made great progress from the basic conversion technology
available 15 to 20 years ago. Similar advances have taken place in analytical techniques
and equipment. There is a growing consensus that establishing standard methods for
analyzing biomass and its conversion products would speed research and improve its
quality.

Several groups and nations have shown interest in establishing biomass standards. A 1984
workshop organized by the Solar Energy Research Institute (SERI) and supported by the
U.S. National Bureau of Standards (NBS, now National Institute of Standards and Tech­
nology, NIST), the Pacific Northwest Laboratory (PNL), Oak Ridge National Laboratory
(ORNL), the National Research Council of Canada (NRCC), the Int'ernational Energy
Agency (lEA), and the National Science Foundation (NSF) was a major step in discussing
the need for standards. The American Society for Testing and Materials (ASTM) has
expressed strong interest in continuing to issue biomass standards. Energy, Mines, and
Resources (E,M&R) of Canada is pursuing the issue as well by establishing standard
materials or feedstocks for conversion research and by coordinating common analyses of
pyrolysis oils and enzymatic assays.

In 1986, the International Energy Agency (lEA) began a program to start to address the
need for voluntary standards. Sponsored initially by Canada, Finland, New Zealand, and
the United States, the program has three tasks: 0) to carry out selected analysis com­
parisons between laboratories, (2) to establish standard reference materials for both
woody and herbaceous plants, and (3) to assemble a sourcebook of relevant analytical
methods and standards now being used by laboratories and industry.

The lEA standards activity has benefited from the contributions of many scientists from
around the world. An International Advisory Board has provided broad guidance to the
program. A Working Group of about 30 scientists was established in 1987 to help plan
and conduct specific activities. Advisory Board and Working Group members are listed in
Appendix I. Another 250 scientists (correspondents) have received regular information on
the project, and many have contributed methods for the sourcebook.

Preparation of the sourcebook has been the major task within the lEA activity. Methods
selected were primarily those adopted as voluntary standards by private associations. A
number of literature citations are included as well. These represent newer instrumental
methods and those relevant to conversion processes such as fermentation and pyrolysis.

Standards specific to biomass energy exist in only a few cases, for example, municipal
solid waste and wood fuels. Most of the standard methods come from related industries
such as pulp and paper, agriculture, and fossil fuels. In fact, many biomass researchers
have adopted these methods as interim standards. However, the applicability to biomass
of some of these is limited, as is noted in the literature.
Each section of the sourcebook includes citations of both standard methods and literature
methods. The sourcebook lists only citations and abstracts (where available) to save
space and abide by copyright limitations. Citations include information on availability.
Complete addresses of sources of standards are provided in Appendix II.
Reports on other tasks within the lEA Standards Activity are included in the appendices.
The Finland report on small combustor efficiency is Appendix III. Reports on the round­
robin tests are included in Appendix IV. Recommendations on selection and pretreatment
of standard reference materials are presented in Appendix V.

The last two appendices may also be helpful. Appendix VI lists additional sources of
information. Appendix VII presents a glossary of terms related to biomass.
We recognize that the collection of citations in the sourcebook is far from complete and
covers predominantly u.s. standards. We hope that those who use the sourcebook will
suggest additional methods, comment on limitations of those included, and provide feed­
back on the usefulness of the publication. The lEA Voluntary Standards Activity will
continue through 1991 to allow for conducting more round-robin tests, establishing refer­
ence biomass materials, and issuing additional methods for the sourcebook. Please send
comments and suggestions for the sourcebook to:

Thomas A. Milne
Chemical Conversion Research Branch
Solar Energy Research Institute
1617 Cole Boulevard
Golden, CO 80401-3393
 Key to Standards·Setting Bodies Cited
AFNOR Association Francaise de Normalisation

AGA American Gas Association

AIChE Amer ican Institute of Chemical Engineers

ANSI American National Standards Institute

AOAC Association of Official Analytical Chemists

APFI Association of Pellet Fuel Industries

APHA American Public Health Association

API American Petroleum Institute

Appita Australian and New Zealand Pulp and Paper Industry Technical Association

ASAE American Society of Agricultural Engineers

ASHRAE American Society of Heating, Refrigerating and Air-Conditioning Engineers

ASME American Society of Mechanical Engineers

ASTM American Society for Testing and Materials

AWWA American Water Works Association

BSI British Standards Institution

CBS Canadian Boiler Society

CFR Code of Federal Regulations

CGA Canadian Gas Association

CPPA Canadian Pulp and Paper Association

CSA Canadian Standards Association

DIN Deutsches Institut fur Normung

EN European Committee for Standardization

EPA U.S. Environmental Protection Agency

FPL U.S. Forest Products Laboratory

GOST USSR State Committee for Standards

ISO International Standards Organization

IUPAC International Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry

JIS Japanese Industrial Standards

NFPA National Fire Protection Association

SAA Standards Association of Australia

SANZ Standards Association of New Zealand

SCAN Scandinavian Pulp, Paper and Board

SFS Suomen Standardisoimisliitto

TAPPI Technical Association of the Pulp and Paper Industry

UL Underwriters' Laboratories, Inc.

ULC Underwriters' Laboratories of Canada

 FEEDSTOCK SAMPLING AND PREPARATION

(STANDARDS)

Title: Wood: General Requirements for Title: Preparation of Plant Sample

Tests; Physical and Mechanical Tests
Citation: AOAC 3.002
Citation:- NF B 51-003-85
Content: For mineral constituents and car­
Content: bohydrates.
Availability: AFNOR Availability: AOAC

Title: Sampling of Peat Title: Sampling of Animal Feed: Procedure

Citation: AOAC 2.198 Citation: AOAC 7.001
Content: For moss, humus, and reed-sedge Content:
types.

Availability: AOAC
Availability: AOAC

Title: Methods of Test for Pulp and Paper

Title: Preparation of Peat Sample (metric units); Preparation of Wood
Samples for Chemical Analysis
Citation: AOAC 2.199
Citation: AS 1301, P2m:l973 and
Content: Place representative field sample Appita P2m-73
on square rubber sheet, paper, or plastic.
Reduce sample to amount required by quar­ Content: This standard prescribes the proce­
tering and place in moisture-proof container. dure for reducing wood samples to a suitable
Work rapidly to prevent moisture losses. state of subdivision for chemical analysis.

Availability: AOAC Availability: Appita, SAA

Title: Sampling of Plants Title: Methods of Test for Pulp and Paper
(metric units); Sampling Paper and
Citation: AOAC 3.001 Board for Testing

Content: When more than one plant is Citation: AS 1301, P417m:1973 and
sampled, include enough plants in sample to Appita P417m-73
ensure that it adequately represents average
composition of entire lot of plants sampled. Content: Specifies a method of obtaining a
(This number depends upon variability in representative sample of a lot of paper for
composition of the plants.) Determine test purposes.
details of sampling by purpose for which
sample is taken. Availability: Appita, SAA

Availability: AOAC
Title: Standard Method of Collection and
Preparation of Coke Samples for
Laboratory Analysis 1

Citation: ASTM D 346-78

Content: Coke, especially run of oven coke 7

or foundry coke, or both, is a difficult

FEEDSTOCK SAMPLING AND PREPARATION

(STANDARDS)

material to sample. It is imperative that Title: Standard Method of Preparing Coal

every sample be collected and handled Samples for Analysis 1
carefully and conscientiously and in strict
accordance with the standard procedure Citation: ASTM D 2013-72 (1986)
described herein.
Content: This method covers the reduction
Gross samples of not less than the quantities and division of gross samples, collected in
designated in this method must be taken, accordance with Method D 2234, up to and
whether the coke to be sampled consists of a including the individual portions for labora­
few tons or several hundred tons. tory analysis.
This method covers procedures for the col­
lection of samples of coke to be used for Availability: ASTM
physical tests, chemical analyses, and the
determination of total moisture. 1 This method is under the jurisdiction of
Methods for the determination of total mois­ ASTM Committee D-5 on Coal and Coke.
ture of the coke and for the reduction and
preparation of samples for chemical analyses
are included. Title: Standard Methods for Collection of a

Gross Sample of Coal I

Availability: ASTM
Citation: ASTM D 2234-82 (1986)
1 This method is under the jurisdiction of Content: Data obtained from coal samples
ASTM Committee D-5 on Coal and Coke are used in establishing price, controlling
and is the direct responsibility of Subcom­ mine and cleaning plant operations, allocat­
mittee D 05.23 on Sampling. ing production costs, and determining plant
or COl [lpOlletT t e-mbl:m..y ~ i'fn:: t:"cf::,.* O'l UJh"'cfiiT­
ing a sample of reasonable weight to repre­
Title: Standard Method for Preparation of sent an entire lot presents a number of prob­
Extractive-Free Wood 1 lems and emphasizes the necessity for using
standard sampling procedures.
Citation: ASTM D 1105-84
Coal is one of the most difficult of materials
Content: This method covers the preparation to sample, varying in composition from non­
of extractive-free wood and is applicable to combustible particles to those which can be
all North American woods. Extractives in burned completely, with all gradations in
wood consist of materials that are soluble in between. The task is further complicated by
neutral solvents and that are not a part of the use of the analytical results, the sam­
the wood substance. pling equipment available, the quantity to be
represented by the sample, and the degree of
Availability: ASTM precision required.
These standard methods give the overall re­
1 This method is under the jurisdiction of quirements for the collection of coal sam­
ASTM Committee D-7 on Wood and is the ples. The wide varieties of coal handling
direct responsibility of Subcommittee facilities preclude the publication of detailed
D07.14 on Chemical Tests. procedures for every sampling situation. The

10

 FEEDSTOCK SAMPLING AND PREPARATION

(STANDARDS)

proper collection of the sample involves an Title: Standard Recommended Practice for
understanding and consideration of the physi­ Acceptance of Evidence Based on the
cal character of the coal, the number and Results of Probability Sampling 1
weight of increments, and the overall preci­
sion required. Citation: ASTM E 141-69 (1975)

Availability: ASTM Content: This recommended practice pre­

sents and defines a rule by which to accept
1 This method is under the jur isdiction of or to reject evidence based on samples. Sta­
tistical evidence is usually in the form of an
ASTM Committee 0-5 on Coal and Coke.
estimate of a proportion, average, total, or
other numerical characteristic of a lot.
Title: Standard Recommended Practice for More specifically, it is an estimate of what
Probability Sampling of Materials l would be the result of investigating the
entire lot under the same rules and with the
Citation: ASTM E 105-58 (1975) same care as were used for the samples.

Content: This recommended practice is pri­ Availability: ASTM

marily a statement of principles for the
guidance of ASTM technical committees and 1 This recommended practice is under the
others in the preparation of a sampling plan jurisdiction of ASTM Committee E-li on
for a specific material. Statistical Methods.
Availability: ASTM
Title: Standard Method of Preparing ROF-3
Laboratory Samples for Analysis 1
1 This recommended practice is under the
jurisdiction of ASTM Committee E-ll on Citation: ASTM E 829-81
Statistical Methods.
Content: This method covers the preparation
Title: Standard Recommended Practice for of RDF-3 laboratory samples for analysis,
Choice of Sample Size to Estimate the the laboratory samples having been previ­
Average Quality of a Lot or Process 1 ously obtained from representative RDF-3
samples.
Citation: ASTM E 122-72 (1979) The method given may also be used for other
RDF types but additional sample preparation
Content: This recommended practice pre­ steps may be necessary prior to the applica­
sents simple methods for calculating how tion of this method.
many units to include in a sample in order to
estimate, with a prescribed precision, the Availability: ASTM
average of some characteristic for all the
units of a lot of material, or the average
1 Thismethod is under the jurisdiction of
produced by a process.
ASTM Committee E-38 on Resource Recov­
Availability: ASTM ery and is the direct responsibility of Sub­
committee E38.01 on Energy.
1 This recommended practice is under the
jurisdiction of ASTM Committee E-Il on
Statistical Methods.

11

FfEDSTOCK SAMPLING AND PREPARATION

<STANDARDS)

Title: Standard Test Method for Composition Title: Test Method of Air Drying RDF-5 for
or Purity of a Solid Waste Materials Further Analysis 1
Stream l
Citation: ASTM E 1183-87
Citation: ASTM E 889-82 (1988)
Content: This test method covers the
Content: This method covers the determina­ process of air drying a gross or laboratory
tion of the composition of a materials stream sample of RDF-5. The air-dry loss is deter­
in a solid waste resource recovery processing mined by air drying on a drying floor.
facility. The composition is determined with
respect to one or more defined components. Availability: ASTM
The results are used for determining the pu­
rity resulting from the operation of one or
more separators, and in conjunction with 1 This test method is under the jurisdiction
Proposed Method for the Determination of of ASTM Committee E-38 on Resource
the Recovery of a Product in a Materials Recovery.
Separation Device, is used to measure the
efficiency of a materials separation device. Title: Definition of Solid Forms of Refuse­
Derived Fuels from which Appropriate
Availability: ASTM Analytical Samples May Be Prepared

1 This test method is under the jurisdiction of Citation: ASTM STP 832
ASTM Committee E-38 on Resource Recov­
ery and is the direct responsibility of Sub­ Content: Definition is:
committee E38.08 on Processing Equipment RDF-l - wastes used as a fuel in as­
and Unit Operations. discarded form with only bulky
wastes removed.
Title: Standard Method for Packaging and RDF-2 - wastes processed to coarse parti­
Shipping of Laboratory Samples of cle size with or without ferrous
Refuse-Derived Fuel-3 1 metal separation.

Citation: ASTM E 954-83 (1988) RDF-3 - combustible waste fraction pro­

cessed to particle sizes-95% pass­
Content: This method covers a procedure for ing 2-in.-square screening.
packaging a refuse-derived fuel-3 sample at RDF-4 - combustible waste fraction pro­
its point of origin for shipping this sample to cessed into powder form-95%
the laboratory for subsequent analyses. passing lO-mesh screening.

Availability: ASTM RDF-5 - combustible waste fraction den­

sified (compressed) into the form
of pellets, slugs, cubettes, or
1 This method is under the jurisdiction of briquettes.
ASTM Committee E-38 on Resource Recov­
ery and is the direct responsibility of Sub­ Availability: ASTM
committee E38.0 1 on Energy.
Title: Methods for Sampling Animal and
Vegetable Fats and Oils

Citation: BS 627:1982

Content: Methods for bulk (land tanks, ships'

tanks, tank wagons and cars), packages

12

 FEEDSTOCK SAMPLING AND PREPARATION

(STANDARDS)

(barrels, drums, cases, tins, bags), weigh Title: Testing of Solid Fuels; Sampling and

tanks and pipe lines; descriptions and illus­ Sample Preparation

trations of equipment; temperature limits;

sizes, packages, and labeling of samples. Citation: DIN 51701 Part 2

Availability: BSI Content:

Availability: DIN

Title: Methods for Sampling of Coal and

Coke
Title: Paper and Board: Sampling to
Citation: BS 1017: 1977 (Parts I and 2) Determine Average Quality

Content: Fundamentals, preparation of Citation: ISO 186:1985

laboratory samples for moisture deter­
mination, general analysis and size analysis. Content:
Appendices: precision, equipment, intro­
duction to samples. Availability: ISO

Availability: BSI
Title: Hard Coal: Sampling
Title: Preparation of Wood for Chemical
Citation: ISO 1988:1975
Analysis
Content:
Citation: CPPA G.31P

Content: Wood is !",:lilled and screened to Availability: ISO

particles of a definite size range and ex­
tracted with ethanol/benzene mixture to Title: Wood-Sampling Methods and General
remove waxes, fats, resins, and certain other Requirements for Physical and
extractables. The procedure is applicable Mechanical Tests
also to straw, flax, and other natural fibrous
materials. Citation: ISO 3129-75
Availability: CPPA Content:

Availability: ISO
Title: Introduction to Sampling Procedures
for Materials and Manufactured
Products Title: Wood: Sampling Sample Trees and
Logs for Determination of Physical
Citation: CSA Z90-1975 and Mechanical Properties of Wood in
Homogeneous Stands
Content:
Citation: ISO 4471-82
CSA
Content:

Availability: ISO

13

FEEDSTOCK SAMPLING AND PREPARATION

(STANDARDS)

Title: Brown Coals and Lignites--Principles Title: Sampling of Wood Chips from
of Sampling--Part 1: Sampling for Conveyor
Determination of Moisture Content
and for General Analysis Citation: TAPPI Useful Method 4

Citation: ISO 5069-1: 1983 Content:

Content: Availability: TAPPI

Availability: ISO
Title: Sampling and Preparing Wood for
Analysis
Title: Brown Coals and Lignites--Principles
of Sampling--Part 2: Sample Prepara­
Citation: TAPPI T 257 cm-85
tion for Determination of Moisture
Content and for General Analysis
Content: This method is applicable to the
sampling of wood for all chemical tests.
Citation: ISO 5069-2: 1983
The procedures given describe the sampling
Content: of wood in all forms, i.e., logs, chips, or saw­
dust.
Availability: ISO
Two sampling plans are described: A proba­
bility sampling plan which provides test units
Title: Pulps: Sampling for Testing from which some property of the wood may
be determined within known and controlled
Citation: ISO 7213: 1981 limits at a minimum total cost; an economic
or engineered sampling plan which minimizes
Content: errors due to variations in the raw material
Availability: ISO or the quality of the lot.
The particle size to which wood should be
reduced for the purpose of certain analyses
Title: Sampling and Preparation Method for has been the subject of differences of opinion
Analysis of Pulpwood and complete agreement with respect to the
most suitable size has not yet been reached.
Citation: JIS P 8001-1976 (1985)
Availability: TAPPI
Content:
Availability: JIS
Title: Preparation of Wood for Chemical
Analysis
Title: Sampling of Paper and Paperboard
from Lots Citation: TAPPI T 264 om-88

Citation: SCAN-P 1:61 Content: This method describes a procedure

for further preparation of wood that has been
Content: This method covers the drawing of sampled for analysis in accordance with
a composite sample for test purposes. Cer­ TAPPI T 257 "Sampling and Preparing Wood
tain tests call for special sampling precau­ for Analysis."
tions, which are described in the methods
concerned. Availability: TAPPI
Availability: SCAN

14

-
FEEDSTOCK SAMPLING AND PREPARATION
(LITERATURE)

Title: Taking Relevant Samples area are unfamiliar with the wide variation
among and between tree species. To many,
Citation: Taylor, John K. Chemtech 294 wood is wood and little attempt is made to
(May 1988). define the sample on which valuable scien­
tific research is done. Borrowing a sentence
Content: The more one looks at sampling, from the Basic Coal Sciences Project Advi­
the more one is convinced that sampling is sory Report, and substituting wood for coal,
not a trivial exercise. Accordingly, in all but the following describes the current situation
the simplest situations, one is well advised to concisely: "Considerable basic research has
carefully plan all aspects of sampling, been done on a wide range of wood samples
utilizing sampling experts and/or statistical for various purposes, yet much of this previ­
advisors as necessary, if meaningful and ous research cannot be correlated since
defensible conclusions are to be realized. little, if any, comparisons can be drawn from
the samples used."
Title: Sampling for Biofuel Analysis
Title: Sampling of Wood Resources for
Citation: Persson, J. Aa. Report Pulpwood Quality Assessment; Part I:
IISTEV-TORV-85-2. (In Swedish) Sampling Theory
1984, 36 pp. Available from NTIS,
Order #DE85752525. Citation: Balodis, V. and I. R. James.
Appita 34(2): 113 (Sept. 1980).
Content: This project reviews methods for
sampling biofuels, i.e., wood chips, crushed Content: Sampling theory for the assessment
wood wastes, sod peat and milled peat. A of pulpwood quality is developed and illus­
Swedish standard for sampling will later be trated with practical examples. From theo­
worked out from this material. It was found retical considerations, completely random
that the fuel can be very inhomogeneous-­ sampling, without reference to forest compo­
variations in dry matter content of up to sition, is very inefficient, because a large
20 percent were noticed--which means that ,. number of trees need to be sampled to ensure
it is very hard to get high precision in the the correct volumetric representation of the
analysis of one shipment. major species and tree sizes in the final chip
mixture.
Title: Definition of Biomass Samples Sampling efficiency can be significantly im­
Involving Wood, Bark, and Foliage proved by the use of pulpwood inventory data
to stratify the forest by species and/or diam­
Citation: Barton, G. M. Biomass 4:311-314 eter classes. For a stratified forest it is
(1984). necessary to sample only a few trees from
each stratum to ensure that the major spe­
Content: In recent years there has been a cies are present in the pulpwood sample; the
growing interest in using wood, bark and foli­ correct volumetric proportions of different
age for chemical biomass conversion studies. species and tree sizes in the representative
The reasons are understandable since forests chip mixture is determined by the inventory
represent one of the largest sources of re­ data. Efficiency can be further improved by
newable biomass still available to mankind. considering sampling costs. If the diameter
Also, the forest product industries concen­ classes are chosen relative to unit sampling
trate at a single location potential thermo­ costs, then it ~s possible to design a scheme
chemical conversion materials such as tops, so that the same number of trees is sampled
limbs, bark, and foliage not required for in each diameter class. In addition to being
lumber or pulp. This potential will increase efficient, such a scheme is also easy to
dramatically if plans to introduce whole-tree implement in the field.
logging materialize. Unfortunately, many
scientists who have been attracted to this

15

FEEDSTOCK SAMPLING AND PREPARATION

(LITERATURE)

Title: The Sampling of Species for Pulpwood

Title: Sampling and Preparation of Samples
Evaluation

Citation: Chapter 3 in Browning, B. L.

Citation: Balodis, V., A. F. Logan, I. R.
Methods of Wood Chemistry,
James, I. A. Crawford, and
Vol. 1. New York: Interscience
C. H. Turner. 30th Annual Confer­ Publishers, 1967 •.
ence, Technical Association of the
Australian and New Zealand Pulp Content: I) The problem of sampling; 2) Se­
and Paper Industry, April 26-30, lection of the sample; 3) Reduction of the
1976. sample to a subsample (test sample); 4) Prep­
aration of the test sample; 5) Reduction of
Content: The aim of sampling is to collect particle size; 6) Screening; 7) TAPPI method
the best representative sample from a pulp­ for sample preparation; 8) Drying and storing
wood resource at the minimum cost. The of samples; 9) Sampling from standing trees;
design of an optimum sampling plan is based 10) Sampling of pulp; 11) Grinding and de­
on (a) the relative costs of locating, cutting, fiberizing of pulp; 12) Fine grinding of wood.
and removing a sample from a tree, (b) the
anticipated variability of pulpwood quality
between and within trees, (c) the size dis­ Title: Sampling Problems for the Chemical
tribution of trees in the sampling area. Analysis of Sludge, Soils, and Plants
Theoretical aspects of sampling are pre­ Citation: Edited by A. Gomez, R. Leschber,
sented and illustrated by considering the and P. L'Hermite. London and
effect of sampling costs and pulpwood qual­ New York: Elsevier Applied
ity on the design of an optimum sampling Science Publishers, 1986.
plan.
Experimental results on the variability of Content: Proceedings of a round-table semi­
pulping properties, pulp yield, and pulp qual­ nar organized by the Commission of the
ity, between and within trees, are presented European Communities, Directorate-General
for temperate zone and tropical hardwoods. .. Science, Research and Development,
These results are incorporated in charts Environmental Research Programme, held in
showing changes in the expected accuracy of Bordeaux, France, 6-7 November 1985.
the estimates of pulpwood quality with the
number of sample trees and the number of
sampling positions in a tree. Title: Need for Standardization in Short­
Rotation Energy Feedstock Research
The practical aspects of selection of sample
trees are briefly discussed and illustrated by Citation: Wright, Lynn L. Proceedings of
the procedures adopted in some actual sam­ 22nd Annual Meeting of Poplar
pling operations. Council of the United States,
A method has been developed for the prep­ Lawrence, Kansas, June 25-27,
aration of representative composite chip 1985.
mixtures from individual chip samples when
these have to be combined in predetermined Content:
volumetric proportions.

16

 FEEDSTOCK SAMPLING AND PREPARATION

(LITERATURE)

Title: New Methods of Measuring Wood and Title: Revised Protocol for Preparing and
Fiber Properties in Small Samples Submitting Samples for Analysis in the
IFAS Gasification Bioconversion
Citation: Technical Association of the Laboratories
Pulp and Paper Industry,
Technology Park, P.O. Box 105113, Citation: GRI/IFAS Publication 82-2.
Atlanta, GA. 79 pp. Inst. of Food and Ag. Sciences
Methane from Biomass and Waste
Content: Program, Univ. of Florida,
Gainesville, FL.

Content:

17

18

19

 DENSITY AND SPECIFIC GRAVITY

(STANDARDS)

Title: Wood: Determination of Density Title: Standard Test Method for Specific
Gravity and Density of Semi-Solid
Citation: NF B 51-005-85 Bituminous Mater ials 1

Content: Citation: ASTM D 70-82 (1986)

Availability: AFNOR Content: This method covers the determina­

tion of the specific gravity and density of
semi-solid bituminous materials, asphalt
Title: Methods of Test for Pulp and Paper cements, and soft tar pitches by use of a
(metric units); Basic Density of Wood pycnometer.
Chips
Availability: ASTM
Citation: SA 1301, Pls-79 and Appita Pls:79

Content: Basic density as measured accord­ 1 This test method is under the jurisdiction of
ing to this standard is more accurately de­ ASTM Committee D-4 on Road and Paving
fined as moisture-free mass per unit soaked Materials and is the direct responsibility of
volume. Subcommittee D04.47 on Miscellaneous
Asphalt Tests.
The method described here differs from pre­
vious methods in that two matched parallel
samples are used, one for the determination Title: Standard Test Method for API Gravity
of moisture-free mass and the other for the of Crude Petroleum and Petroleum
determination of soaked volume. This proce­ Products (Hydrometer Method) 1
dure eliminates errors introduced either by
the leaching out of water-soluble extractives Citation: ASTM D 287-82 (Reapproved 1987)
or by changes in swelling characteristics
brought about by oven drying. Content: This test method covers the
determination by means of a glass hydrom­
Volume determination: on-balance method. eter of the API gravity of crude petroleum
and petroleum products normally handled as
Availability: Appita, SAA liquids and having a Reid vapor pressure of
26 psi (180 kPa) or less. Gravities are
Title: Density, Specific Gravity, and Weight­ determined at 60°F (i5.56°C), or converted
Moisture Relationships of Grain for to values at 60°F, by means of standard
Storage tables. These tables are not applicable to
nonhydrocarbons or essential1y pure hydro­
Citation: ASAE D241.3 carbons such as the aromatics.

Content: Availability: ASTM

Availability: ASAE 1 This test method is under the jurisdiction of

ASTM Committee D-2 on Petroleum Prod­
ucts and Lubricants and is the direct
Title: Density Determinations of Solids and
responsibility of Subcommittee D02.04 on
Liquids
Hydrocarbon Analysis.
Citation: ASME PTC 19.16-65

Content:

Availability: ASME

21

DENSITY AND SPECIFIC GRAVITY

(STANDARDS)

Title: Standard Test Methods for Relative of these same tables, values determined in
Density (Specific Gravity) of Gaseous anyone of the three systems of measurement
Fuels 1 are convertible to equivalent values in either
of the other two so that measurements may
Citation: ASTM D 1070-85 be made in the units of local convenience.

Content: These test methods cover the Availability: ASTM

determination of relative density (specific
gravity) of gaseous fuels, including liquefied
1 Thistest method is under the jurisdiction of
petroleum gases, in the gaseous state at nor­
ASTM Committee D-2 on Petroleum Prod­
mal temperatures and pressures. The test ucts and Lubricants, the API Central Com­
methods specified are sufficiently varied in
mi!tee on Petroleum Measurement, and the
nature so that one or more may be employed
IP Standardization Committee.
for laboratory, control, reference, or gas
measurement, or in fact for any purpose
where one desires to know the relative den­ Title: Standard Test Method for Density and
sity of gas or gases as compared to the den­ Relative Density (Specific Gravity) of
sity of dry air at the same temperature and Viscous Materials by Lipkin Bicapil­
pressure. lary Pycnometer 1
Availability: ASTM Citation: ASTM D 1481-81

1 These test methods are under the jurisdic­ Content: This test method covers the deter­
tion of ASTM Committee D-3 on Gaseous mination of the density of oils more viscous
Fuels and are the direct responsibility of than 15 cSt at 20°C (mm 2 /s). and of viscous
Subcommittee D 03.04 on Determination of oils and melted waxes at elevated tempera­
Specific Gravity and Density of Gaseous tures, but not at temperatures at which the
Fuels. sample would have a vapor pressure of
100 mm Hg (13 kPa) or above.

Title: Standard Test Method for Density, Availability: ASTM

Relative Density (Specific Gravity), or
API Gravity of Crude Petroleum and
1 Thistest method is under the jurisdiction of
Liquid Petroleum Products by
Hydrometer Method 1 ASTM Committee D-2 on Petroleum Prod­
ucts and Lubricants and is the direct
Citation: ASTM D 1298-85 responsibility of Subcommittee D02.04 on
Hydrocarbon Analysis.
Content: This test method covers the labo­
ratory determination, using a glass hydrom­ Title: Standard Test Methods for Specific
eter, of the density, relative density (specific Gravity of Wood and Wood-Base
gravity), or API gravity of crude petroleum, Materials 1
petroleum products, or mixtures of petro­
leum and nonpetroleum products normally Citation: ASTM D 2395-83
handled as liquids, and having a Reid vapor
pressure (Test Method D 323, or IP 69) of Content: These methods cover the determi­
(179 kPa) 26 Ib or less. Values are measured nation of the specific gravity of wood and
on a hydrometer at convenient temperatures, wood-based materials to generally desired
readings of density being reduced to 15°C, degrees of accuracy and for specimens of
and readings of relative density (specific different sizes, shapes, and moisture content.
gravity) and API gravity of 60°F, by means
of international standard tables. By means

22

 DENSITY AND SPECIFIC GRAVITY

(STANDARDS)

Availability: ASTM Title: Standard Test Method for Bulk

Density of Densified Particulate
Biomass Fuels 1
1 These test methods are under the jurisdic­
tion of ASTM Committee 0-7 on. Wood and Citation: ASTM E 873-87
are the direct responsibility of Subcom­
mittee 007.09 on Methods of Testing. Content: This test method covers the proce­
dure for the determination of bulk density (or
Title: Standard Test Method for Apparent bulk specific weight) of densified particulate
Density of Activated Carbon 1 biomass fuels with a maximum particle vol­
ume of 16.39 cm 3 (1 in. 3 ).
Citation: ASTM 0 2854-83
Availability: ASTM
Content: This test method covers the de­
termination of the apparent density of gran­ 1 This test method is under the jurisdiction of
ular activated carbon. For purposes of this ASTM Committee E-48 on Biotechnology
test method, granular activated carbon is and is the direct responsibility of Sub­
defined as a minimum of 90% being larger committee E48.05 on Biomass Conversion
than 80 mesh. Systems.
Availability: ASTM
Title: Standard Test Method for Determining
1 This test method is under the jurisdiction of the Bulk Density of Solid Waste
ASTM Committee 0-28 on Activated Car­ Fractions 1
bon and is the direct responsibility of Sub­
committee 028.04 on Gas Phase Evaluation Citation: ASTM E 1109-86
Tests.
Content: This test method determines the
bulk density of various fractions from the
Title: Standard Test Method for Density and resource recovery processing of municipal
Relative Density of Liquids by Digital solid waste. It is intended as a means of
Density Meter 1 characterizing such fractions and for pro­
viding data useful to designers of solid waste
Citation: ASTM 0 4052-86 processing plants.
Content: This method covers the determina­ Availability: ASTM
tion of the density or relative density of
petroleum distillates and viscous oils that
can be handled in a normal fashion as liquids 1 This test method is under the jurisdiction of
at test temperatures between 15° and 35°C. ASTM Committee E-38 on Resource Recov­
Its application is restricted to liquids with ery and is the direct responsibility of
vapor pressures below 600 mm Hg (80 kPa) Subcommittee E38.08 on Processing Equip­
and viscosities below about 15,000 cSt ment and Unit Operations.
(mm 2 /s) at the temperature of test. It should
not be applied to samples so dark in color
Title: Basic Density of Wood
that the absence of air bubbles in the sample
cell cannot be established with certainty.
Citation: CPPA A.l H
Availability: ASTM
Content: The methods described are suitable
for routine mill determinations of basic den­
1 This method is under the jurisdiction of
sity on samples from wood chips and disks.
ASTM Committee 0-2 on Petroleum Prod­
ucts and Lubricants. The basic density is defined as the oven-dry
weight per unit of maximum or green volume

23

 DENSITY AND SPECIFIC GRAVITY

(STANDARDS)

. of wood and is expressed in grams per cubic Title: Density and Moisture of Chips
centimeter. The green volume does not (Presoak Before Immersion)
change above the fiber saturation point
which, for most species, lies between a mois­ Citation: TAPPI Useful Method 16
ture content of 23% and 30% of the oven-dry
weight of the wood. Moistures below this Content:
point are seldom encountered in mill woods.
Availability: TAPPI
Availability: CPPA

Title: Density and Moisture of Chips

Title: Basic Density of Wood (Submersion with Correction for
Cracks, etc.)
Citation: CPPA A.8P 1
Citation: T APPI Useful Method 20
Content: The basic density of wood is de­
fined as the oven-dry weight per unit of Content:
maximum, or "green" volume of wood. It is
expressed as grams per cubic centimeter. Availability: TAPPI
By modifying the size of the sample to fit
the container, this procedure may be used to Title: Bulk Density of Wood Chips 1
determine the basic density of wood in the
form of disks, billets, or chips. Citation: TAPPI T 21 wd-82
Availability: CPP A
Content: Became Useful Method 23.
1 Supersedes Standard A.I Availability: TAPPI

1 Withdrawn 1982
Title: Density of Pulpwood (Submersion with
Correction for Cracks, etc.)
Title: Bulk Density of Wood Chips 1
Citation: TAPPI Useful Method 2
Citation: TAPPI Useful Method 23
Content:
Availability: TAPPI Content: This method is used to determine
the weight per unit volume of wood chips,
the bulk density. For purposes of reference,
Title: Density of Wood Chips (Sheet Machine a standard pressure of 11 kPa (225 Ib!ft 2) has
Mold) been chosen. The principles of the test can
be applied to the pressure of any digester or
Citation: TAPPI Useful Method 9 chip bin by making appropriate adjustments
to the pressure of the test.
Content: Availability: TAPPI
Availability: TAPPI
lReplaces TAPPI T 21
Title: Specific Gravity of Wood Disks

Citation: TAPPI Useful Method 12

Content:
Availability: TAPPI

24

 DENSITY AND SPECIFIC GRAVITY

(LITERATURE)

Title: Density and Specific Gravity

Citation: Chapter 18 in Browning, B. L.

Methods of Wood Chemistry,
Vol.!. New York: Interscience
Publishers, 1967.

Content: Density or specific gravity is

important in investigations related to the
growth and properties of wood, in utilization
of wood as a structural material, in process­
ing such as the manufacture of chemical
wood pulps, and in uses where porosity and
similar properties are significant. The utili­
zation of cellulose fibers from wood is also
affected by many fiber properties that are
closely related to specific gravity. I.
Specific Gravity of Wood; II. Density of Wood
and Cellulose; III. Density of Cell-Wall
Substance.

25

26

 PARTICLE SIZE DETERMINATION AND SIEVING

(STANDARDS)

Title: Sieves and Sieving: Terminology Title: Method of Determining and Expressing
Fineness of Feed Materials by Sieving
Citation: NF X 11-500-85
Citation: ASAE S319.1
Content:
Content: The purpose of this standard is to
Availability: AFNOR define a test procedure to determine the
fineness of feed ingredients and to define a
method of expressing the particle size of the
Title: Sieves and Sieving: Particle Size material. The particle size determined can
Analysis; Test Sieving be used to calculate surface area and number
of particles per unit weight.
Citation: NF X 11-507-70
This standard shall be used to determine the
Content: fineness of feed ingredients where the reduc­
tion process yields particles which are essen­
Availability: AFNOR tially spherical or cubical. It is not adequate
to define the particle size of materials such
as steamed and rolled grains which are a
Title: Particle Size Analysis: Particle Size flaked product, or products, such as chopped
Analysis of Powders; Diffraction hay, in which a substantial fraction consists
Method of elongated particles.

Citation: NF X 11-666-84 Availability: ASAE

Content:
Title: Method of Determining and Expressing
AFNOR Particle Size of Chopped Forage
Materials by Screening

Title: Particle Size Analysis: Apparatus for Citation: ASAE S424

Particle Size Analysis of Particles in
Suspension in an Electrolyte Based on Content: The purpose of this standard is to
Resistance Variation define a test procedure to determine the par­
ticle size of chopped forage materials and to
Citation: NF X 11-671-81 define a method of expressing the particle
length of the material. The determined par­
Content: ticle size can be used to evaluate forage har­
vesting machine and handling equipment
Availability: AFNOR variables and to define forage physical length
in animal feeding trials.
Title: Particle Size Range of Peat: This standard shall be used to determine the
Mechanical Analysis Procedure particle size of chopped forage materials
where the reduction process yields particles
Citation: AOAC 2.202 such as that material produced by shear-bar­
type forage harvesters. It is not intended for
Content: use on material produced by flail-type har­
vesters where substantial fractions of the
Availability: AOAC material may be extremely long.

27

 PARTICLE SIZE DETERMINATION AND SIEVING

(STANDARDS)

This standard is intended for use in the field such as is charged into coke ovens. It is not
as well as in the laboratory. It is intended to applicable to the testing of powdered coal as
separate chopped forage samples without used in boiler plants.
drying them first.
Availability: ASTM
Availability: ASAE
I This method is under the jurisdiction of
Title: Standard Method of Sampling and ASTM Committee 0-5 on Coal and Coke
Fineness Test of Pulverized CoaP and is the direct responsibility of Subcom­
mittee 005.07 on Physical Characteristics
Citation: ASTM 0 197-82 (1987) of Coal.

Content: This method covers the determina­ Title: Standard Method for Sieve Analysis of
tion of the fineness by sieve analysis of coal Coal I
sampled from a dry pulverizing operation. It
is not applicable to products of wet milling Citation: ASTM 0 410-84
or to fines that have clustered into an ag­
glomerated mass. Content: This method for sieve analysis is
applicable to all coal except anthracite,
Availability: ASTM powdered coal as used in boiler plants, and
crushed coal as charged into coke ovens.
1 This method is under the jurisdiction of
ASTM Committee 0-5 on Coal and Coke Availability: ASTM
and is the direct responsibility of Subcom­
mittee 005.07 on Physical Characteristics
1 This method is under the jurisdiction of
of Coal.
ASTM Committee 0-5 on Coal and Coke
and is the direct responsibility of Subcom­
Title: Standard Method of Sieve mittee 005.07 on Physical Characteristics
Analysis of Coke 1 of Coal.

Citation: ASTM 0 293-69 (I980)

Title: Standard Test Method for Designating
Content: This method covers the separation the Size of Coal from Its Sieve
Analysisl
of a coke sample into defined size fractions
and expressing said fractions as a weight
percent of the gross sample. Citation: ASTM 0431-84

Availability: ASTM Content: This test method covers the desig­

nation of coal sizes from the results of sieve
analysis tests of samples taken to represent
1 This
method is under the jurisdiction of the condition of the coal as sold. This test
ASTM Committee 0-5 on Coal and Coke. method applies only to natural continuous
ranges of sizes as produced by mining, han­
dling, crushing, screening, etc. In the case of
Title: Standard Method for Sieve Analysis of special mixtures, or where the sieve analysis
Crushed Bituminous Coal I indicates a substantial deviation from a nor­
mal gradation of sizes, a sufficiently com­
Citation: ASTM 0 311-84 plete sieve analysis to properly describe the
size composition shall be made and reported
Content: This method covers the sieve anal­ in accordance with Method 0 410.
ysis of rather coarsely crushed bituminous
coal, less than 1-1/2 in. (37.5 mm) in size,

28
 PARTICLE SIZE DETERMINATION AND SIEVING
(STANDARDS)

Availability: ASTM This test method is not applicable for deter­

mining the sieve analysis nor for designating
the size of pulverized coal. Size fractions
1 This test method is under the jurisdiction of down to and including 38 J,Jm (No. 400 U.S.A.
ASTM Committee 0-5 on Coal and Coke Standard Series) can be treated by the meth­
and is the direct responsibility of Subcom­ ods discussed in this test method. Methods
mittee 005.07 on Physical Characteristics for handling size fractions below 38 J,Jm
of Coal. (No. 400) will be developed by this
committee.
Title: Standard Test Method for Particle
Size Distribution of Granular Availability: ASTM
Activated Carbon 1
I This test method is under the jurisdiction of
Citation: ASTM 0 2862-82 (1987) Subcommittee 0-5 on Coal and Coke.
Content: This test method covers the de­
termination of the particle size distribution Title: Standard Specification for Wire-Cloth
of granular activated carbon. For purposes Sieves for Testing Purposes I
of this test, granular activated carbon is
defined as a minimum of 9096 retained on a Citation: ASTM E 11-87
180-J,Jm standard sieve.
Content: This specification covers the de­
Availability: ASTM sign and construction of sieves wherein a
screening medium of woven wire cloth is
mounted in a frame for use for precision
I This test method is under the jurisdiction of testing in the Classification of materials ac­
ASTM Committee 0-28 on Activated Car­ cording to designated nominal particle size.
bon and is the direct responsibility of Sub­
committee 028.04 on Gas Phase Evaluation Methods of checking and calibrating sieves
Tests. are included as information in the appendix.

Availability: ASTM
Title: Test Method for Performing the Sieve
Analysis of Coal and for Designating
the Size of Coal I I This specification is under the jurisdiction
of ASTM Committee E-29 on Particle Size
Citation: ASTM 0 4749-87 Measurement and is the direct responsibility
of Subcommittee E29.01 on Sieves, Sieving
Content: This test method covers procedures Methods, and Screening Media.
for determining the sieve analysis of coal and
designating the size of coal from sieve analy­ Title: Standard Specification for Precision
sis data. Raw as well as prepared (crushed, Electroformed Sieves (Square Opening
cleaned, or screened) coals can be tested by Series) I
this test method.
This test method explains how to designate Citation: ASTM E 161-87
coal sizes from the results of sieve analysis
data in order to represent the condition of Content: This specification covers the de­
the coal as sold. In the case of special mix­ sign, construction, and use of square-holed
tures or coals with noncontinuous ranges of electroformed sieves. These sieves are used
sizes, a sufficiently complete sieve analysis to perform precise particle-sized distribution
must be made to properly describe the size analysis and in preparing narrowly designated
distribution. particle-size fractions. They may also be
used as reference standards when suitably
calibrated. A method of calibrating these

29

PARTICLE SIZE DETERMINATION AND SIEVING

(STANDARDS)

sieves is included as information in Appen­ Availability: ASTM

dix Xl.
1 Thisspecification is under the jurisdiction
Availability: ASTM of ASTM Committee E-29 on Particle Size
Measurement and is the direct responsibility
1 Thisspecification is under the jurisdiction of Subcommittee E29.0 I on Sieves, Sieving
of ASTM Committee E-29 on Particle Size Methods, and Screening Media.
Measurement and is the direct responsibility
of Subcommittee E29.0 1 on Sieves, Sieving
Methods, and Screening Media. Title: Standard Specification for Industrial
Perforated Plate and Screens (Square
Opening Series) 1
Title: Standard Specification for Perforated­
Plate Sieves for Testing Purposes 1 Citation: ASTM E 454-80 (1985)

Citation: ASTM E 323-80 (1985) Content: This specification covers the sizes
of square opening perforated plate and
Content: This specification covers perfo­ screens for general industrial uses, including
rated plate with either round or square aper­ the separating or grading of materials
tures, normally mounted in a frame for use according to designated nominal particle
as sieves in precision testing in the classifi­ size, and lists standards for openings from
cation of materials according to designated 5 in. (125 mm) to 0.127 (l/8) in. (3.35 mm)
nominal particle size. A method for check­ punched with bar sizes and thicknesses of
ing the accuracy of perforated sieve plates is plate for various grades of service. Methods
included as information in Appendix XI. of checking industrial perforated plate and
screens are included as information in the
Jj. fPr.R.!/r!ixu

1 Thisspecification is under the jurisdiction Availability: ASTM

of ASTM Committee E-29 on Particle Size
Measurement. 1 This specification is under the jurisdiction
of ASTM Committee E-29 on Particle Size
Measurement and is the direct responsibility
Title: Standard Specification for Industrial of Subcommittee E29.0 1 on Sieves, Sieving
Wire Cloth and Screens (Square Open­ Methods, and Screening Media.
ing Series) 1

Citation: ASTM E 437-85 Title: Standard Method for Designating the

Size of RDF-3 from Its Sieve
Content: This specification covers the sizes Analysisl
of square opening wire cloth and screens for
general industrial uses, including the separa­ Citation: ASTM E 828-81
ting or grading of materials according to
designated nominal particle size, and lists Content: This method of designating the size
standards for openings from 5 in. (125 mm) of refuse-derived fuel from its sieve analysis
and finer, woven with wire diameters for is applicable to the classified light fraction
various grades of service. Methods of check­ (RDF-3) of shredded municipal or industrial
ing and calibrating industrial wire cloth and waste materials less than 0.15 m (6 in.) in
screens are included as information in the size.
Appendices.

30

 PARTICLE SIZE DETERMINATION AND SIEVING

(STANDARDS)

Availability: ASTM This test method is intended primarily for

use in standardizing measurements of the
1 Thismethod is under the jurisdiction of performance of spray-producing devices. It
ASTM Committee E-38 on Resource Recov­ is limited to those techniques and instru­
ery and is the direct responsibility of Sub­ ments which operate by passing a beam of
committee E38.01 on Energy. light through the spray and analyzing the
light scattered by the droplets to derive
size information. Such techniques do not
Title: Method for Measuring Particle Size produce images of individual drops, and
Distribution of RDF-5 therefore are known as "optical (non­
imaging) instruments."
Citation: ASTM E 1037-84 The measurements made, when referred to
the entire spray being sampled, may be
Content: This method is used to determine temporal or spatial, as defined in Prac­
the size distribution of a RDF-5 sample. Size tice E 799, depending on the techniques used
is defined as the maximum length of the par­ with a particular instrument.
ticle, where length is determined by the
RDF-5 manufacturing process. That is, a Availability: ASTM
pellet, cubette, or briquette all have a
recognizable length.
1 This
test method is under the jurisdiction of
An air-dried RDF-5 sample is separated into ASTM Committee E-29 on Particle Size
categories of differing particle sizes. The Measurement.
size distribution is measured as the weight
percentage of each size category. A graph
of a function of the cumulative fraction of Title: Specification for Test Sieves
material by weight finer than particle size
versus particle size is plotted. From this Citation: BS 410: 1986
plot are taken values which describe the size
distribution--the uniformity constant and the Content: Specifies size requirements for
characteristic particle size. sieves used for testing the size distribution
of granular products in the particle size
Availability: ASTM range from 125 mm down to 32 ]..1m.

Title: Test Method for Determining Liquid Availability: BSI

Drop Size Characteristics in a Spray
Using Optical Non-Imaging Light­
Title: Methods for the Size Analysis of Coal
Scattering Instruments 1
and Coke
Citation: ASTM E 1260-&&
Citation: BS 1293 and 2074:1965
Content: The purpose of this test method is
Content: Adopted by SANZ as NZS 535 and
to obtain data which characterizes the sizes
2175:1967.
of liquid particles or drops such as are
produced by a spray nozzle or similar device
Availability: BSI
under specified conditions using a specified
liquid. The drops will generally be in the size
range from 5 llm to the order of 1000 llm di­
ameter; they will occur in sprays which may
be as small as a few cubic centimeters or as
large as several cubic meters. Typically the
number density of the particles can vary
significantly from one point to another.

31
 PARTICLE SIZE DETERMINATION AND SIEVING
(STANDARDS)

Title: Methods for the Determination of - Oven-dry content

Particle Size Distribution: Guide to - Loose chip packing density
Powder Sampling - Bark content, and chip size classification
by mechanical separation into five frac­
Citation: BS 3406--Part 1: 1986 tions on an air-dry basis.
- This method does not measure chip
Content: Recommended methods for the length.
subdivision of laboratory powder samples into
test portions suitable for analysis by methods Availability: CPPA
for the determination of particle size distri­
bution descr ibed in other parts of this stan­
dard and for particle characterization analy­ Title: Classification of Pulpwood Chips (The
sis described in other British Standards. Domtar Chip Classifier Method)

Availability: BSI Citation: CPPA Useful Method D.26U

Content: This is a method for separating

Title: Rapid Sieve Analysis of Pulpwood
samples of wood chips into distinct thickness
Chips
fractions, while simultaneously extracting a
number of size or length fractions (usually
Citation: CPPA Useful Method D.12U-77 two) from all the thickness fractions. This
procedure is suitable for classifying all types
Content: This method can be satisfactorily of wood chips ranging in thickness from 2 to
used for the determination of chip "size" 18 mm in increments of 2 mm.
classification and uniformity using standard
laboratory sieving equipment or portable Availability: CPPA
amts: ,:)'1~ltTg' tMf~ d1Rf' sdlrrp1~ ::,ciizt!" cart!" Jm~~
reduced to a minimum to permit this test to
give a reasonably accurate measure of Title: Sieve Analysis of Pulpwood Chips
chipping equipment operation for control
purposes. Citation: CPPA Standard D.27H

Availability: CPPA Content: The chip "size" distribution of

pulpwood chips, as determined by screen
analysis, is one criterion of chip quality.
Title: Fractionation of Pulpwood Chips for Test sieves are also in general use for con­
the Kraft Process trolling the efficiency of chip screens and
size reduction machinery such as chippers,
Citation: CPPA Useful Method D.25U chip breakers, and rechippers.
Content: This method enables a separation This test method is a procedure for deter­
of any given sample of comminuted wood mining "size" distribution and uniformity of
(chips) into five fractions which have an ef­ chips. It is not to be construed as a measure
fect on pulp yield and pulp quality in the of chip length.
Kraft process.
The procedure developed is based on the fact Availability: CPPA
that chip thickness is the most critical
parameter of chip geometry in the Kraft
pulping process. Pin chips are effectively
separated from accept chips and fines by
means of the difference in hole geometry of
the two lower screens. The analytical pro­
cedure comprises determination of the
following:

32
 PARTICLE SIZE DETERMINATION AND SIEVING

(STANDARDS)

Title: Test Sieves--Woven Metal Wire Cloth, Title: Chip Length Analysis (Measurement)

Perforated Plate and Electroformed

Sheet--Nominal Sizes of Openings Citation: TAPPI Useful Method 5

Citation: ISO 565-83 Content:

Content: Availability: TAPPl

Availability: ISO
Title: Chip Length Analysis (Two-Screen)

Title: Hard Coals--Size Analysis Citation: T APPI Useful Method 6

Citation: ISO 1953:1972 Content: Screen a IO-kg composite sample

through a screen having 1/4-in. openings or
Content: 3 meshes/in. Then screen the fines so ob­
tained on a screen of 3/32-in. openings or
Availability: ISO 8 meshes/in. Report the retained portions as
percent fines in the first case, and as percent
sawdust in the second case, based on the
Title: Test Sieves and Test Sieving-­ total weight of the sample screen.
Vocabulary
Availability: TAPPI
Citation: ISO 2395-72

Content: Title: Chip Classification (Hand Screen)

Availability: ISO Citation: TAPPl Useful Method 13

Content:

Title: Methods for the Size Analysis of Coal

and Coke Availability: T APPI

Citation: NZS 535, NZS 2175:1967

(Identical to BS 1293 and Title: Sieve Analysis of Pulpwood Chips
2074:1965)
Citation: TAPPI Useful Method 21
Content: Attainable precision, sampling and
sieving, reporting results, preparation of Content: This method measures the propor­
samples for special purposes. Appendices: tions of different sized aggregates in pulp­

checks on precision, sieving techniques and wood chips by means of sieves.

apparatus, reporting mean size and size

range. Availability: TAPPI

Availability: SANZ

33

34

 PARTICLE SIZE DETERMINATION AND SIEVING

(LITERATURE)

Title: Classifying Chips by Size Title: Determination of Fractions for Wood

Automatically Fuels

Citation: Marrs, Gevan R. Tappi Journal Citation: Stridsberg, S. 1984, 55 pp.

143 (April 1987). Available from NTIS, Order No.
DE85752523.
Content: A limiting factor in obtaining a
sound characterization of the particle-size Content: Methods and equipment for screen­
distribution of a chip flow is the extensive ing biofuels are discussed in this report. The
amount of labor required to test the samples. following fuels are studied: Wood chips,
A new classifier has been developed that can crushed wood wastes, bark, and peat. A mod­
reproduce the results of a conventional ified CCL sieve is found to be well suited for
"manual" chip classifier. The automated these fuels. (The CCL sieve was developed
technique reduces sample classification time for screening wood chips in the paper indus­
and labor, almost eliminates the possibility try.) Drying to 80-90 percent dry content is
of error arising from data handling, and necessary before the screening can take
allows more tests to be run, improving statis­ place. Recommendations are made for the
tical reliability. Test results are rapidly procedures and reports of the analyses.
available, and unattended operation will
allow "real-time" process control decisions to
be made based on chip size.

35

 PORE SIZE AND CAPACITY

(LITERATURE)

Title: Title: Enzymatic Hydrolysis of Cellulose-­

A Kinetic Study
Citation: Stone, J. E. and A. M. Scallan.
TAPPI 50(10):496-501 (1967). Citation: Van Dyke, B. H. Chapter 9.
"Solute Exclusion Technique,"
Content: Discusses pore size distribution. pp. 164-181. Ph.D. Dissertation.
Massachusetts Institute of
Technology, Cambridge, Mass.
Title:
Content: Discusses pore size distribution.
Citation: Stone, J. E. and A. M. Scallan.
Cellulose Chern. Technol. 2:343
Title: The Fine Structure of Wood Cell Wall
(1968). Postulated in View of the Pore
Structure
Content: Discusses pore size distribution.
Citation: Sawabe, O. Mokuzai Gakkaishi 26
Title: Microstructure and Thermal Analysis (10):641-646, 1986.
of Solid Surfaces
Content: Has English summary and diagram.
Citation: Mikhail, Raouf Sh. and
Erich Robens. New York: John
Wiley and Sons.

Content:

37

38

 HEATS OF COMBUSTION
(STANDARDS)

Title: Standard Test Method for Heat of Title: Standard Test Method for Gross
Combustion of Liquid Hydrocarbon Calorific Value of Coal and Coke by
Fuels by Bomb Calorimeter 1 the Adiabatic Bomb Calorimeter 1

Citation: ASTM 0 240-87 Citation: ASTM 0 2015-85

Content: This test method covers the deter­ Content: This test method covers the deter­
mination of the heat of combustion of liquid mination of the gross calorific value of coal
hydrocarbon fuels ranging in volatility from and coke by the adiabatic bomb calor imeter.
that of light distillates to that of residual
fuels. Availability: ASTM
Under normal conditions, this test method is
directly applicable to such fuels as gasolines, 1 This test method is under the jurisdiction of
kerosines, Nos. 1 and 2 fuel oil, Nos. 1-0 and ASTM Committee 0-5 on Coal and Coke
2-D diesel fuel and Nos.O-CT, l-CT, and and is the direct responsibility of Subcom­
2-CT gas turbine fuels. mittee 005.21 on Methods of Analysis.

Availability: ASTM
Title: Standard Test Method for Heat of
Combustion of Hydrocarbon Fuels by
1 This test method is under the jurisdiction of Bomb Calorimeter (High-Precision
ASTM Committee 0-2 on Petroleum Prod­ Method)l
ucts and Lubricants and is the direct re­
sponsibility of Subcommittee 002.05 on Citation: ASTM 0 2382-83
Properties of Fuels, Petroleum, Coke, and
Oil Shale. Content: This test method covers the deter­
mination of the heat of combustion of hydro­
carbon fuels. It is designed specifically for
Title: Standard Test Method for Calorific use with aviation turbine fuels when the per­
Value of Gases in Natural Gas Range missible difference between duplicate deter­
by Continuous Recording minations is of the order of 0.1 %. It can be
Calorimeter 1 used for a wide range of volatile and non­
volatile materials where slightly greater dif­
Citation: ASTM 0 1826-88 ferences in precision can be tolerated.
Content: This test method covers the deter­ Availability: ASTM
mination with the continuous recording· ca­
lorimeter of the total calorific value of fuel
gas produced or sold in the natural gas range I This test method is under the jurisdiction of
from 900 to 1200 Btu/standard ft3. ASTM Committee 0-2 on Petroleum Prod­
ucts and Lubricants and is the direct re­
Availability: ASTM sponsibility of Subcommittee 002.05 on
Physical Analysis of Fuels and Light
1 Thistest method is under the jurisdiction of o istillates.
ASTM Committee 0-3 on Gaseous Fuels and
is the direct responsibility of Subcommittee
003.03 on Determination of Calorific Value
of Gaseous Fuels.

39

 HEATS OF COMBUSTION
(STANDARDS)

Title: Standard Test Method for Gross the precautions to be observed in oxygen
Calorific Value of Coal and Coke by bomb compustion methods.
the Isoperibol Bomb Calorimeter 1
Availability: ASTM
Citation: ASTM D 3286-85
1 This recommended practice is under the
Content: This test method covers the deter­ jurisdiction of ASTM Committee E-41 on
mination of the gross calorific value of coal Laboratory Apparatus and is the direct
and coke by the isoperibol bomb calorimeter. responsibility of Subcommittee E41.02 on
Metalware.
Availability: ASTM

1 This test method is under the jurisdiction of Title: Standard Test Method for Gross
ASTM Committee D-5 on Coal and Coke Calorific Value of Refuse-Derived
and is the direct responsibility of Subcom­ Fuel by the Bomb Calorimeter 1
mittee D05.21 on Methods of Analysis.
Citation: ASTM E 711-81

Title: Test Method for Heat of Combustion Content: This method covers the determina­
of Liquid Hydrocarbon Fuels by Bomb tion of the gross calorific value of refuse­
Calorimeter (Intermediate Precision derived fuel (RDF-3) by the bomb
Method) calorimeter.

Citation: ASTM D 4809-88 Availability: ASTM

Content: The heat of combustion is a

measure of the energy available from a fuel. 1This test method is under the jurisdiction of
A knowledge of this value is essential when ASTM Committee E-.38 on Resource Recov­
considering the thermal efficiency of equip­ ery and is the direct responsibility of Sub­
ment for producing either power or heat. committee E38.01 on Energy.
This test method covers the determination of
the heat of combustion of hydrocarbon fuels. Title: Gross and Net Calorific Values; Terms
It is designed specifically for use with avia­
tion turbine fuels when the permisSible dif­ Citation: DIN 5499
ference between duplicate determinations is
of the order of 0.2 percent. Under normal Content:
conditions, the method is directly applicable
to such fuels as gasolines, kerosines, Nos. 1 DIN
and 2 fuel oil, Nos. I-D and 2-D diesel fuel,
and Nos.O-CT, l-CT, and 2-CT gas turbine
fuels. Title: Testing of Solid and Liquid Fuels;
Determination of the Gross Calorific
Availability: ASTM Value by the Bomb Calorimeter and
Calculation of the Net Calorific Value
Title: Standard Recommended Practice Citation: DIN 51900 Parts 1-3
for Safe Use of Oxygen Combustion
Bombs l Content:
Citation: ASTM E 144-64 (1987) Availability: DIN
Content: This recommended practice covers
methods for 'ldging the soundness of new and
used oxygen combustion bombs, and describes

40

 HEATS OF COMBUSTION
(STANDARDS)

nt1e: Solid Mineral Fuels--Determination

of Gross Calorific Value by the
Calorimeter Bomb Method and Calcu­
lation of Net Calorific Value

Ci'tation: ISO 1928: 1976

content:

AV"ailability: ISO

41

42

 HEATS OF COMBUSTION
(LITERATURE)

Title: Thermodynamic Data for Biomass Title: Heating Value of Municipal Solid
Materials and Waste Components Waste

Citation: Edited by E. S. Domalski, Citation: Finet, C. Waste Management and

T. L Jobe, Jr., and T.A. Milne. Research 5:141-145 (1987).
New York: The American Society
of Mechanical Engineers, 1987. Content: This paper describes the processes
that are used to calculate the heating value
Content: Heats of combustion and some of municipal solid waste in France. The cal­
data. culation can be done either by using the
thermal-balance method of a furnace or a
furnace-boiler unit, or by sorting the refuse
Title: Calculation of the Heat Value of Solid and calculating the heating value of the
and Liquid Fuels homogeneous components. Both methods are
described in this paper. The first method
Citation: Colombo, B., M. Baccar'lti, and measures the heating value of the refuse that
B. Dutko. American Laboratory 51 is injected into the furnace; the furnace
(August 1987). becomes a calorimeter in which thermal bal­
ance is achieved on measuring the input and
Content: Heat value, the only quantitative output heats. The second method consists of
measure of the energy output of a fuel, can sorting a lOO-kg refuse sample into piles that
be determined rapidly and easily using an are as homogeneous as possible so that it can
elemental analyzer. The method described be considered as unchanging. The heating
here is a so-called "indirect" method since it value is determined for each component and
calculates the heat value based on the per­ the lower heating value of the whole sample
centages of carbon, hydrogen, nitrogen, oxy­ is calculated. The advantages and drawbacks
gen, and sulfur in the fuel rather than by a of both methods are discussed.
direct combustion of the fuel.

43

44

 THERMAL PROPERTIES
(STANDARDS)

Title: Thermal Properties of Grain and Grain Availability: ASTM

Products
1 This test method is under the jurisdiction of
Citation: ASAE 02lf3.3
ASTM Committee C-16 on Thermal Insu­
lation and is the direct responsibility
Content: Contains data on specific heat,

conductivity, and diffusivity.

of Subcommittee C 16.30 on Thermal
Measurement.
Availability: ASAE

Title: Standard Test Method for Expansion

or Contraction of Coal by the Sole­
Title: Standard Test Method for Steady­ Heated Oven 1
State Heat Flux Measurements and
Thermal Transmission Properties by Citation: ASTM 0 201lf-85
Means of the Guarded-Hot-Plate
Apparatus 1 Content: This test method covers a large­
scale laboratory test for obtaining informa­
Citation: ASTM C 177-85 tion on the expansion or contraction of coal
or coal blends during carbonization under
Ccntent: This test method covers the specified conditions. This test method is
achievement and measurement of steady­
applicable in the examination of coals or coal
state heat flux through flat-slab specimens blends intended for use in the manufacture of
using a guarded-hot-plate apparatus. The coke.
method encompasses both the single-sided
and the double-sided mode of measurement. Availability: ASTM
Both distributed and line source guarded"'
heating-plate designs are included, in princi­
ple, in this test method. The reader should 1 This test method is under the jurisdiction of
consult the standard practices on the single­ ASTM Committee 0-5 on Coal and Coke
sided mode of operation and on the line and is the direct responsibility of Subcom­
source apparatus for further details on these mittee 005.15 on Plasticity and Swelling of
variations of the method. Coal.

Availability: ASTM
Title: Standard Test Method for Thermal
Conductivity of Liquids 1
1 Thistest method is under the jurisdiction of
ASTM Committee C-16 on Thermal In­ Citation: ASTM 0 2717-86
sulation and is the direct responsibility of
Subcommittee C16.30 on Thermal Content: This test method covers the deter­
Measurement. mination of the thermal conductivity of non­
metallic liquids. It is applicable to liquids
Title: Standard Test Method for Steady­ that (1) are chemically compatible with boro­
State Heat Flux Measurements and silicate glass and platinum, (2) are moder­
Thermal Transmission Properties by ately transparent or absorbent to infrared
Means of the Heat Flow Meter radiation, and (3) have a vapor pressure less
Apparatus 1 than 200 torr at the temperature of test.

Citation: ASTM C 518-85

Content: This test method covers the mea­

surement of steady-state thermal transmis­
sion through flat-slab specimens using a heat
flow meter apparatus.

lf5
THERMAL PROPERTIES
(STANDARDS)

Availability: ASTM Availability: ASTM

1 Thistest method is under the jurisdiction of 1This test method is under the jurisdiction of
ASTM Committee D-2 on Petroleum Prod­ ASTM Committee D-2 on Petroleum Prod­
ucts and Lubricants and is the direct re­ ucts and Lubricants and is the direct re­
sponsibility of Subcommittee D02.11 on sponsibility of Subcommittee D02.04 on
Engineering Science and High-Performance Hydrocarbon Analysis.
Fluids and Solids.
Title: Standard Practice for Reporting
Title: Standard Test Method for Specific Thermoanalytical Data 1
Heat of Liquids and Solids 1
Citation: ASTM E 472-86
Citation: ASTM D 2766-86
Content: This practice is for general use in
Content: This test method covers the de­ reporting experimental information from dif­
termination of the heat capacity of liquids ferential thermal analysis, thermogravim­
and solids. It is applicable to liquids and etry, evolved gas analysis or detection, and
solids that are chemically compatible with thermomechanical analysis studies. It incor­
stainless steel, that have a vapor pressure porates laboratory practice with some of the
less than 13.3 kPa 000 torr), and that do not specific needs in thermal analysis. These
undergo phase transformation throughout the specific needs account for possible variation
range of test temperatures. The specific of the observed curve with the several
heat of materials with higher vapor pressures parameters reported. Without changing the
may be determined if their vapor pressures observed data, reporting in full the condi­
are known throughout the range of test tions under which the data were taken will
tem pera tures. enable another worker to reconcile differ­
ences which may be apparent in another
Availability: ASTM study.

Availability: ASTM
1 Thistest method is under the jurisdiction of
ASTM Committee D-2 on Petroleum Prod­
ucts and Lubricants and is the direct re­ 1 This practice is under the jurisdiction of
sponsibility of Subcommittee D02.11 on ASTM Committee E-37 on Thermal Mea­
Engineering Science and High-Performance surements and is the direct responsibility of
Fluids and Solids. Subcommittee E37.01 on Test Methods and
Recommended Practices.
Title: Standard Test Method for Calculation
of Liquid Heat Capacity of Petroleum Title: Standard Definitions of Terms
Distillate Fuels l Relating to Thermal Analysis 1

Citation: ASTM D 2890-87 Citation: ASTM E 473-85

Content: This test method describes the cal­ Content: This standard is a compilation of
culation of liquid heat capacity, Btu/lb· OF definitions used in thermal analysis. Terms
(kJ/kg· K), at atmospheric pressure, of petro­ that are generally understood or adequately
leum fuels for which distillation data may be defined in other readily available sources are
obtained in accordance with Method D 86 not included.
without reaching a decomposition point prior Definitions that are identical to those pub­
to obtaining 90 volume % distilled.
lished by another standards body are identi­
fied with the abbreviation of the name of the

46

 THERMAL PROPERTIES
(STANDARDS)

organization: for example, ICTA is the Inter­ The normal operating temperature range is
national Confederation for Thermal Analysis. from -120° to 600°C. The temperature range
can be extended depending upon the instru­
A definition is a single sentence with addi­ mentation used.
tional information included in notes. It is
reviewed every five years, and the year of This method is generally applicable to ther­
the last review or revision is appended. mally stable materials with well defined
endothermic or exothermic behavior.
Availability: ASTM
Availability: ASTM
1 These definitions are under the jurisdiction
of ASTM Committee E-37 on Thermal Mea­ 1 This test method is under the jurisdiction of
surements and are the direct responsibility ASTM Committee E-37 on Thermal Mea­
of Subcommittee E37.03 on Nomenclature surements and is the direct responsibility of
and Definition. Subcommittee E37.0l on Test Methods and
Recommended Practices.
Title: Standard Test Method for Assessing
the Thermal Stability of Chemicals by Title: Standard Test Method for Thermal
Methods of Differential Thermal Characteristics of Refuse-Derived
Analysisl Fuel-3 Macrosamples 1

Citation: ASTM E 537-&6 Citation: ASTM E 955-&3 (19&&)

Content: This test method covers the ascer­ Content: This test method covers the deter­
tainment of the presence of enthalpic mination of moisture, noncombustibles and
changes, using a minimum quantity of sam­ combustibles and the calculation of higher
ple, normally in the milligram range, and heating value content of a large mass of
approximates the temperature at which these refuse-derived fuel three (RDF-3).
enthalpic changes occur.
Availability: ASTM
Availability: ASTM
1 This test method is under the jurisdiction of
1 This test method is under the jurisdiction of ASTM Committee E-3& on Resource Recov­
ASTM Committee E-27 on Hazard Potential ery and is the direct responsibility of
of Chemicals and is the direct responsibility Subcommittee E3&.01 on Energy.
of Subcommittee E27.02 on Thermal
Stability.
Title: Standard Test Method for
Compositional Analysis by
Title: Standard Test Method for Heats of Thermogravimetry 1
Fusion and Crystallization by Differ­
ential Scanning Calorimetry 1 Citation: ASTM E 1131-&6

Citation: ASTM E 793-& 1 (I 9&5) Content: This test method is intended to

provide a general technique incorporating
Content: This method covers the determina­ thermogravimetry to determine the amount
tion of the heat of fusion and crystallization of highly volatile matter, medium volatile
by differential scanning calorimetry. matter, combustible material, and ash con­
tent of compounds. This test method will be
This method is applicable to solid samples in useful in performing a compositional analysis
granular form or in any fabricated shape
in cases where agreed upon by interested
from which an appropriate specimen can be parties.
cut or to liquid samples that crystallize with­
in the range of the instrument.

47

THERMAL PROPERTIES
(STANDARDS)

Availability: ASTM Title: Test Method for Determining Specific

Heat Capacity by Differential
Scanning Calorimetry
1 This test method is under the jurisdiction of
ASTM Committee E-37 on Thermal Mea­ Citation: ASTM E 1269
surements and is the direct responsibility of
Subcommittee E37.01 on Test Methods and Content:
Recommended Practices.
Availability: ASTM
Title: Test Method for Thermal Conductivity
of Solids by Means of the Guarded­
Comparative-Longitudinal Heat Flow
Technique

Citation: ASTM E 1225-87

Content:

Availability: ASTM

48

 THERMAL PROPERTIES
(LITERATURE)

Title: Development of Standard Operating Title: Compositional Analysis by

Procedures for Differential Scanning Thermogravimetry
Calorimeters
Citation: STP997-Compositional Analysis by
Citation: Callanan, Jane E. and Thermogravimetry. New York:
Sandra A. Sullivan. Rev. Sci. American Society of Testing and
Instrum. 57 (10):2584 (1986). Materials.

Content: This paper describes an assessment Content: Defines the technique of thermo­
of the behavior of a differential scanning gravimetry (TG) and describes the instrumen­
calorimeter and the development of satis­ tation and the principles on which the
factory calibration, operation, and data technique is based. The text is divided into
reduction procedures, which depend on per­ four sections: General papers; compositional
formance characteristics of the individual analysis of polymeric materials; composi­
instrument. Factors that contribute to ther­ tional analysis using TG techniques and new
mal lag are identified; suggestions for evalu­ instrumental concepts; and compositional
ating and compensating for it are given. analysis of inorganics, fuels, minerals, and
raw materials. The wide range of materials
presented for analysis include rubber, poly­
mers, coal, sheet molding materials, clays,
cement, oil shales, and solid waste.

49

50

'1

 ULTIMATE ANALYSIS)
(STANDARDS

Title: Standard Test Method for Hydrogen in carbonates and the hydrogen present in the
Petroleum Fractions 1 free moisture accompanying the sample as
well as hydrogen present as water hydration
Citation: ASTM D 1018-87 of silicates.

Content: This test method covers the deter­ Availability: ASTM

mination of hydrogen in petroleum fractions
that can be burned completely.
1 These test methods are under the juris­
Availability: ASTM diction of ASTM Committee D-5 on Coal
and Coke and are the direct responsibility
of Subcommittee D05.21 on Methods of
1 This test method is under the jur isdiction of Analysis.
ASTM Committee D-2 on Petroleum Prod­
ucts and Lubricants and is the direct
responsibility of Subcommittee D02.03 on Title: Standard Test Method for Hydrogen
Elemental Analysis. Content of Aviation Turbine Fuels by
Low-Resolution Nuclear Magnetic
Resonance Spectrometry 1
Title: Standard Method for Ultimate
Analysis of Coal and Coke 1 Citation: ASTM D 3701-87

Citation: ASTM D 3176-84 Content: This test method covers the de­
termination of the hydrogen content of avia­
Content: This method covers the term "ulti­ tion turbine fuels.
mate analysis" as it is applied to the analysis
This test method may be extended to other
of coal and coke. The information derived is
liquids containing hydro~en but ~s only avi~­
intended for general use by applicable indus­ tion turbine fuels were mcluded m the preCi­
tries, to provide the basis for evaluation or
sion evaluation, the precision may be differ­
beneficiation or for other purposes. ent from that shown.
Availability: ASTM Availability: ASTM

1 This method is under the jurisdiction of 1 This test method is under the jurisdiction of
ASTM Committee D-5 on Coal and Coke ASTM Committee D-2 on Petroleum Prod­
and is the direct responsibility of Subcom­ ucts and Lubricants and is the direct
mittee D05.21 on Methods of Analysis. responsibility of Subcommittee D02.03 on
Elemental Analysis.
Title: Standard Test Methods for Carbon and
Hydrogen in the Analysis Sample of Title: Test Methods for Hydrogen Content of
Coal and Coke 1 Light Distillates, Middle Distillates,
Gas Oils, and Residua by Low­
Citation: ASTM D 3178-84 Resolution Nuclear Magnetic
Resonance Spectroscopy
Content: These test methods cover the de­
termination of total carbon and hydrogen in Citation: ASTM D 4808-88
samples of coal or coke. Both the carbon ~nd
hydrogen are determined in one operatIOn. Content: The hydrogen content represents a
This test method yields the total percentages fundamental quality of a petroleum product
of carbon and hydrogen in the coal as ana­ that has been correlated with many of the
lyzed, and the results include not. only the performance characteristics of that product.
carbon and hydrogen in the organIC matter These test methods cover the determination
but also the carbon present in mineral of the hydrogen content of petroleum

53

 ULTIMATE ANALYSIS
(!:)TANDARDS)

products ranging from atmospheric distillates Title: Coal and Coke--Determination of

to vacuum residua using a continuous wave, Carbon and Hydrogen--High­
low-resolution nuclear magnetic resonance Temperature Combustion Method
spectrometer. Test methods are included
that account for the special characteristics Citation: ISO 609: 1975
of different petroleum products: Test Meth­
ud A for light distillates; Test Method B for Content:
middle distillates and gas oils; and Test
Method C for residua. Availability: ISO

Availability: ASTM
Title: Coal and Coke--Determination of
Carbon and Hydrogen--Liebig Method
Title: Standard Test Method for Carbon
and Hydrogen in the Analysis Sample Citation: ISO 625: 1975
of Refuse-Derived Fuel l
Content:
Citation: ASTM E 777-87
Availability: ISO
Content: This method covers the determi­
nation of total carbon and hydrogen in a
sample of refuse-derived fuel (RDF-3). Both
carbon and hydrogen are determined in one
operation. This method yields the total per­
centages of carbon and hydrogen in RDF-3 as
analyzed, and the results include not only the
carbon and hydrogen in the organic matter
but also the carbon present in mineral car­
bonates and the hydrogen present in the free
moisture accompanying the analysis sample
as well as hydrogen present as water of
hydration.

Availability: ASTM

1This method is under the jurisdiction of

ASTM Committee E38 on Resource Recov­
ery and is the direct responsibility of Sub­
committee E38.01 on Energy.

54

 ULTIMATE ANALYSIS
(LITERATURE)

Title: Combustion Train Method for Carbon

and Hydrogen (Draft)

Citation: Pittsburgh Energy Technology

Center (PETC) Methods Manual.
Vol. 1. PETC, P.O. Box 10940,
Pittsburgh, PA 15236.

Content:

55

56

 OXYGEN ANALYSIS
(STANDARDS)

Title: Hard Coal: Determination of Oxygen

Content

Citation: ISO 1994:1976

Content:

Availability: ISO

57

58

 OXYGEN ANALYSIS
(LITERATURE)

Title: Beitrag Zur Mikrobestimmung Von Title: Determination of Oxygen in

Sauerstoff in Organischen Substanzen Nonvolatile Organic Materials
in Gegenwart Von Metallen Sowie in
Metallorganischen Verbindungen and Citation: Gevert, S. B. Paper presented at
Automatische Endbestimmung der Pittsburgh Conference, Altantic
Kohlensaure City, N.J., March 1986.

Citation: Merz, W. Anal. Chern. Acta Content: In the analysis of inhomogenous

50:305 (1970). materials like coal and biomass it is impor­
tant to take samples as large as possible
Content: The direct determination of oxygen since it is difficult to obtain representative
in organic substances in the presence of samples. The LECO RO-116 instrument was
metals is described. For complete removal used for the direct determination of oxygen.
of oxygen from metal oxides, the addition of For comparison, oxygen was also determined
a mixture of ammoniurh chloride, silver indirectly by analyzing for sulfur with a
chloride, and hexamethylenetetramine was LECO SC-132 instrument and for carbon, hy­
found to give the best results. The carbon drogen, and nitrogen using a LECO CHN-600.
dioxide is finally determined by fully
automatic titration with colorimetric end- Note: In connection with an ongoing round­
detection. robin test of pyrolysis and liquefaction oils,
about a dozen laboratories are doing ultimate
analyses. Those that carry out direct oxygen
determination will indicate the method used.
This will be reported under the continuing
lEA Voluntary Standards project.

59

60

 NITROGEN ANALYSIS
(STANDARDS)

Title: Nitrogen (Totai) in Peat Title: Standard Test Methods for Nitrogen in
the Analysis Sample of Coal and
Citation: AOAC 2.211 Coke l

Content: Citation: ASTM D 3179-84

Availability: AOAC
Content: These test methods cover the de­
termination of total nitrogen in samples of
Title: Organic Nitrogen in Paper coal and coke. The anaytical data from these
test methods are to be reported as part of
Citation: Appita P408m-70 ultimate analysis where ultimate analysis is
requested. If ultimate analysis is not re­
Content: quested, the value is to be reported accord­
ing to the request.
Availability: Appita
Availability: ASTM
Title: Standard Test Method for Organic
Nitrogen in Paper and Paperboard 1 These test methods are under the juris­
diction of ASTM Committee D-5 on Coal
Citation: ASTM D 982-65 (I 97 1) and Coke and are the direct responsibility
Discontinued of Subcommittee D05.21 on Methods of
Analysis.
Content: This method covers the determi­
nation of glue, casein, urea-formaldehyde
resins, melamine resin, and other nitrogenous Title: Standard Test Methods for Total
organic materials in paper and paperboard. Kjeldahl Nitrogen in Water 1
Formerly under the jurisdiction of ASTM Citation: ASTM D 3590-84
Committee D-6 on Paper and Paper Prod­
ucts, this method was discontinued in 1984. Content: These test methods cover the
As a service to ASTM users, an industry determination of total Kjeldahl nitrogen.
standard, T APPl T 418, developed under the The following methods are included:
auspices of the Technical Association of the Method A--Manual Digestion/Distillation and
Pulp and Paper Industry, is also included. Method B--Semiautomated Colorimetric
Bertholt.
Availability: ASTM
Availability: ASTM

Title: Standard Test Method for Total Nitro­ 1 These test methods are under the jurisdic­
gen in Peat Materials 1 tion of ASTM Committee D-19 on Water
and are the direct responsibility of Subcom­
Citation: ASTM D 2973-71 (1981) mittee D19.05 on Methods for Analysis for
OrganiC Substances in Water.
Content: This is a chemical method for the
determination of the weight percent of nitro­
gen in peat material.

Availability: ASTM

1 This
method is under the jurisdiction of
ASTM Committee D-18 on Soil and Rock.

61
 NITROGEN ANALYSIS

(STANDARDS)

Title: Standard Test Methed fer Organically Title: Standard Test Methods for Nitrogen in
Beund Trace Nitregen in Liquid the Analysis Sample ef Refuse­
Petreleum Hydrecarbons by Oxidative Derived Fuel 1
Combustion and Chemiluminescence
Detection I Citation: ASTM E 778-87

Citatien: ASTM D 4629-86 Content: These methods cever the determi­

nation of total Kjeldahl nitrogen in samples
Content: This test method covers the deter­ of refuse-derived fuel (RDF-3). The proce­
mination of the trace total nitregen naturally dures measure free ammonia er ammonia
found in liquid hydrocarbons bolling in the formed from the conversion of organic ni­
range from approximately 50°C to 400°C, trogenous compounds such as amine acids and
with viscosities between approximately 0.2 preteins. However, the procedures may not
and 10 cSt (mm 2 /s) at room temperature. cenvert the nitrogenous compeunds of some
This test method is applicable to naphthas, wastes to ammenia. Examples of such com­
distillates, and oils containing 0.3 to pounds that may not be measured are nitre
100 mg/kg total nitrogen. compounds, hydrozones, oxines, nitrates,
semicarbazones, pyridines, and some refrac­
Availability: ASTM tory tertiary amines.

1 This test method is under the jurisdiction of Availability: ASTM

ASTM Committee D-2 on Petreleum Prod­
ucts and Lubricants and is the direct re­ 1 Thesemethods are under the jurisdictien of
sponsibility of Subcommittee 002.03 on ASTM Committee E-38 en Resource Recov­
Elemental Analysis. ery and are the direct responsibility of Sub­
committee E38.01 on Energy.
'lor "1 Ola! 'Nitro­
-':itJa". 'V-.'Wtfun-t. -r:i~"'1. 'I~n:!'l.lIlUa
gen in Organic Materials by Modified Title: Coal--Determination of Nitrogen-­
K jeldahl Methed 1 Macro Kjeldahl Method
Citation: ASTM E 258-67 (I 987) Citation: ISO 332:1981
Content: This method covers the determina­ Centent:
tion ~f total nitrogen in nitrogen-containing
orgamc compounds. The method is not appli­ Availability: ISO
cable for materials containing N-O, N-N
linkages.
Title: Coal--Determination of Nitrogen-­
Availability: ASTM Semi-Micro Kjeldahl Method

1 This method is under the jurisdiction of Citatien: ISO 333:1983

ASTM Committee E-l5 on Industrial Chem­
Content:
icals and is the direct responsibility of Sub­
committee El5.21 on Elements.
Availability: ISO

62

 NITROGEN ANALYSIS
(STANDARDS)

Title: Organic Nitrogen by the Kjeldahl Title: Organic Nitrogen in Paper and
Method--Modified Starch Products Paperboard

Citation: SCAN-P 56:&6 Citation: TAPPI T 41 & om-&5

Content: This SCAN-test standard specifies Content: This method is used for the deter­
a procedure for the determination of organi­ mination of nitrogen from glue, casein, urea­
cally bound nitrogen in starch and its deriva­ and melamine-formaldehyde resins, amine
tives used in the manufacture of papers or and amide polymers, and other nitrogenous
boards. The results may be used to calculate organic materials in paper and paperboard.
the degree of substitution in starch deriva­
tives, provided that the chemical structure The determination does not include all the
of the nitrogen-containing substituent is nitrogen in nitro compounds, nitrates, ni­
trites, azo, hydrazine, cyanide, or pyridine
known. The standard, as described, is not
ring-type compounds, which are not normally
applicable to water-soluble starches. For
found in paper and paperboard.
these, total Kjeldahl nitrogen is determined
without washing. Neither inorganic nitrogen,
Availability: TAPPI
which is water soluble, nor the nitrogen
contained in nitro, nitroso, and azo groups
is included in the value yielded by this
determination.

Availability: SCAN

63

64

NITROGEN ANALYSIS
(LITERATURE)

Title: Modified Kjeldahl Method for types were ground and mixed. Each sample
Nitrogen (Draft) type was divided into 5 subsamples which
were analyzed for N by each of the 3 meth­
Citation: Pittsburgh Energy Technology ods. In ,each sample type, differences
Center Methods Manual, Vol. 1. (P<0.05) were detected among the 3 N deter­
PETC, P.O. Box 10940, Pittsburgh, mination methods in 5 of the 20 N sources
PA 15236 analyzed. The mean N content over all
20 samples was higher with Kjeldahl analysis
Content: (P<0.05) than with Kjeltec, while Hach analy­
sis produced intermediate results. Results
also indicated that the Hach procedure most
Title: Total Nitrogen Determination of Var accurately detected differences in N content
ious Sample Types: A Comparison of among sample types, being more sensitive
the Hach, Kjeltec, and Kjeldahl than either other method (P<0.05).
Methods

Citation: Watkins, Kevin L., Trugve L. Title: Determination of Nitrogen by the

Veum, and Gary F. Krause. J. Kjeldahl Method
Assoc. Off. Anal. Chern. 70(3):6073
(1987). Citation: Moore, Wayne E. and
David B. Johnson. Procedures for
Content: Conventional Kjeldahl analysis the Chemical Analysis of Wood and
with modifications, Kjeltec analysis with Wood Products (As used at the U.S.
block digestion and semiautomated distilla­ Forest Products Laboratory.)
tion, and the Hach method for determining Revised Dec. 1967. (Unpublished.)
nitrogen (N) were compared using a wide
range of samples. Twenty different sample Content:

65

66

 SULFUR ANALYSIS
(STANDARDS)

Title: Sulfur in Plants--Sodium Peroxide Title: Standard Test Method for Total Sulfur
Method in Fuel Gases 1

Citation: AOAC 3.108 (Preparation of Citation: ASTM D 1072-80

Solution)
AOAC 3.109 (Determination) Content: This method covers the determi­
nation of total sulfur in combustible fuel
Content: gases, when present in concentrations
between 1.0 and 30 grains of sulfur per
Availability: AOAC 100 cubic feet (25 and 700 mg/m 3 ). It is
applicable to natural gases, manufactured
gases, and mixed gases, such as are distrib­
Title: Sulfur in Plants--Magnesium Nitrate uted by gas utility companies.
Method
Availability: ASTM
Citation: AOAC 3.110 (Preparation of
Solution)
AOAC 3.111 (Determination) 1 This test method is under the jurisdiction of
ASTM Committee D-3 on Gaseous Fuels and
Content: is the direct responsibility of D03.0 1 on
Collection and Measurement of Gaseous
Availability: AOAC

Title: Standard Test Method for Sulfur in Title: Standard Test Methods for Carbon
Petroleum Products {General Bomb Black--Sulfur Content 1
Method)l
Citation: ASTM D 1619-86
Citation: ASTM D 129-64 (1978)
Content: These test methods cover the de­
Content: This test method covers the deter­ termination of the sulfur content of carbon
mination of sulfur in petroleum products, black. The following methods are included:
including lubricating oils containing addi­ Method A--Oxygen Bomb Calorimeter; Meth­
tives, additive concentrates, and lubricating od B--High-Temperature Combustion with
greases, that cannot be burned completely in Iodimetric Detection Procedures; and Meth­
a wick lamp. The method is applicable to od C--High-Temperature Combustion with
any petroleum product sufficiently low in Infrared Absorption Detection Procedures.
volatility that it can be weighed accurately
in an open sample boat and containing at Availability: ASTM
least 0.196 sulfur.
1 These test methods are under the jurisdic­
Availability: ASTM tion of ASTM Committee D-24 on Carbon
Black and are the direct responsibility of
1 Thistest method is under the jur isdiction of Subcommittee D24.31 on Non-Carbon-Black
ASTM Committee D-2 on Petroleum Prod­ Components of Carbon Black.
ucts and Lubricants.

67

SULFUR ANALYSIS
(STANDARDS)

Title: Standard Test Methods for Sulfur in Title: Standard Test Method for Sulfur
Ash from Coal and Coke 1 Content of Cellulosic Materials by
X-Ray Fluorescence l
Citation: ASTM 0 1757-86
Citation: ASTM 0 2929-70 (1985)
Content: These test methods cover three
optional gravimetric procedures for deter­ Content: This test method covers determi­
mining sulfur in coal or coke ash prepared in nation of sulfur content of cellulosic mate­
accordance with Methods 0 2795 or Test rials by X-ray fluorescence. Using appro­
Method 0 3174. The sulfur content is priate standards, the range of the procedure
reported as SO 3 • is from approximately 10 ppm to 2096 sulfur.
The procedures appear in the following Availability: ASTM
order: Method A--Modified British Method;
Method B--Eschka Method; and Method C-­
Sodium Carbonate Fusion Method, 1 This test method is under the jurisdiction of
ASTM Committee 0-23 on Cellulose and
Availability: ASTM Cellulose Derivatives and is the direct
responsibility of Subcommittee 023.20 on
Cellulose.
1 These test methods are under the jurisdic­
tion of ASTM Committee 0-5 on Coal and
Coke and are the direct responsibility of Title: Standard Test Methods for Total
Subcommittee 005.29 on Major Elements in Sulfur in the Analysis Sample of Coal
Ash and Trace Elements of Coal. and Coke l

Citation: ASTM 0 3177-84

Title: Standard Test Method for Forms of
Sulfur in Coal1 Content: These test methods cover two al­
ternative procedures for the determination
Citation: ASTM 0 2492-84
of total sulfur in samples of coal and coke.
Sulfur is included in the ultimate analysis of
Content: This test method covers the
coal and coke.
determination of the three commonly recog­
nized forms of sulfur in coal: sulfate sulfur, The procedures are Method A--Eschka Meth­
pyritic sulfur, and organic sulfur. This test od and Method B--Bomb Washing Method.
method is not applicable to coke or other
carbonaceous materials containing sulfur as a Availability: ASTM
monosulfide (pyrites, FeS 2, are disulfides).

Availability: ASTM 1 These test methods are under the juris­

diction of ASTM Committee 0-5 on Coal
and Coke and are the direct responsibility
1This test method is under the jurisdiction of of Subcommittee 005.21 on Methods of
ASTM Committee 0-5 on Coal and Coke Analysis.
and is the direct responsibility of Subcom­
mittee 005.21 on Methods of Analysis.

68

 SULFUR ANALYSIS
(STANDARDS)

Title: Standard Test Methods for Sulfur in Title: Total Sulfur in Pulp
the Analysis Sample of Coal and Coke
Using High-Temperature Tube Citation: CPPA G.28
Furnace Combustion Methods 1
Content:
Citation: ASTM D 4239-85
Availability: CPPA
Content: These test methods cover three al­
ternative procedures using high-temperature
tube furnace combustion methods for the Title: Testing of Solid Fuels
rapid determination of sulfur in samples of
coal and coke. Citation: DIN 51724 Parts 1-2
These test methods appear in the following Content: 1. Determination of sulfur con­
order: Method A--High-Temperature Com­ tent; total sulfur. 2. Determination of forms
bustion Method with Acid Base Titration of sulfur.
Detection Procedures; Method B--High­
Temperature Combustion Method with Iodi­ Availability: DIN
metric Titration Detection Procedures; and
Method C--High-Temperature Combustion
Method with Infrared Absorption Detection Title: Determination of Sulfur in Mineral
Procedures. Oils by Wickbold Combustion Method

Availability: ASTM Citation: EN 41

Content: Equivalent to DIN 51400

1 These test methods are under the juris­
diction of ASTM Committee D-5 on Coal Availability: EN
and Coke and are the direct responsibility
of Subcommittee D05.21 on Methods of
Analysis. Title: Coal and Coke--Determination of
Total Sulfur--Eschka Method
Title: Standard Test Methods for Total
Citation: ISO 334: 1975
Sulfur in the Analysis Sample of

Refuse-Derived Fuel l
Content:
Citation: ASTM E 775-87 Availability: ISO
Content: These methods cover two alterna­
tive procedures for the determination of Title: Solid Mineral Fuels--Determina cion of
total sulfur in samples of refuse-derived fuel Total Sulfur--High Temperature
three (RDF-3). Sulfur is included in the Combustion Method
ultimate analysis of RDF-3. The methods
are Eschka Method and Bomb Washing Citation: ISO 351: 1984
Method.
Content:
. Availability: ASTM
Availability: ISO
1 Thesemethods are under the jurisdiction of
ASTM Committee E-38 on Resource Recov­
ery and are the direct responsibility of Sub­
committee E38.01 on Energy.

69

SULFUR ANALYSIS
(~TANDARDS)

Title: Water-Soluble Sulfates in Pulp and Title: Water-Soluble Sulfates and Chlorides
Paper in Pulp

Citation: TAPPI T255 om-84 Citation: TAPPI T229 wd-76

(Became Useful Method 254)
Content:
Content:
Availability: TAPPI
Availability: TAPPI

70
 HALOGEN ANALYSIS
(STANDARDS)

ritle: Chloride in Plants; Gravimetric Title: Fluoride in Plants; Semiautomated

Method Method

Citation: AOAC 3.069 (Preparation of Citation: AOAC 3.082

Solution)
AOAC 3.070 (Determination) Content:

Content: Availability: AOAC

...Availability: AOAC
Title: Chlorine (Soluble) in Animal Feed;
Titrimetric Method
Title: Chloride in Plants; Volumetric
Method I Citation: AOAC 7.104

Citation: AOAC 3.071 (Reagents) Content:

AOAC 3.072 (Determination)
Availability: AOAC
Content:

Availability: AOAC Title: Chlorine (Soluble) in Animal Feed;

Potentiometric Method

Title: Chloride in Plants; Volumetric Citation: AOAC 7.106

Method II
Content:
Citation: AOAC 3.073 (Reagents)
AOAC 3.074 (Determination) Availability: AOAC

Content:
Title: Fluorine in Animal Feed
Availability: AOAC
Citation: AOAC 7.114

Title: Fluoride in Plants; Potentiometric Content:

Method
Availability: AOAC
Citation: AOAC 3.075

Content: Title: Iodine in Mineral Mixed Feeds

Availability: AOAC Citation: AOAC 7.119

Content:
Title: Fluoride in Plants; Willard-Winter
Distillation Method Availability: AOAC

Citation: AOAC 3.081

Content:

~ vailability: AOAC

71

HALOGEN ANALYSIS
(STANDARDS)

Title: Standard Test Method for Total Availability: ASTM

Chloride Content of Paper and Paper
Products 1 This test method is under the jurisdiction of
the ASTM Committee D-23 on Cellulose and
Citation: ASTM D 1161-70 (1974)
Cellulose Derivatives and is the direct
Discontinued
responsibility of Subcommittee D-23.20 on
Cellulose.
Content: This method covers the determina­
tion of the chloride content of paper, pulp,
and paper products. Formerly under the ju­ Title: Standard Test Method for Water­
risdiction of ASTM Committee D-6 on Paper Soluble Halide Ion in Halogenated
and Paper Products, this method was discon­ Organic Solvents and Their
tinued in 1984. Admixtures 1
As a service to ASTM users, an industry
standard, TAPPI256, developed under the Citation: ASTM D 2988-86
auspices of the Technical Association of the
Pulp and Paper Industry, is also included. Content: This method covers the determina­
tion of water-extractable halide ion in halo­
Availability: ASTM genated organic solvents and their admix­
tures. Fluoride ion is not measured due to
the solubility of silver fluoride.
Title: Standard Test Method for Chlorine in
Coal I Availability: ASTM

Citation: ASTM D 2361-85

I Thismethod is under the jurisdiction of
r...nnt.PJlt!. T.his., ta.<;J~ mf'lthnrL r..,roTAr." th~ tiR..­ Committee D-26 on Halogenated OrR.anic
Solvents.
termination of the total chlorine content of
coal.
Title: Standard Test Method for Total
Availability: ASTM Chlorine in Coal by the Oxygen Bomb
Combustion/Ion Selective Electrode
I This test method is under the jurisdiction of Method l
ASTM Committee D-5 on Coal and Coke
and is the direct responsibility of Subcom­ Citation: ASTM D 4208-88
mittee D 05.21 on Methods of Analysis.
Content: This test method covers the analy­
sis of total chlorine in coal. Total chlorine is
Title: Standard Test Method for Chlorine in determined in this test method by combust­
Cellulose 1 ing a weighed sample in an oxygen bomb with
dilute base absorbing the chlorine vapors.
Citation: ASTM D 2641-70 (1985) The bomb contents are rinsed into a beaker
with water and following the addition of an
Content: This test method covers the deter­ ionic strength adjuster, the chloride is deter­
mination of chlorine in cellulose. Procedures mined by ion-selective electrode.
for total chlorine, water-insoluble chlorine,
and alcohol-benzene-insoluble chlorine are Availability: ASTM
described. The range is 5 to 1000 ppm on
cellulose. Total chlorine determinations
1 This test method is under the jurisdiction of
(including ashing) can be performed at a rate
ASTM Committee D-5 on Coal and Coke
of one determination every 30 min.
and is the direct responsibility of Subcom­
mittee D05.21 on Methods of Analysis.

72

 HALOGEN ANALYSIS
(STANDARDS)

Title: Standard Test Method for Forms of Title: Water-Soluble Sulfates and Chlorides
Chlorine in Refuse-Derived Fuel l in Pulp

Citation: ASTM E 776-87 Citation: T APPI T 229 wd-76

(Became Useful Method 254)
Content: This method covers the determi­
nation of the forms of chlorine in refuse­ Content:
derived fuel three (RDF-3): total chlorine,
water-soluble chloride, and water-insoluble Availability: TAPPI
chlorine.

Availability: ASTM Title: Water-Soluble Chlorides in Pulp and

Paper
1This method is under the jurisdiction of Citation: TAPPI T 256 cm-85
ASTM Committee E-38 on Resource Recov­
ery and is the direct responsibility of Sub­ Content:
committee E 38.0 I on Energy.
Availability: TAPPI
Title: Solid Mineral Fuels--Determination of
Chlorine--High Temperature Combus­
tion Method

Citation: ISO 352: 1981

Content:

Availability: ISO

Title: Chloride Content--Starch

Citation: SCAN-P 54:84

Content: This SCAN-test standard specifies

a method for the determination of the chlo­
ride content in samples of starch used in the
manufacture of papers and boards. It is
applicable both to native starches and starch
derivatives and is primarily intended for
quality control purposes. The chloride con­
tent is important for corrosion in the paper
mill and for the quality of the manufactured
paper.
The lower limit of chloride content that can
be determined is 0.02%.

Availability: SCAN

73

74

 HALOGEN ANALYSIS
(LITERATURE)

Title: The Determination of the Total Title: Determination of Soluble Halides in

Content of Organic Halogen and Wood
Sulphur Compounds
Citation: Moore, Wayne E. and
Citation: Lammi, T. Paperi ja Puu-Papper David B. Johnson. Procedures for
och Trii 10:605 (1981). the Chemical Analysis of Wood and
Wood Products (As used at the U.S.
Content: An occupationally safe method of Forest Products Laboratory.)
analyzing organically bound halogen and sul­ Revised Dec. 1967. (Unpublished.)
fur has been presented. The compound was
burned with an igniting substance in a steel Content:
container containing excess pressure of oxy­
gen. The halides formed were analyzed grav­
imetrically or volumetrically.

Title: Determination of Chlorine in Wood,

Pulp and Paper

Citation: Bethge, P.O. and T. Troeng.

Svensk Papperstidning 69(17):598
(I 979).

Content: Small amounts of chlorine in wood,

pulp, and paper can be determined by com­
bustion of the material in oxygen of atmos­
pheric pressure, absorption of the chloride
formed in water, and potentiometric titra­
tion. This method is suitable for chlorine
contents of more than 0.1 mg/g and is more
accurate than conventional procedures.

75

76

 METALS AND OTHER INORGANICS

(STANDARDS)

Title: Metals in Plants: Emission Title: Cobalt in Plants: Nitroso-R-Salt

Spectrographic Methods Method

Citation: AOAC 3.006 Citation: AOAC 3.029

Content: Applicable to aluminum, barium, Content:

boron, calcium, copper, iron, magnesium,
Availability: AOAC
manganese, molybdenum, phosphorus, potas­
sium, sodium, strontium, and zinc.
Title: Copper in Plants: Colorimetric
Availability: AOAC Method

Citation: AOAC 3.033

Title: Metals in Plants: Atomic Absorption
Spectrophotometric Method Content:
Citation: AOAC 3.013 Availability: AOAC

Content:
Title: Iron in Plants: Colorimetric Method
Availability: AOAC
Citation: AOAC 3.035

Title: Aluminum and Iron in Plants: Content:

Titrimetric Method Availability: AOAC
Citation: AOAC 3.017
Title: Iron in Plants: Titrimetric Method
Content:
Citation: AOAC 3.038
Availability: AOAC
Content:
Title: Calcium in Plants: Titrimetric Macro Availability: AOAC
Method

Citation: AOAC 3.018 Title: Magnesium in Plants: Gravimetric

Method
Content:
Citation: AOAC 3.039
Availability: AOAC
Content:

Title: Calcium in Plants: Titrimetric Availability: AOAC

Method
Title: Manganese in Plants: Colorimetric
Citation: AOAC 3.019 Method
Content: Citation: AOAC 3.040
Availability: AOAC Content:

Availability: AOAC

77

METALS AND OTHER INORGANICS

(STANDARDS)

Title: Molybdenum in Plants: Colorimetric Title: Zinc in Plants: Mixed-Color Method

Method
Citation: AOAC 3.054
Citation: AOAC 3.041
Content:
Content:
Availability: AOAC
Availability: AOAC
Title: Zinc in Plants: Single-Color Method
Title: Potassium and Sodium in Plants:
Gravimetric Method Citation: AOAC 3.061

Citation: AOAC 3.044 Content:

Content: Availability: AOAC

Availability: AOAC
Title: Arsenic in Plants: Titrimetric Method

Title: Potassium and/or Sodium in Plants: Citation: AOAC 3.066

Flame Photometric Method
Content:
Citation: AOAC 3.045
Availability: AOAC
Content:

Availability: AOAC Title: Boron in Plants: Quinaiizarin Method

Citation: AOAC 3.067 (Reagents)

Title: Potassium in Plants AOAC 3.068 (Determination)

Citation: AOAC 3.049 Content:

Content: Availability: AOAC

Availability: AOAC
Title: Phosphorus in Plants: Gravimetric
Quinolinium Mol ybdophospha te
Title: Sodium in Plants: Uranyl Acetate Method
Method
Citation: AOAC 3.095
Citation: AOAC 3.052
Content:
Content:
Availability: AOAC
Availability: AOAC

78

 METALS AND OTHER INORGANICS

(STANDARDS)

Title: Phosphorus in Plants: Macro Method Title: Cobalt in Animal Feed: Colorimetric
Method
Citation: AOAC 3.097
Citation: AOAC 7.109 (Reagents)
Content: AOAC 7.110 (Preparation of
Standard Curve)
Availability: AOAC AOAC 7.111 (Determination)

Content:
Title: Phosphorus in Plants: Micro Method
Availability: AOAC
Citation: AOAC 3.098

Content: Title: Copper in Animal Feed: Colorimetric

Method
Availability: AOAC
Citation: AOAC 7.112 (Preparation of
Standard Curve)
Title: Selenium in Plants: Gravimetric AOAC 7.113 (Determination)
Method
Content:
Citation: AOAC 3.101
Availability: AOAC
Content:

Availability: AOAC Title: Manganese (Acid Soluble) in Animal

Feed: Colorimetric Method
Title: Selenium in Plants: Fluorometric Citation: AOAC 7.121
Method
Content:
Citation: AOAC 3.102
Availability: AOAC
Content:

Availability: AOAC Title: Phosphorus in Animal Feed:

Alkalimetric Ammonium
Molybdophosphate Method
Title: Calcium in Animal Feed: Dry Ash
Method Citation: AOAC 7.123
Citation: AOAC 7.101 (Determination) Content:
Content: Availability: AOAC
Availability: AOAC
Title: Phosphorus in Animal Feed:
Photometric Method

Citation: AOAC 7.125

Content:

Availability: AOAC

79

METALS AND OTHER INORGANICS

(STANDARDS)

Title: Standard Methods of Chemical The analytical procedures appear in the fol­
Analysis of Chromated Zinc Chloride l lowing order: ammonia (calculated as an­
hydrous ammonia), arsenic (calculated as
Citation: ASTM 0 1033-76 (1987) As 2 0 S )' and copper (calculated as CuO).

Content: These methods cover the chemical Availability: ASTM

analysis of chromated zinc chloride, either
granulated or in commercial concentrated
1 These methods are under the jurisdiction of
solutions, for use in the preservative treat­ ASTM Committee 0-7 on Wood and are the
ment of wood. direct responsibility of Subcommittee
The analytical procedures appear in the fol­ 007.06 on Wood Preservatives.
lowing order: zinc (calculated as ZnO) and
hexavalent chromium (calculated as Cr03)'
Title: Standard Methods for Chemical
Availability: ASTM Anal ysis of Acid Copper Chromate 1

Citation: ASTM 0 1627-71 (1987)

1 These methods are under the jurisdiction of
ASTM Committee 0-7 on Wood. Content: These methods cover the chemical
analysis of solid acid copper chromate and
solutions of this material.
Title: Standard Methods for Chemical The analytical procedures appear in the fol­
Analysis of Fluor-Chrome-Arsenate­
lowing order: copper (calculated as CuO),
Phenol l
hexavalent chromium (calculated as Cr03)'
and pH of solution.
Citation: ASTM D 1035-76 (l987)
Availability: ASTM
Content: These methods cover the determi­
nation of the chemical analysis of commer­
cial fluor-chrome-arsenate-phenol. 1 These methods are under the jurisdication
The analytical procedures appear in the fol­ of ASTM Committee 0-7 on Wood.
lowing order: fluorine (calculated as F),
arsenic (calculated as As 2 0 S )' chromium (cal­ Title: Standard Methods for Chemical
culated as Cr03)' and dinitrophenol or sodi­ Analysis of Chromated Copper
um pentachlorophenate. Arsenate l
Availability: ASTM Citation: ASTM 0 1628-83
Content: These methods cover the chemical
1 These methods are under the jurisdiction of analysis of solid chromated copper arsenate
ASTM Committee 0-7 on Wood. and solutions of this material.
The analytical procedures occur in the fol­
Title: Standard Methods for Chemical lowing order: pentavalent arsenic (calcu­
Analysis of Ammoniacal Copper lated as As 2 0 S ), copper (calculated as CuO),
Arsenate 1 hexavalent chromium (calculated as Cr03)'

Citation: ASTM 0 1326-76 (l987) Availability: ASTM

Content: These methods cover the deter­
mination of the chemical analysis of com­ 1 These methods are under the jurisdiction of
mercial solutions of ammoniacal copper ASTM Committee 0-7 on Wood and are the
arsenate. direct responsibility of Subcommittee
007.06 on Wood Preservatives.

80

 METALS AND OTHER INORGANICS

(STANDARDS)

Title: Standard Test Methods for Major and Availability: ASTM

Minor Elements in Coal and Coke Ash
by Atomic Absorption 1
1 This test method is under the jurisdiction of
ASTM Committee 0-23 on Cellulose and
Citation: ASTM D 3682-87 Cellulose Derivatives.
Content: This test method covers the analy­
sis of the commonly determined major and Title: Standard Test Method for Wet Ashing
minor elements in coal ash and coke ash. Procedure for Preparing Wood
Samples for Inorganic Chemical
Availability: ASTM Analysis 1

1 Thistest method is under the jurisdiction of Citation: ASTM D 4278-83

ASTM Committee D-5 on Coal and Coke
and is the direct responsibility of Subcom­ Content: This test method consists of a pro­
mittee D05.29 on Major Elements in Ash cedure for decomposition of wood as an ini­
and Trace Elements in Coal. tial step for analysis for the constituents
arsenic, chromium, copper, phosphate, and
zinc, all of which may then be analyzed
Title: Standard Test Method for Trace according to Methods D 1033, 0 1035,
Elements in Coal and Coke Ash by D 1326, D 1627, and D 1628.
Atomic Absorption 1
Availability: ASTM
Citation: ASTM D 3683-78 (1983)
1 This test method is under the jurisdiction of
Content: This test method covers the deter­
ASTM Committee 0-7 on Wood and is the
mination of beryllium, chromium, copper,
direct responsibility of Subcommittee
manganese, nickel, lead, vanadium, and zinc
D07.06 on Wood Preservatives.
in coal ash or coke ash.

Availability: ASTM Title: Standard Test Method for Major and

Minor Elements in Coal and Coke Ash
1 Thistest method is under the jurisdiction of by X-Ray Fluorescence 1
ASTM Committee D-5 on Coal and Coke
and is the direct responsibility of Subcom­ Citation: ASTM D 4326-84
mittee D05.29 on Major Elements in Ash
and Trace Elements in Coal. Content: This test method covers the analy­
sis of the commonly determined major and
minor elements in ash from coal or coke
Title: Standard Test Method for Metals in using X-ray fluorescence techniques.
Cellulose by Atomic Absorption
Spectrophotometry 1 Availability: ASTM

Citation: ASTM D 4085-81 (1987) 1 This test method is under the jurisdiction of
ASTM Committee D-5 on Coal and Coke
Content: This method covers the determina­ and is the direct responsibility of Subcom­
tion of the iron, copper, manganese, and cal­ mittee D05.29 on Major Elements in Ash
cium content of cellulose pulp from wood or and Trace Elements of Coal.
cotton.

81

 ---
METALS AND OTHER INORGANICS
(STANDARDS)

Title: Standard Test Methods for Analysis of Title: Standard Methods for Preparing
Metals in Refuse-Derived Fuel by Refuse-Derived-Fuel (RDF-3) Samples
Atomic Absorption for Analyses of Metals 1
Spectrophotometry 1
Citation: ASTM E 926-88
Citation: ASTM E 885-88
Content: The methods descr ibed herein
Content: These methods cover the deter­ cover the preparation of milled refuse­
mination of metals in solution by atomic ab­ derived fuel three (RDF-3) sample for analy­
sorption spectroscopy (AAS). ses of metals by atomic absorption spectros­
copy or inductively coupled plasma spectros­
Availability: ASTM copy, or both.
These methods may be applicable to any
1 These test methods are under the jurisdic­ waste material from which a laboratory
tion of ASTM Committee E-38 on Resource analysis sample can be prepared.
Recovery and are the direct responsibility Four methods are described in this standard:
of Subcommittee E38.01 on Energy. Method A--Nitric-Hydrofluoric-Perchloric
Acid Digestion, Method B--Nitric-Sulfuric­
Title: Standard Test Methods for Dissolution Hydrofluoric Acid Digestion, Method C-­
of Refuse-Derived Fuel (RDF-3) Ash Bomb, Acid Digestion Method, and Meth­
Samples for Analysis of Metals 1 od D--Oxygen Bomb Combustion Method.

Citation: ASTM E 886-88 Availability: AST M

Content: The methods described herein 1 Thesemethods are under the jurisdiction of
cover the preparation of RDF-3 ash, fly ash, ASTM Committee E-38 on Resource Recov­
bottom ash, or slag for analyses of metals by ery and are the direct responsibility of Sub­
atomic absorption spectroscopy or induc­ committee E38.01 on Energy.
tively coupled plasma spectroscopy, or both.
These methods may be applicable to any Title: Trace Metal Contents of Pulps
waste material from which a laboratory
analysis sample can be prepared. Citation: BS 4897:1983
Three methods are described in this standard:
Method A--Lithium Tetraborate (Li2BI+07) Content:
Fusion, Method B--Aqua Regia Dissolution,
and Method C--Bomb, Acid Digestion Availability: BSI
Method.

Availability: ASTM Title: Solid Fuels, Phosphorus Content

Citation: DIN 8429-80

1 These test methods are under the jurisdic­
tion of ASTM Committee E-38 on Resource Content:
Recovery and are the direct responsibility
of Subcommittee E38.0 I on Energy. Availability: DIN

82

 METALS AND OTHER INORGANICS

(STANDARDS)

Title: Calcium in Pulp Title: Determination of Sodium, Calcium,

Copper, Iron, and Manganese in Pulp
Citation: SCAN-C lO:62 and Paper by Atomic Absorption
Spectroscopy
Content: The sample is ashed and the ash is
dissolved in nitric acid. Calcium is deter­ Citation: TAPPI T 266 om-&&
mined volumetrically with EDT A solution.
Other metal ions are masked with potassium Content:
cyanide.
Availability: TAPPI
Availability: SCAN

Title: Sodium Content of Wet Pulp

Citation: SCAN-C 30:73

Content: The sodium content of wet pulp is

defined as the amount of sodium that can be
extracted from a sample of the pulp with
hydrochloric acid under specified conditions.

Availability: SCAN

&3

 METALS AND OTHER INORGANICS

(LITERATURE)

Title: The Inorganic Content of Wood Title: Special Methods

Citation: Fossum, Terje, Nils Hartler, Citation: Chapter 16 in Browning, B.L.

and Jan Libert. Svensk Methods of Wood Chemistry,
Papperstioning 75:305 (1972). Vol. 1. New York: Interscience
Publishers, 1967.
Content: Pine wood has been shown to con­
tain a relatively large amount of calcium-­ Content: Inorganic constituents, analysis for
between 600 and 800 mg/kg of wood--and elements: arsenic; boron; mercury; zinc;
100 mg of both magnesium and manganese chromium; chlorine; fluorine.
per kilogram. The inorganic content varied
slightly from one geographical area to
another. Title: Determination of Silica in Organics
An analysis of the distribution of the metals Citation: Moore, Wayne E. and
in a cross section showed that the amounts David B. Johnson. Procedures for the
increased from the outer edge of the sap­ Chemical Analysis of Wood and Wood
wood toward the heartwood. The cambium Products (As used at the U.S. Forest
contained much more of all three types of Products Laboratory.) Revised Dec.
ions than did the adjacent sapwood and bark 1967. (Unpublished.)
layers.
The thin wood sections were ashed in such a Content:
way that the inorganic components in the
wood remained in their original position as a
lattice. It was found that the inorganic sub­
stances accumulated in the resin ducts and

Title: Determination of Trace Metals in Pulp

by Atomic-Absorption
Spectrophotometry

Citation: Bethge, Per Olof and

Rune Radestrom, Svensk
Papperstioning 69(22):772 (1966).

Content: Atomic-absorption spectrophoto­

metry has been applied in the determination
of trace metals (copper, iron, manganese,
calcium, magnesium, and sodium) in pulp.
The technique has been tested on eight SCAN
reference pulps. The results indicate that
precision and accuracy are of the same order
as for conventional methods. The method is
time saving when large numbers of samples
are analyzed and when several trace metals
are to be determined on the same

85

86

87

 PROXIMATE ANALYSIS
(STANDARDS)

Title: Standard Method for Proximate the specific conditions of the test. The
Analysis of Coal and Coke 1 particulate wood fuel may be sanderdust,
sawdust, pellets, green tree chips, hogged
Citation: ASTM D 3172-73 (l9&4) fuel, or other type particulate wood fuel hav­
ing a maximum particle volume of 16.39 cm 3
Content: This method covers the determina­ (l in. 3 ). Volatile matter, when determined as
tion of moisture, volatile matter, and ash and herein described, may be used to indicate
the calculation of fixed carbon on coals and yields on processes to provide the basis for
cokes sampled and prepared by prescribed purchasing and selling or to establish burning
methods and analyzed according to ASTM­ character istics.
established procedures.
Availability: ASTM
Availability: ASTM
1 This test method is under the jurisdiction of
1 This method is under the jur isdiction of ASTM Committee E-44 on Solar Energy
ASTM Committee 0-5 on Coal and Coke Conversion and is the direct responsibility
and is the direct responsibility of Subcom­ of Subcommittee E44.12 on Biomass Con­
mittee 005.21 on Methods of Analysis. version

Title: Standard Test Method for Volatile Title: Standard Test Method for Volatile
Matter in the Analysis Sample of Coal Matter in the Analysis Sample of
and Coke l Refuse-Derived Fuel-3 1

Citation: ASTM D 3175-&2 Citation: ASTM E &97-&&

Content: This method determines the per­ Content: This method covers the determina­
centage of gaseous products, exclusive of tion of the percentage of gaseous products,
moisture vapor, in the analysis sample that exclusive of moisture vapor, in the analysis
are released under the specific conditions of sample which is released under specific con­
the test. ditions of the test. The knowledge of the
volatile matter content assists in predicting
Availability: ASTM burning characteristics of RDF-3.

Availability: ASTM
1 This method is under the jur isdiction of
ASTM Committee 0-5 on Coal and Coke
and is the direct responsibility of Subcom­ 1 This test method is under the jurisdiction of
mittee 005.21 on Methods of Analysis. ASTM Committee E-38 on Resource Recov­
ery and is the direct responsibility of Sub­
committee E38.01 on Energy.
Title: Standard Test Method for Volatile
Matter in the Analysis of Particulate
Wood Fuels 1 Title: Testing of Solid Fuels; Determination
of Volatile Matter
Citation: ASTM E 872-&2 (1987)
Citation: DIN 51720
Content: This test method determines the
percentage of gaseous products, exclusive of Content:
moisture vapor, in the analysis sample of
particulate wood fuel that is released under Availability: DIN

89

90

 PROXIMATE ANALYSIS
(LITERATURE)

Title: Semiautomatic Proximate Analysis of Title: Determination of Combustible

Fossil Fuels Volatile Matter in Fuels

Citation: Nadkarni, R.A. and J.M. Brewer. Citation: Eklund, G., J.R. Pedersen, and
American Laboratory, November B. Stroemberg. Fuel 66(1):13-16
1987, p. 87. (Jan. 1987).

Content: The proximate analysis is a routine Content: A method for determination of

test carried out on coal or oil shale samples combustible volatile matter by flash­
f or the purpose of determining the moisture, pyrolysis has been developed. The analysis is
ash, volatile matter, and by difference the applicable to fuels with HIC values ranging
fixed carbon content of these solid fuels. from 0.2 to 2.05. This range includes hard
These analyses are used to establish the coal coals, lignites, peats, biomass, and fuel oil.
ranks, to show the ratio of combustible-to­ The precision is similar to traditional gas
incombustible constituents in the sample, to chromatography, i.e. 6-8%. Combustible vol­
provide the basis for buying and· selling, and atile matter should be better correlated to
to evaluate for beneficiation or for other ignitability of solid fuels than ASTM volatile
matter.

Title: Proximate Analysis of Some Western

Wood and Bark

Citation: Mingle, J.G. and R. W. Boubel.

Wood Science l( 1):29-36 (1968).
Content:

91

92

 HOISTURE
(STANDARDS)

Title: Wood: Determination of Moisture Title: Moisture in Animal Feed: II. By Dis­
Content tillation with Toluene

Citation: NF B 51-004-85 Citation: AOAC 7.004 (Apparatus)

AOAC 7.005 (Determination)
Content:
Content:
Availability: AFNOR
Availability: AOAC
Title: Moisture in Peat: Method I
Title: Moisture in Animal Feed: III. Drying
Citation: AOAC 2.200 without Heat over Sulfuric Acid

Content: Citation: AOAC 7.006

Availability: AOAC Content:
Availability: AOAC
Title: Moisture in Peat: Method II

Citation: AOAC 2.201 Title: Moisture in Animal Feed: IV: Drying

at 135°
Content:
Availability: AOAC Citation: AOAC 7.007

Content:
Title: Water Capacity and Volumes for Peat Availability: AOAC
Citation: AOAC 2.212 (Apparatus)
AOAC 2.213 (Preparation of Title: Methods of Test for Pulp and Paper
Sample) (metric units); Determination of
AOAC 2.214 (Determination) Moisture in Wood Chips--Distillation
Method
Content:
Availability: AOAC Citation: AS 130 I, PI Orp: 1986,
Appita PI Orp-86

Title: Moisture in Plants Content: Details a procedure used as a rapid

control test in the mill, for the determina­
Citation: AOAC 3.003 tion of moisture in wood chips and the calcu­
lation of the oven-dry value. It is based on
Content: the distillation of water from a known mass
of chips, using a water-immiscible organic
Availability: AOAC liquid as the distilling medium. An all-metal
still is used for this purpose, specially de­
Title: Moisture in Animal Feed: 1. Drying in signed to give maximum heat transfer effi­
Vacuo at 90°-100° ciency. As this is a mill control method, it
should be regularly checked against the
Citation: AOAC 7.003 reference standard, using the oven-drying
procedure.
Content:
Availability: Appita, SAA
Availability: AOAC

93

MglSTURE
(STANDARDS)

Title: Methods of Test for Pulp and Paper Title: Wafers, Pellets, and Crumbles-­
(metric units); Determination of Mois­ Definitions and Methods for Deter­
ture in Pulp for Calculation of the mini,ng Density, Durability, and
Delivered Mass of a Shipment Moisture Content

Citation: AS 1301, P200m: 1977 and Citation: ASAE 5269.3

Appita P200m-77
Content:
Content: Details the procedure for the de­
termination of the moisture content of baled Availability: ASAE
sheet pulp irrespective of the quantity of
moisture present. The method is based on
the "Rules" accepted by the British and Title: Moisture Measurement--Unground
Scandinavian Association. Grain and Seeds

Availability: Appita,SAA Citation: ASAE 5352.2

Content: This standard is to provide a uni­

Title: The Sampling and Testing of Paper for form method for determining the moisture
Moisture Content content of unground samples of agricultural
seeds. Only those seeds are included for
Citation: Appita P401s-78 which documented comparisons with the Karl
Fischer method are available. These tech­
Content: niques should become common practice and
their use referenced in all technical presen­
Availability: Appita tations where moisture content determina­
tions have been a factor. Deviations from
these methods should be reported.
Title: Density, Specific Gravity, and Weight­
Moisture Relationships of Grain for Availability: ASAE
Storage

Citation: ASAE 0241.3 Title: Moisture Measurement--Forages

Content: Citation: ASAE 5358.2

Availability: ASAE Content: This standard establishes uniform

methodology for determining the moisture
content of forage products in their various
Title: Moisture Relationships of Grains forms.
Citation: ASAE 0245.4 Availability: ASAE
Content: Contains nomograph for converting
moisture from wet to dry basis. Title: Standard Test Method for Water in
Petroleum Products and Bituminous
Availability: ASAE Materials by Distillation 1

Citation: ASTM 0 95-83

Content: This test method covers the de­

termination of water in petroleum products,
tars, and other bituminous materials by the

94

 MOISTURE
(STANDARDS)

distillation method. For bituminous emul­ Title: Standard Test Method for Water Vapor
sions refer to Method D 244. This method, Content of Gaseous Fuels by Mea­
along with ASTM Test Method D 4006 (API surement of Dew-Point Temperature 1
Chapter 10.2 and IP 358), supersedes the pre­
vious edition of ASTM Test Method D 95 (API Citation: ASTM D 1142-86
Standard 2560, IP 74).
Content: This test method covers the
Availability: ASTM determination of the water vapor content of
gaseous fuels by measurement of the dew­
point temperature and the calculation there­
1 This test method is under the jurisdiction of from of the water vapor content.
ASTM Committee D-2 on Petroleum Prod­
ucts and Lubricants. In the Institute of Availability: ASTM
Petroleum this method is under the jurisdic­
tion of the Standardization Committee.
1 This test method is under the jurisdiction of
ASTM Committee D-3 on Gaseous Fuels and
Title: Standard Test Methods for Water and is the direct responsibility of Subcommittee
Sediment in Crude Oils 1 DOJ.05 on Determination of Special Consti­
tuents of Gaseous Fuels.
Citation: ASTM D 96-73 (1984)

Content: This standard defines a primary Title: Standard Test Method for Moisture in
centrifuge method and two alternatives for Cellulose 1
determining the amount of water and sedi­
ment in crude oil. It further specifies a base Citation: ASTM D 1348-61 (1985)
method to be used when centrifuging is not
suitable or when the accuracy of a centrifuge Content: These test methods cover the de­
method is to be confirmed. termination of moisture in cellulose using
two oven-drying procedures and one Karl
Availability: ASTM Fischer procedure.
The test procedures appear in the following
1 These test methods are under the jur isdic­ order: Method A--Sample Weighed in Oven,
tion of ASTM Committee D-2 on Petroleum Method B--Sample Weighed Outside of Oven,
Products and Lubricants and are the direct and Method C--Karl Fischer Method.
responsibility of Subcommittee D02.02 on
Static Petroleum Measurement (Joint Availability: ASTM
ASTM-API).
1 These test methods are under the jurisdic­
Title: Test Method for Moisture Content of tion of ASTM Committee D-23 on Cellulose
Paper and Paperbo9-rd by Oven Drying and Cellulose Derivatives and are the direct
responsibility of Subcommittee D2J.20 on
Citation: ASTM D 644-88 Cellulose.

Content:
Title: Standard Test Method for Water in
Liquid Petroleum Products by Karl
Availability: ASTM Fischer Reagent 1

Citation: ASTM D 1744-83

Content: This test method covers the deter­

mination of water in the concentration from
50 to 1000 ppm in liquid petroleum products.

95

MOISTURE
(STANDARDS)

Availability: ASTM Title: Standard Test Method for Moisture in

Paper and Paperboard by Toluene
Distillation
1This test method is under the jurisdiction of
ASTM Committee D-2 on Petroleum Prod­ Citation: ASTM D 2044-68 (I 974)
ucts and Lubricants and is the direct re­ Discontinued
sponsibility of Subcommittee D02.03 on
Elemental Analysis. Content: This method covers rapid determi­
nation of moisture in paper and paperboard
Title: Standard Test Method for Water and by toluene distillation. Formerly under the
Sediment in Fuel Oils by the Centri­ jurisdiction of ASTM Committee D-6 on
fuge Method (Laboratory Procedure)! Paper and Paper Products, this method was
discontinued in 1984.
Citation: ASTM D 1796-83 As a service to ASTM users, an industry stan­
dard, T APPI T 208, developed under the
Content: This test method covers the labor­ auspices of the Technical Association of the
atory test for determination of water and Pulp and Paper Industry is also included.
sediment in fuel oils by using the centrifuge
method. This chapter, along with API Chap­ Availability: ASTM
ter 10.3 (Test Method D 4007, IP 359), super­
sedes the previous edition of ASTM Test
Method D 1796 (API Standard D 2548, IP 75). Title: Standard Test Methods for Moisture in
Activated Carbon 1
Availability: ASTM
Citation: ASTM D 2867-83
1 This test method is under the jurisdiction of
Content: These test methods provide two
ASTM Committee D-2 on Petroleum Prod­ procedures for the determination of the
ucts and Lubricants.
moisture content of activated carbon. The
procedures may also be used to dry samples
Title: Standard Test Methods for Moisture required for other tests. The oven-drying
Content of Wood 1 method is used when water is the only vola­
tile material present and is in significant
Citation: ASTM D 2016-74 (1983) quantities, and the activated carbon is not
(Withdrawn 1988) heat sensitive (some activated carbons can
ignite spontaneously at temperatures as low
Content: These methods cover the determi­ as 150°C). The xylene-extraction method is
nation of the moisture content of wood. The used when a carbon is known or suspected to
methods provide a means whereby producers, be heat sensitive or to contain nonwater­
fabricators, processors, and users of wood miscible organic compounds instead of or in
and wood products can facjlitate inspection addition to water.
for adherence to moisture quality-control
specifications. The requirements, advan­ Availability: ASTM
tages, and limitations of the different meth­
ods are outlined. 1 These test methods are under the jur isdic­
tion of ASTM Committee D-28 on Activated
Availability: ASTM Carbon and are the direct responsibility of
Subcommittee D28.04 on Gas Phase Evalua­
1 T hesetest methods are under the jurisdic­ tion Tests.
tion of ASTM Committee D-7 on Wood.

96

 MOISTURE
(STANDARDS)

Title: Standard Test Method for Total Mois­ Title: Standard Test Method for Total Mois­
ture in Coal Reduced to No. 8 ture in Coal I
(2.38 mm) Top Sieve Size (Limited­
Purpose Method) 1 Citation: ASTM 0 3302-82

Citation: ASTM 0 2961-87 Content: This method covers the measure­

ment of the total moisture in coal as it exists
Content: This method is a single-stage pro­ at the site, at the time, and under the condi­
cedure for the determination of total mois­ tions it is sampled. It is applicable to coals
ture in coal reduced to No.8 mesh as mined, processed, shipped, or utilized in
(2.38 mm). It is recognized that, under the normal commercial pursuits. It is not appli­
conditions of test, certain coals will give cable to coal-water slurries, sludges, or pul­
results that reflect varying levels of oxida­ verized products under 0.5-mm diameter
tion; therefore its use should be limited to sieve size. It is applicable to coals of all
prior agreement between the parties in­ ranks within the recognized limitations im­
volved. The method shall not be construed as posed by oxidation and decomposition char­
the standard method for total moisture. acteristics of lower rank coals. Because of
its empirical nature, strict adherence to
Availability: ASTM basic principles and permissive procedures is
required for valid results. This complete
standard is available to producers, sellers,
1 This test method is under the jurisdiction of
and consumers as a total moisture method
ASTM Committee 0-5 on Coal and Coke. when other procedures or modifications are
not mutually agreed on.
Title: Standard Test Method for Moisture in
the Analysis Sample of Coal and Availability: ASTM
Coke l
1 This test method is under the jur isdiction of
Citation: ASTM 0 3173-87 ASTM Committee 0-5 on Coal and Coke
and is the direct responsibility of Subcom­
Content: This test method covers the de­ mittee 005.21 on Methods of Analysis.
termination of moisture in the analysis sam­
ple of coal or coke. It is used for calculating
other analytical results to a dry basis. When Title: Standard Test Method for Water in
used in conjunction with the air drying loss as Crude Oil by Distillation l
determined in accordance with Method
o 2013 or Method 0 346, each analytical re­ Citation: ASTM 0 4006-81 (1987)
sult can be calculated to an as-received
basis. Content: This method covers the determina­
tion of water in crude oil by distillation.
Availability: ASTM
Availability: ASTM
This test method is under the jur isdiction of
1
ASTM Committee 0-5 on Coal and Coke 1 This test method is under the jurisdiction of
and is the direct responsibility of Subcom­ ASTM Committee 0-2 on Petroleum Prod­
mittee 005.21 on Methods of Analysis. ucts and Lubr icants.

97

MgISTURE
(STANDARDS)

Title: Standard Test Method for Water and Title: Test Methods for Direct Moisture
Sediment in Crude Oil by the Centri­ Content Measurement of Wood and
fuge Method (Laboratory Procedure) 1 Wood-Base Materials

Citation: ASTM 0 4007-81 (1987) Citation: ASTM D 4442-84

Content: This method describes the labora­ Content:

tory determination of water and sediment in
crude oils by means of the centr ifuge proce­ Availability: ASTM
dure. This centrifuge method for determin­
ing water and sediment in crude oils is not
entirely satisfactory. The amount of water Title: Standard Test Method for Water Using
detected is almost always lower than the Karl Fischer Reagent 1
actual water content. When a highly accu­
rate value is required, the revised procedures Citation: ASTM E 203-86
for water by distillation (Method 0 4006) and
sediment by extraction (Method 0 473) must Content: This test method is intended as a
be used. general guide for the application of the Karl
Fischer reagent method for determining free
Availability: ASTM water and water of hydration in most solid or
liquid organic and inorganic compounds.
Samples that are gaseous at room tempera­
1 This test method is under the jurisdiction of ture are not covered. By proper choice of
ASTM Committee 0-2 on Petroleum Prod­ sample size, Karl Fischer reagent concentra­
ucts and Lubr icants. tion, and apparatus, the method is suitable
for the measurement of water over a wide
TiLle: Standard Test Method for Water in concentration range. that is. parts per mil­
lion to pure water. Both visual and electro­
Crude Oils (Karl Fischer) Titration l
metric methods are described for ascertain­
ing the end point.
Citation: ASTM 0 4377-86
Availability: ASTM
Content: This test method covers the deter­
mination of water in the range from 0.02% to
2% in crude oil containing less than 150 ppm 1 This test method is under the jurisdiction of
sulfur as either mercaptan sulfur or sulfide ASTM Committee E-15 on Industrial Chem­
sulfur, or both. icals and is the direct responsibility of Sub­
committee E15.24 on Water.
This test method is intended for use with
standard Karl Fischer reagent or pyridine­
free Karl Fischer reagents. Title: Standard Test Method for Residual
Moisture in a Refuse-Derived Fuel
Availability: ASTM Analysis Sample 1

1 This test method is under the jurisdiction of Citation: ASTM E 790-81 (1987)
ASTM Committee 0-2 on Petroleum Prod­
ucts and Lubricants and is the direct re­ Content: This method covers the measure­
sponsibility of Subcommittee 002.03 on ment of the residual moisture in an analysis
Elemental Analysis. sample of RDF-3. It is used to calculate to
the dry basis other determinations performed
on the analysis sample. It is used with the
air-dry moisture results to calculate total
moisture. The total moisture is used to cal­
culate as-received values or other analyses
performed on the sample.

98

 MOISTURE
(STANDARDS)

Availability: ASTM Availability: ASTM

1 This test method is under the jurisdiction of 1 This test method is under the jurisdiction of
ASTM Committee E-38 on Resource Recov­ ASTM Committee E-38 on Resource Recov­
ery and is the direct responsibility of Sub­ ery and is the direct responsibility of Sub­
committee E38.0 I on Energy. committee E38.01 on Energy.

Title: Standard Method for Moisture Analy­ Title: Test Method of Air Drying Refuse
sis of Particulate Wood Fuels 1 Derived Fuel-5 for Further Analysis

Citation: ASTM E 871-82 (1987) Citation: ASTM E 1183 (l987)

Content: This method covers the determina­ Content: According to the procedure de­
tion of total weight basis moisture in the scribed in E 1183, a laboratory sample is air
analysis sample of particulate wood fuel. dried in order to yield a RDF-5 sample with
The particulate wood fuel may be sanderdust, moisture content near to equilibrium with
sawdust, pellets, green tree chips, hogged the atmosphere. Such equilibrium is neces­
fuel, or other type particulate wood fuel hav­ sary to ensure uniform conditions throughout
ing a maximum particle volume of 16.39 cm 3 subsequent analysis of the RDF-5 laboratory
(l in. 3 ). It is used for calculating other sample for density, size distribution, hydro­
analytical results to a dry basis. Moisture, philia, breakage, and similar tests.
when determined as herein described, may be
used to indicate yields on processes, to pro­ Availability: ASTM
vide the basis for purchasing and selling, or
to establish burning characteristics.
Title: Methods for the Determination of
Availability: ASTM Water (Karl Fischer Method)

Citation: BS 2511: 1970

1This method is under the jurisdiction of
ASTM Committee E-44 on Solar Energy Content: Preparation and standardization of
Conversion and is the direct responsibility Fischer reagent; its application to determi­
of Subcommittee E44.12 on Biomass Con­ nation of water in various substances includ­
version Systems. ing ketones; double- and single-burette meth­
od with electrometric end points; single­
burette method with visual end point; deter­
Title: Standard Test Method for Total Mois­
mination of microgram quantities of water.
ture in a Refuse-Derived Fuel Labora­
Notes on sampling for determination of low
tory Sample 1
water contents.
Citation: ASTM E 949-88 Availability: BSI
Content: This test method covers the mea­
surement of the total moisture in RDF-3 as Title: Air-Dry Weight Determination of
it exists at the time it is sampled. Because Wood Pulp
of its empirical nature, strict adherence to
test procedures are required for valid results. Citation: CPPA A.2
The standard is available to producers, ven­
dors, and consumers as a total, two-stage Content: Exact air-dry Shipment weight as
moisture method. determined by the receiver depends on prop­
er sampling, careful wet weight determina­
tion, and accurate moisture measurement.
Since the determination of moisture in wood

99

HOISTURE
<STANDARDS)

pulp varies with the form in which it is Title: Solid Fuels: Determination of Water
manufactured, this procedure outlines meth­ Content
ods for determining air-dry shipment weight
of (l) baled sheeted pulp, (2) roll pulp, and Citation: DIN 51718
(3) wet lap pulp.
Content:
Availability: CPPA
Availability: DIN
Title: Moisture in Wood Chips, Sawdust, and
Pulp by the Toluene Method Title: Turf. Methods for Determination of
Moisture
Citation: CPPA G.l
Citation: GOST 11305-83
Content: This method is a rapid and accu­
rate procedure for the determination of Content: The standard covers peat (fuel peat
moisture in comparatively small laboratory for agriculture and peat products of all kinds)
samples but is not intended to be used in and establishes general and accelerated
acceptance tests of pulp shipments. It usu­ methods of determination of moisture
ally gives slightly higher results than oven fraction of total mass.
drying since ceUulose can be completely
dried only with difficulty, if at all, and then Availability: GOST
must be weighed in a dry atmosphere. It
does not give, as water, any other volatile
impurities such as turpentine, unless they are Title: Coal--Determination of Moisture in
soluble in water. It is especiaUy valuable for the Analysis Sample--Direct Gravi­
wood chips, sawdust, or ground wood pulp, and metric Method
for these has been claimed to be much super­
ior to oven drying. Citation: ISO 331:1983

Availability: CPPA Content:

Availability: ISO
Title: Moisture in Paper

Citation: CPPA G.3 Title: Determination of Water--Karl Fischer

Method
Content: The moisture content of paper is
assumed to be the loss of weight in a test Citation: ISO 760:1978
specimen when it is dried to constant weight
in an oven maintained at the temperature of Content:
105 ± 2°C.
Availability: ISO
This method does not apply to papers which
contain appreciable quantities of volatile
constituents, other than water, which would Title: Testing Method for Moisture in Wood­
be lost, oxidized, or decomposed by oven dry­ chips and Sawdusts by the Toluene
ing at 105 ± 2°C. Method

Availability: CPPA Citation: JIS P 8015-1976 (I 985)

Content: This Japanese Industrial Standard

specifies the testing method for moisture in
woodchips and sawdusts by the toluene
method.

100

 MOISTURE
(STANDARDS)

This method is intended for measuring the Title: Moisture in Wood Chips (Two-Liter
moisture content, which is separated when Graduate)
the test specimen is distilled by evaporation
together with toluene and cooled. Volatile Citation: TAPPI Useful Method 10
contents insoluble in water such as turpen­
tine oil may not vary the test values by this Content:
method.
Availability: TAPPI
Availability: JIS
Title: Moisture in Wood, Pulp, Paper, and
Title: Moisture in Paper and Paperboard Paperboard by Toluene Distillation

Citation: SCAN-P 4:63 Citation: TAPPI T 208 om-84

Content: The moisture content of paper is Content: This method can be applied to
defined as the loss of weight of a sample, wood chips, sawdust, groundwood, pulp,
dried under specified conditions to constant paper, paperboard, and nonwood fibers. It is
weight at a temperature of l03°C ± 2°C and especially useful for determination of mois­
is expressed as a percentage of the weight of ture content in materials containing volatile
the moist sample. substances such as turpentine and resins in
This method applies to papers that do not wood and groundwood or easily melting
contain appreciable quantities of materials, waxes and varnishes in paper and paper­
board. These substances, by volatilization or
other than water, that will escape from the
paper at the temperature specified for the melting, interfere with moisture determina­
test. The method does not cover sampling tion by oven-drying methods.
procedure. In addition, water cannot be expelled com­
pletely on oven drying of cellulosic mate­
Availability: SCAN rials. Therefore, the moisture content, as
determined by this method of distillation, is
a better measure of the true water content
Title: Moisture in Wood Chips (Steam Oven)
than that provided by oven-drying procedures
for some materials.
Citation: TAPPI Useful Method 7

Availability: TAPPI
Content:

Availability: TAPPI
Title: Basic Density and Moisture Content of
Pulpwood
Title: Moisture in Chips (Moisture Teller)
Citation: TAPPI T 258 om-85
Citation: TAPPI Useful Method 8
Content: This method describes the mea­
surement of the basic density (bone-dry
Content:
weight per unit of maximum volume) of pulp­
wood in the form of chips or disks from the
Availability: TAPPI
cross section of logs. The method also gives
procedures for determining the moisture con­
tent of wood in either form.

Availability: TAPPI

101

MOISTURE
(STANDARDS)

Title: Moisture in Paper and Paperboard

Citation: TAPPI T 412 om-88

Content: The following procedure applies to

paper, paperboard, and paper products,
except those containing significant quantities
of materials other than water that are vola­
tile at 105 0 ± 2°C. Moisture control is sig­
nificant not only from the economic aspects
but also as it affects such properties as
pr intability, shrinkage, dimensional stability,
and physical strength.

Availability: TAPPI

102
 MOISTURE
(LITERATURE)

Title: Comparison of Microwave Drying and Title: Karl Fischer Titration: Determination
Conventional Drying Techniques for of Water; Chemical Laboratory
Reference Materials Practice

Citation: Beary, E. S. Analytical Chemistry Citation: Scholz, Eugen. New York:

60(8):742 (1988). Springer-Verlag, 1984.

Content: Content:

Title: The Determination of Water in Title: Rapid Determination of Wood Fuel

Biomass-Derived Liquid Fuels Moisture Content Using a Microwave
Oven for Drying
Citation: Roy, Christian and
Bruno De Caumia. Fuel Science Citation: Harris, Robert A. Forest
and Technology Int'l. 4(5):531-539 Products Journal 32:56 (1982).
( 1986).
Content: A method of determining moisture
Content: The Dean and Stark distillation is content (MC) of wood fuel using a microwave
an appropriate method for the determination oven for drying the wood was evaluated by
of water in coal tar, bitumen, and petroleum­ drying paired samples of five different wood
like products. This article shows, however, fuel types in a microwave oven and a conven­
that a direct application of the Dean and tional oven. When compared to the conven­
Stark method for the determination of water tional oven drying method, the microwave
in biomass-derived liquid fuels results in technique produces consistently lower MC
incorrect estimates. Inaccuracies are due to determinations, although the differences are
the presence of soluble organics in the less than 1 percent. The advantage of the
aqueous phase, which apparently form azeo­ microwave technique is the speed at which
tropic mixtures with water and xylene and MC determinations can be determined (less
which condense and are trapped as distillate than 15 minutes). Schedules for drying five
in the graduated cylinder. Instead, a Karl wood fuel
Fischer determination of water is recom­
mended in the case of biomass-derived liquid
fuels. Title: Determination of Water

Citation: Chapter 4 in Browning, B.L.

Title: HydranaliLComposite 5 K Hydranal@­
Methods of Wood Chemistry,
Working Medium for the Determina­
Vol. 1. New York: Interscience
tion of Water in Ketones and Publishers, 1967.
Aldehydes According to Eugen Scholz
Content: I. The Hygroscopicity of Wood;
Citation: Available from Riedel-de Haen,
II. Determination of the Water (Moisture)
Aktiengesellschaft, Wunstorfer Content of Wood; III. Oven Drying; IV. Vac­
Strabe 40, D-3016 Seelze 1,
uum Drying; V. Distillation; VI. Karl Fischer
Hannover, West Germany.
Titration; VII. Other Methods for Determina­
tion of Water.
Content:

103

MOISTURE
(LITERATURE)

Title: Sorption and Swelling Title: Determination of Moisture in Wood

and Wood Pulp
Citation: Chapter 17 in Browning, B.L.
Methods of Wood Chemistry, Citation: Moore, Wayne E. and
Vol. l. New York: Interscience David B. Johnson. Procedures for
Publishers, 1967. the Chemical Analysis of Wood and
Wood Products (As used at the U.S.
Content: I. Sorption of Water Vapor; II. Swel­ Forest Products Laboratory.)
ling; III. Measurement of Surface Area. Revised Dec. 1967. (Unpublished.)

Content:

104

 ASH, MINERAL MATTER AND DIRT

(STANDARDS)

Title: Pulps: Determination of Silica Title: Mineral Salts in Animal Feed

Content
Citation: AOAC 7.093 (Ferrous Salts)
Citation: NF T 12-028-87 AOAC 7.094 (Copper Salts)
AOAC 7.095 (Potassium Iodide)
Content:
Content:
Availability: AFNOR
Availability: AOAC

Title: Ash of Peat Title: Minerals in Animal Feed--Atomic

Absorption Spectrophotometric
Citation: AOAC 2.207 Method
Content: Citation: AOAC 7.096 (Apparatus)
AOAC 7.097 (Operating
Availability: AOAC Parameters)
AOAC 7.098 (Reagents)
Title: Sand in Peat AOAC 7.099 (Preparation of
Sample Solution)
Citation: AOAC 2.208 (Preparation of AOAC 7.100 (Determination and
Sample) Calculation)
AOAC 2.209 (Determination)
Content:
Content: Availability: AOAC
Availability: AOAC
Title: Calcium in Animal Feed--Wet Ash
Method
Title: Ash of Plants
Citation: AOAC 7.102
Citation: AOAC 3.004
Content:
Content:
Availability: AOAC
Availability: AOAC
Title: Sand and Silica in Plants--Gravimetric Title: Dirt in Pulp
Method
Citation: Appita P204m-56
Citation: AOAC 3.005
Content:
Content: Availability: Appita
Availability: AOAC
Title: Dirt in Paper
Title: Ash of Animal Feed Citation: Appita P410m-56
Citation: AOAC 7.009 Content:
Content: Availability: Appita

Availability: AOAC

105

ASH, HINERAL HATTER AND DIRT

(STANDARDS)

Title: Methods of Test for Pulp and Paper Availability: ASTM

(metric units); Ash Content of Wood
Pulp 1 Thistest method is under the jurisdiction of
ASTM Committee 0-2 on Petroleum Prod­
Citation: AS 1301, P3s: 1978 and ucts and Lubricants and is the direct
Appita P3s:78 responsibility of Subcommittee 0 02.03 on
Elemental Analysis.
Content: The ash content of wood and pulp
is determined by heating prepared specimens
at a controlled temperature (575° ± 125°C) Title: Standard Test Method for Ash in
at which the usual mineral constituents are Paper
not volatilized until all the carbon is
consumed. Citation: ASTM 0 583-63
Discontinued
Availability: Appita, SAA
Content: This method covers the determina­
tion of the ash content of paper and paper
Title: Methods of Test for Pulp and Paper products, which is defined as the residue
(metric units); Ash Content of Paper after complete combustion of the paper at
and Paperboard 925° ± 25°C (I967° ± 45°F).
Citation: AS 1301, P418s: 1978 and Formerly under the jurisdiction of ASTM
Appita P418s:78 Committee 0-6 on Paper and Paper Prod­
ucts, this method was discontinued in 1984.
Content: The ash content of paper is defined As a service to ASTM users, an industry
as the residue remaining after combustion of standard, TAPP! T 413, developed under the
a sample at 925° ± 125°C. auspices of the Technical Association of the
Pulp and Paper Industry is also included.
Availability: Appita, SAA
Availability: ASTM
Title: Standard Test Method for Ash from
Petroleum Products 1
Title: Standard Test Method for Ash in
Citation: ASTM 0 482-87 Wood l

Content: This test method covers the deter­ Citation: ASTM 0 1102-84
mination of ash from distillate and residual
fuels, gas turbine fuels, crude oils, lubricat­ Content: This test method covers the deter­
ing oils, waxes, and other petroleum prod­ mination of ash, expressed as the percentage
ucts, in which any ash-forming materials of residue remaining after dry oxidation
present are normally considered to be un­ (oxidation at 580° to 600°C) of wood or wood
desirable impurities or contaminants. The products.
method is limited to petroleum products that
are free from added ash-forming additives, Availability: ASTM
including certain phosphorus compounds.
1 This test method is currently under the
jurisdiction of ASTM Committee 0-7 on
Wood and is the direct responsibility of
Subcommittee 007.14 on Chemical Tests.

106

 ASH, HINERAL HATTER AND DIRT

(STANDARDS)

Title: Standard Test Method for Carbon Availability: ASTM

Black--Ash Content 1
1 This test method is under the jurisdiction of
Citation: ASTM D 1506-85 ASTM Committee D-23 on Cellulose and
Cellulose Derivatives and is the direct
Content: responsibility of Subcommittee D23.20 on
Cellulose.
Availability: ASTM

1 This test method is under the jurisdiction of Title: Standard Test Methods for Analysis of
ASTM Committee D-24 on Carbon Black Coal and Coke Ash 1
and is the direct responsibility of Subcom­
mittee D24.31 on Non-Carbon-Black Com­ Citation: ASTM D 2795-86
ponents of Carbon Black.
Content: These test methods cover the rapid
and inexpensive analysis of coal and coke ash
Title: Standard Test Method for Dirt in for the commonly determined major
Paper and Paperboard elements.

Citation: ASTM D 2019-65 (I 970) The test methods cover silicon dioxide
(Si0 2), aluminum oxide (AI 20 3), ferric oxide
Discontinued
(Fe203), titanium dioxide (Ti0 2), phosphorus
pentoxide (P 205), calcium oxide (CaO), sodi­
Content: This method is adapted to the nu­
merical estimation of dirt in paper or paper­ um oxide (Na20), and potassium oxide (K 20).
board in terms of equivalent black area.
Availability: ASTM
Formerly under the jurisdiction of ASTM
Committee D-6 on Paper and Paper Prod­ 1 These test methods are under the jurisdic­
ucts, this method was discontinued in 1984. tion of ASTM Committee D-5 on Coal and
As a service to ASTM users, an industry Coke and are the direct responsibility of
standard, TAPPI T 437, developed under the Subcommittee D05.29 on Major Elements in
auspices of the Technical Association of the Ash and Trace Elements of Coal.
Pulp and Paper Industry is also included.

Availability: ASTM Title: Standard Test Method for Total Ash

Content of Activated Carbon 1

Title: Standard Test Method for Silica in Citation: ASTM D 2866-83

Cellulose l
Content: This test method descr ibes a pro­
Citation: ASTM D 2438-68 (1985) cedure for the determination of total ash
content of activated carbon.
Content: This test method covers the deter­
mination of silica in cellulose and is appli­ Availability: ASTM
cable to all pulps. It is designed to measure
up to 200 l-lg of silica (Si0 2) in 50 mL of
solution. 1 This test method is under the jurisdiction of
ASTM Committee D-28 on Activated Car­
bon and is the direct responsibility of Sub­
committee D28.04 on Gas Phase Evaluation
Tests.

107

ASH, MINERAL MATTER AND DIRT

(!)TANDARDS)

Title: Standard Test Method for Ash in the initial step for analysis for the constituents
Analysis Sample of Coal and Coke arsenic, chromium, copper, phosphate, and
from Coal I zinc, all of which may then be analyzed
according to Methods D 1033, D 1035,
Citation: ASTM D 3174-88 D 1326, D 1627, and D 1628.

Content: This method covers the determina­ Availability: ASTM

tion of the inorganiC residue as ash in the
analysis sample of coal or coke as prepared
in accordance with Method D 2013 or Meth­ Title: Standard Test Method for Ash in the
od D 346. The results obtained can be applied Analysis Sample of Refuse-Derived
as the ash in the proximate analysis, Meth­ Fuel l
od D 3172, and in the ultimate analysis,
Method D 3176. For the determination of Citation: ASTM E 830-87
the constituents in ash, reference is made to
Method D 2795 and D 3682. See Definitions Content: This method covers determination
D 121 for definition of ash. of the ash content in the analysis sample of
refuse-derived fuel (RDF-3). The results
Availability: ASTM obtained can be applied as the weight per­
cent ash in the proximate analysis and in the
ultimate analysis.
1 This test method is under the jurisdiction of
ASTM Committee D-5 on Coal and Coke Availability: ASTM
and is the direct responsibility of Subcom­
mittee D05.21 on Methods of Analysis.
1 This test method is under the jurisdiction of
ASTM Committee E-38 on Resource Recov­
Title: Standard Practices for Ashing ery and is the direct responsibility of Sub­
Cellulose l committee E38.01 on Energy.
Citation: ASTM D 3516-76 (1985)
Title: Standard Test Method for Silica in
Content: These practices cover four ashing Refuse-Derived Fuel-3 (RDF-3) and
methods for cellulose. These are intended RDF-3 Ash!
for use on unbleached and bleached cellulose
in sheeted or bulk fiber form. Each one of Citation: ASTM E 887-88
the methods has advantages, so that pref­
erence applications exist for all four. Content: This test method covers the deter­
mination of silica in RDF, RDF ash, fly ash,
Availability: ASTM bottom ash, or slag. The test method is an
acid dehydration gravimetric procedure and
is independent of interferences.
I These practices are under the jurisdiction of
ASTM Committee D-23 on Cellulose and Availability: ASTM
Cellulose Derivatives.
1 This test method is under the jurisdiction of
Title: Test Method for Wet Ashing Proce­ ASTM Committee E-38 on Resource Recov­
dure for Preparing Wood Samples for ery and is the direct responsibility of Sub­
Inorganic Chemical Analysis committee E38.0 1 on Energy.
Citation: ASTM D 4278-88

Content: This test method consists of a

procedure for decomposition of wood as an

108

 ASH, MINERAL MATTER AND DIRT

(STANDARDS)

Title: Method for Determination of Ash of burning all the carbon and igniting to
Paper and Board constant weight as 575° ± 25°C.

Citation: BS 3631: 1984 Availability: CPPA

Content: Specifies a method for determining

the ash of paper and board which is suitable Title: Ash of Paper and Paperboard
for most loading materials and coating
pigments. Citation: CPPA G.l1

Availability: BSI Content: This method deals with the deter­

mination of ash, which is defined as the resi­
due after combustion of paper. The mineral
Title: Method for Determination of Acid­ content of paper may consist of (1) the natu­
Insoluble Ash of Pulp ral ash of the pulp and various residues from
chemicals used in its manufacture; (2) metal­
Citation: BS 4496:1984 lic matter from piping and machinery; and
(3) filling, coating, and pigmenting materials.
Content: Specifies a method for the deter­ Generally, if the ash content does not exceed
mination of the acid-insoluble ash of all kinds about 2%, no filling, coating, or pigmenting
of pulp. material has been used; but this is not always
the case, as pigments such as the titanium
Availability: BSI pigments are sometimes used in very small
amounts.
Title: Method for the Determination of Ash When filling or coating minerals are present
of Pulp which do not change much on ignition, such
as clay, the ash is an approximate mea-sure of
Citation: BS 4896: 1973 the amount present.

Content: Specifies a method for the deter­ Availability: CPPA

mination of ash of all kinds of papermaking
and dissolving pulps.
Title: Acid-Insoluble Ash in Pulp
Availability: BSI
Citation: CPPA G.33P

Title: Dirt in Chips Content: This method describes a procedure

for the determination of the acid-insoluble
Citation: CPPA Useful Method D.3U-77 ash content of pulp.
The acid-insoluble ash in pulp is made up
Content: primarily of silica and silicates. This mate­
rial, when present in the finished paper or
Availability: CPPA paperboard, can have an abrasive effect on
punches, knives, slitters, dies, etc., which
Title: Ash in Pulp and Wood come in contact with the paper during fin­
ishing operations. Paper made from pulps
Citation: CPPA G.lO with more than 400 mg/kg of acid-insoluble
ash may cause premature dulling of such
Content: The ash content of wood or pulp is equipment.
defined as the residue remaining after
Availability: CPPA

109

ASH, MINERAL MATTER AND DIRT

(STANDARDS)

Title: Testing of Solid Fuels; Determination Title: Testing of Solid Fuels; Determination
of Ash Content of Chemical Composition of Fuel Ash,
Ferric Oxide (Fe203) Content
Citation: DIN 51719
Citation: DIN 51729 Part 5
Content:
Content:
Availabili ty: DIN
Availability: DIN

Title: Testing of Solid Fuels; Determination Title: Testing of Solid Fuels; Determination
of Chemical Composition of Fuel Ash, of Chemical Composition of Fuel Ash,
Generalities, Preparation of Test Calcium Oxide (CaO) Content
Samples
Citation: DIN 51729 Part 6
Citation: DIN 51729 Part 1
Content:
Content:
Availability: DIN
Availability: DIN
Title: Testing of Solid Fuels; Determination
Title: Testing of Solid Fuels; Determination of Chemical Composition of Fuel Ash,
of Chemical Composition of Fuel Ash, Magnesium Oxide (MgO) Content
Silica (Si0 2 ) Content
Citation: DIN 51729 Part 7
Citation: DIN 51729 Part 2
Content:
Content:
Availability: DIN
Availability: DIN
Title: Testing of Solid Fuels; Determination
Title: Testing of Solid Fuels; Determination of Chemical Composition of Fuel Ash,
of Chemical Composition of Fuel Ash, Soda and Potash (Na20, KzO)
Aluminum Oxide (A1 2 0 3) Content Contents

Citation: DIN 51729 Part 3 Citation: DIN 51729 Part &

Content: Content:

Availability: DIN Availability: DIN

Title: Testing of Solid Fuels; Determination Title: Testing of Solid Fuels; Determination
of Chemical Composi t10n of Fuel Ash, of Chemical Composition of Fuel Ash,
Titanium Dioxide (Ti0 2 ) Phosphoric Oxide (P 205) Content
Citation: DIN 51729 Part 4 Citation: DIN 51729 Part 9
Content: Content:
Availability: DIN Availability: DIN

110

 ASH, MINERAL MATTER AND DIRT

(STANDARDS)

Title: Turf. Methods of Ash Content Title: Testing Method for Ash of Pulpwood

Determination
Citation: JIS P 8003-1976 (Reaffirmed 1985)

Citation: GOST 11306-83

Content:

Content: The standard covers fuel, lump and

milled peat, peat and coal breaks, and peat Availability: JIS

products of all kinds for agriculture and

establishes general and accelerated methods
of ash content determination. Title: Ash in Paper and Paperboard
Availability: GOST Citation: SCAN-P 5:63

Content: The ash content of paper is defined

Title: Coal--Determination of Mineral as the weight of the residue after complete
Matter combustion of a sample at a temperature of
925')C ± 25°C under specified conditions and
Citation: ISO 602: 1983 is expressed as a percentage of the weight of
the oven-dry paper.
Content:
The ash content of paper gives an estimate
Availability: ISO of the content of mineral salts, loading
materials, and other inorganic matter, but is
not quantitatively equal to this content
Title: Pulps--Determination of Acid­ because the weight of some of these sub­
Insoluble Ash stances is altered during ignition.
Citation: ISO 776:1982 Availability: SCAN
Content:
Title: Ash in Pulp
Availability: ISO
Citation: SCAN-C 6:62
Title: Solid Mineral Fuels--Determination of Content: The ash content of a pulp sample is
Ash defined as the weight of the residue after
complete combustion at a temperature of
Citation: ISO 1171: 1981 575°C ± 25°C under specified conditions and
is expressed in percent of the weight of the
Content: oven-dry sample.
Availability: ISO The ash content of pulp gives an estimation
of the content of mineral salts and other
inorganic matter in the pulp, but is not
Title: Pulps--Determination of Ash quantitatively equal to it.

Citation: ISO 1762: 1974 Availability: SCAN

Content:
Title: Silicates and Silica in Pulp
Availability: ISO
Citation: SCAN-C 9:62

Conte,nt: The sample is ashed and the ash is

treated with hydrochloric acid. The insoluble

III

ASH, MINERAL MATTER AND DIRT

(STANDARDS)

residue is filtered, washed, ignited, and Title: Silicates and Silica in Pulp (Wet Ash
weighed. Method)

Availability: SCAN Citation: TAPPI T 245 om-88

Content: This method describes a procedure

Title: Ash in Wood and Pulp for determining the silicates and silica con­
tent of pulp.
Citation: TAPPI T 211 om-85
The pulp is wet-ashed using nitric and sulfu­
Content: This method for determination of ric acids. The insoluble residue is filtered,
ash can be applied to wood and to all types washed, ignited, and weighed as silicon
and grades of wood pulp. For the determina­ dioxide.
tion of ash in paper and paperboard, T 413 For a faster but less accurate procedure for
must be used. measuring all acid-insoluble material see
TAPPI T 244, "Acid-Insoluble Ash in Pulp."
Availability: TAPPI
Availability: TAPPI
Title: Dirt in Pulp
Title: Natural Dirt in Wood Chips
Citation: TAPPI T 213 om-85
Citation: TAPPI T 265 om-87
Content: This method is adapted to the
numerical estimation of dirt in pulp in terms Content: This method is used to estimate
of equivalent black area. The results will the amount of natural (wood-derived) dirt in
differ from those obtained by T 246 in that it chips. The amount of dirt in the chips may
is the contrastin~ color of foreigp matter 10m. "&"\flnX"C\:::'f.. :nl +h!t'; In:::V1::!lUl {hn"m 'tne -fIn­
rather than its opaqueness that affects the ished pulp or in bleaching and screening steps
result. needed to produce an acceptable product.
The determination is made by examining and
Availability: TAPPI classifying chips into categories defined by
the ultimate contribution to dirt levels in the
Title: Acid-Insoluble Ash in Pulp final product. For sulfite pulps from certain
species, a dirt contribution values table is
Citation: TAPPI T 244 om-88 provided, which allows the results to be ex­
pressed in terms of an index based on square
Content: This method describes a procedure millimeters or equivalent area of black dirt.
for determining the acid-insoluble ash
content of pulp. Availability: TAPPI
The pulp is dry-ashed and the residue treated
with hydrochloric acid. The insoluble residue Title: Ash in Paper and Paperboard
is filtered, washed, ignited, and weighed.
Citation: TAPPI T 413 om-85
This method measures all acid-insoluble
material. For a more accurate but time­ Content: This method for determination of
consuming wet-ash procedure for determin­ ash can be applied to all types of paper and
ing the silicates and silica content of pulp, paperboard.
see TAPPI T 245, "Silicates and Silica in Pulp
(Wet Ash Method)."

Availability: TAPPI

112

 ASH, HINERAL HATTER AND DIRT

(STANDARDS)

Paper or paperboard is ignited in a muffle Title: Ash in Paper (Oxygen and Electric
furnace at 900° ± 25°C. The resulting ash is Furnace)
weighed and calculated as percentage of the
moisture-free paper or paperboard. Citation: TAPPI Useful Method 496

Availability: TAPPI Content:

Availability: TAPPI
Title: Dirt Count of Wood Chips

Citation: TAPPI Useful Method 11

Content:

Availability: TAPPI

113

114

 ASH. MINERAL MATTER AND DIRT

(LITERATURE)

Title: Determination of Ash in Wood Title: Determination of Ash in Pulp

Citation: Moore, Wayne E. and David B. Citation: Moore, Wayne E. and David B.
Johnson. Procedures for the Johnson. Procedures for the
Chemical Analysis of Wood and Chemical Analysis of Wood and
Wood Products (As used at the U.S. Wood Products (As used at the U.S.
Forest Products Laboratory.) Forest Products Laboratory.)
Revised Dec. 1967. (Unpublished.) Revised Dec. t 967. (Unpublished.)

Content: Content:

115

116

 CELLULOSE AND HOLQCELLULOSE

(STANDARDS)

Title: Standard Test Method for Alpha-, Title: Standard Definitions of Terms
Beta-, and Gamma-Cellulose in Paper Relating to Cellulose and Cellulose
Derivatives 1
Citation: ASTM D 588-42 (1971)
Discontinued Citation: ASTM D 1695-77 (1983)

Content: This method covers the determina­ Content: These definitions are divided into
tion of alpha-, beta-, and gamma-cellulose. three classes of terminology as follows:
Formerly under the jurisdiction of ASTM (A) cellulosic materials and constituents,
Committee D-6 on Paper and Paper Prod­ (B) chemical modifications and derivatives of
ucts, this method was discontinued in 1984. cellulose, and (C) properties of cellulose and
associated concepts that are applicable to
As a service to ASTM users, an industry stan­ both (A) and (B).
dard, TAPPI T 429, developed under the
auspices of the Technical Association of the Availability: ASTM
Pulp and Paper Industry is also included.

Availability: ASTM 1 These definitions are under the jurisdiction

of ASTM Committee D-23 on Cellulose and
Cellulose Derivatives and are the direct
Title: Standard Test Method for Alpha­ responsibility of Subcommittee D23.02 on
Cellulose in Wood 1 Nomenclature.
Citation: ASTM D 11 03-60 (1977)
Discontinued Title: Standard Test Method for Solubility of
Cellulose in Sodium Hydroxide 1
Content: This method covers the determina­
tion of alpha-cellulose in wood. Citation: ASTM D 1696-61 (1985)

Availability: ASTM Content: This test method is intended for

application to dissolving-type cellulose pulps
prepared from cotton or wood. The procedure
1 This method is under the jurisdiction of is not directly applicable to pulps that have
ASTM Committee 0-7 on Wood. not been refined for use in chemical conver­
sion processes because solubility equilibrium
Title: Standard Test Method for may not be attained within the specified
Holocellulose in Wood 1 extraction time.

Citation: ASTM 0 11 04-56 (1978) Availability: ASTM

Discontinued
1 This test method is under the jurisdiction of
Content: This method covers the determina­ ASTM Committee 0-23 on Cellulose and
tion of holocellulose (hemicellulose plus cel­ Cellulose Derivatives and is the direct
lulose) in wood. responsibility of Subcommittee D23.20 on
Cellulose.
Availability: ASTM

1 This method is under the jurisdiction of

ASTM Committee 0-7 on Wood.

117

 CELLULOSE AND HOLOCELLULOSE

(STANDARDS)

Title: Standard Test Method for Cellulose Title: Standard Method for Chromatographic
Chain Length Uniformity by Analysis of Chemically Refined
Fractional Precipitation of Cellulose Cellulose 1
Nitrate 1
Citation: ASTM 0 1915-63 (! 985)
Citation: ASTM 0 1716-82 (1987)
Content: This method covers the determina­
Content: This method covers the determina­ tion of the composition of chemically refined
tion of the chain length uniformity of cellu­ cellulose by chromatographic analysis. The
lose by fractional precipitation of cellulose method is suitable for rapid and routine test­
nitrate. It is recognized that this method ing of large numbers of samples with high
does not give absolute delineation of chain accuracy and precision.
length; however, the curves obtained by this
method afford a useful basis for comparing Quantitative paper chromatographic analysis
the relative chain length uniformity of dif­ of polysaccharides by the chemical method
ferent cellulose samples. It is applicable involves the following operations: (l) total
primarily to purified celluloses. hydrolysis, (2) neutralization, (3) concentra­
tion, (4) chromatographic separation, (5) elu­
Availability: ASTM tion, (6) analysis of separated sugars, and
(7) calibration and calculation.
1This method is under the jurisdiction of Availability: ASTM
ASTM Committee 0-23 on Cellulose and
Cellulose Derivatives.
1 This method is under the jurisdiction of
ASTM Committee 0-23 on Cellulose and
Title: Standard Test Method for Intrinsic
Cellulose Derivatives and is the direct
Viscosity of Cellulose 1
responsibility of Subco,mmittee 023.20 on
~lllJlbse.
Citation: ASTM 0 1795-62 (I 985)

Content: This test method covers the Title: Degree of Polymerization of Cellulose
determination of the intrinsic viscosity of Materials
purified celluloses such as bleached wood
pulps, cotton linters, and regenerated cellu­ Citation: CPPA G-24P
lose. It is applicable to all cellulose samples
with an intrinsic viscosity of 15 dl/g or less. Content: Equivalent to TAPPI T 230 SU-6C
Most native (unpurified) celluloses have in­
trinsic viscosity values too high for mea­ Availability: CPPA
surement by this method.

Availability: ASTM Title: Determination of Holocellulose

Citation: CPPA Useful Method G. 9U-77

1 This test method is under the jurisdiction of
ASTM Committee 0-23 on Cellulose and Content:
Cellulose Derivatives and is the direct
responsibility of Subcommittee 023.20 on Availability: CPPA
Cell'Jlose.

118

 CELLULOSE AND HOLQCELLULOSE

t:iTANDARDS)

Title: Alkali Solubili ty of Pulp Title: Testing Method for Holocellulose in

Pulpwood
Citation: CPPA G. 26
Citation: JIS P 8012-1976 (1984)
Content:
Content:
Availability: CPPA
AvailabHity: JIS
Title: Alkali-Resistant Cellulose in Pulp
Title: Cross and Bevan Cellulose in Wood
Citation: CPPA G. 27P
Citation: AS 130 I, P9m: 1968 and
Content: This method gives a rapid and Appita P9m-68
reproducible determination of the alkali­
resistant cellulose in pulp, using 1096, 1896, Content:
and 21.596 sodium hydroxide solutions. With
some modifications, using the 21.596 sodium Availability: SAA, Appita
hydroxide solution, this method gives the
yield to be expected from a pulp in the clas­
sical viscose process. Title: Fiber Analysis of Pulp and Paper-­
General Procedure
Availability: CPPA
Citation: SCAN-G 3:71

Title: Alpha-, Beta- and Gamma-Cellulose in Content: In this method qualitative fiber
Bleached Pulp analysis consists in the identification of in­
dividual fibers in a fiber mixture as regards
Citation: CPPA G. 29P their origin and the methods applied for their
processing.
Content: Division of the cellulose in pulp
The object of quantitative fiber analysis is to
into alpha-, beta- and gamma-cellulose frac­
estimate the weight fraction of the different
tions is an empirical procedure originally
kinds of fibers.
devised by Cross and Bevan around 1900 and
since used widely to evaluate pulps for vari­ The weight factor of a given type of fiber is
ous purposes. the ratio of the mean mass per unit length of
such fibers to that of rag fibers.
Availability: CPPA
Availability: SCAN
Title: Testing Method for Cellulose in Wood
for Pulp Title: Fiber Analysis of Pulp and Paper-­
Herzberg's Stain
Citation: JIS P 8007-1976 (1984)
Citation: SCAN-G 4:72
Content:
Content: This method, which is intended for
Availability: JIS use in conjunction with SCAN-G 3, Fiber
Analysis of Pulp and Paper--General Pro­
cedure, describes the preparation and use of
Herzberg's stain. For equipment, preparation
of slides and their examination under the
microscope, and for the calculation and
report, see SCAN-G 3.

119

CELLULOSE AND HOLOCELLULOSE

(STANDARDS)

Herzberg's stain, which is a mixture of Title: Alpha-, Beta-, and Gamma-Cellulose

aqueous solutions of zinc chloride and of in Pulp
iodine and potassium iodide, is used to dif­
ferentiate fibers from chemical, mechanical, Citation: TAPPI T 203 om-88
and rag pulp. Fibers from semichemical pulp
may also be identified with this stain. Content: This method for determination of
alpha-, beta-, and gamma-ceUulose can be
Availability: SCAN applied to bleached or de lignified pulps
only. Unbleached and semibleached pulps
must be de lignified before testing.
Title: Cellulose in Wood
Availability: TAPPI
Citation: TAPPI T 17 wd-70 (Withdrawn)

Content: The procedure here described iso­ Title: Cellulose Chain Length Uniformity by
lates the total cellulose in wood by a process Fractional Precipitation of Cellulose
of chlorination. The cellulose thus obtained Nitrates
is sometimes referred to as Cross and Bevan
cellulose. As the method is empirical, Citation: TAPPI T 238 wd-75 (Withdrawn)
details must be carefully followed.
Content:
Availability: TAPPI
Availability: TAPPI
Title: Cellulose in Pulp (Cross and Bevan
Method) Title: Alpha-Cellulose in Paper
Ci1;41;io.... T.I'I.I"'II"'II T ao.l ......,/ ;7t:. (WI~tJ.,.,/........ ·....,

Became Useful Method 249)

Content: This method describes a procedure
Content: This is an empirical method for de­ for determining the alpha-cellulose in paper.
termining cellulose in pulp. Its results are Alpha-ceUulose is empirically defined as the
not comparable to those obtained by other fraction that can be filtered out of a mixture
methods. This method was developed by consisting of the fibrous material and sodium
Cross and Bevan about 1885 and its use is hydroxide solution (7.3%) of maximum dis­
now limited. solving power, after the fibers have previous­
ly been swollen with sodium hydroxide
Availability: TAPPI solution (17.5%). This method is applicable
to and is intended primarily for papers made
from rags or chemical wood fibers. It is not
suitable for papers containing large amounts
of lignin, such as newsprint.

Availability: TAPPI

120

 CELLULOSE AND HOLOCELLULOSE

(LITERATURE)

'Title: ESCA Analysis of Cellulosic Materials with their roots in pyrolysis and related
techniques. Fundamental advances, particu­
Citation: Ahmed, A., A. Adnot, larly over the last decade, have armed the
J.L. Grandmaison, S. Kaliaguine, analyst with an array of nondestructive
and J. Doucet. Cellulose Chern. methods for the analysis of solids, allowing a
Technol. 21 :483-492 (1987). much more detailed elucidation of structure.

Content: The feasibility of application of Title: The Isolation and Determination of

the ESCA technique to the surface analysis Cellulose
of various cellulosic materials subject to dif­
ferent treatments was studied. First an Citation: Chapter 19 in Browning, B.L.
investigation was made of the changes in sur­ Methods of Wood Chemistry,
face composition of Whatman Paper No.1 Vol. 2. New York: Interscience
exposed to the x-ray source of an ESCA Publishers, 1967.
spectrometer for various times. The contin­
uous change of the components C l ' C 2 , and Content: I. The Nature of Cellulose; II. The
C 3 in the C Is signal expressed in % area, and Laboratory Isolation of Cellulose; A. Isola­
of the OIC ratio calculated from ESCA in­ tion of Cellulose Preparations; B. Holocellu­
tensity ratio with exposure time, were satis­ lose Preparations; C. Other Laboratory
factorily monitored with the ESCA tech­ Cellulose Preparations; III. Isolation of the
nique. The results indicate that when the Cellulose Component; A. Isolation of Cellu­
sample is maintained for some time under lose from Cellulose Preparations and the
the x-ray source, it undergoes important Determination of Cellulose; B. Determina­
degradation, which must be taken into con­ tion of Cellulose by Nitration; IV. The Prep­
sideration in the analysis of ESCA data. aration of Wood Pulps; V. The Evaluation of
The surface modifications of cotton linters Cellulose Preparations.
submitted to the acid treatment producing
hydrocellulose and to an oxidative treatment Title: Cellulose and Cellulose Derivatives
leading to oxycellulose were also followed by
means of ESCA, as well as the changes in Citation: Ott, E., H.M. Spurlin, and
surface composition of raw cotton linters M.W. Grafflin. 3 parts. London:
with extraction in various organic solvents. Interscience, 1954. See also
Parts IV and V (N.H. Bikales and
Title: Modern Analytical Methods-­ L. Segal, Eds.), 1971.
Application to Cellulose and Its
Derivatives Content:

Citation: Stephenson, P.J. Chapter 1 in

Wood and Cellulosics: Industrial
Utilization, Biotechnology Struc­
tures, and Properties. Edited by
J.F. Kennedy, G.O. Phillips, and
P.A. Williams. New York: John
Wiley and Sons, 1987.

Content: Chemical analytical methods ap­

plied to the characterization of polymers
have traditionally been destructive in nature

121

122

 HEMICELLULOSE
(STANDARDS)

Title: Pulps: Determination of the colored orcinol complex by a spectrophoto­

Pentosans Content by the Furfural metr ic method.
Method
Availability: CPPA
Citation: NF T 12-008-87

Content: Title: Testing of Pulp; Determination of

Pentosan Content, Furfural Method
Availability: AFNOR
Citation: DIN 54361

Title: Pentosans in Animal Feed Content:

Citation: AOAC 7.090 Availability: DIN

Content:
Title: Testing Method for Pentosan in
Availability: AOAC Pulpwood

Citation: JIS P 8011-1976

Title: Standard Test Method for Pentosans in
Cellulose 1 Content:

Citation: ASTM D 1787-62 (1985) Availability: JIS

Content: This test method covers the deter­

rnination of pentosans in cellulose by the Title: Pentosans in Pulp
orcinol colorimetric method, in the range
from less than I % to about 16%. Citation: SCAN-C 4:61

Availability: ASTM Content: This method is suitable for all

types of pulp.
1 This test method is under the jurisdiction of The pentosans are determined by Tollens's
ASTM Committee D-23 on Cellulose and method of heating the pulp sample with
Cellulose Derivatives and is the direct hydrochloric acid of a fixed concentration,
responsibility of Subcommittee D23.20 on thereby converting the pentosans into fur­
Cellulose. fural, which is distilled off. In order to keep
the concentration of the hydrochloric acid
constant, the distillation is carried out in the
Title: Pentosans in Pulp presence of sodium chloride. The furfural
formed is determined colorimetrically with
Citation: CPPA G.12 orcinol.

Content: This method is suitable for highly Availability: SCAN

refined pulps with low pentosan content.
With suitable variation in size of test speci­
men or dilution of the distillate, or both, the Title: Pentosans in Wood and Pulp
method is applicable to pulps with high
pentosan content and to wood. Citation: TAPPI T 223 cm-84
Furfural is formed from the xylan in the pulp Content: This method for determination of
by the action of hot hydrochloric acid and is pentosan content can be applied both to wood
distilled from the mixture. The amount of and to unbleached or bleached pulps.
furfural in the distillate is determined as the

123

HEMICELLULOSE
(STANDARDS)

In boiling 3.85-N hydrochloric acid, pentosans Title: Pentosans in Pulp

are transformed to furfural, which is col­
lected in the distillate and determined color­ Citation: TAPPI Useful Method 236
imetrically with orcinol-ferric chloride
reagent. Content: This method is based on volumetric
determination of furfural by bromination and
Availability: TAPPI can be applied only to unbleached pulps with
pentosan content higher than about 2%.
TAPPI Standard T 223 (colorimetric) is more
precise and accurate, and can be applied to
wood and pulps over the entire range of
pentosan content.

Availability: TAPPI

124

 HEMICELLULOSE
(LITERATURE)

Title: Isolation and Separation of the

Hemicelluloses

Citation: Chapter 26 in Browning, B. L.

Methods of Wood Chemistry,

Vol. 2. New York: Interscience

Publishers, 1967.

Content: I. Nature of the Hemicelluloses;

II. Isolation and Determination of the Hemi­
celluloses; III. Extraction from Wood;
IV. Extraction from Cellulose Preparations;
V. Alkaline Solvents; VI. Extraction of Acetyl
Hemicelluloses; VII. Fractionation and Puri­
fication; VIII. Characterization of the Hemi­
celluloses. See also Chapter 30, Deter­
rnination of Structure, and Chapter 31,
Molecular Weight.

125

126

 LIGNINS
(STANDARDS)

Title: Pulps: Determination of the Per­ Title: Lignin in Plants: Indirect Method
manganate Number
Citation: AOAC 3.134
Citation: NF T 12-007-87
Content:
Content:
Availability: AOAC
Availability: AFNOR
Title: Fiber (Acid Detergent) and Lignin in
Title: Pulps, Bleached Wood Pulp; Quan­ Animal Feed
titative Determination of Matter In­
soluble in Sulphuric Acid Citation: AOAC 7.074 (Reagents)
AOAC 7.075 (Apparatus)
Citation: NF T 12-010-87 AOAC 7.076 (Determination of
Acid-Detergent Fiber)
Content: AOAC 7.077 (Determination of
Lignin)
J\. vailability: AFNOR
Content:
Title: Cellulose: Raw Vegetable Matter: Availability: AOAC
Quantitative Determination of Matter
Insoluble in 72% Sulphuric Acid
Title: Methods of Test for Pulp and
Citation: NF T 12-014-61 Paper (metric units); Halse Lignin in
Wood and Pulp
Content:
Citation: AS 1301, P6rp:1978 and
Availability: AFNOR Appita P6rp-78

Content: The acid-insoluble lignin in wood or

Title: Cellulose: Degree of Delignification pulp is the fraction that remains undissolved
During Bleaching after the material has been treated with con­
centrated mineral acid under prescribed con­
Citation: NF T 12-019-87 ditions. Two methods are available for
determining this property. The method de­
Content: scribed in this standard is the Halse proce­
dure, in which the sample is treated with
Availability: AFNOR cold 38% hydrochloric acid and cold concen­
trated sulphuric acid. The other method is
Title: Lignin in Plants: Direct Method the Klason method which is described in
Appita Standard PIl.
Citation: AOAC 3.130 (Preparation of
Sample) Availability: Appita, SAA
AOAC 3.131 (Apparatus)
AOAC 3.132 (Reagent) Title: Klason Lignin in Wood and Pulp
AOAC 3.133 (Determination)
Citation: Appita Plls:1978
Content:
Content: Lignin is the aromatic amorphous
Availability: AOAC material found in the cell wall and middle
lamella of a wood fiber. Its removal is the

127

 LIGNINS
(STANDARDS)

main objective of chemical pulping and Availability: ASTM

bleaching processes.
For the purpose of this standard, Klason lig­ 1This test method is under the jurisdiction of
nin is defined as those components of wood ASTM Committee D-7 on Wood and is the
or pulp which are insoluble after treatment direct responsibility of Subcommittee
with 72% m/m sulfuric acid followed by D07.14 on Chemical Tests.
boiling in 3% sulfuric acid. This standard
describes a method for determination of
Klason lignin. The lignin content should not Title: Method for Determination of the
be less than I % to provide a sufficient Kappa Number of Pulp (Degree of
amount of lignin, about 20 mg for accurate Delignification)
weighing. It is not applicable to bleached
pulps containing small amounts of lignin. Citation: BS 4498:1982

Availability: Appita Content: Specifies a method of determining

the Kappa number of the pulp, which is an in­
dication of the lignin content (hardness) or
Title: Methods of Test for Pulp and
bleachability of the pulp.
Paper (metric units); Kappa Number

of Pulp
Availability: BSI
Citation: AS 1301, P20 I m: 1986 and

Appita P201m-86
Title: Acid-Insoluble Lignin in Wood

Content: This method provides an indirect Citation: CPPA C.8

measure of the relative bleachability or re­
sidual lignin content of pulp. It may be used Content: This method is for the determina­
for all types and grades of chemical and tion of acid-insoluble lignin in wood. The
semichemical unbleached and semibleached lignin determined by this method is also de­
wood pulps obtained in yields under 60%. fined as "Klason lignin" or "sulfuric acid
The method may also be used as a laboratory lignin."
control technique for well screened pulps ob­
tained in higher yields up to 70%. It should Availability: CPPA
b~ noted that reproducibility is less for high­
Yield pulps than for low-yield pulps.
Title: Acid-Insoluble Lignin in Wood Pulp
Availability: Appita, SAA
Citation: CPPA C.9
Title: Standard Test Method for Acid­ Content: This method is for the determina­
Insoluble Lignin in Wood l tion of acid-insoluble lignin in unbleached
pulp. The. lignin determined by this method
Citation: ASTM D1106-84 IS also defmed as "Klason lignin" or "sulfuric
acid lignin."
Content: This test method covers the deter­
mination of the acid-insoluble lignin content Availability: CPPA
of wood.

128

 LIGNINS
(STANDARDS)

Title: Chlorine Number of Pulp Title: Testing of Pulp; Determination of the

Kappa Number
Citation: CPPA G.16
Citation: DIN 54357
Content:
Content:
Availability: CPPA
Availability: DIN
Title: Permanganate Number of Pulp
Title: Pulps--Determination of Kappa
Citation: CPPA G.17H Number

Content: This method is adapted to the de­ Citation: ISO 302:1981

termination of the relative "hardness" or
bleachability of pulp. It may be used on all Content:
ordinary types and grades of chemical wood
pulp (sulfite, soda, or sulfate) sampled in any Availability: ISO
condition of dryness and at any stage of
processing.
Title: Testing Method for Lignin in Wood for
The permanganate number is, by definition, Pulp
the number of milliliters of tenth normal
potassium permanganate solution (0.1 N Citation: JIS P 8008-1976 (I 984)
KMn0 4 ) which is absorbed by I g of oven-dry
pulp under certain specified and carefully Content:
controlled conditions.
Availability: JIS
Availability: CPPA

Title: Methods of Test for Pulp and Paper

Ti1:1e: Kappa Number of Pulp (metric units)--Halse Lignin in Wood
and Pulp .
Ci1:ation: CPPA G.18
Citation: AS 1301, P6rp:1978
Content: The Kappa Number test is used for
evaluation of pulps with regard to the degree Content:
of delignification and bleachability.
The method can be applied to pulps produced Availability: SAA
in yields up to about 6596 and giving Kappa
Numbers not higher than 100 on hardwood
Title: Methods of Test for Pulp and Paper
pulps and not higher than 120 on softwood
(metric units)--Klason Lignin in Wood
pulps.
and Pulp
The Kappa Number is the number of milli­
liters of 0.02 M potassium permanganate Citation: AS 1301, Pl1s:1978
consumed by 1 g of pulp corrected to an
assumed 5096 consumption using an empirical Content:
correction factor.
Availability: SAA, TAPPI
Ava.ilability: CPPA

129

 LIGNINS
(STANDARDS)

Title: Kappa Number Title: Permanganate Number of Pulp (Rapid

Volumetric)
Citation: SCAN-C 1:77 R
Citation: TAPPI Useful Method 228
Content: This standard specifies the method
for determining the kappa number, which is Content:
used to describe the degree of delignification
obtained in a chemical pulping process. How­ Availability: TAPP!
ever, it should be noted that there is no
general and unambiguous relationship
between the kappa number and the lignin Title: Permanganate Number of Pulp
content. This relation varies according to
wood species and delignification procedure. Citation: TAPPI Useful Method 229
This standard is applicable to all kinds of
chemical and semichemical unbleached pulps Content:
within the kappa number range from 5 to
100. For pulps with a kappa number in the Availability: TAPPI
range from 1 to 5, a method for determining
a modified kappa number is presented in Title: Rapid Kappa Number
Appendix C. For pulps with a kappa number
over 100, use the chlor ine consumption Citation: TAPPI Useful Method 245
(SCAN-C 29) to describe the degree of
delignification. Content:
Availability: SCAN Availability: TAPPI

Title: Chlorine Consumption of Pulp Title: Micro Kappa Number

Citation: SCAN-C 29:72 Citation: TAPP! Useful Method 246

Content: The chlorine consumption of a pulp Content:

is the amount of active chlorine it consumes
under the conditions specified in this method. Availability: TAPP!
It is expressed in grams of chlorine per 100 g
of oven-dry pulp. Title: Acid-Soluble Lignin in Wood and Pulp
This method for determining the chlorine
consumption of pulp is applicable to any type Citation: TAPPI Useful Method 250
or grade of chemical, semichemical, un­
bleached or semibleached pulp_ Content: This method descr ibes a procedure
which can be applied to the determination of
Availability: SCAN acid-?oluble lignin in wood and pulp, supple­
mentmg the determination of acid-insoluble
lignin described in T 222.
Title: Permanganate Number of Pulp (For
Highly Lignified Pulps) The sum o~ the acid-soluble lignin in percent,
as determmed by this method, and of the
Citation: TAPPI Useful Method 20 I acid-insoluble lignin according to T 222,
should represent the total lignin content in a
Content: wood or pulp sample.

Availability: TAPPI Availability: TAPPI

130

 LIGNINS
(STANDARDS)

Title: Permanganate Number of Pulp Title: Kappa Number of Pulp

Citation: TAPPI Useful Method 251 Citation: TAPPI T 236 cm-85

Content: This method provides for the Content: This method applies to the
determination of the relative "hardness" or determination of the relative hardness,
bleachability of chemical pulps having lignin bleachability, or degree of delignification of
content below 6%. pulp. It may be used for all types and grades
of chemical and semichemical, unbleached
Availability: TAPPI and semibleached pulps obtained in yields
under 60%. This method may also be used
for pulps obtained in yields up to 70%,
Tii:le: Acid-Insoluble Lignin in Wood and provided the pulp has been well screened.
Pulp
Availability: TAPPI
Citation: TAPPI T 222 om-&8

Content: This method describes a procedure

which can be applied to the determination of
acid-insoluble lignin in wood and in all grades
of unbleached pulps. In semibleached pulp the
lignin content should not be less than about
196 to provide a sufficient amount of lignin,
about 20 mg, for an accurate weighing. The
method is not applicable to bleached pulps
containing only small amounts of lignin.

Availability: TAPPI

131

132

 LIGNINS
(LITERATURE)

Title: An Improved Acetyl Bromide Title: Lignin Analysis for the Industrial
Procedure for Determining Lignin in Practitioner
Woods and Wood Pulps
Citation: Glasser, W.G. Presented at the
Citation: Iiyama, K. and A.F.F. Wallis. 194th American Chemical Society
Wood Sci. Technol. 22:271-280 National Meeting. New Orleans,
(1988). La., August 30-September 4, 1987.

Content: The acetyl bromide procedure for Content: Much lignin research is motivated
spectrophotometrically determining lignin in by the desire to improve the raw material
wood and wood pulp samples has been modi­ value of biomass via the utilization of lignin
fied by adding perchloric acid to the diges­ in higher value products than fuel. Lignin
tion medium. This enables faster dissolution candidates for use in structural materials
of the materials and the use of coarser need to be evaluated in terms of their chem­
samples. Subsequent treatment of the diges­ ical, molecular, and end-use characteristics.
tion mixtures with larger amounts of sodium Suitable quantitative analysis techniques
hydroxide than those used in the conventional must become available as standard methods
procedure has obviated the need for treat­ for employment by both potential lignin sup­
ment with hydroxylamine. The modified pliers and lignin consumers. Analytical
method has been successfully applied to procedures must be rated in terms of infor­
wood meals and pulps from Pinus radiata and mation content, practicality, and cost­
Eucalyptl18 species. effectiveness. This paper reviews available
lignin analysis techniques from the stand­
Title: Relationship Between Kappa Number point of the industrial practitioner.
and Lignin Content of Unscreened Attempts are presented which identify a
Straw Pulp series of methods capable of characterizing
chemical, molecular, and network-formation
Citation: Oreopoulou, Vassiliki. Cell. Chern. properties as candidates for a standard lignin
and Techn. 22(1):53-57 (1988) classification instrument.

Content: The relationship between total Title: Estimation of Lignin in Wood Pulp by
lignin (acid-insoluble plus acid-soluble) and Diffuse Reflectance Fourier­
Kappa number of unscreened straw pulp was Transform Infrared Spectrometry
investigated. Straw was prehydrolyzed and
then pulped by high-consistency chlorination, Citation: Berben, Sally A., John P.
followed by alkaline extraction. A linear Rademacher, Lowell O. Sell, and
relationship was found to exist, having a Dwight B. Easty. Tappi Journal,
constant slope (Kappa coefficient) inde­ November 1987, p. 129.
pendent of prehydrolysis and pulping condi­
tions. The intercept of this relationship-­ Content: A method has been developed for
expressing the lignin content of shives and estimating lignin in unbleached pulps using
knots of the unscreened pulp, which cannot diffuse reflectance Fourier-transform infra­
be oxidized easily--varies with the prehy­ red spectrometry. The procedure is based on
drolysis conditions, as the percentage of linear relationships found to exist between
shives and knots in pulp seems to depend on the area of the 1510-cm- 1 infrared band,
these conditions. measured on diffuse reflectance difference
spectra, and kappa number and Klason lignin.

133

 LIGNINS
(LITERATURE)

These relationships, which serve as calibra­ Title: Rapid Determination of Lignocellulose

tion lines for lignin estimation, apply to a by Diffuse Reflectance FOUrier
range of hardwood and softwood pulps from Transform Infrared Spectrometry
high-yield and conventional kraft processes
0-20% lignin, 10-120 in kappa no.) and from Citation: Schultz, Tor P., M. Curry
the aklaline sulfite anthraquinone process. Templeton, and Gary D. McGinnis.
An unknown sample's i 51 O-cm - 1 band area is Anal. Chern. 57:2867-2869 (1985).
referenced against the calibration line to
estimate its lignin content. This method is Content: Analysis of solid lignocellulose is a
nondestructive, it requires no sample prep­ lengthy, multistep procedure. This study was
aration other than drying, it employs no initiated to determine if an FTIR procedure
calculations, and it may be used on samples is feasible. Sweetgum and white oak were
as small as 0.5 mg. pretreated to obtain 26 samples with a wide
range of compositions. FTIR spectra were
Title: Some Aspects of Lignin Characteriza­ collected by using a DRIFT cell. On the basis
tion by High-Performance Size­ of the spectra of lignin, cellulose, and
Exclusion Chromatography Using hardwood samples, 18 peaks in the i 600­
Styrene Divinylbenzene Copolymer 700 cm - 1 region were selected. The absorb­
Gels ances at the selected peaks were first base­
line corrected and then normalized by using
Citation: Chum, Helena L., David K. nine internal peaks to give nine data sets of
Johnson, Melvin P. Tucker, and absorbance ratios. The lignin, glucose, and
Michael E. Himmel. xylose contents, determined by conventional
Holzforschung 41(2):97-108 (1987). methods, were separately regressed against
each data set using stepwise elimination
Content: The molecular weight distributions regression. This procedure gave an equation
(MWD) of alkaline-extracted steam-exploded for lignin (five variables, R2 = 0.949), glucose
aspen (Populus trernuloides L.) lignin arn.:f =
(five var.ia.bJes, ~T(2 0.921.)\ arra'xyfose (three
organosofv black cottonwood (Populus tri­ variables, R2 = 0.973).
chocarpa L.) lignin are compared with those
of milled wood lignin from aspen. High­ Title: Quantitative Structural Analysis of
performance size-exclusion chromatography Lignin by Diffuse Reflectance Fourier
(HPSEC) of these acetylated lignins on Transform Infrared Spectrometry
styrene-divinylbenzene copolymer gels was
investigated as a function of the organic Citation: Schultz, Tor P. and Wolfgang
solvent elution system from tetrahydrofuran G. Glasser. Holzforschung
to dimethylformamide (DMF) alone or in the 40:Suppl. 37-44 (1986).
presence of 0.1 M LiBr. In the mixed solvent
and DMF the three types of lignin reported in Content: Empirical quantitative relation­
this study displayed multimodal elution ships were established between infrared (IR)
behavior indicative of associative phe­ spectral information and several structural
nomena. Addition of LiBr to DMF reduced f~atures in lignins as determined by conven­
the observed apparent associative behavior tlOnal methods. The structural composition
of the lignins. The interpretation of of average phenylpropane (C g ) units which
calibration standard elution in these solvent significantly correlated (0.01 level) with IR
systems is discussed with reference to the peak i~tensities included methoxy content,
behavior of polystyrenes, Igepal polymers, aromatIC hy~rogen c<~ntent, phenolic hydroxy
and lignin model compounds. Deconvolution content, gualacyl/synngyl ratio and "hydrol­
of the elution profile of a lignin into -II
YSIS an d"
_ condensation" '
ratios. The two
acetylated monomers, dimers, and mixtures latter ratIOS are quantitative expressions for
of trimers was performed.

134

 LIGNINS
(LITERATURE)

the degree of aryl-alkyl ether interunit lignins, providing considerable information

linkages and for the content of carbon­ about the structure of lignins, including the
carbon interunit bonds as measured by degra­ ratio of guaiacyl to syringyl phenylpropane
dative permanganate oxidation analysis. units they contain.
Insignificant relationships were found for
carbonyl, total hydroxy (acetylated lignins), This note describes how the technique has
and aliphatic hydroxy content (acetylated been used to characterize Ugnins isolated by
and nonacetylated). The IR spectra were ethanol-water pulping and to compare these
lignins with milled wood lignins (MWLs) from
collected using a diffuse reflectance infrared
the same
Fourier transform (DRIFT) cell. Absorbance
values and peak areas were normalized using
three peak intensities (1600, 1513, and Title:
1425 cm- I), and three peak areas (1636-1553,
1545-1482, and 1441-1404 cm- I). Each nor­ Citation: Connors, W.J., S. Sarkanen, and
malized data set was regressed against the J.L. McCarthy. Holzforschung
lignin structure data using stepwise regres­ 34:80-85 (1980).
sion. Of the different internal standards, the
absorbance at 1600 cm- 1 generally gave a Content: Molecular weight distribution of
more accurate correlation than the other lignin.
reference absorbances or areas. Spectra
were also obtained by the KBr pellet tech­ Title:

nique. While the pellet cell had a higher

throughput than the DRIFT ceil, the pellet Citation: Faix, 0., W. Lange, and

spectra also had ramping baselines and O. Beinhoff. Holzforschung

moisture-related noise. 34:174-176 (1980).

Title: Content: Molecular weight distribution of

Citation: Conners, W.J., S. Sarkannen, and

J.L. McCarthy. Holzforschung Title:
34:801 (1980).
Citation: Himmel, M.E., K.K. Oh,
Content: D. W. Sopher, and H.L. Chum.
J. Chromo 267:247-265 (l983).
Title: Content: Molecular weight distribution of
lignin.
Citation: Waish, A.R. and A.G. Campbell.
Holzforschung 40:263 (I 986).
Title:
Content: Molecular weights and their
Citation: Concin, R.E., E. Burtscher, and
distribution for lignins/carbohydrates.
O. Bobleter. Holzforschung 35:3-9
(198I).
Title: Lignin Analysis by Pyrolysis-GC-MS
Content: Molecular weight distr ibution of
Citation: Fullerton, Terry J. and lignin.
Robert A. Franich. Holzforschung
37:267-269 (1983).

Content: Pyrolysis-gas chromatography-mass

spectrometry (py-gc-ms) is a relatively new
technique which has been demonstrated to be
a useful aid in the characterization of

135

LIGNINS
(LITERATURE)

Title: 206 nm is much less variable than that at

280 nm and much less influenced by the most
Citation: Van Zyl. Wood Sci. Technol. 12: likely interfering substance (furfural). Milled
251 (1978). wood lignin has been used to determine the
absorptivity of several eucalypt lignins.
Content: Determination of lignin by UV These do not obey Beer's Law but evidence is
spectrophotometry of acetyl bromide- given that the absorptivity of milled wood
digested samples. lignin at infinite dilution is equal to the
absorptivity of acid-soluble lignin. Although
Title: Modified Procedure to Determine acid-soluble lignin itself does not obey Beer's
Acid-Insoluble Lignin in Wood and Law precisely, it approximates to it so that
Pulp over a certain range of absorption concentra­
tion can be calculated with sufficient
Citation: Effland, Marilyn J. accuracy for its estimation in connection
Tappi 60(10):143 (1977). with the acid-insoluble lignin determinations.
By determining the sulfuric acid-insoluble
Content: If wood is treated with strong acid, lignin values on the wood both before and
carbohydrates are hydrolyzed and solubilized. after alkali extraction, the ultraviolet
The insoluble residue is by definition lignin absorption of the filtrates from the above
and can be measured gravimetrically. The determinations, and the methoxyl contents of
standard method of analysis requires samples the sulphuric acid-insoluble lignins, estimates
of 1 or 2 g of wood or pulp. In research at can be made of total lignin as acid-insoluble
this laboratory these amounts of sample are lignin plus acid-soluble lignin and total poly­
often not available for analytical determina­ phenol in the same way.
tions. Thus we developed a modification of
the standard procedure suitable for much
Title: Isolation of Lignin Preparations
smaller sample amounts. The modification is
based on the procedure of Saeman et al.
Citation: Chapter 32 in Browning, B.L.
Wood samples require extraction prior to Methods of Wood Chemistry,
lignin analysis to remove acid-insoluble Vol. 2. New York: Interscience
extractives that will be measured as lignin. Publishers, 1967.
Usually this involves only a standard extrac­
tion with ethanol-benzene. However, woods Content: I. Materials and Methods; II. Isola­
high in tannin must also be subjected to tion by Extraction; III. Isolation as a Residue;
extraction with alcohol. Pulps seldom re­ IV. Isolation as Derivatives.
quire extraction.
Title: Investigation of Lignin Preparations
Title: Determination of Total Lignin and
Polyphenol in Eucalypt Woods Citation: Chapter 33 in Browning, B.L.
Methods of Wood Chemistry,
Citation: Bland, D.E. and M. Menshun. Vol. 2. New York: Interscience
Appita 25(2): 11 0 (1971). Publishers, 1967.

Content: It has been shown that the Content: I. Elementary Composition; II. Ab­
customary sulfuric acid determination of sorption Spectra; III. Methoxyl Groups;
lignin in Eucalyptus wood does not include all IV. Methylation Techniques; V. Hydroxyl
the lignin but that an appreciable amount Groups.
remains in the acid solution. Serious doubt
has been cast on the validity of spectroscopic
determination of lignin at 280 nm because of
the effect of interfering substances. In this
work reference compounds have been investi­
gated and it has been found that the band at

136

 LIGNINS
(LITERATURE)

Title: Determination of Lignin during its transformation into humic com­

pounds. These results are discussed together
Citation: Chapter 34 in Browning, B.L. with recently obtained solid-state 13C NMR
Methods of Wood Chemistry, measurements on soil organic matter frac­
Vol. 2. New York: Interscience tions. They are further compared with the
Publishers, 1967. results of studies of microbial attack on
lignin, which were carried out by 14C NMR
Content: I. Principles; II. Acid Hydrolysis measurements of specifically 13C-enriched
Methods; III. Lignin in Pulps; IV. Indirect lignins after incubation with several lignin­
Methods for Lignins in Pulps; V. Lignin in olytic organisms. A first direct isotopic
Processing Liquors and Wastes; VI. Detection determination of the subunits in the bio­
of Lignin. macromolecule using pyrolysis in combina­
tion with soft ionization mass spectrome­
try confirmed the label content in the
Title: Pyrolysis Field Ionization Mass dehydropolymer-lignin.
Spectrometry of Lignins, Soil Humic
Compounds and Whole Soil
Title: Quantitative Determination of
Citation: Haider, Konrad and Hans-Rolf Phenolic and Total Hydroxyl Groups in
Schulten. Journal of Analytical Lignins
and Applied Pyrolysis 8:317-331
(1985). Citation: Mansson, Per. Holzforschung
37:143-146 (I 983).
Content: Pyrolysis, followed by field ion­
ization mass spectrometry (FI-MS) of lignins, Content: A rapid method has been developed
revealed a regular pattern of phenolic prod­ for the determination of phenolic hydroxyl
ucts related to the building blocks of these groups in lignins. The method comprises
compounds. The signals were found to be acetylation, selective aminolysis of the
related to dimers of the respective lignin phenolic acetyl groups by pyrrolidine (amino­
alcohols in addition to their methylated lysis), and determination of the resulting
derivatives. However, overlapping was ob­ l-acetylpyrrolidine (i) by gas chromato­
served in the signals from ionized subunits graphy. A number of lignin model compounds
having the same mass numbers but different and lignins have been studied by the method.
structures. Athough lignins play an impor­ The total amount of hydroxyl groups in lignin
tant role in the formation of terrestrial
was estimated by complete saponification
humic compounds, their thermal fragments,
(NaOH) of the acetylated sample followed by
analysed by FI-MS, are largely different from
those of lignins. Correlation with the chem­ GC-determination of the liberated acetic
ac id as its benzy 1 ester.
ical structure of lignins is only indicated by
some phenol-related signals in the lower
mass range (mlz 90-160). These also became Title: Qualitative and Quantitative Analysis
more obvious in hydrolyzed humic acids. The of Solid Lignin Samples by Carbon-13
higher mass range from mlz 300 to 350 Nuclear Magnetic Resonance
showed a regular pattern of signals appar­ Spectrometry
ently indicating complex aliphatic hydro­
carbon structures. Pyrolysates from typical Citation: Hatfield, Galen R., Gary E.
soil humic acids also showed additional Maciel, Oktay Erbatur, and Gaye
thermal fragments resulting from poly­ Erbatur. Anal. Chem. 59: 172-179
saccharides, which were even more promi­ (1987).
nent in pyrolysates from whole soil samples.
The analysis of humic compounds by pyrolysis Content: The solid lignin preparations from
and FI-MS led to the conclusion that the two common woods, red oak and lodgepole
compact phenolic framework of lignin be­ pine, have been methylated and acetylated in
comes substantially altered and dispersed order to examine the relationships between

137

 LIGNINS
(LITERATURE)

the 1 3C nuclear magnetic resonance chem­ Title: Spectrophotometric Determination of

ical shift and molecular structure in solid Lignin in Small Wood Samples
lignin samples. Comparison of the untreated
and chemically modified lignins results in a Citation: Moore, Wayne E. and
detailed set of chemical shift assignments, David B. Johnson. Procedures for
many of which directly reflect previously the Chemical Analysis of Wood and
reported solution-state studies on model Wood Products (As used at the U.S.
compounds and lignin extracts. The present Forest Products Laboratory.)
study also demonstrates the ability of solid­ Revised Dec. 1967. (Unpublished.)
state 13C cross polarization magic angle
spinning nuclear magnetic resonance (CP/ Content:
MAS NMR) spectrometry to identify many of
the key functionalities in lignin and to probe
lignin chemistry. Finally, the ability of 13C Title: Acid-Insoluble Lignin in Wood-­
CP/MAS NMR spectrometry to yield quanti­ Modified Hydrolysis Method
tative results in lignin and wood spectra is
discussed. Citation: Moore, Wayne E. and
David B. Johnson. Procedures for
the Chemical Analysis of Wood and
Title: Acid-Insoluble Lignin in Pulp-­ Wood Products (As used at the U.S.
Standard Method Forest Products Laboratory.)
Revised Dec. 1967. (Unpublished.)
Citation: Moore, Wayne E. and
David B. Johnson. Procedures for Content:
the Chemical Analysis of Wood and
Wood Products (As used at the U.S.
Forest Products Laboratory.) Title: Important Reference Books
Revised Dec. 1967. (Unpublished.)
Citation: Brauns, F.E. The Chemistry of
Content:
Lignin. New York: Academic
Press, 1952.
Title: Acid-Insoluble Lignin in Pulp-­ Pearl, I.A. The Chemistry of Lig­
Modified Hydrolysis Method nin, New York: M. Dekker, 1967.
Citation: Moore, Wayne E. and S~rk~men, K
. V. and C. Ludwig.
David B. Johnson. Procedures for Llgnms. New York: Wiley
the Chemical Analysis of Wood and Interscience, 1971.
Wood Products (As used at the U.S. Kirk, T.K., T. Higuchi, and H.M.
Forest Products Laboratory.) Chang. Lignin Biodegradation.
Revised Dec. 1967. (Unpublished.) Vols. I-II, CRC Press, 1980.
Content:
Content:

Title: Acid-Insoluble Lignin in Wood-­

Standard Method

Citation: Moore, Wayne E. and

David B. Johnson. Procedures for
the Chemical Analysis of Wood and
Wood Products (As used at the U.S.
For~st Products Laboratory.)
Revlsed Dec. 1967. (Unpublished.)
Content:

138
 EXTRACTIVES
(STANDARDS)

Title: Alkali Solubility of Pulp materials which are soluble in organic sol­
vents. They consist primarily of resin and
Citation: Appita P210m-69 fatty acids, their esters, waxes and un­
saponifiable substances. No single solvent is
Content: capable of removing all of these substances
and different solvents remove different com­
Availability: Appita binations. Therefore, this standard leaves
the choice of solvent open and the properties
of various solvents need to be taken into
Title: Solubility of Wood in Boiling Water considera tion.
Citation: Appita P4m-61 (Revised 19&1) Availability: Appita, SAA
Content: This determination is a measure of
the materials in wood (or pulp) which are Title: Methods of Test for Pulp and
soluble in boiling water. They may include Paper (metric units); Solubility of
tannins, kinos, colouring matter, sugars, free Wood in BOiling Tenth Molar Sodium
ac ids and free mineral matter. The values Hydroxide
ob tained are ar bitrary because departures
from the conditions laid down can cause Citation: AS 130 I, 005s-1967 and Appita
more or less material to be extracted. Since P5m-68 (Revised 1981)
hot water has a limited hydrolytic effect on
wood which increases with time of extrac­ Content: This determination is a measure of
tion, some water soluble hydrolysis products the materials in wood which are soluble in
are extracted along with the soluble material boiling, dilute sodium hydroxide solution.
ini tially present. They include tannins, kinos, coloring matter,
some carbohydrate material, and some lignin.
Availability: Appita
Availability: Appita, SAA
Ti"tle: Alcohol Benzene Solubility of Wood
Title: Standard Methods of Testing Tall Oill
Citation: Appita P7m-70
Citation: ASTM D 803-&2 (1987)
Content:
Content: These methods cover the test pro­
Availability: Appita cedures to be applied to whole tall oils or
refined tall oils.
Ti"tle: Ether Solubility of Wood The procedures appear in the following order:
Physical Tests - Viscosity: Brookfield Method
Ci"tation: Appita P&m-59 (Preferred Method); Gardner-Holdt Method
(Alternate Method); Pour Point; Flash Point
Content: Color; Moisture; Ash. Chemical Analysis ­
Acid Number: Potentiometric Method (Refe­
Availability: Appita ree Method); Colorimetric Method (Alternate
Method); Saponification Number: Potentio­
Ti"t:le: Organic Solvent Extractives in Wood metric Method (Referee Method); Colori­
and Pulp metric Method (Alternate Method); Rosin
Acids: Potentiometric Method (Referee
Ci "tation: Appita P 12s-79, AS 130 I Method); Modified Wolff Method; Qualitative
Test for Rosin; Unsaponifiable Matter
Content: This standard prescribes a method (Sterols, Higher Alcohols, etc.); Fatty Acids.
for the deermination of those wood and pulp

139

EXTRACTIVES
(STANDARDS)

Availability: ASTM all North American woods. Extractives in

wood consist of materials that are soluble in
1 These methods are under the jurisdiction of neutral solvents and that are not a part of
ASTM Committee D-1 on Paint and Related the wood substance.
Coatings and Materials and are the direct
responsibility of Subcommittee DO 1.34 on Availability: ASTM
Naval Stores.
1 This method is under the jurisdiction of
ASTM Committee D-7 on Wood.
Title: Standard Definitions of Terms
Relating to Naval Stores and Related
Products l Title: Standard Test Method for Alcohol­
Benzene Solubility of Wood 1
Citation: ASTM D 804-79 (1987)
Citation: ASTM D 1107-84
Content:
Content: This test method covers the
Availability: ASTM determination of the alcohol-benzene soluble
content of wood, which is a measure of the
1 These definitions are under the jurisdiction waxes, fats, resins, and oils, plus tannins and
of ASTM Committee D-l on Paint and certain other ether-insoluble components.
Related Coatings and Materials and are the
direct responsibility of Subcommittee Availability: ASTM
D01.34 on Naval Stores.
1 This test method is under the jurisdiction of
ASTM Committee 0-7 on Wood and is the
Title: Standard Test Methods for Sampling direct responsibility of Subcommittee
and Testing Pine Tars and Pine-Tar D07.14 on Chemical Tests.
Oilsl

Citation: ASTM D 856-49 (1987) Title: Standard Test Method for

Dichloromethane Solubles in Wood 1
Content: These test methods cover pro­
cedures for sampling and testing pine tars, Citation: ASTM D 1108-84
both kiln and retort, and pine-tar oils,
together with compounded tar products of Content: This test method covers the
naval stores or igin. determination of the dichloromethane soluble
content of wood, which is a measure of the
Availability: ASTM waxes, fats, resins, oils, and similar
materials.
1 These test methods are under the juris­
diction of ASTM Committee D-l on Paint Availability: ASTM
and Related Coatings and Materials and are
the direct responsibility of Subcommittee 1 Thistest method is under the jurisdiction of
DO 1.34 on Naval Stores. ASTM Committee D-7 on Wood and is the
direct responsibility of Subcommittee
D07.14 on Chemical Tests.
Title: Standard Method for Preparation of
Extractive-Free Wood l

Citation: ASTM D 1105-84

Content: This method covers the preparation

of extractive-free wood and is applicable to

140

 EXTRACTIVES
(STANDARDS)

Title: Standard Test Method for 196 Sodium Availability: ASTM

Hydroxide Solubility of Wood l
1 This method is under the jurisdiction of
Citation: ASTM D 1109-84 ASTM Committee D-23 on Cellulose and
Cellulose Derivatives.
Content: This test method covers the deter­
mination of the solubility of wood in a hot
dilute alkali solution. A 196 solution of Title: Standard Test Method for
sodium hydroxide (NaOH) is used. One appli­ Dichloromethane-Soluble Matter in
cation is in determining the degree of fungus Cellulose 1
decay that has taken place in a given wood
sample. Citation: ASTM D 3971-80 (1985)

Availability: ASTM Content: This method covers the determin­

ation of dichloromethane-soluble matter in
1 This test method is under the jurisdiction of cellulose and is applicable to dissolving-type
ASTM Committee D-7 on Wood and is the cellulose pulps prepared from cotton or
direct responsibility of Subcommittee wood.
D07.14 on Chemical Tests.
Availability: ASTM

Title: Standard Test Methods for Water

1 This method is under the jurisdiction of
Solubility of Wood 1
ASTM Committee D-23 on Cellulose and
Cellulose Derivatives.
Citation: ASTM Dill 0-84

Content: These test methods cover the de­ Title: Method for Determination of Alkali
termination of the water solubility of wood. Solubility of Pulp
Two methods are given: Method A, Cold­
Water Solubility, provides a measure of the Citation: BS 4499: 1984
tannins, gums, sugars, and coloring matter in
the wood. Method B, Hot-Water Solubility, Content: Specifies a method for determining
provides a measure of the tannins, gums, the solubility of pulp in cold sodium
sugars, coloring matter, and starches in the hydroxide solutions of various and fixed
wood. concentrations.
Availability: ASTM Availability: BS I
1 These test methods are under the jur is­
diction of ASTM Committee D-7 on Wood Title: Hot and Cold Water Solubility of Wood
and are the direct responsibility of and Pulp
Subcommittee D07.14 on Chemical Tests.
Citation: CPPA G. 4 and G. 5
Title: Standard Test Method for Alcohol­ Content: This test method is used to deter­
Benzene Soluble Matter in Cellulose 1 mine the solubility of wood and pulp by hot
and cold water extraction.
Citation: ASTM D 1794-62 (1985)
Availability: CPPA
Content: This method covers the
determination of alcohol-benzene soluble
matter in celluloses and is applicable to
dissolving-type cellulose pulps prepared from
cotton or wood.

14.1

EXTRACTIVES
(STANDARDS)

Title: One Percent Sodium Hydroxide Title: Paraffin in Paper and Paperboard
Solubility of Wood and Pulp
Citation: CPPA G. 15
Citation: CPPA G. 6 and G. 7
Content:
Content: This test is used to determine the
solubility of wood and pulp in 1% sodium Availability: CPPA
hydroxide solution.
An application is the determination of the Title: Solvent Extractives in Wood
degree of fungus decay that has taken place
in wood. As the wood decays, the percentage Citation: CPPA G. 20
of alkali-soluble material increases, and the
pulp yield, as a result of the decay, de­ Content: This standard describes a method
creases. The test is useful to indicate such for determination of the amount of material
yields only when applied to a composite sam­ in wood which is extractible with organic
ple representative of the wood supply. solvents. The solvent used is dichlorometh­
ane or a mixture of ethanol and benzene.
Availability: CPPA
The extractives of wood are mainly resins,
fats, waxes, tannins, and other similar
Title: Solvent Extractives in Pulp materials.

Citation: CPPA G. 13 Availability: CPPA

Content: This standard describes a method

for determination of the amount of materials Title: Alkali Solubility of Pulp
in pulp which are extractible with organic
solvents. The solvent used is ethanol, di­ Citation: CPPA G. 26
chloromethane or a mixture of ethanol and
benzene. Content: This method for determination of
the alkali solubility is applicable to bleached
This method may be applied to all types and or delignified pulps.
grades of wood pUlp.
The extractible substances in pulps are main­ Availability: CPPA
ly resins, waxes, fatty acids and similar com­
ponents of wood not removed in pulping and
bleaching processes. Some of the material, Title: Testing of Pulp; Determination of the
especially those extractible with ethanol and Alkali Solubility of Pulp
dichloromethane, are responsible for pitch
deposition in the papermaking process. Citation: DIN 54356

Availability: CPPA Content:

Availability: DIN
Title: Pitch and Rosin in Paper

Citation: CPPA G. 14 Title: Pulps: Determination of Alkali

Solubility
Content:
Citation: ISO 692:1982
Availability: CPPA
Content:

Availability: ISO

142

 EXTRACTIVES
(STANDARDS)

Title: Testing Method for Cold-Water Title: Methods of Test for Pulp and Paper-­
Solubility of Pulpwood Solubility of Wood in Boiling Water

Citation: JIS P 8004-1976 Citation: AS P4m-61

Content: Content:

Availability: JIS Availability: SAA

Title: Testing Method for Hot-Water Title: Methods of Test for Pulp and Paper
Solubility of Pulpwood (Metric Units); Organic Solvent
Extractives in Wood and Pulp
Citation: JIS P 8005-1976 (1985)
Citation: AS 1301, P12s-79
Content:
Content:
Availability: JIS
Availability: SAA

Title: Testing Method for 1% Sodium

Title: Alkali Solubility of Pulp
Hydroxide Solubility of Pulpwood

Citation: JIS P 8006-1976 (I985) Citation: SCAN-C 2:61

Content: This is a method for determining

Content: the cold alkali solubility of pulp in various
and fixed concentrations of sodium hydrox­
A.vailability: JIS
ide. The concentrations of sodium hydroxide
most frequently used are 18% and 10%. Pulp
Title: Testing Method for Ether Solubility of is treated with sodium hydroxide solution and
Wood for Pulp dissolved organic matter is oxidized with
dichromate. Excess dichromate is determined
Citation: JIS P 8009-1976 (1984) volumetr icall y.

Content: The ether soluble content contains Availability: SCAN

\Vax, fat, resin, phytosterol, and nonvolatile
hydrocarbon. Title: Dichloromethane Extract of Pulp
Availability: JIS Citation: SCAN-C 7:62

Title: Testing Method for Alcohol-Benzene Content: This method may be used for all
kinds of chemical and semichemical pulp.
Citation: JIS P 8010-1976 (l984) The pulp is extracted with dichloromethane
in a Soxhlet apparatus. After at least 24 ex­
Content: The alcohol-benzene solubility traction cycles the solvent is evaporated and
herein described contains wax, fat, resin, and the residue is dried at a temperature of
some kinds of ether-insoluble materials 103°C ± 2°C for 16 h and subsequently
(wood rubber and parts of water soluble weighed.
materials).
Availability: SCAN
JIS

143

 EXTRACTIVES
(STANDARDS)

Title: Ethanol Extract of Pulp Title: Traces of Water in Distilled Tall Oil
and Turpentine Oil
Citation: SCAN-C 8:62
Citation: SCAN-T 3:66
Content: This method may be used for all
kinds of chemical and semichemical pulp. Content: This is a method for determini~g
traces of water, dissolved or not, presen~ in
The pulp is extracted with ethanol in a distilled tall oil, tall oil fatty acids, tall lI~ht
Soxhlet apparatus. After. at least 24 ex­ oil and distilled turpentine oil. It also applIes
traction cycles the solvent IS evaporated and to rosin or tall oil pitch and similar products,
the residue is dried at a temperature of provided that they are soluble in the solvent
103°C ± 2°C for 16 h and subsequently mixture used for the determination and do
weighed. not form dark solutions.
Availability: SCAN Availability: SCAN

Title: Refractive Index of Tall Oil and

Title: Ash in Tall Oil
Turpentine Oil

Citation: SCAN-T 1:65 Citation: SCAN-T 4:66

Content: In this method the refractive index Content: The ash content of tall oil is
of a substance is defined as the ratio of the defined as the weight of the residue after
speed of light of a specified wavelength in complete combustion at a temperature of
air to the speed in the substance. 625°C ± 25°C under specified conditions and
is expressed as a percentage of the weight of
This method applies to distilled tall oil, tall the moisture-free sample.
oB fatty adds, tall light oil, and crude and
distilled sulphate turpentine oil. This method applies to crude and distilled
tall oil, tall oil fatty acids, tall oil rosin, tall
Availability: SCAN light oil and tall oil pitch.

Availability: SCAN
Title: Density of Tall Oil and Turpentine Oil

Citation: SCAN-T 2:65 Title: Pour Point of Tall Oil

Content: This method applies to the deter­ Citation: SCAN-T 5:67

mination of the density of crude and distilled
tall oil, tall oil fatty acids, tall light oil, and Content: The pour point of a tall oil is the
crude and distilled sulphate turpentine oil. lowest temperature at which the oil will pour
or flow when it is chilled under the condi­
The density of the sample is given by the tions specified in this method.
difference between the weight loss of a glass
plummet, SUbmerged in the sample and the This method applies to c-ude and distilled
weight loss of the same plummet, when tall oil, tall oil fatty acids and tall light oil.
submerged in water.
Availability: SCAN
Availability: SCAN

144

 EXTRACTIVES
(STANDARDS)

Title: Flash and Fire Points of Tall Oil Title: Viscosity of Tall Oil

Citation: SCAN-T 6:67 Citation: SCAN-T 9:68

Content: The flash point of tall oil is the Content: This method applies to distilled tall
lowest temperature at which it will flash and oil, tall light oil and tall oil fatty acids.
its fire point is the lowest temperature at [n a Hoeppler viscometer a glass or steel ball
which it will burn for at least 5 s, the tests in is allowed to fall a fixed distance in the in­
both cases carried out as specified in this clined tube containing the sample. The time
method. required is a measure of the viscosity.
This method applies to crude and distilled
tall oil, tall oil fa tty acids and tall light oil. Availability: SCAN

Availability: SCAN
Title: Softening Point of Tall Oil Rosin and
Pitch Determined with a Ring and Ball
Ti-.:le: Water in Crude Tall Oil Apparatus

Ci-tation: SCAN-T 7:67 Citation: SCAN-T 10:69

Content: The crude tall oil is distilled with Content: In this method the softening point
xy lene and the distillate collected in a gradu­ is defined as the temperature at which a disk
ated tube. After cooling to 20°C the volume of the sample, held within a horizontal ring,
of the water phase is read off. is forced downwards a distance of 25.4 mm
under the weight of a steel ball. The sample
Availability: SCAN is heated at a prescribed rate in a water or
glycerol bath.
Title: Sampling of Crude Tall Oil This method applies to tall oil rosin and other
resins derived from tall oil and turpentine
Ci1:ation: SCAN-T 8:68 oil. It also applies to tall oil pitch.

Content: This sampling procedure relates to Availability: SCAN

a sample, either single or one of a set, that,
while being suitable for testing, still con­
sti tutes an average sample as regards com­ Title: Acid Number of Tall Oil
position and properties of the lot of crude
tall oil from which it has been drawn. Citation: SCAN-Til :72

Crude tall oil is often a heterogeneous mix­ Content: The acid number of tall oil is the
ture of two liquid phases, tall oil and water, number of milligrammes of potassium hy­
and a solid phase, crystallized rosin. All droxide required to neutralize the free acids
three phases may contain flocculated lignin, of one gramme of the oil.
which prevents their separation but allows
This method applies to crude and distilled
the formation of two or more layers. Special
tall oil, tall oil rosin, tall oil fatty acids, tall
care is therefore indicated in the sampling light oil and tall oil pitch.
procedure.
Availability: SCAN
Availability: SCAN

145

 EXTRACTIVES
(STANDARDS)

Title: Saponification Number of Tall Oil water-soluble acids, such as sulphuric acid,
that may be present in crude tall oils. It is
Citation: SCAN-T 12:72 applicable to all kinds of crude tall oils
except those containing considerable
Content: The saponification number of tall amounts of unsplit soap.
oil is the number of milligrammes of potas­
sium hydroxide required to saponify the Availability: SCAN
esters present in one gramme of the oil.
This method applies to crude and distilled Title: Distillation Yield--Crude Tall Oils
tall oil, tall oil rosin, tall oil fatty acids, tall
light oil and tall oil pitch. Citation: SCAN-T 16:82

Availability: SCAN Content: This SCAN-test Standard describes

a distillation test applicable to crude tall oil.
The results will give an idea of the possible
Title: Unsaponifiable Matter in Tall Oil yield of distillates in a tall oil fractionating
plant using a vacuum distillation process at a
Citation: SCAN-T 13:74 working pressure of about 300-400 Paor
lower.
Content: In this standard unsaponifiable
matter is defined as the substance that re­ Availability: SCAN
mains unsaponified when a sample of tall oil
is treated with alkali as specified.
This standard applies in the first place to dis­ Title: Water Solubility of Wood
tilled tall oil and tall oil fatty acids. For
other tall oil products, such as crude tall oil, Citation: T APPI T 1 wd-75
\(fu:.-!...am.f'rRRl'"~t-nf ,T <.:~J)~)
.tal l Slil ,r.n.'iil) ~tal' -nil p1~t!lr cilttr &11.~' 1!i5Ih.+ 01i~
the results of the determination may be less
accurate. Content:
Availability: TAPPI
Availability: SCAN

Title: Alcohol-Benzene and Dichloromethane

Title: Tall Oils Resin Acids Solubles in Wood and Pulp
Citation: SCAN-T 14: 78 Citation: TAPPI T 204 om-8&
Content: This SCAN-test Standard specifies Content: This method describes a procedure
a method for the determination of resin for determining the amount of soluble mate­
acids. It applies to crude and distilled tall rial in wood and pulp in each of two different
~ils, t~ll oil rosins, tall oil fa tty acids, tall solvents, dichloromethane and a mixture of
light OIls and tall oil pitch. 1/3 ethanol and 2/3 benzene.
Availability: SCAN Availability: TAPPI

Title: Determination of Water-Soluble Acids Title: Water Solubility of Wood and Pulp
in Crude Tall Oils
Citation: T APPI T 207 om-88
Citation: SCAN-T 15:78
Content:
Content: This SCAN-test Standard describes
the determination of small amounts of Availability: T APPI

146
 EXTRACTIVES
(STANDARDS)

Title: Analysis of Crude Tall Oil Title: Analysis of Tall Oil Skimmings

Citation: TAPPI T 689 om-88 Citation: TAPPI T 635 om-82

Content: In the alkaline pulping processes Content:

using resinous woods, the rosin and fatty
acids in the wood are saponified and dis­ Availability: TAPPI
solved in the spent liquor. As the black
liquor is concentrated by evaporation, some
of the organic acid soaps plus some unsapon­ Title: Estimating Alcohol-Benzene
ifiable material become insoluble and may be Extractives Content in Wood
skimmed from the surface of the liquor. Increment Cores by Cold-Soaking
Many alkaline pulp mills today have acidula­
tion plants for converting these tall oil Citation: TAPPI Useful Method 257
skimmings to crude tall oil; therefore, many
mills market this product to chemical Content:
manufacturers.
Availability: TAPPI
Availability: TAPP I

147

148

 EXTRACTIVES

(LITERATURE)

Tit: Ie: Extraneous Components cases this information alone is inadequate, as

it does not indicate the full influence that
Ci-t:ation: Browning, B.L Methods of extractives may have. Most extractives are
Wood Chemistry. Vol. I, Part 2. mainly located in the penetration routes of
New York: Interscience Publishers, the woody material where they are the first
1967. to react with the penetrating substances and
reduce their effectiveness as pulping rea­
Content:
gents, enzymic treatments and so on. Extrac­
Ch. 5. Extraneous Components of Wood
tives can have an effect out of proportion
6. Examination of Volatile Components with their gross amount. In addition, as
7. Examination of Components Soluble in pointed out by O. Theander, extractable
Organic Solvents materials formed during hydrolytic and heat
8. Examination of the Fatty Acid treatments can also inhibit microbial and
Fraction enzymatic processes and cause corrosion.
9. Examination of the Resin Acid The amounts and nature of extractives vary
Fraction in all woody plants and within the one plant.
10. TaU Oil
11. The Unsaponifiable Substances Title: Wood Extractives
12. Phenolic Substances
13. Components Soluble in Water Citation: Hillis, W. E. New York: Academic
Press, 1962.
Title: Determination of the Resin Content
of Wood from Softwoods Content: Section A. Wood. Section B. Poly­
phenols in the tree. Section C. The bio­
Cit:ation: Nelson, P.J., P.I. Murphy, and synthesis of polyphenols. Section D. Tropo­
F.C. James. Appita 30(6):503 lones, resins and fats. Section E. Influence
(1977). on pulp and paper manufacture.

Content: For some purposes the petroleum Title: Alcohol-Benzene Solubility of Wood
sol ubles are a more useful measure of the and Pulp
resin content of softwoods than the ethanol/
benzene solubles as obtained by Appita P7m­ Citation: Moore, Wayne E. and
70. A sample of P. radiata wood was dried in David B. Johnson. Procedures for
four different ways to assess the effect of the Chemical Analysis of Wood and
the procedures on the amount of resin Wood Products (As used at the U.S.
extractable with petroleum. Freeze drying Forest Products Laboratory.)
was the most satisfactory method followed Revised Dec. 1967. (Unpublished.)
by short term air drying, whereas oven drying
and prolonged air drying resulted in marked Content:
reduction in the amounts of extractable
resin.
Title: Determination of Extractives in Wood
Title: Feedstock Analyses: Extractives­
Amount and Nature Citation: Moore, Wayne E. and
David B. Johnson. Procedures for
Citation: Hillis, W. E. Private the Chemical Analysis of Wood and
Communication as Member of Wood Products (As used at the U.S.
Working Group. 3 pp. 1987. Forest Products Laboratory.)
Revised Dec. 1967. (Unpublished.)
Content: When the correct solvent is chosen,
the gross amount of extractives (e.g., resins) Content:
can be useful in characterizing biomass for
some purposes such as for heating. In other

149

Title: Preparation of Extractive Free Wood

Citation: Moore, Wayne E. and

David B. Johnson. Procedures for
the Chemical Analysis of Wood and
Wood Products (As used at the U.S.
Forest Products Laboratory.)
Revised Dec. 1967. (Unpublished.)

Content:

150
 FUNCTIONAL GROUPS AND COMPOUND CLASSES

(STANDARDS)

Title: Standard Test Method for Methoxyl cause an undetermined error, especially the
Groups in Wood and Related sulfonic acid groups in unbleached sulfite
Materials 1 pulps.

Citation: ASTM D 1166-84 Availability: ASTM

Content: This test method covers the deter­ 1 These test methods are under the
mination of methoxyl groups in wood and re­ jurisdiction of ASTM Committee D-223 on
lated materials. The method is applicable to Cellulose and Cellulose Derivatives and are
wood sawdust and, by suitable adjustment in the direct responsibility of Subcommittee
size of the test specimen, to fractions iso­ D23.20 on Cellulose.
la ted from wood and lignin.

l\. vailability: ASTM Title: Testing Method for Methoxyl Groups

in Pulpwood
1 This test method is under the jurisdiction of
ASTM Committee D-7 on Wood and is the Citation: JIS P 8013-1976
direct responsibility of Subcommittee
D07.14 on Chemical Tests. Content: This method is intended for deter­
mining methyl iodide, which is produced by
decomposing methoxyl groups with hydro­
Title: Standard Test Methods for iodic acid, by making it absorbed in the
Carboxyl Content of Cellulose 1 acetic acid solution of potassium acetate
containing bromine.
Citation: ASTM D 1926-63 (1985)
Availability: JIS
Content: These test methods cover the de­
termination of the carboxyl content, or ion­
exchange capacity, of cellulose from any Title: Methoxyl Groups in Wood

source. Two methods are described, the

sodium chloride-sodium bicarbonate method Citation: TAPPI T 2 wd-72 (Withdrawn)

and the methylene blue method. The meth­

ods must be used within their limitations, and Content:

it must be recognized that there is no way of

determining the accuracy of any method for Availability: TAPPI

the determination of carboxyl. The precision

of the sodium chloride-sodium bicarbonate
Title: Methoxyl Content of Pulp and Wood

method is low in the lower range of carboxyl

values. The methylene blue method can be
Citation: TAPPI T 209 wd-79 (Withdrawn)

used over the whole range of carboxyl values;

it is especially useful in the low range. It is
Content:

not applicable to the determination of car­

boxyl in soluble carbohydrate materials.
Ai though these methods may be used to Availability: TAP PI

determine the ion-exchange capacity of

unbleached pulps, the residual lignin will

151

FUNCTIONAL GROUPS AND COMPOUND CLASSES

(STANDARDS)

Title: Carboxyl Content of Pulp

Citation: TAPPI T 237 om-88

Content: This method descr ibes a procedure

for the determination of the content of car­
boxyl groups in bleached and delignified
pulps. Lignin and lignin degradation products,
especially the sulfonic acid groups in sulfite
pulps interfere with the determination of
carboxyl, and the method is not applicable to
unbleached and semi-bleached pulps.
Pulp is extracted (de-ashed) with dilute
hydrochloric acid, washed, reacted with
sodium bicarbonate-sodium chloride solution,
and filtered. The filtrate is titrated with
O.OIM hydrochloric acid to methyl red end
point.

Availability: TAPP[

152

 FUNCTIONAL GROUPS AND COMPOUND CLASSES

(LITERATURE)

Title: Determination of Acetyl and Methoxyl from uronic acids in concentrated H 2 S0 4 at

Groups 70 D C. Addition of the reagent of 20 G C pro­
duces within lO min, a chromophore absorb­
Cit:ation: Browning, B. L. Chapter 29 in ing at 450 nm. Selectivity is critical because
Methods of Wood Chemistry. of interferences from neutral sugar products
Vol. II. New York: Interscience and lignin when uronic acids are at 1%-3%
Publishers, 1967. levels. D-galacturonic and 4-0-methyl-D­
glucuronic acids could be measured sepa­
Content: rately from D-glucuronic acid, by adding
H 2 B0 3 • About 12% more chromogen was
produced from D-galacturonic and 4-0­
Title: Uronic Acids methyl-D-glucuronic acids of polymers than
from the monomers. Analyses of wood con­
Citation: Browning, B. L. Chapter 28 in taining 3% uronic anhydride gave 0.5 stan­
Methods of Wood Chemistry. dard deviation per measurement. The time
Vol. II. New York: Interscience for dissolution, reaction, and color formation
Publishers, 1967. is 30 min for fast reactors, 60 min for glu­
curonic acid.
Content:

Title: Acetyl
Title: New Method for Quantitative
Determination of Uronic Acids Citation: Mansson. Svensk Papperstidning
84(3):R 15 (198 O.
Citation: Blumenkrantz, Nelly and Gustav
Asboe-Hansen. Analytical Content: Acetyl content measurement
Biochemistry 54:481-489 (1973).

Content: A new method for determination of Title: Comparison of a Gravimetric CO 2

uronic acids with meta-hydroxy-diphenyl is Method for Uronic Anhydride with a
introduced. It is simpler, quicker, more sen­ Colorimetric Method
sitive, and more specific than other methods,
and it needs lesser amounts of fluid. It is Citation: Scott, Ralph W., Kimball A.
recommended for determination of acid Ubkie, and Edward L. Spr inger. J.
mucopolysaccharides in biological materials. of Wood Chemistry 4(4):497-504
(1984).
Title: Uronic Acids Content: Colorimetry gave consistently
lower uronic anhydr ide values for four
Citation: Bylund and Donetzhuber. species of wood than did measurement by
Svensk Papersticining, 7l( 15):505 evolved CO 2 , These differences were partly
(1978). related to CO 2 evolution from nonuronide
wood extractives, and partly to CO 2 from
Content: Uronic acid analysis nonuronide carbohydrates or lignin. After
the usual benzene-ethanol extraction to
Title: Colorimetric Determination of remove interfering extractives, the uronic
Hexuronic Acids in Plant Materials anhydride contents by gravimetric CO 2
analyses were still 30% to 40% higher than
Citation: Scott, Ralph W. Analytical those by colorimetry. Based upon the greater
Chemistry 51(7):936 (I 977). selectivity of the colorimetric method, the
authors conclude that colorimetry provides
Content: A colorimetric reagent, 3-5­ the more accurate uronic anhydride analyses
dimethylphenol, is selective for 5-formyl-2­ of natural materials.
furancarboxylic acid, a chromogen formed

153

FUNCTIONAL GROUPS AND COMPOUND CLASSES

(LITERATURE)

Title: Determination of Sugar Alcohols, Title: Determination of Itaconic Acid

Glycerol and Glycols
Citation: Moore, Wayne E. and
Citation: Moore, Wayne E. and David B. Johnson. Procedures for
David B. Johnson. Procedures for the Chemical Analysis of Wood and
the Chemical Analysis of Wood and Wood Products (As used at the U.S.
Wood Products (As used at the U.S. Forest Products Laboratory.)
Forest Products Laboratory.) Revised Dec. 1967. (Unpublished.)
Revised Dec. 1967. (Unpublished.)
Content:
Content:
Title: Determination of Uronic Acids
Title: Determination of Furfural (Polyuronide Carboxyl)

Citation: Moore, Wayne E. and Citation: Moore, Wayne E. and

David B. Johnson. Procedures for David B. Johnson. Procedures for
the Chemical Analysis of Wood and the Chemical Analysis of Wood and
Wood Products (As used at the U.S. Wood Products (As used at the U.S.
Forest Products Laboratory.) Forest Products Laboratory.)
Revised Dec. 1967. (Unpublished.) Revised Dec. 1967. (Unpublished.)

Content: Content:

Title: Determination of Lactic Acid Title: Determination of Acetyl and C­

Methy I Groups
Citation: Moore, Wayne E. and
David B. Johnson. Procedures for Citation: Moore, Wayne E. and
the Chemical Analysis of Wood and David B. Johnson. Procedures for
Wood Products (As used at the U.S. the Chemical Analysis of Wood and
Forest Products Laboratory.) Wood Products (As used at the U.S.
Revised Dec. 1967. (Unpublished.) Forest Products Laboratory.)
Revised Dec. 1967. (Unpublished.)
Content:
Content:
Title: Determination of Levulinic Acid
Title: Determination of Alkoxyl Groups
Citation: Moore, Wayne E. and
David B. Johnson. Procedures for Citation: Moore, Wayne E. and
the Chemical Analysis of Wood and David B. Johnson. Procedures for
Wood Products (As used at the U.S. the Chemical Analysis of Wood and
Forest Products Laboratory.) Wood Products (As used at the U.S.
Revised Dec. 1967. (Unpublished.) Forest Products Laboratory.)
Revised Dec. 1967. (Unpublished.)
Content:
Content:

l54
 SUGARS AND OTHER CARBOHYDRATES
(STANDARDS)

'fitle: Sugars in Plants (1) Preparation of Title: Sucrose in Plants

Sample
Citation: AOAC 3.120
Citation: AOAC 3.112
Content:
Content:
Availability: AOAC
Availability: AOAC
Title: Ether Extract of Plants: Gravimetric
Method
Title: Glucose in Plants: Micro Method
Citation: AOAC 3.122
Citation: AOAC 3.115
Content:
C<mtent:
Availability: AOAC
AOAC

Title: Starch in Plants: Titrimetric Method

Title: Fructose in Plants: Somogyi Micro or
Munson-Walker Method Citation: AOAC 3.128
Citation: AOAC 3.116 Content:
Content: Availability: AOAC
Availability: AOAC
Title: Sugars (Total) in Animal Feed:
Title: Sugars (Reducing) in Plants: Munson­ Modified Fehling Solution Method
Walker General Method
Citation: AOAC 7.078
Citation: AOAC 3.118
Content:
Content:
Availability: AOAC
Availability: AOAC
Title: Sucrose in Animal Feed
Ti"tle: Sugars (Reducing) in Plants:
Quisumbing-Thomas Method Citation: AOAC 7.084

Citation: AOAC 3.119 Content:

Content: Availability: AOAC

Availability: AOAC Title: Starch in Animal Feed

Citation: AOAC 7.085

Content:

Availability: AOAC

155

SUGARS AND OTHER CARBOHYDRATES

(STANDARDS)

Title: Galactan in Animal Feed Title: Chromatographic Analysis of Purified

Pulp
Citation: AOAC 7.091
Citation: TAPPI T 250 cm-85
Content:
Content: This method is designed for the
Availability: AOAC rapid and routine analysis of the carbohy­
drate constituents of chemically refined
pulps. It is based on a chemical determina­
Title: Dry Matter Content - Starch tion of the chromatographically separated
sugars derived from such materials.
Citation: SCAN-P 52:84
Quantitative paper chromatographic analysis
Content: of polysaccharides involves the following
sequence of procedures: Total Hydrolysis,
Availability: SCAN Neutralization, Concentration, Chromato­
graphic separation, Elution, Analysis of
Separated Sugars, and Calibration and
Title: Carbohydrate Composition of
Calculation.
Extractive-Free Wood and Wood Pulp

by Gas-Liquid Chromatography
Availability: TAPPI

Citation: TAPPI T 249 cm-85

Title: Analysis of Starch and Starch
Content: This method is used to determine Products
the five principal monosaccharides which
define the carbohydrate composition of wood Citation: TAPPI T 638 cm-85
and' wood' pul'p. [lie constituents determinea'
quantitatively and on an absolute basis are Content:
glucan, mannan, arabinan, xylan, and galac­
tan. Concentrations of the individual com­ Availability: TAPPI
ponents as low as 0.1 % can be determined.
The method is applicable to extractive-free
wood as well as to wood pulp.

Availability: TAPPI

156

 SUGARS AND OTHER CARBOHYDRATES

(LITERATURE)

Title: Determination of Carbohydrates Using Title: Simple Pentose Assay for Biomass
Pulsed Amperometric Detection Com­ Conversion Studies
bined with Anion Exchange
Separations Citation: Deschatelets, L. and E. K. C. Yu.
Applied Microbiology and Biotech­
Citation: Edwards, William T., Christopher nology 24(5):379-385 (1986).
A. Pohl, and Richard Rubin. Tappi
Journal 70(6) (June 1987). Content: A colorimetric method was modi­
fied for monitoring pentose release and util­
Content: Carbohydrates, including the ization in the hydrolysis and fermentation of
monosaccharides commonly found in wood biomass substrates to fuels and chemicals.
and wood pulp hydrolyzates, are separated by The proposed assay was specific for pentose
anion exchange chromatography using hy­ monomers. Quantitation of pentoses by the
droxide and acetate eluants and are deter­ assay method was not significantly interfered
mined using pulsed amperometric detection. by other lignocellulosic components, common
The detection method is based on oxidizing fermentation medium ingredients, and major
the sugars in a flow-through electrochemical volatile fermentation products encountered
cell equipped with a gold working electrode. in biomass conversion processes. The assay
A repeating cycle of three potentials is used: procedure did not require sample pretreat­
the first to oxidize the carbohydrates and ment (e.g., deproteiniza tion, desalting, or
measure the current generated, and two sub­ furfural extraction). Sugar estimation basing
sequent pulses to clean the electrode surface on the present assay correlated well with
of oxidation products. The method is fast, conventional sugar analysis by high per­
sensitive, and requires no precolumn deriva­ formance liquid chromatography.
tion. It is applied to a sample of hydrolyzed
wood pulp, which can be analyzed after mini­ Title: Determination of Neutral Sugars in
mal sample preparation. Detection limits Plankton, Sediments, and Wood by
are on the order of I mg/kg for monosaccha­ Capillary Gas Chromatography of
rides in a 50 ].lL injection. Equilibrated Isomeric Mixtures

Title: Carbohydrate Analysis: A Practical Citation: Cowie, Gregory L. and John 1.

Approach Hedges. Anal. Chern. 56:497-504
(1984).
Ci1ation: Edited by M. F. Chaplin and
J. F. Kennedy. Oxford, Content: A reproducible technique is
Washington, DC: IRL Press, 1986. described for extraction and quantitative
analysis of neutral monosaccharides from a
Content:
variety of solid natural sample types, requir­
Chapter I-Monosaccharides;
ing as little as 10 mg of total organic matter.
Chapter 2-0ligosaccharides;
Acid hydrolysis yields monomeric sugars
Chapter 3-Neutral Polysaccharides;
which may exist in up to five isomeric forms
Chapter 4-Proteoglycans;
when in solution. Lithium perchlorate is used
Chapter 5-Glycoproteins;
to catalytically equilibrate sugar isomer mix­
Chapter 6-GlycoJipids.
tures in pyridine prior to conversion to their
trimethylsiyl ether derivates. Analysis is
carried out by use of gas-liquid chroma­
tography on fused-silica capillary columns.
Quantification on the basis of a single clearly
resolved peak for each sugar is made possible
by the equilibration step. Sugar losses and
optimal conditions for maximum reproducible
sugar recovery are determined for each
extraction stage.

157

 SUGARS AND OTHER CARBOHYDRATES

(LITERATURE)

Title: An Analysis of the Wood Sugar Assay furfural--which results from the acid degra­
Using HPLC: A Comparison with dation of hexoses--to form a brown-green
Paper Chromatography chromogen. The difference in color between
the pentose and hexose chromogens may be
Citation: Pettersen, Roger C., Virgil H. exploited to correct for the hexose
Schwandt, and Marilyn J. Effland. interference.
J. of Chromatographic Science
22:478 (I 984).
Title: Determination of Souble and Insoluble
Content: Fundamental chemical research Glucose Oligomers with Chromotropic
concerning wood and wood-derived products Acid
depends on a know ledge of the materials'
carbohydrate composition. Separation and Citation: Holtzapple, Mark T. and
quantitation of hydrolyzed carbohydrate Arthur E. Humphrey. Analytical
components of woods and wood pulps by high Chemistry 55:584 (1983).
performance liquid chromatography is fast
and efficient. Sugars are separated with a Content:
lead(II)-loaded Aminex cation-exchange
resin. In this study, six woods and four pulps
were ana yzed three times by liquid and paper Title: Determination of Carbohydrates by
Chromatography (LC and PC). Statistical Anion Exchange Chromatogrpahy with
analysis at the 9596 confidence level indi­ Pulsed Amperometric Detection
cates the two methods are equally accurate
for glucan, mannan, and galactan. There is a Citation: Rocklin, Roy D. and

statistical difference for xylan and arabinan Christopher A. Pohle J. of Liquid

at 9596 confidence. The LC precision is Chromatography 6(9):1577-1590

better than PC precision for glucan and (1983).

xylan. The precision is equivalent for
arabinan and mannan but not as good for Content: Carbohydrates such as sugar alco­
galactan. The differential refractive index hols, monosaccharides, disaccharides, and
detector on the LC is linear up to a loading other oligosaccharides are separated as
of 2 mg of glucose. The optimum column anion~ by ion ex<:hange chromatography with
operating temperature is 45°-55°C. a sodIum hydroxIde eluent. Retention time
and selectivity are controlled by varying
eluent strength and column temperature. The
Title: Determination of Soluble and Insoluble carbohydrates are detected by oxidation at a
Pentoses in the Presence of Glucose gold electro.de. A repeating sequence of
three potentIals electrochemically cleans the
Citation: Holtzapple, Mark T. and electr~de surf~ce of oxidation products and
Arthur E. Humphrey. Tappi other interfering species. Detection limits
Journal 66(8):90 (1983). are as low as 30 ppb for sugar alcohols and
m~:mosaccha~ides, and about 100 ppb for
Content: Numerous reagents have been ohgosacchandes. Other species containing
developed for colorimetric measurement of CHOH groups can also be detected, such as
pentoses, . including aniline, L-cysteine, alcohols and glycols.
phloroglUCinol, and orcinol. The use of
o.rcinol reagent is desirable because it is
sImple to prepare and the colorimetric reac­
ti?n is easily employed. The orcinol reacts
wIth furfural--which results from the acid
degradation of both soluble and insoluble
pen.toses--to form a green chromogen. The
orcinol also reacts with hydroxy methyl

158

 SUGARS AND OTHER CARBOHYDRATES

(LITERATURE)

Title: A Simple and Rapid Preparation of Title: Methods in Carbohydrate Chemistry

Alditol Acetates for Monosaccharide
Analysis Citation: Edited by Roy L. Whistler and
James N. BeMiller. New York:
Citation: Blakeney, Anthony B., Philip J. Academic Press, 1980.
Harris, Robert J. Henry, and Bruce
A. Stone. Carbohydrate Research Content: Volume I: Analysis and Prep­
113:291-299 (I 983). aration of Sugars, Volume II: Reactions of
Carbohydrates, Volume III: Cellulose, Vol­
Content: A simple and rapid method is ume IV: Starch, Volume V: General Poly­
described for the preparation of alditol saccharides, Volume VI: General Carbo­
acetates from monosaccharides. It can be hydrate Methods, Volume VII: General Meth­
performed in a single tube without transfers ods, Glycosaminoglycans, and Glycoproteins,
or evaporations. Monosaccharides are Volume VIII: General Methods.
reduced with sodium borohydride in dimethyl
sulphoxide and the resulting alditols
acetylated using 1-methylimidazole as the Title: Analysis of Wood Sugars in Pulp and
catalyst. Removal of borate is unnecessary Paper Industry Samples by HPLC
and acetylation is complete in 10 min at
room temperature. Monosaccharides are Citation: Wentz, Frank E., A. Dale Marcy,
quantitatively reduced and acetylated by this and Michael J. Gray. Journal of
procedure. The alditol acetates are com­ Chromatographic Science 20:349
pletely separated by glass-capillary, gas­ ( 1982).
liquid chromatography on Sitar 10C. The
method has been applied to the analysis of Content: A high performance liquid chroma­
monosaccharides in acid hydrolysates of a tography (HPLC) method has been developed
lant cell-wall. for analysis of wood sugars in samples from
the pulp and paper industry. Using a Bio-Rad
HPX-87P carbohydrate analysis column, it is
Title: Polysaccharides possible to separate the sugars using iso­
cratic elution with distilled water. Glucose,
Citation: Vol. 1. Edited by Gerald O. mannose, and xylose in 100:1: 1 ratio,
Aspinall. New York: Academic occurring in a pulp hydrolyzate, can be
Press, 1982. separated in 20 min. Using two columns in
series, a separation of free glucose, mannose,
Content: galactose, arabinose, and xylose, present in
very unequal proportions in spent sulfite
liquor, can be done in 60 min.
Title: Polysaccharides

Citation: Vol. 2. Edited by Gerald O. Title: A Rapid Analysis for Total

Aspinall. New York: Academic Carbohydrate in Wood or Pulp:
Press, 1983. Dehydrating to Furans in Concen­
trated Sulfuric Acid
Content:
Citation: Scott, Ralph W. and Jesse Green.
Tappi 55(7):1061 (1972).

Content: A dehydration method of measur­

ing total carbohydrate in wood or pulp, par­
ticularly adapted to glucose and xy lose
polymers, is described and compared to a
reducing sugar method. Losses are usually
smaller and less time is required than by the

159

SUGARS AND OTHER CARBOHYDRATES

(LITERATURE)

reducing sugar method. In the dehydration 130°C gave low values and it was concluded
method, total carbohydrate of wood or pulp that the complete solubilisation of starch by
samples can be analyzed by dissolving alkali was necessary, with subsequent neu­
samples in 72% sulfuric acid, reacting the tralisation of the extract with acetic acid. It
diluted solution with about 95% sulfuric acid, was shown that the alkali also extracted
and finally measuring the quantity of dehy­ material which inhibited one or more of the
dration products spectrophotometrically. enzymes involved in the subsequent glucose
analysis, but this inhibition was removed by
treatment of the extract with charcoal.
Title: Determination of Pectic Substances in Under the above conditions the high acetate
Plant Material concentration decreased the efficiency of
the final glucose analysis, but this effect was
Citation: Dekker, R. F. H. and readily corrected by use of appropriate blank
G. N. Richards. J. Sci. Fd. Agric. solutions. The proposed method of starch
23:475-483 (I 972). analysis is relatively economical in time
compared with previous methods and is
Content: Pectic substances have been believed to give more meaningful values for
extracted from plant material (a pasture plants with low starch content.
legume, Stylosanthes humilis) by homo­
genisation with a solution of ammonium
oxalate and oxalic acid and subsequently Title: Carbohydrates Chemistry:
hydrolysed with polygalacturonase. The Monosaccharides and Their Oligomers
galacturonic acid produced was determined
by a modified carbazole reaction. The Citation: Hassan, S. and S. E. Khadem.
enzymic hydrolysis step may be omitted by San Diego, CA: Academic Press,
relying on the acid in the carbazole reaction 1988.
partially to hydrolyse the pectic substances,
'but'm aomg so the sensItIVIty ot the methoa -Content:
is reduced sevenfold. Attempts to carry out
the hydrolysis carbazole reaction partially to
hydrolyse the pectic substances, but in doing Title: Carbohydrate Chemistry
so the sensitivity of the method is reduced
sevenfold. Attempts to carry out the Citation: Williams, N.R., et al. Vol. 19.
hydrolysis with sulphuric acid before the Part I: Monosaccharides,
carbazole reaction gave incomplete hydrol­ Disaccharides, and Specific
ysis and probably decarboxylation. Attempts Oligosaccharides. Letchworth,
to extract the pectic substances with alkali England: Royal Society of
gave low values, probably because of incom­ Chemistry, 1987.
plete extraction.
Content:

Title: Determination of Starch in Plant

Material Title: A Gas Chromatographic Method for
Carbohydrates as Alditol-Acetates
Citation: Dekker, R. F. H. and G. N.
Richards. J. Sci. Fd. Agric. Vol. 22 Citation: Borchardt, Leroy G. and
(I 97 1). Carl V. Piper. Tappi 53(2):257
(1970).
Content: Starch has been determined in the
pasture legume Stylosanthes humilis (Stylo) Content: A gas chromatographic procedure
by hydrolysis and amyloglucosidase and sub­ is described which permits multiple analyses
sequent analysis for glucose with glucose of monosaccharides in wood pulps to be
oxidase. Pr ior gelatinisation of starch carried out in a working time of 2-3 hr per
granules within the plant sample by water at sample. A single pulp analysis may be

160

 SUGARS AND OTHER CARBOHYDRATES

(LITERATURE)

completed in an 8-hr day. For the analysis, developed, or by adding known amounts of
1:he monosaccharides present in a hydrolyzed glucose to the samples of reducing sugar to
sample are reduced to the alditols with compensate for the losses sustained in the
sodium borohydride. Acetylation with acetic presence of the Rochelle salt. The optimal
anhydride and sulfuric acid permits this step composition of a modified dinitrosalicylic
1:0 be completed in a period of I hr. The acid reagent is given.
acetylated mixture is precipitated in ice
water and extracted with methylene chloride
for injection into the chromatograph. Pre­ Title: Colorimetric Method for Deter­
cision of the method is comparable to that mination of Sugars and Related
obtained by paper chromatography and the Substances
sensitivity is increased significantly.
Citation: Dubois, Michel, K. A. Gilles,
J. K. Hamilton, P. A. Rebers, and
Title: The Reaction of Carbazole with Fred Smith. Analytical Chemistry
Carbohydr a tes 28(3):350 (1956).

Citation: Galambos, John T. Analytical Content: Simple sugars, oJigosaccharides,

Biochemistry 19:119-132 (1967). polysaccharides, and their derivatives,
including the methyl ethers with free or
Content: Experiments were performed to potentially free reducing groups, give an
study the kinetics of the carbazole reaction orange-yellow color when treated with
with hexoses and with compounds containing phenol and concentrated sulfuric acid. The
hexuronic acid at various temperatures and reaction is sensitive and the color is stable.
to evaluate the effect of borate and sulfa­ By use of this phenol-sulfuric acid reaction, a
mate on the sensitivity and specificity of the method has been developed to determine sub­
carbazole reaction with hexuronic acids and micro amounts of sugars and related sub­
glycosaminoglycans. stances. In conjunction with paper partition
chromatography the method is useful for the
determination of the composition of poly­
Title: Determination of Sugars saccharides and their methyl derivatives.

Citation: Chapter 27 in Browning, B. L.

Methods of Wood Chemistry, Title: A Photometric Adaptation of the
Vol II. New York: Interscience Somogyi Method for the Deter­
Publishers, 1967. mination of Glucose

Content: Citation: Nelson, Norton. J. Biological

Chemistry 153:375-380 (1944).

Title: Use of Dinitrosalicylic Acid Reagent Content: A photometric method is described

for Determination of Reducing Sugar for the estimation of glucose (or reduction
equivalent) with copper reagents and an
Citation: Miller, Gail Lorenz. Analytical arsenomolybdate reagent. The optical dens­
Chemistry 31(3):26 (1959). ity of the color developed is proportional to
the glucose taken and is stable over long
Content: Rochelle salt, normally present in periods of time.
the dinitrosalicylic acid reagent for reducing
sugar, interferes with the protective action
of the sulfite but is essential to color
s1:ability. The difficulty may be resolved
either by eliminating Rochelle salt from the
reagent and adding it to the mixture of
reducing sugar and reagent after the color is

161

SUGARS AND OTHER CARBOHYDRATES

(LITERATURE)

Title: [mportant Reference Books Title: Determination of Wood Sugars

Citation: Guthrie, R. D. and J. Honeyman. Citation: Moore, Wayne E. and

An Introduction to the Chemistry David B. Johnson. Procedures for
of Carbohydrates, 3rd edition, the Chemical Analysis of Wood and
Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1968. Wood Products (As used at the U.S.
Forest Products Laboratory.)
Pigman, W. and D. Horton. The Revised Dec. 1967. (Unpublished.)
Carbohydrates, New York:
Academic Press, 1970. Content:

Content:

162

 PROTEINS
(STANDARDS)

Title: Nitrogen (Total) (Crude Protein) in Title: Protein (Crude) in Animal Feed:
Plants: Kjeldahl Method for Nitrate­ Kjeldahl Method
free Samples
Citation: AOAC 7.015
Citation: AOAC 3.124
Content:
Content:
Availability: AOAC
Availability: AOAC
Title: Protein (Crude) in Animal Feed:
Title: Nitrogen (Total) (Crude Protein) in Dumas Method
Plants: Kjeldahl Method for Nitrate­
containing Samples Citation: AOAC 7.016

Citation: AOAC 3.125 Content:

Content: Availability: AOAC

Availability: AOAC
Title: Protein (Crude) in Animal Feed:
Automated Kjeldahl Method
Title: Nitrogen (Total) (Crude Protein) in
Plants: Automated Method Citation: AOAC 7.021

Citation: AOAC 3.126 Content:

Content: Availability: AOAC

Availability: AOAC
Title: Protein (Crude) in Animal Feed:
Semiautomated Method
Title: Nitrogen (Total) (Crude Protein) in
Plants: Semiautomated Method Citation: AOAC 7.025

Citation: AOAC 3.127 Content:

Content: Availability: AOAC

Availability: AOAC
Title: Protein (Crude) in Animal Feed:
Title: Protein in Animal Feed: Qualitative Copper Catalyst Kjeldahl Method
Tests
Citation: AOAC 7.033
Citation: AOAC 7.010
Content:
Content:
Availability: AOAC
Availability: AOAC

163

l64
 PROTEINS
(LITERATURE)

Tit.le: Accuracy in Kjeldahl Protein spectral shift per molecule of tyrosine. The
Analysis product of this reaction is also fluorescent
and could be exploited in a protein assay.
Ci"tation: Chen, Y.-S., S. V. Brayton, However, both the spectrophotometric and
and C. C. Hach. American fluorescent assays are of the same sensitivity
Laboratory 20(6):62 (I988). as the MG assay.

COTltent:
Title: Determination of Protein: A
Modification of the Lowry Method
Tit:le: Fiftyfold Amplification of the Lowry that Gives a Linear Photometric
Protein Assay Response

Ci1:ation: Sargent, Michael G. Analytical Citation: Hartree, E. F. Analytical

Biochemistry 163:476-481 (1987). Biochemistry 48:422-427 (1972).

Content: The blue product of the Lowry Content: The value of the method developed
et at (1951, J. Biol. Chem. 193, 265-275) by Lowry, Rosebrough, Farr, and Randall for
reaction interacts with malachite green assay of protein concentration is apparent
(MG), inducing a change in the visible light from its widespread adoption. In their crit­
spectrum. At A690 om the absorbance of ical assessment of the method these authors
malachite green solutlOns increases 10-fold refer to its two disadvantages: (a) that the
in the presence of Lowry blue (LB). Under color yields of different proteins vary consid­
the optimum conditions, 0.01 A700 nm unit erably, and (b) that the relationship between
of Lowry blue produces a change in A690 om color yield and protein concentration is not
uni t of malachite green of 0.5 and the linear. The former is inescapable, arising as
tJ.A 690 nm is a linear function of Lowry blue it does from the complexity of the reactions
concentration. Conditions under which this of proteins in alkaline solution with cupric
50-fold amplification can be exploited to tartrate and the Folin-Ciocalteu reagent.
detect less than 100 ng of protein (or
4 j.l g. mr 1 ) are described. A number of By the following adaptation of the Lowry
chemicals including sodium dodecyl sulfate procedure it is possible to establish a linear
can interfere with the assay but a strategy relationship between concentration of a
has been devised to overcome these prob­ soluble protein and color yield.
lems. Amplification of the Lowry assay
appears to involve a cooperative interaction
between malachite green and the Lowry blue Title: Protein Measurement with the Folin
product such that about 23 molecules of Phenol Reagent
malachite green undergo a spectral shift per
molecule of a model reactant such as tyro­ Citation: Lowry, Oliver H., Nira J.
sine. Malachite green can be used to amplify Rosebrough, A. Lewis Farr, and
the molybdenum blue signal obtained in other Rose J. Randall. J. Biolog. Chern.
assays. Less than 10 pmol of tyrosine can be 193:265 (1951).
detected using this procedure. Lowry blue
also interacts with auramine 0, giving a Content: Procedures are described for
large increase in Asoo nm and a 40-fold measuring protein in solution or after precip­
amplification of the LB sIgnal. As with itation with acids or other agents, and for
malachite green, there is a cooperative the determination of as little as 0.2 y of
interaction between auramine 0 and LB. protein.
About 72 molecules of auramine 0 undergo a

165

PROTEINS
(LITERATURE)

Title: Protein Assays: A Review of Common Title: Primary Standards: The Basis for
Techniques Accuracy in the KjeJdahl Protein
Method
Citation: Davis, E. M. American Biological
Laboratory (July 1988). Citation: Hach, C. C. and S. V. Brayton.
Manual from the Technical Center
Content: for Applied Analytical Chemistry.
Loveland, CO: Hach Company.
Title: A Comparison of Spectroscopic Content:
Techniques for Protein Quantification
in Aqueous Solutions

Citation: Hawkins, Barton K. and

David E. Honigs. American
Biological Laboratory
(November/December 1987).

Content:

166

167

 FORAG~ ANALYSIS
(STANDARDS)

Title: Fiber (Crude) in Animal Feed: Title: Fiber (Acid Detergent) and Lignin in
Ceramic Fiber Filter Method - AOCS­ Animal Feed
AOAC Method
Citation: AOAC 7.074 (Reagents)
Citation: AOAC 7.066 (Principle) AOAC 7.075 (Apparatus)
AOAC 7.067 (Reagents) AOAC 7.076 (Determination of
AOAC 7.06& (Apparatus) ACid-Detergent Fiber)
AOAC 7.069 (Preparation of AOAC 7.077 (Determination of
Sample) Lignin)
AOAC 7.070 (Determination)
Content:
Content:
Availability: AOAC
Availability: AOAC

Title: Fiber (Crude) in Animal Feed: Fritted

Glass Crucible Method

Citation: AOAC 7.071 (PrincipLe)

AOAC 7.072 (Apparatus and
Reagents)
AOAC 7.073 (Determination)

Content:

Availability: AOAC

L69

170

 FORAGE ANALYSIS
(LITERATURE)

Title: Near Infrared Reflectance Spectro­ Title: Determination of Lignin and Cellulose
scopy (NIRS): Analysis of Forage in Acid-Detergent Fiber with
Quality Permanganate

Citation: Edited by G. C. Marten, Citation: Van Soest, P. J. and R. H. Wine.

J. S. Shenk, and F. E. Barton II. Journal of the A.O.A.C. 51(4):780
Agriculture Handbook No. 643. ( 1968).
Washington, DC: United States
Department of Agriculture, Content: A newly developed indirect method
Agricultural Research Service, for lignin, utilizing permanganate, permits
1985. the detrmination of cellulose and insoluble
ash in the same sample. The new permanga­
Content: nate lignin method is intended as an alter­
native procedure to the 72% sulfuric acid
method over which it offers definite advant­
Title: Analysis of Forages and Fibrous ages as well as certain disadvantages. Choice
Foods of methods will depend upon the materials
analyzed and the purpose for which the
Citation: Van Soest, P. J. and values are to be used.
J. B. Robertson. Ithaca, NY:
Cornell University, 1985.
Title: Use of Detergents in the Analysis of
Content: Fibrous Feeds. II. A Rapid Method
for the Determination of Fiber and
Lignin
Title: Routine Forage Analysis Using Near
Infrared Reflectance Analysis (NIRA): Citation: Van Soest, P. J. Journal of the
Calibrations and Performance Data A.O.A.C. 46(5):828 (1963).

Citation: Workman, Jerome J. and Content: The capacity of cetyl trimethyl­

Shirley A. Dieterman. Presented ammonium bromide to dissolve proteins in
at Seventh International Sym­ acid solution has been utilized in devel­
·posium on Near Infrared Reflec­ opment of a method, called acid-detergent
tance Analysis (NIRA), July 10-11, fiber method (ADF), which is not only a fiber
1984. determination in itself but also the major
preparatory step in the determination of
Content: lignin.

Title: Determination of Lignin and Cellulose Title: Forage Fiber Analyses (Apparatus,
in Forages by Extraction with Tri­ Reagents, Procedures, and Some
ethylene Glycol Applications)
Citation: Edwards, Colin S. J. Sci. Fd. Agric. Citation: Goering, H. K. and P. J. Van Soest.
24:381-388 (I973). Agriculture Handbook No. 379.
Washington, DC: United States
Content: A method of lignin determination Department of Agriculture, Agri­
which utilises the solubility of lignin in HC 1­ cultural Research Service, 1970.
activated triethylene glycol at 121°C is de­
scribed. Experiments on a range of samples Content:
indicate that the method is simple, fast and
reproducible, and relates well to in vitro
organic matter digestibility.

171

172

 HICROALGAE
(LITERATURE)

Title: Algal Culture from Laboratory to Title: Handbook of Phycological Methods:

Pilot Plant Culture Methods and Growth
Measurements
Citation: Burlew, J. S. Algal Culture from
Laboratory to Pilot Plant. Citation: Edited by Janet R. Stein.
Publica tion 600. Washington, Cambridge: Cambridge Uni­
DC: Carnegie Institution of versity Press, 1973.
Washington. 1953.
Content: I-Isolation and Purification; II­
Content: General Equipment and Methods; III-Special
Culture Methods; IV-Growth Measurements;
Title: Techniques of Lipidology: Isolation, V-Bioassay.
Analysis and Identification of Lipids

Citation: Morris, Kates. 2nd Revised Edition. Title: Handbook of Phycological Methods:
In Laboratory Techniques in Bio­ Physiological and Biochemical
chemistry and Molecular Biology, Methods
Vol. 3, Pt. 2. Edited by R. H.
Burdon and P. H. van Knippenberg, Citation: Edited by Johan A. Hellebust
New York: Elsevier, 1986. and J. S. Craigie. Cambridge:
Cambridge University Press, 1978.
Content: Ch. I-Definition and Classification
of Lipids; Ch. 2-Materials and Equipment; Content: I-Isolation of Organelles and Mem­
Ch. 3-Lipid Extraction Procedures; Ch. 4­ branes; II-Analysis of Chemical Constituents;
General Analytical Procedures; Ch. 5­ III-Enzymes; IV-Physiological and Biochemi­
Separation of Lipid Mixtures; Ch. 6­ cal Processes; V-Nutrients; VI-Ion Content
Radioisotopic Techniques in Lipidology; and Transport; VII-Inhibitors.
Ch. 7-Identification of Individual Lipids and
Moieties.
Title: Handbook of Phycological Methods:
Developmental and Cytological
Title: Standard Methods for the Examination Methods
of Water and Wastewater
Citation: Edited by Elisabeth Gantt.
Citation: Fourteenth edition. Prepared Cambridge: Cambridge University
and published jointly by American Press, 1980.
Public Health Association, Ameri­
can Water Works Association, and Content: I-Experimental Algal Systems and
Water Pollution Control Federa­ Techniques; II-Light and Electron Micros­
tion. Washington, DC: American copy: Preparative Methods.
Public Health Association, 1979.

Content: General Introduction, Physical Title: CRC Handbook of Microalgal Mass

Examination, Determination of Metals, De­ Culture
termination of Inorganic Nonmetallic Consti­
tuents, Determination of Organic Consti­ Citation: Edited by Amos Richmond.
tuents, Automated Laboratory Analyses, Boca Raton, FL: CRC Press, Inc.,
Examination of Water and Wastewater 1986.
Radioactivity, Bioassay Methods for Aquatic
Organisms, Microbiological Examination of Content: The Production of Biomass: A
Water, Biological Examination of Water. Challenge to Our Society; A Historical
Outline of Applied Algology; Photosynthesis
and Ultrastructure in Microalgae; Cell

173

 HICROALGAE
(LITERATURE)

Response to Environmental Factors; Pro­ Organelle Heredity. Nucleic Acids and Pro­
ductivity of Algae Under Natural Conditions; tein Synthesis. Genetic Analysis. Mutant
Laboratory Techniques for the Cultivation of Strains. Procedures and Resources.
Microalgae; Algal Nutrition; Microalgae of
Economic Potential; Technological Aspects
of Mass Cultivation--A General Outline; Ele­
ments of Pond Design and Construction; Out­ Title: Utex--The Culture Collection of
door Mass Cultures of Microalgae; Algae in Algae at the University of Texas at
Wastewater Oxidation Ponds; Nutritional Austin
Properties of Microalgae: Potentials and
Constraints; Products from Microalgae; Blue­ Citation: Starr, R. C. and J. A. Zeikus.
Green Algae as Biofertilizer; Economic Journal of Phyco!ogy. Vol. 23,
Aspects of the Management of Algal Pro­ Supplement to September 1987.
duction; Future Prospects.
Content:

Title: Algal Biomass Technologies: An

Interdisciplinary Perspective Title: Microalgae Culture Collection
1986-1987
Citation: Edited by W. R. Barclay and
R. P. McIntosh. Berlin, Stuttgart: Citation: Barclay, W., J. Johansen,
J. Cramer, 1986. P. Chelf, N. Nagle, P. Roessler,
and P. Lemke. SERI/SP-232-3079.
Content: Proceedings of a workshop on the Golden, CO: Solar Energy
present status and future directions for Research Institute, 1986.
biotechnologies based on algal biomass
Content:

Title: Algae Biomass Production and Use Title: Addendum to Microalgae Culture
Collection 1986-1987
Citation: Edited by G. Shelef and
C. J. Soeder. Amsterdam: Citation: Johansen, J., P. Lemke, N. Nagle,
Elsevier/North-Holland Biomedical P. Chelf, P. Roessler, R. Galloway,
Press, 1980. and S. Toon. SERI/SP-232-3079a.
Golden, CO: Solar Energy
Content: Research Institute, 1987.

Content:
Title: The Chlamydomonas Sourcebook: A
Comprehensive Guide to Biology and
Laboratory Use

Citation: Harris, E. H. New York: Academic

Press, 1989.

Content: An overview of the Genus Chlamy­

domonas. Culture and Storage Methods.
Cell Architecture and Division. The Sexual
Cycle. Motility. Metabolism. Photosynthesis.

174

 OILSEEDS AND CROPS

(STANDARDS)

Title: Standard Test Method for Preparation Title: Specification for Crude Maize Oil
of Methyl Esters from Fatty Acid for
Determination of Fatty Acid Com­ Citation: BS 651 :1967
position by Gas-Liquid
Chromatography 1 Content: Color, relative density, refractive
index, iodine value, saponification value,
Citation: ASTM D 3457-87 acidity, unsaponifiable matter, size of sam­
ple. For sampling and testing see BS 627 and
Content: This test method covers a pro­ BS 684.
cedure for conversion of animal and vege­
table fatty acids into methyl esters of the Availability: BSI
fatty acids suitable for analysis by gas-liquid
chromatography. This test method is applic­
able to animal and vegetable fatty acids Title: Specification for Crude Soya Bean Oil
having 8 to 24 carbon atoms.
Citation: BS 653: 1967
Availability: ASTM
Content: Color, relative density, refractive
index, iodine value, saponification value,
1 Thistest method is under the jurisdiction of acidity, unsaponifiable matter, size of sam­
ASTM Committee D-l on Paint and Related ple. For sampling and testing see BS 627 and
Coatings and Materials and is the direct BS 684.
responsibility of Subcommittee D01.3 on
Drying Oils. Availability: BSr

Title: Methods for Sampling Animal and

Vegetable Fats and Oils Title: Methods of Analysis of Fats and Fatty
Oils
Citation: BS 627:1982
Citation: BS 684:Part 0:1982
Content: Methods for bulk (land tanks, ships'
tanks, tank wagons and cars), packages (bar­ Content: Covers sampling, preparation of
rels, drums, cases, tins, bags), weigh tanks the test sample, reagents, apparatus, test
and pipe lines; descriptions and illustrations report, index to the entire standard. To be
of equipment; temperature limits; sizes, read in conjunction with the other parts.
packaging, and labelling of samples. (BS 684 has many subsections.)

Availability: BSI Availability: BSI

Title: Specification for Crude Rape Seed Oil Title: Methods for the Analysis of Oilseeds

Citation: BS 631 :1967 Citation: BS 4289

Content: Color, relative density, refractive Part 2:1981 (Determination of impurities

index, iodine value, saponification value, content)
acidity, unsaponifiable matter, viscosity, Content: Samples are sieved and sorted into
flash point, and size of sample. Viscosity fines, non-oleaginous and oleaginous impu­
method appended. For methods of sampling rities, which are then weighed.
and testing and for flash point determination
see BS 627, BS 684, and BS 2839 respectively. Part 4:1982 (Determination of hexane ex­
tract [or light petroleum
Availability: BSI extract], called "oil content")

175

 OILSEEDS AND CROPS

(STANDARDS)

Content: Describes the extraction of a pre­ Title: Oilseeds--Determination of Moisture

pared test portion with light petroleum and Volatile Matter Content
(hexane), removal of solvent and weighing of
the residue. Citation: ISO 665:1977
Part 5:1968 (Determination of acidity of Content:
oil)
Content: Titration, with ethanolic potassium ISO
hydroxide solution, of solution of extracted
oil in mixture of ethanol and diethyl ether.
Reagents, apparatus, test procedure, expres­ Title: Oilseeds Residues--Determination of
sion of results, test report. Hexane Extract (or Light-Petroleum
Extract), Called "Oil Content"
Availability: BSI
Citation: ISO 734: 1979

Title: Oilseeds--Sampling Content:

Citation: ISO 542:1980 Availability: ISO

Content:
Title: Oilseeds--Nomenclature; Trilingual
Availability: ISO Edition

Title: Oilseeds--Determination of Hexane Citation: ISO 5507:1982

Extract (or Light Petroleum Extract)
Called "Oil Content" Content:

Citation: ISO 659: 1979 Availability: ISO

Content: Title: Oilseeds--Determination of Oil

Content--Low Resolution Nuclear
Availability: ISO Magnetic Resonance Spectrometr ic
Method
Title: Oilseeds--Reduction of Contract
Samples to Analysis Samples Citation: 1505511:1984

Citation: ISO 664: 1977 Content:

Content: Availability: ISO

Availability: ISO

176

 OILSEEDS AND CROPS

(LITERATURE)

Title: 200-Hour Screening Test for Alternate Title: Bailey's Industrial Fats and Oils
Fuels
Citation: Swern, D. E. Volumes I and II.
Citation: Energy Notes. Peoria, IL: U.S. New York: John Wiley and Sons,
Department of Agriculture 1979.
Extension Service, Northern
Agricultural Energy Center, Content: An excellent reference on all
September 1, 19&2. aspects of vegetable oils including chemistry
and methods of
Content: The EMA 200-hour fuel screening
test would be only preliminary to many more
specific tests were an engine manufacturer Title: Standard Methods for the Analysis of
to consider commercial applications of its Oils, Fats and Derivatives
equipment on non-specification fuels.
Citation: Paquot, C. and A. Hautfene.
Specific further information is available Oxford: Blackwell Scientific
from Northern Agricultural Energy Center, Publications Ltd., 19&&).
1&15 N. University Street, Peoria, IL 61604.
Content: Revised and enlarged edition of
Standard Methods for the Analysis of Oils,
Fats and Derivatives. Contains methods for
the analysis of oleaginous seeds and fruits
(moisture, volatile matter, oil content,
of oU).

177

17&

 PEAT
(STANDARDS)

Title: Ash of Peat

Title: Volume, Peat: Alternative Methods

Citation: AOAC 2.207 (Determination)

Citation: AOAC 2.216 (Principle)
AOAC 2.217 (Apparatus)
Content:
AOAC 2.218 (Determination)

Availability: AOAC
Content:

AOAC
Title: Sand in Peat

Citation: AOAC 2.208 (Preparation of Title: Volume Weight, Water-Holding

Sample) Capacity, and Air Capacity of Water­
AOAC 2.209 (Determination) Saturated Peat Materials

Content: Citation: AOAC 2.219 (Apparatus)

AOAC 2.220 (Preparation of
Availability: AOAC Sample)
AOAC 2.221 (Determination)
AOAC 2.222 (Calculations)
Title: Organic Matter in Peat

Content:
Citation: AOAC 2.210 (Determination)

Availability: AOAC
Content:

Availability: AOAC
Title: Cation Exchange Capacity of Peat:
Titrimetric Method
Title: Nitrogen (Totan in Peat
Citation: AOAC 2.223 (PrincipaL)
AOAC 2.224 (Reagents)
Citation: AOAC 2.211 (Determination)
AOAC 2.225 (Preparation of
Sample)
Content:

Content:
Availability: AOAC

Availability: AOAC
Title: Water Capacity and Volumes for Peat
Title: Standard Test Methods for Moisture,
Citation: AOAC 2.212 (Apparatus) Ash, and Organic Matter of Peat
AOAC 2.213 (Preparation of Materials 1
Sample)
AOAC 2.214 (Determination) Citation: ASTM 0 2974-87
Content: Content: These methods cover measurement
of the weight percentage of moisture, ash,
Availability: AOAC and organic matter in peat materials, includ­
ing moss, humus, and reed-sedge types.

Availability: ASTM

1 These methods are under the jurisdiction of

ASTM Committee 0-18 on Soil and Rock.

179

PEAT
(STANDARDS)

Title: Horticultural Peat, Acidity Title: Peat, Volatile Matter

Citation: ASTM D 2976-71 (1981) Citation: DIN 51720-78

Content: Content:

Availability: ASTM Availability: DIN

Title: Peat, Moisture Content Title: Peat Decomposition

Citation: DIN 51718-78 Citation: GOST 10650-72

Content: Content:

Availability: DIN Availability: GOST

Title: Peat, Ash Content

Citation: DIN 51719-78

Content:

Availability: DIN

180

 PEAT
(LITERATURE)

Title: An Overview of Peat Research, Title: An Overview of the Preparation and

Utilization, and Environmental Analytical Methods of Peat at the
Considerations University of North Dakota Energy
Research Center
Citation: Boron, David J., Earl W. Evans,
and Jeffrey M. Peterson. Citation: Schelkoph, Gwen M., Martha J.
International J. of Coal Geology Mitchell, Dana P. Gallahan, and
8: 1-31 (1987). David J. Hassett. Proceedings of
Workshop on Mineral Matter in
Content: The peat reserves in this country Peat: Its Occurrence, Form, and
represent a vast resource for fuel and for Distribution, September 26-30,
chemical feedstock. As a fuel for combus­ 1983. R. Raymond, Jr. and M. J.
tion, peat generally has a low to moderate Andrejko, Eds., held at Los Alamos
sulfur content (0.5%-3.0% on a dry basis), a National Laboratory, Los Alamos,
low to high ash content (5.0%-20% on a dry NM.
basis), and an intermediate Btu content
(6,000-10,000 per pound on a dry basis). As a Content: In 1979, the U.S. Department of
chemical f eedstock, peat can be extracted to Energy funded' a State Peat Resource Grant
provide various aliphatic, cyclic, and aro­ Program in which 14 states have partici­
matic compounds, particularly oxygenated pated. Grand Forks Energy Technology
derivatives of these. Because of its chemical Center contributed to the program by pro­
structure, peat provides a suitable feedstock viding program management and established
for gasification not only for energy produc­ a contract with the University of North
tion but also for the synthesis of more com­ Dakota Engineering Experiment Station to
plex compounds. In agriculture, peat and provide personnel to perform chemical anal­
peat-derived chemicals are excellent soil ysis on 240 I peat samples provided by 13 of
additives and fertilizers. With such diver­ the participating states. This work provides
sified application, peat is a valuable a uniform chemical data base on the peat
resource. The objective of this chapter is to samples. These analyses, which are nearly
provide some background information on peat complete, have been done in the laboratory
and to overview select research, utilization, facilities at GFETC (now the University of
and environmental considerations involving North Dakota Energy Research Center) and
are the topic of this paper. The analytical
data base consists of proximate, ultimate,
and Btu values. The elemental analyses have
Title: The Pyrolysis of Peat: A been done on commercial C, H, N, and S
Comprehensive Review of the analyzers. Details of the techniques are
Literature given in the paper as well as a discussion of
the experimental difficulties encountered.
Citation: Roy, C., E. Chornet, and Laboratory personnel are in the process of
C. H. Fuchsman. Journal of evaluating the methods used in the program.
Analytical and Applied Pyrolysis The original guidelines for the program were
5:261-332 (1983). that the samples be treated as much like coal
samples as possible.
Content:

181

PEAT
(LITERATURE)

Title: Comparison of Ashing Techniques for Title: Pyrolysis of Peat Studied by Thermo­
Determination of the Inorganic Con­ gravimetry and Fourier Transform
tent of Peats Infrared Spectroscopy

Citation: Andrejko, M. J., F. Fiene, and Citation: Aho, Martti, Pekka Kortelainen,
A. D. Cohen. In Testing of Peat Jarmo R antanen, and Veli Linna.
and Organic Soils, ASTM STP820, Journal o f Analytical and Applied
P.M. Jarrett, ed. Am. Soc. Test. Pyrolysis (in press).
and Materials, 5-20 (1983).
Content: The use fullness of Fourier trans­
Content: form infrared spectroscopy for the study of
peat pyrolysis was evaluated, both for char
and for on-line gas analysis. In the .first part
Title: Annual Book of ASTM Standards, of the work we compare different ways of
Part 19, Soil and Rock; Building obtaining the infrared spectrum of the
Stones charred peats. The peats were pyrolysed in a
modified thermobalance and the structures
Citation: Philadelphia, PA: ASTM, 1981, of the chars were followed by recording
650 pp. spectra using KBr pellet, diffusion reflec­
tance (DRIFT) and photoacoustic techniques
Content: (PAS). With black chars the DRIFT and PAS
methods produced spectra of higher quality
than the KBr technique. The decomposition
Title: A Comparative Study of Preparation of carbohydrates between 300° and 400°C
and Analytical Methods for Peat and of long-chain hydrocarbons between 400°
and 500°C was clearly observed in spectra
Citation: Schelkoph G. M., D. J. Hassett, recorded by all methods. Separate studies on
;wri F.L 1.. W,pJ:lpJ:... Tn" TR.<djT.lQ, fl.f,
the ma"m compounas 01 peat revea'1ea "Impor­
Peat and Organic Soils. ASTM
tant details, such as the decomposition of
STP820, P.M. Jarrett, ed. Am. Soc. aliphatic acids in the separated peat-wax
Test. and Materials, 99-110 (1983).
fraction between 300° and 400°C, while the
amount of aliphatic esters remained roughly
Content: constant.
In the second part of the work we studied the
Title: Peat Testing Manual usefulness of the Fourier transform infrared
spectrometer as an on-line gas analyzer.
Citation: Muskeg Subcommittee, Associate Eight gases (C0 2 , CO, NO, N0 2 , CH 4 , C 2 H 2 ,
Committee on Geotechnical C 2 H 4 and C 2 H 6 ) were measured with high
Research, NRC of Canada. sensitivity from the pyrolysis and combustion
Technical Memorandum. 1979. gases evolved from peat between 600° and
193 pp. 700°C. The detection limit of N0 2 was below
0.5 ppm/volume when the optical length of
Content: 6.75 m was used. The concentration of C 2 H 2
increased relative to the other hydrocarbons
with the increasing vigor of the reaction
conditions during pyrolysis and combustion.

182

 MISCELLANEOUS ANALYSES OF BIOMASS MATERIALS

(STANDARDS)

Title: Standard Test Methods for Title: Methods for the Analysis and Testing
Penetration of Preservatives in Wood of Coal and Coke
and for Differentiating Between
Heartwood and Sapwood 1 Citation: BS 1038

Citation: ASTM D 3507-86 Content:

Content: These test methods cover proce­ Availability: BSI

dures for determining penetration of preser­
vatives in wood in cases where demarcation
between the treated and untreated wood is Title: Methods of Test for Pulp and Paper
not readily visible. Included are test meth­ (Metric Units)
ods for differentiating the heartwood and
sapwood of wood samples for specific spe­ Citation: BS 1301
cies, and a test method for differentiating
the heartwoods between the red oaks and the Content:
white oaks.
BSI
The procedures appear in the following order:
Penetration of Arsenic-Containing Preserva­
tives, Penetration of Copper-Containing Title: Methods for Determination of
Preservatives, Penetration of Fluoride­ Limiting Viscosity Number of
Containing Preservatives, Penetration of Cellulose in Dilute Solutions
Pentachlorophenol Using 4,4'-bis­
Dimethylamino-Triphenylmethane (DMTM), Citation: BS 6306: 1982
Penetration of Pentachlorophenol Using a
Silver-Copper Complex, Penetration of Sol­ Content:
vent Used with Oil-Soluble Preservatives,
Penetration of Zinc-Containing Preserva­ Availability: BSI
tives, Differentiating between Sapwood and
Heartwood in Pine Species (Pinus sp.),
Differentiating between Sapwood and Heart­ Title: Quality of Pulpwood Chips
wood in Douglas Fir (Pseudotsuga menziesii),
Differentiating between Sapwood and Heart­ Citation: CPPA D. I8H
wood in White Fir (Abies concolor), Differ­
entiating Between Woods of the Red Oak and Content: This method will provide a uniform
the White Oak Species. interpretation of chip quality attributes,
which will assist pulp mill operators in
Availability: ASTM assessing the quality of mill chips and serve
as a guide to pulp mill and sawmill operators
1 These test methods are under the in extending the use of sawmill residue as a
jurisdiction of ASTM Committee D-7 on source of chips for chemical pulp mills. To
Wood and are the direct responsibility of this end, test procedures for determining
Subcommittee D07.06 on Treatments of chip quality are indicated along with a
Wood Products. recommended reporting procedure and sug­
gested quality standards. It should be
emphasized that the reporting procedure and
the suggested chip quality standards are
offered here as a guide only.

Availability: CPPA

183

MISCELLANEOUS ANALYSES OF BIOMASS MATERIALS

(STANDARDS)

Title: Testing of Pulp; Determination of the Title: Dry Matter Content--Pulp

Dry Content of Pulp Samples
Citation: SCAN-C 3:78
Citation: DI:\j 54352
Content: This SCAN-test standard specifies
Content: a method for the determination of the dry
matter content of pulp samples.
Availability: DIN This method is applicable to moist or air-dry
pulp which contains no appreciable quantity
Title: Testing of Pulp; Determination of the of matter, other than water, volatile at the
Stability of Pulp against Sodium temperature specified for the drying. It is
Hydroxide Solution (Alkali Resistance) used, for example, in the case of pulp
samples taken for chemical and physical
Citation: DIN 54355 tests in the laboratory, when a concurrent
determination of dry matter content is
Content: required.
This method is not applicable to the
Availability: DIN determination of the dry matter content of
slush pulp nor to the determination of the
saleable mass of pulp lots.
Title: Prime Farmlands, Performance
Standards Availability: SCAN
Citation: 30 CFR 823
Title: Dry Matter Content--Starch
Content:
Citation: SCAN-P 52:84
Availability: EPA/CFR
Content: This SCAN-test standard specifies
a method for the determination of the dry
Title: Pulps--Determination of Dry
matter content of samples of starch used in
Matter Content
manufacture of papers or boards.
Citation: ISO 638: 1978 The standard is applicable to air-dry samples
of native and modified starches that contain
Content: no appreciable quantity of matter, other than
water, volatile at the temperature specified
Availability: ISO for the drying.

Availability: SCAN
Title: Coal and Coke--Calculation of
Analyses to Different Bases
Title: Compression Wood Identification in
Citatiori: ISO 1170: 1977 Pulpwood

Content: Citation: TAPP! T 20 wd-85

(Replaced by T 267 cm··85)
ISO
Content: This method is concerned with the
detection of the compression wood that can
be recognized by unaided vision or by means
of a simple viewing device. Normally this is

184

 MISCELLANEOUS ANALYSES OF BIOMASS MATERIALS

(STANDARDS)

sufficient for operating purposes. Micro­

scopic and chemical tests may be required in
special cases.

Availability: TAP PI

Title: Viscosity of Pulp (Capillary

Viscometer Method)

Citation: T APPI T 230 om-82

Content: This method describes a procedure

for determining the viscosity of 0.5%
cellulose solutions, using 0.5M cupri­
ethylenediamine as a solvent and a Cannon­
Fenske capillary viscometer. Measurements
may be made on bleached cotton and wood
pulps. Kraft pulps with up to 4% lignin, as
defined by TAPPI T 222 "Acid-Insoluble
Lignin in Wood and Pulp" can also be
analyzed.

Availability: T APPI

185

186

 MISCELLANEOUS ANALYSES OF BIOMASS MATERIALS

(LITERATURE)

Title: Feedstock Analyses: The Proportion Forest Products Laboratory (Madison,

of Sapwood in Woody Samples Wisconsin) from 1927-68 and were previously
unpublished. These data include both United
Citation: Hillis, W. E. Private Communi States and foreign woods. Previously pub­
cation as member of Working lished data include compositions of woods
Group, 1987: from Borneo, Brazil, Cambodia, Chile,
Colombia, Costa Rica, Ghana, Japan,
Content: After a certain age or width, which Mexico, Mozambique, Papua New Guinea, the
can change with growing conditions, the sap­ Philippines, Puerto Rico, Taiwan, and the
wood in the interior of a stem or branch of a USSR. Data from more detailed analyses are
tree is transformed to heartwood. This trans­ presented for common temperate-zone woods
formation varies considerably between spe­ and include the individual sugar composition
cies, both in time and extent. Heartwood (as glucan, xylan, galactan, arabinan, and
differs from sapwood with a lower ash con­ mannan), uronic anhydride, acetyl, lignin, and
tent having usuaUy a different composition, a ash.
lower moisture content in conifers (and usu­
ally in hardwoods), the absence of starch, a
higher and different extractives content and Title: Workshop on Standards in Biomass for
hence different color, a lower rate of pene­ Energy and Chemicals
trability by fluids or gases, etc.
Citation: Proceedings. Edited by Thomas A.
Milne. SERI/CP-234-2506.
Title: The Chemistry of Solid Wood Golden, CO: Solar Energy
Research Institute, November
Citation: Edited by Roger Rowell. 1984.
Advances in Chemistry Series 207.
Washington, DC: American Content:
Chemical Society, 1984.

Content: Structure and Chemistry; Prop­ Title: Miscellaneous

erties and Reactivity; Surface Chemistry;
Degradation Chemistry Citation: Easty, D. Institute of
Paper Chemistry. Private
Communication, 1984.
Title: The Chemical Composition of Wood
Content: Specialized method collections
Citation: Pettersen, Roger C. Chapter 2 include Analytical Procedures for Tall Oil
in The Chemistry of Solid Wood. Products (Pulp Chemicals Association, 1976)
Roger Rowell, Editor. Advances in and those in Sarkanan and Ludwig's Lignin
Chemistry Series 207. Washington, (W iley, 1971). Rev iew articles, such as
DC: American Chemical Society, E. Adler's "Lignin Chemistry--Past, Present,
1984. and Future" [Wood Sci. Technol. 11: 169
(1977)], are also valuable resources.
Content: This chapter includes overall
chemical composition of wood, methods of
analysis, structure of hemicellulose com­ Title: Heartwood and Tree Exudates
ponents and degree of polymerization of car­
bohydrates. Tables of data are compiled for Citation: Hillis, W. E. Berlin: Spr inger­
woods of several countries. Components Verlag, 1987.
include: cellulose (Cross and Bevan, holo-,
and alpha-), lignin, pentosans, and ash. Content: Definitions and descriptions; influ­
Solubilities in 1% sodium hydroxide, hot ence of forestry aspects; chemical features;
water, ethanol benzene, and ether are biological features; function, formation, and
reported. The data were collected at the control.

187

MISCELLANEOUS ANALYSES OF BIOMASS MATERIALS

(LITERATURE)

Title: Analysis of Paper of Terms Related to Precision and ~ccuracy;

Extractive-Free Wood (Pr~paratlon of);
Citation: Browning, B. L Second Minimum Sample Sizes ReqUIred for Analy­
Edition. New York: Marcel ses; Spectrometry Nomenclature.
Dekker, Inc., 1977.
Title: Planning Report, NBS and Industrial
Content: Biotechnology: Technical Develop­
ments and Future Measurement Needs
Title: Methods of Wood Chemistry
Citation: O'Br ien, Thomas C. NBSIR
Citation: Browning, B. L V01s. I . 82-2549. Gaithersburg, MD:
and II. New York: IntersClence National Bureau of Standards, July
Publishers, 1967. 1982.

Content: Content:

Title: Quantification of Residual Polymer.ic

Title: Procedures for the Chemical Analysis Families Present in Thermomecham­
of Wood and Wood Products cal and Chemically Pretreated
Lignocellulosics via Thermal Analysis
Citation: Moore, Wayne E. and David B.
Johnson. U.S. Department of Citation: Bouchard, J., S. Leger, E. Chornet,
Agriculture, Forest Service, Forest and R. P. Overend. Biomass 9:
Products Laboratory, Revised 161-171 (1986).
December 1967. (Unpublished)
Content: Different species of wood and
Content: Analytical Methods: Acetyl and wood residues derived from thermo­
C-Methyl Groups; Alcohol-Benzene Solubili~y mechanical and chemical treatments were
of Wood and Pulp; Alkoxyl Groups; Ash in studied by thermal analysis (TG/DTG) in
Pulp; Ash in Wood; Charcoal Analysis; E~~er order to establish a simple and rapid method
Solubility of Wood and Pulp; Ethyl Solublllty for determining the major constituents. It is
of Wood and Pulp; Ethyl Alcohol; Extractives shown that TG/DTG with well-defined condi­
in Wood' Formaldehyde in Paper and Wood; tions is an appropriate method to distinguish
Furfural~ Halides in Wood; Holocellulose in between lignin and carbohydrate and, wit.h
Wood; Hydroxymethylfurfural; Ion-Exchange less precision, between cellulose and hemI­
Capacity of Pulp; Itaconic Acid; Lactic Acid;
cellulose for all the types of biomass studied,
Levulinic Acid; Lignin in Pulp (Standard
treated or untreated.
Hydrolysis); Lignin in Pulp (Modified Hydr?l­
ysis); Lignin in Wood (Standard Hydrol~sl~);
Lignin in Wood (Modified H~drolysl~); Llgn:n Title: Fractionation of Lignocellulosics
in Wood (Spectrophotometnc); MOIsture in
Wood and Pulp; Nickel; Nitrogen by the Citation: Chornet, E. and R. P. Overend.
Kjeldahl Method (Total, Ammoniacal, and Sainte-Foy (Quebec), Canada:
Urea Nitrogen); Pentosans in Pulp; pH of Centre Quebecois de Valorisation
Wood; Polyethylene Glycol in Wood; Prop­ de la Biomasse, 1988.
ylene Glycol; Pyroligneous Acids; Sieve
Analysis; Silica in Organics; Sodium in Content: This overview, written for the
Fermentation Solutions; Solids in Water; scientific community, is aimed at all those
Sugar Alcohols, Glycerol, and Glycols; Sul­ (researchers, students, administrators) who
fate in Cellulose Nitrate; Total Organic are interested in the optimal utilization of
Matter; Uronic Acids; Wood Sugars. Appen­ lignocellulosics. Designed as a teaching
dix: Definitions of Terms Related to Cel­ manual, it makes an analysis of the state of
lulose and Cellulose Derivatives; Definitions the art of fractionation technologies, attach­

188

 MISCELLANEOUS ANALYSES OF BIOMASS MATERIALS

(LITERATURE)

ing importance to the applications and con­ Title: Important Reference Books
straints associated with the development of
industrial sub-sectors (fine chemistry, ener­ Citation: Zimmerman, M. H. The
gy, biotechnology). Formation of Wood in Forest
Trees, New York: Academic
Press, 1965.
Title: Methods of Analysis of Biomass for
Fuels and Chemicals Loewus, F. A. and V. C. Runeckles.
The Structure, Biosynthesis and
Citation: Deglise, X. Working Group: Degradation of Wood: Recent
Thermochemical Panel for Advances in Phytochemistry.
November 18-20, 1987 Meeting. Volume II. New York: Plenum
Press, 1977.
Content: Among the laboratories working in Sarkanen, K. V. and D. A. Tilman.
the area of thermochemical conversion of Progress in Biomass Conversion.
biomass, it is rather difficult to separate Vols. I-II. New York: Academic
feedstock analyses and thermochemical Press, 1980.
related analyses.
Young, R. A. Introduction to
A collection of the different analyses which Forest Science. New York: John
are used in France and Belgium in the differ­ WUey and Sons, 1982.
ent laboratories (public institutions, univer­
sities and industry) has been done. Energy from Biological Processes.
Washington, DC: Office of
We give here a summary of the analysis Technology Assessment, 1980.
methods together with reports or publica­
tions for uncommon methods. Sjostrom, E. Wood Chemistry.
New York: Interscience
Publishers, 1963.
Rydholm, S. A. Pulping Processes.
New York: Interscience
Publishers, 1965.

Content:

189

190

191

 SOLID FUELS
(!:iTANDARDS)

Title: Standard for Densified Wood Pellet Title: Standard Test Method for Specific
Fuel for Residential Use Gravity and Porosity of Lump Coke 1
Citation: APFI-PF-1-88 Citation: ASTM D 167-73 (1979)
Content: Content: This test method covers the
determination of apparent specific gravity
Availability APFI and true specific gravity of lump coke larger
than I-in. (25-mm) size and calculating
Title: Wafers, Pellets, and Crumbles-­ porosity from the specific gravity data.
Definitions and Methods for Deter­
mining Density, Durability, and Availability: ASTM
Moisture Content
1 This test method is under the jurisdiction of
Citation: ASAE 5269.3 ASTM Committee D-5 on Coal and Coke
and is the direct responsibility of Sub­
Content: This standard defines wafers, pel­ committee D05.02 on Physical Tests of
lets, and crumbles and establishes methods Coke.
and procedures for measuring unit specific
density, bulk density, durability, and mois­
ture content. Title: Standard Test Method for Grindability
of Coal by the Hardgrove-Machine
Availability: ASAE Method l

Citation: ASTM D 409-85

Title: Solid Fuels
Content: This test method is used to deter­
Citation: ASME PTC 3.2-54 mine the relative grindability or ease of pul­
verization of coals in comparison with coals
Content: chosen as standards. A prepared sample
receives a definite amount of grinding energy
Availability: ASME in a miniature pulverizer, and the change in
size is determined by sieving.
Title: Standard Definitions of Terms
Relating to Coal and Coke 1 Availability: ASTM

Citation: ASTM D 121-85 1 This test method is under the jurisdiction of

ASTM Committee D-5 on Coal and Coke
Content: and is the direct responsibility of Sub­
committee D05.07 on Physical Charac­
Availability: ASTM terization and Beneficiation of Coal and
Coal Slurries.
1 These definitions are under the jurisdiction
of ASTM Committee D-5 on Coal and Coke Title: Standard Method of Drop Shatter Test
and are the direct responsibility of Sub­ for Coal!
committee D05.02 on Nomenclature and
Definition. Citation: ASTM D 440-86

Content: This method of drop shatter test

covers the determination of the relative size
stability and its complement, the friability,
of sized coal. It affords a means of indicating
the ability of coal to withstand breakage

193

SOLID FUELS
(STANDARDS)

when subjected to handling at the mine ar:d Availability: ASTM

during transit to the consumer. The test IS
serviceable for ascertaining the similarity of 1 This method is under the jurisdiction of
coals in respect to size stability and fri­ ASTM Committee 0-5 on Coal and Coke
ability rather than for determining val~es and is the direct responsibility of
within narrow limits in order to emphaslze Subcommittee D05.07 on Physical Charac­
their dissimilarity. This method is con­ terization and Beneficiation of Coal and
sidered applicable for testing a selected Coal Slurries.
single size of different coals, for testing
different single sizes of the same coal, and
for mixed sizes of the same of different Title: Standard Test Method for Index of
coals. Dustiness of Coal and Coke

Availability: ASTM Citation: ASTM 0 547-41 (1980)

Intent to withdraw
1This method is un der the jurisdiction of Content: This method covers the deter­
ASTM Committee 0-5 on Coal and Coke mination of a relative index of the dust
and is the direct responsibility of Sub­ produced when handling coal or coke.
committee 005.07 on Physical Charac­
terization and Beneficiation of Coal and Availability: ASTM
Coal Slurries.
Title: Standard Methods for Chemical
Title: Standard Method of Tumbler Test for Analysis of Wood Charcoail
Coal l
Citation: ASTM D 1762-84
Citation: ASTM 0 441-86
Content: This method covers the deter­
Content: This method covers the determina­ mination of moisture, volatile matter, and
tion of the relative friability of a particular ash in charcoal made from wood. The meth­
size of sized coal. It affords a means of od is applicable to lumps and briquets and is
measuring the liability of coal to break into designed for the evaluation of charcoal
smaller pieces when subjected to repeated quality. The method employs apparatus that
handling at the mine or subsequently, by the is found in most laboratories and is adapted
distr ibutor or by the consumer. This method to routine analyses of a large number of
is serviceable for ascertaining the similarity samples.
of coals in respect to friability rather than
for determining values within narrow limits Availability: ASTM
in order to .emphasize their dissimilarity.
This method also may serve to indicate the
relative extent to which sized coals will suf­ 1 This method is under the jur isdiction of
fer size degradation in certain mechanical ASTM Committee 0-7 on Wood and is the
feed devices. This method may be employed direct responsibility of Subcommittee
for differentiating between certain ranks and 007.14 on Chemical Tests.
grades of coals, and therefore the method is
of service for coal classification purposes. Title: Standard Test Method for Fusibility of
Coal and Coke Ash 1

Citation: ASTM 0 1857-68 (I 987)

Content: This test method covers the obser­

vation of the temperatures at which triangu­
lar pyramids (cones) prepared from coal and
coke ash attain and pass through certain

194

 SgLID FUELS
(~TANDARDS)

defined stages of fusing and flow when Title: Standard Method for Calculating Coal
heated at a specified rate in controlled, and Coke Analyses from As­
mildly reducing, and where desired, oxidizing Determined to Different Bases l
atmospheres.
Citation: ASTM 0 3180-84
Availability: ASTM
Content: This method gives formulas to
1 This test method is under the jurisdiction of enable analytical data to be expressed on
ASTM Committee 0-5 on Coal and Coke various different bases in common use. Such
and is the direct responsibility of Sub­ bases are: as received; dry; equilibrium
committee 005.21 on Methods of Analysis. moisture; dry ash free; and others.

Availability: ASTM
Title: Standard Test Method for Plastic
Properties of Coal by the Constant­
Torque Giese ler Plastometer 1 1 This method is under the jurisdiction of
ASTM Committee 0-5 on Coal and Coke
Citation: ASTM 0 2639-74 (I 985) and is the direct responsibility of Sub­
committee 005.21 on Methods of Analysis.
Content: This test method gives a relative
measure of the plastic behavior of coal when Title: Standard Method of Tumbler Test for
heated under prescribed conditions. This test Coke 1
method may be used to obtain semiquantita­
tive values of the plastic properties of coals Citation: ASTM 0 3402-81
and blends used in carbonization and in other
situations where determination of plastic Content: This method covers a procedure for
behavior of coals is of practical importance. obtaining a relative measure of the resis­
tance of coke to degradation by impact and
Availability: ASTM abrasion.

Availability: ASTM
1 Thistest method is under the jurisdiction of
ASTM Committee 0-5 on Coal and Coke
and is the direct responsibility of Sub­ 1 This method is under the jurisdiction of
committee 005.15 on Plasticity and ASTM Committee 0-5 on Coal and Coke
Swelling of Coal. and is the direct responsibility of Sub­
committee 005.22 on Physical Tests of
Title: Standard Method of Drop Shatter Test Coke.
for Cokel
Title: Standard Method for Calculating
Citation: ASTM 0 3038-72 (I 983) Refuse-Derived Fuel Analysis Data
from As-Determined to Different
Content: This method covers two procedures Bases 1
for the determination of the property of coke
of withstanding breakage when dropped under Citation: ASTM E 791-87
specified test conditions.
Content: This method gives equations to
Availability: ASTM enable analytical data from the application
of RDF analyses procedures to be expressed
on various different bases in common use.
1 Thismethod is under the jurisdiction of Such bases are: as-received; dry; dry, ash­
ASTM Committee 0-5 on Coal and Coke free; and others.
and is the direct responsibility of Sub­
committee 005.22 on Physical Tests.

195

SOLID FUELS
C:iTANDARDS)

Availability: ASTM Title: Standard Test Method for Fusibility of

Refuse-Derived Fuel 3 (RDF-3) Ash l
1 This method is under the jurisdiction of Citation: ASTM E 953-88
ASTM Committee E-38 on Resource Recov­
ery and is the direct 'responsibility of Content: This test method covers the obser­
Subcommittee E38.01 on Energy. vation of the temperatures at which triangu­
lar pyramids (cones) prepared from RDF-3
Title: Standard Definitions of Terms and ash attain and pass through certain stages of
Abbreviations Relating to Physical fusing and flow when heated at a specific
and Chemical Characteristics of rate in controlled, mildly-reducing, and
Refuse-Derived Fuel l oxidizing atmospheres. The test method is
empirical, and strict observance of the
Citation: ASTM E 856-87 requirements and conditions is necessary to
obtain reproducible temperatures and enable
Content: different laboratories to obtain concordant
results.
Availability: ASTM
Availability: ASTM
1 These definitions are under the jurisdiction
of ASTM Committee E-38 on Resource This method is under the jurisdiction of
1
Recovery and are the direct responsibility ASTM Committee E-38 on Resource Re­
of Subcommittee E38.0 I on covery and is the direct responsibility of
Subcommittee E 38.0 1 on
Title: Standard Test Methods for Analysis of
Wood Fuels l Title: Standard Test Method for
r...h 'llr."U"j t1r.'.....i n % T b Ii<... Q 'U"/.lU',"'0 an"....q,. rJ...
Citation: ASTM E 870-82 (1987) Refuse Size-Reduction Equipment 1
Content: These test methods cover the Citation: ASTM E 959-83 (l988)
proximate and ultimate analysis of wood
fuels and the determination of the gross Content: This test method covers measur­
caloric value of wood fuels sampled and ing the performance of solid-waste, size­
prepared by prescribed test methods and reduction equipment.
analyzed according to ASTM established
procedures. Test methods as herein de­ Availability: ASTM
scribed may be used to establish the rank of
fuels, to show the ratio of combustible to
incombustible constituents, to provide the 1 This test method is under the jurisdiction of
basis for buying and selling, and to evaluate ASTM Committee E-38 on Resource Recov­
for beneficiation or for other purposes. ery and is the direct responsibility of
Subcommittee E38.08 on Processing Equip­
Availability: ASTM ment and Unit Operations.

I These test methods are under the juris­ Title: Standard Practice for Maintaining
diction of ASTM Committee E-48 on Bio­ Health and Safety Records at Solid
technology and are the direct responsibility Waste Processing Facilities l
of Subcommittee E48.05 on Biomass Con­
version Systems. Citation: ASTM E 1076-85

Content: The purpose of this practice is to

provide guidance to solid waste processing
facility managers responsible for maintaining

196

 SOLID FUELS
(STANDARDS)

records of the health and safety experience coupled with a measure of product purity as
of their employees. This practice describes described in Test Method E 889.
general principles for establishing a pro­
cedure to collect and document health and Availability: ASTM
safety data within a solid waste processing
facility and provides specific information on
the forms and procedures to be used in 1 This method is under the jur isd iction of
recording illnesses among employees. ASTM Committee E-38 on Resource Recov­
ery and is the direct responsibility of
Availability: ASTM Subcommittee E38.08 on Processing Equip­
ment and Unit Operations.

1 Thispractice is under the jurisdiction of Title: Standard Terminology Relating to

ASTM Committee E-38 on Resource Recov­ Biomass Fuels 1
ery and is the direct responsibility of
Subcommittee E38.07 on Health and Safety Citation: ASTM E 1126-86
Aspects of Resource Recovery.
Content:
Title: Standard Method for Measuring the
Throughput of Resource-Recovery Availability: ASTM
Unit Operations 1
I This terminology is under the jurisdiction of
Citation: ASTM E 1107 -86
ASTM Committee E-48 on Biotechnology
and is the direct responsibility of Sub­
Content: This method is for measuring the
committee E48.05 on Biomass Conversion
throughput, or mass flowrate, of a resource­
recovery unit operation, or series of unit
operations.
Title: Test Method for the Durability of
Availability: ASTM Biomass Pellets

Citation: ASTM E 1288-89

1 Thismethod is under the jurisdiction of
ASTM Committee E-38 on Resource Recov­ Content:
ery and is the direct responsibility of
Subcommittee E38.08 on Processing Equip­ Availability: ASTM
ment and Unit Operations.

Title: Standard Test Method for Deter­ Title: Methods for Analysis and Testing of
mination of the Recovery of a Product Coal and Coke
in a Materials Separation Device 1
Citation: BS 10 16 (Many Parts)
Citation: ASTM E 1108-86
Content:
Content: This test method covers the
determination of the recovery of a desired Availability: BSI
product in a device processing solid waste for
the purpose of concentrating a component of
interest. The recovery is determined with
respect to the amount of the desired com­
ponent in the output stream (accepts) as
opposed to another output stream (rejects).
The results of this calculation determine the
effectiveness of component separation when

197

SOLID FUELS
(!:iTANDARDS)

Title: Testing of Solid Fuels; General and Title: Solid Fuel: Method for Determination
Survey of Methods of Test of High Heat Value and Calculation of
Low Heat Value
Citation: DIN 51700, Part 1
Citation: GOST 147-74
Content:
Content: The standard specifies a method
Availability: DIN for determination of the high heat value and
calculating the low heat value of coal, brown
Title: Testing of Solid Fuels; Sampling and coal, anthracite, oil shale, and lignites as
Sample Preparation: Sampling well as the products of their beneficiation
and heat treatment, coal breaks and peat
Citation: DIN 51700, Parts 2-4 breaks and peat.

Content: GOST

Availability: DIN Title: Solid Mineral Fuels--Determination

of Fusibility of Ash--High Tempera­
Title: Testing of Solid Fuels; Generalities ture Tube Method
and Index of Methods of Test
Citation: ISO 540:1981
Citation: E DIN 51700
Content:
Content:
Availability: ISO
Availability: DIN
'Title: Coke '(greater than 20 mmin SiZED-­
Title: Testing of Solid Fuels; Determination Determination of Mechanical Strength
of Chemical Composition of Fuel Ash
Citation: ISO 556:1980
Citation: DIN 51729, Parts 1-9
Content:
Content:
ISO
Availability: DIN
Title: Outdoor Storage of Wood Chips
Title: Testing of Solid Fuels; Determination
of Fusibill ty of Fuel Ash Citation: NFPA 46A-1973

Citation: DIN 51730 Content:

Availability: NFPA
Content:

Availability: DIN

198

 SOLID FUELS
(STANDARDS)

Title: Methods for the Analysis and Testing Part 9-1977: Phosphorus in Coal and Coke
of Coal and Coke Part 10-1980: Arsenic in Coal and Cokes
Part 10.1-1986: Determination of Trace
Citation: AS 1038 Elements-Determination of Eleven Trace
Elements in Coal, Coke and Fly-Ash-­
Content: Flame Atomic Absorption Spectrometric
Part 1-1980: Total Moisture in Hard Coal Method
Part 2-1979: Total Moisture in Coke Part 11 1982: Forms of Sulphur in Coal
Part 3-1979: Proximate Analysis of Hard Part 12.1-1984: Determination of Crucible
Coal Swelling Number of Coal Part 12.2­
Part 4-1979: Proximate Analysis of Coke 1980: Assessment of Caking Power of
Part 5-1979: Gross Specific Energy of Coal Hard Coal Gray-King Coke Type Test
and Coke Part 12.3-1984: Determination of the
Part 6.1-1986: Ultimate Analysis of Higher Dilatometer Characteristics of Higher
Rank Coal-Determination of Carbon and Rank Coal
Hydrogen Part 13-1976: Tests Special to Coke
Part 6.2-1986: Ultimate Analysis of Higher Part 14.1-1981: Analysis of Coal Ash, Coke
Rank Coal-Determination of Nitrogen Ash and Mineral Matter (Borate Fusion-­
Part 6.3.1-1986: Ultimate Analysis of High Flame Atomic Absorption Spectrometric
Rank Coal-Determination of Total Method)
Sulphur (Eschka Method) Part 14.2-1985: Analysis of Higher Rank
Part 6.3.2-1986: Ultimate Analysis of High Coal Ash and Coke Ash (Acid Digestion-­
Rank Coal-Determination of Total Flame Atomic Absorption Spectrometric
Sulphur (High Temperature Combustion Method)
Method) Amdt 1, Sept. 1986 Part 15-1987: Fusibility of Higher Rank Coal
Part 6.3.3-1986: Ultimate Analysis of Higher Ash and Coke Ash
Rank Coal-Determination of Total Part 16-1986: Acceptance and Reporting of
Sulphur (Infrared Method) Results
Part 7-1981: Ultimate Analysis of Coke
Part 8-1980: Chlorine in Coal and Coke SAA

199

200

 SOLID FUELS

(LITERATURE)

Title: Determination of Combustible Title: Laboratory Procedures for the

Volatile Matter in Fuels Analysis of Biomass Fuels

Citation: Ecklund, G., J. R. Pedersen, Citation: Ebeling, J. M. and B. M.

and B. Stroemberg. Fuel 66 (I): 13­ Jenkins. Paper No. 84-3074,
16 (Jan. 1987). presented at the 1984 Summer
Meeting, American Society of
Content: A method for determination of Agricultural Engineers, University
combustible volatile matter by flash­ of Tennessee, Knoxville, June 24­
pyrolysis has been developed. The analysis is 27, 1984. St. Joseph, MI: American
applicable to fuels with H/C values ranging Society of Agricultural Engineers.
from 0.2 to 2.05. This range includes hard
coals, lignites, peats, biomass, and fuel oil. Content: Design and analysis of biomass
The precision is similar to traditional gas energy systems requires a knowledge of the
chromatography, i.e., 6%-8%. Combustible physical and chemical properties of the fuels.
volatile matter should be better correlated This paper describes a set of laboratory pro­
to ignitibility of solid fuels than ASTM cedures for determining moisture content;
volatile matter. proximate, ultimate, and ash analysis; and
higher heating value of biomass materials.
Title: Ash Fusion Temperature: A Also included is a discussion of interpreting
Thermodynamically Based Model results and data on some potential biomass
fuels analyzed at UC Davis.
Citation: Rhinehard, R. R. and A. A.
Attar in Proceedings of the Tenth Title: Fuel Characteristics of Wood and
Annual Energy-Sources Technology Nonwood Biomass Fuels
Conference and Exhibition, Dallas,
Texas, February 15-18, 1987; Citation: Rossi, Amadeo. Progress in
Vol. 8. New York: The American Biomass Conversion, Vol. 5. New
Society of Mechanical Engineers, York: Academic Press, Inc., 1984.
1987.
Content: Ch. I-Introduction; Ch. II-Method­
Content: This paper descr ibes a thermo­ ology; Ch. IIA-Proximate Analysis; Ch. IIB­
dynamically-based correlation between coal Ultimate Analysis; Ch. lIC-Higher Heating
ash fusion temperatures and ash composition. Values; Ch. IID-Bulk Density; Ch. lIE-Mois­
A wide range of data from the literature was ture Content; Ch. IIF-Screen Fractionation;
used to obtain the values of model param­ Ch. IIG-Ash Fusion Temperature; Ch. I1I­
eters. A seven-parameter correlation is pro­ Results; Ch. IlIA-Proximate Analysis;
posed which permits predicting the ash fusion Ch. IIIB-Ultimate Analysis; Ch. mC-Higher
temperature with a standard error of ±65°C Heating Values; Ch. IIID-Bulk Density;
or better. Ch. IIIE-Screen Fractionation; Ch. IIIF-Ash
Fusion Temperature; Ch. IV-Discussion;
Ch. IVA-Chemical Characterization of Bio­
mass Fuels; Ch. IVB-Existing Combustion
Facilities; Ch. V-Conclusions.

20 I

SOLID FUELS
(LITERATURE)

Title: Coal Processing Technology Title: Physical and Chemical Properties of

Biomass Fuel
Citation: A CEP technical manual published
by AIChE. Prepared by editors of Citation: Ebeling, J. M. and B. M. Jenkins.
Chemical E ngineering Progress. Paper No. 83-3546, Presented at
the 1983 Winter Meeting, Ameri­
Content: Individual articles treat a multi­ can Society of Agricultural Engi­
tude of coal processes, in multiple volumes. neers, Chicago, Illinois, Decem­
ber 13-16, 1983. St. Joseph, MI:
American Society of Agricultural
Title: Ash Chemical Composition, Defor­ Engineers.
mation and Fusion Temperatures for
Wood and Agricultural Residues Content: A preliminary set of physical and
chemical properties of biomass fuels are pre­
Citation: Osman, E. A. and J. R. Goss. Paper sented. Included are ultimate and proximate
No. 83-3549, presented at the 1983 chemical analysis, heating value (higher and
Winter Meeting, American Society lower), bulk density, and ash composition.
of Agricultural Engineers, Mathematical methods for relating various
Chicago, Itlinois, December 13-16, properties are described and the influence of
1983. St. Joseph, MI: American moisture content discussed.
Society of Agricultural Engineers.
Title: Rapid Analysis of Important Fuel
Content: The elemental chemical and com­ Properties by FT -IR Spectroscopy
puted oxides for the ash from 26 biomass fuel
samples are reported along with the ash de­ Citation: Aho, M. and P. Kortelainen.
formation and fusion temperatures for each To be published in Finnish Journal
sample. Si0 2 was found to be the main
Suo, 1989.
constituent of almost all ash samples. CaO
and K 20 constituted most of the ash content. Content:
Twenty-one of the 25 samples had deforma­
tion temperatures above 800°C.
Title: Optical and Chemical Characteriza­
Title: Ash Deformation and Fusion tion of Solid Residues Obtained from
Temperature Models for Wood and Vacuum Pyrolysis of Wood (Aspen
Agricultural Residues Poplar)

Citation: Osman, E. A. and J. R. Goss. Paper Citation: Kalkreuth, W., D. Brouillard, and
No. 83-3550, presented at the 1983 C. Roy. Biomass 10:27-45 (1986).
Winter Meeting, American Society
Cont~nt: Laboratory scale vacuum pyrolysis
of Agricultural Engineers,
Chicago, Illinois, December 13-16, expenments on the thermal conversion of
1983. St. Joseph, MI: American wood (aspen poplar) are reported. The con­
Society of Agricultural Engineers. version of wood into gaseous and liquid pro­
ducts was found to be almost complete at
Content: Twenty-six determinations of bio­ 400°C where the pyrolytic oil yield was 62%
mass ash chemical constituents from which by weight, with 83% of wood being con­
nine independent variables (Si0 2, Fe203' verted. The major pyrolytic reaction zone
MgO, CaO, ZnO, K 20, Na20, 5° 3 , P 205) and was between 225° and 300°C. Solid residues
one dependent variable (ash deformation or obtained from these experiments were char­
fusion temperature) were entered into the ac.terized by methods of incident light
Minitab 1.1 multiple linear regression program miCroscopy and elemental analysis. The wood
to prediCt ash deformation and fusion was transformed into vitrinite-like sub­
temperatures. stances which resemble morphologically cell

202

 SOLID FUELS

(LITERATURE)

tissues commonly encountered in the petro­ in various conditions has been performed.
graphic analysis of peats and coals. Fluo­ Reference materials also examined by ESCA
rescence and reflectance measurements ob­ included the initial wood, Whatman no. 1
tained from the residual materials indicate paper, and two lignins prepared by different
severe alterations within the organic mate­ procedures. Interest has been focused on the
rial leading at elevated temperatures to C IS spectra and on the determination of sur­
reflectance values which correspond to the face O/C atomic ratio. A difference between
semi-anthracite rank level of coals. The bulk O/C values measured by chemical analy­
increase of reflectance as reaction tempera­ sis and surface O/C ratios obtained from
ture increases correlates well with increasing ESCA data is considered diagnostic of a dif­
carbon content and a decrease in the H/C­ ference in chemical composition of the bulk
O/C-atomic ratios of the residual materials. and the surface. In the CIS peaks of wood
There was a good correlation between calor­ and its constitutive polymers, the usual com­
ific values determined on the residues and ponents peaks, C l' C 21 and C 3 were ob­
optimal parameters such as "max' Q and ran­ served. For the solid residues, however, a
dom reflectance. Results suggest that vacu­ fourth peak deSignated as Co appears, the
um pyrolysis has potential as a method for importance of which increases steadily when
production of liquid products from biomass. the temperature of extraction is raised from
250° to 350°C. The component Co was as­
Title: ESC A Analysis of Partially Converted cribed to polyaromatic constituents. Its
Lignocellulosic Materials proportion is correlated with the fraction of
the carbon in the residue comprised in the
Citation: Ahmed, A., A. Adnot, and S. recondensed material and determined inde­
Kaliaguine. Journal of Applied pendently. The 0 IS peak shows also a com­
Polymer Science 35: 1909-1919 plex structure with three components in the
(1988). wood-derived reference materials and four in
some of the solid residues. These structures
Content: Further ESCA data of the solid have not been discussed previously in the
residues obtained by supercritical extraction literature and a tentative assignment for the
of Populus tremuloides are reported. The component peaks is proposed.
changes of the ESCA spectra with the sever­
ity of grinding are discussed. These data Title: Characterization of the Solid Residues
allow us to draw precise conclusions on the of Vacuum Pyrolysis of Populus
spatial distribution of carbonaceous recon­ tremulofdes
densed material as thermal conversion pro­
ceeds. The C 1 S peaks are of special interest Citation: Ahmed, A., H. Pakdel, C. Roy, and
as the distributIon of the four components in S. Kaliaguine. Accepted for publi­
these peaks bears information on the nature cation in, J. of Anal. Pyrolysis,
of the chemical compounds present on the 1989.
surface of the sample.
Content: Bulk chemical analyses and surface
Title: ESCA Study of the Solid Residues of composition ESCA results are reported for
Supercri.~ical Extraction of Populus
the solid residues of vacuum pyrolysis of
tremuloides in Methanol Populus tremulotdes.
The conversions of hemicellulose and lignin
Citation: Ahmed, A., A. Adnot, and S. start as low as 207°C, but below 280°C the
Kaliaguine. JournaZ of Applied conversion products of lignin are mostly
Polymer Science 34:359-375 solids. Cellulose is converted to oil and gas
(1987). above 280°C, but some of these products
undergo secondary recondensation reactions
Content: A systematic ESCA study of the which involve lignin degradation solid
solid residues of supercritical critical products. The char obtained above 315 0 C
extraction of Populus tremuloides prepared mostly consists of polyaromatic materials.

203

SOLID FUELS
(LITERATURE)

The ESCA analysis of chars produced from A series of equations was also developed to
extracted and non-extracted wood indicate calculate Klason residue, glucose and xylose
the presence of extractives with hydrocarbon content of the solid residues. The usefulness
chains on the surface of the fibers. These of each equation is discussed in the article.
heavy components seem very resistant to
thermal degradation and remain on the sur­ Title: Critical Analysis of the Dry Process
face of the residues up to 400°C even under Improvement of Ligneous Materials
vacuum conditions. The effect of these for Energy-Producing Purposes--Final
extractives on the liquefaction of wood is Report. (Commission des
discussed. Coramusantes Europeencees)

Title: Analysis of Wood Vacuum Pyrolysis Citation: Carre, J ., J. Hebert, and L.

Solid Residues by Diffuse Reflectance Lacrosse. Ministere BeIge de
Infrared Fourier Transform L'Agriculture Sentre de
Spectrometry Recherches Agonomiques de L'Etat
Gembloux (CRA)
Citation: Pakdel, H., J. L. Grandmaison, and
C. Roy. Accepted for publication Content:
in Canadian Journal of Chemistry, Ch 1 Fuel Application Qualification Test
June 1988. Methods of Ligneous-Cellulosic
Materials
Content: Vacuum pyrolysis of wood enables Ch 2 Usage Aptitude Tests on Compressed
the production of high yields of oils which Ligno-Cellulosic Materials
are a source of liquid fuels and chemicals. Ch 3 Experimental Results
Wood charcoal is a solid residue byproduct. Ch 4 Technical Provisions (In English)
Chemical analysis of chars produced at dif­
ferent pyrolysis temperatures in a Process Title: Pyrolysis-High Resolution Gas
Develop;ment Unit was performed. Solid Chromatography and Pyrolysis Gas
residues produced at 200°, 263 0 , 327°, 363°, Chromatography-Mass Spectrometry
401 ° and 448°C were analyzed using wet of Kerogens and Kerogen Precursors
chemistry together with chromatographic
and infrared spectrometric methods. Citation: Van De Meent, Dik, Stephen C.
A Diffuse Reflectance Infrared Fourier Brown, R. Paul Philp, and Bernd R.
Transform (DRIFT) study of the solid resi­ T. Simoneit. Geochemica et
dues which contained various proportions of Cosmochemica Acta 44:999-1013.
organic matters was performed. Unconverted
lignin, polysaccharides and recondensed Content: A series of kerogens and kerogen
materials constituted the organic matters. precursors isolated from DSDP samples, oil
The polysaccharide content was determined shales and recent algal mats have been
by hydrolysis in trifluoracetic acid followed examined by Curie point pyrolysis-high
by derivatization and gas Chromatography resolution gas chromatography and gas
analysis. The IR study showed that the solid chromatography-mass spectrometry. This
residue retained its wood nature below study has shown that the three main types of
263°C. Significant degradation, decomposi­ kerogens (marine terrestrial and mixtures of
tion and recondensation reactions occurred both) can be characterized using these tech­
with an increase in temperature and coal-like niques. The marine (algal) kerogens yield
nature prevailed above 32JOC. Occurrence principally alIphatic products and the ter­
of a new band at 1700 cm-l in samples restrial kerogens yield more aromatic and
produced at 363°C and above was found to be phenolic products with some n-alkanes and
indicative of a new carbonyl group, n-alkenes. The yields of n-alkanes and
presumably in recondensed material. n-alkenes increase and phenols decrease with

204

 SOLID FUELS
(LITERATURE)

increasing geologic age, however, pyrolysis­ Title: Remarks on the Terminology Used for
GC cannot be used to characterize the influ­ the Chemical Transformations of
ence of short term diagenesis on the kerogen Fuels
structure.
Citation: Roy, C. and E. Chornet. Fuel
Title: Characterization of U.S. Lignites by Processing Technology 2:209-213
Pyrolysis Mass Spectrometry and (I979).
Multivariate Analysis
Content: The technical vocabulary used to
Citation: Metcalf, G. Stephen, Willem describe the chemical transformations of
Windig, George R. Hill, and fuels is critically revised with the objective
Henk L. C. Meuzelaar. Interna­ of establishing a simple and coherent classi­
tional Journal of Coal Geology fication. The criterion used for such classifi­
7:245-268 (1987). cation is based on the unique and specific
chemical nature of each of the transforma­
Content: Sixteen Texas (Gulf Province) tions. Thus three distinct categories are
lignite samples and six Montana and Wyoming defined: thermal decomposition reactions,
(Northern Great Plains Province) lignitic oxidation reactions and reduction reactions.
coals were obtained from the Pennsylvania The scope of application of these categories
State University Coal Bank and analyzed in as well as their subdivisions is also discussed.
triplicate by pyrolysis mass spectrometry
(Py-MS) using Curie-point pyrolysis (equi­
Title: Are Pellet Standards too Strict?
librium temp. 610°C) in combination with
low-voltage (12 eV) electron ionization. The
Citation: Wood N Energy, January 1989.
spectra obtained were evaluated by means of pp. 6-7.
factor analysis, followed by discriminant
analysis using only factors with eigen­ Content: Discusses and lists pellet fuel
value ~ 1 and regarding each set of triplicate
specifications.
spectra as a separate category. The dis­
criminant analysis results showed a definite
separation between lignites from the two
provinces as well as some clustering of
samples from the same seam field or region.
Six additional lignite samples obtained from
an independent source and representing other
regions of the Gulf Province were found to
cluster with the Texas lignite samples when
treated as "unknowns" in the discriminant
analysis procedure.

205

206

 PETROLEUM-DERIVED LIQUID FUELS

(STANDARDS)

Title: Manual of Petroleum Measurement Availability: ASTM

Standards (Complete Set)

Citation: 1 This method is under the jurisdiction of

ASTM Committee D-2 on Petroleum Prod­
Content: The Institute currently maintains a ucts and Lubricants.
comprehensive API Manual of Petroleum
Measurement Standards. This manual is an Title: Standard Test Method for Saybolt
ongoing project, as new chapters and re­ Viscosity 1
visions of old chapters will be released
periodically. Citation: ASTM D 88-81 (1987)
Availability: API Content: This test method covers the empir­
ical procedures for determining the Saybolt
Universal or Saybolt Furol viscosities of
Title: Diesel and Burner Fuels
petroleum products at specified tempera­
tures between 21 ° and 99°C (70° and 210°F).
Citation: ASME PTC 3.1-58
A special procedure for waxy products is
indicated.
Content:
Availability: ASTM
Availability: ASME

1 This test method is under the jurisdiction of

Title: Determination of the Viscosity of ASTM Committee D-8 on Roofing, Water­
Liquids Instruments and Apparatus proofing, and Bituminous Materials and is
the direct responsibility of Subcommittee
Citation: ASME PTC 19.17-65 D08.05 on Solvent-Bearing Bituminous Com­
pounds for Roofing and Waterproofing.
Content:

Availability: ASME Title: Standard Test Method for Flash and

Fire Points by Cleveland Open Cup 1
Title: Test Method for Flash Point by Tag Citation: ASTM D 92-85
Closed Tester
Content: This test method covers determi­
Citation: ASTM D 56-87 na tion of the flash and fire points of all pe­
troleum products except fuel oils and those
Content: having an open cup flash below 175°F (79°C).
Availability: ASTM Availability: ASTM

Title: Standard Method for Distillation of 1 This test method is under the jur isdiction of
Petroleum Products 1 ASTM Committee D-2 on Petroleum Prod­
ucts and Lubricants and is the direct re­
Citation: ASTM D 86-82 sponsibility of Subcommittee D02.08 on

Content: This method covers the distillation

of motor gasolines, aviation gasolines, avia­
tion turbine fuels, special boiling point
spirits, naphthas, white spirit, kerosines, gas
oils, distillate fuel oils, and similar petro­
leum products.

207

PETROLEUM-DERIVED LIQUID FUELS

<STANDARDS)

Title: Standard Test Methods for Flash Point oil, lubricating oil, and certain other petro­
by Pen sky-Martens Closed Tester I leum products.

Citation: ASTM D 93-85 Availability: ASTM

Content: These test methods cover the de­ 1 This method is under the jurisdiction of
termination of the flash point by Pensky­ ASTM Committee D-2 on Petroleum Prod­
Martens closed-cup tester of fuel oils, lube ucts and Lubricants and is the direct re­
oils, suspensions of solids, liquids that tend to sponsibility of Subcommittee 002.05 on
form a surface film under test conditions, Physical Analysis of Fuels and Light
and other liquids. o istillates.
Availability: ASTM
Title: Standard Test Method for Conradson
I These test methods are under the jurisdic­ Carbon Residue of Petroleum
tion of ASTM Committee 0-2 on Petroleum Products l
Products and Lubricants and are the direct
responsibility of Subcommittee D02.08 on Citation: ASTM D 189-88
Volatility.
Content: This test method covers the de­
termination of the amount of carbon residue
Title: Standard Test Method for Pour Point left after evaporation and pyrolysis of an oil,
of Petroleum Oils 1 and is intended to provide some indication of
relative coke-forming propensities. The
Citation: ASTM D 97-87 method is generally applicable to relatively
nonvolatile petroleum products which parti­
Content: The test for pour point is intended ally decompose on distillation at atmospheric
for use on any petroleum oil. A procedure pressure. Petroleum products containing
suitable for black oils, cylinder stock, and ash-forming constituents as determined by
nondistillate fuel oil is described. ASTM Test Method 0 482 or IP Method 4,
Test for Ash from Petroleum Products, will
Availability: ASTM have an erroneously high carbon residue,
depending upon the amount of ash formed.
1 This test method is under the jurisdiction of Availability: ASTM
ASTM Committee 0-2 on Petroleum Prod­
ucts and Lubricants.
1 This test method is under the jurisdiction of
ASTM Committee 0-2 on Petroleum Prod­
Title: Standard Method for Detection of ucts and Lubricants.
Copper Corrosion from Petroleum
Products by the Copper Strip Tarnish
Test l Title: Standard Method for Distillation of
Natural Gasoline 1
Citation: ASTM D 130-83
Citation: ASTM D 216-77 (1982)
Content: This method covers the detection
of the corrosiveness to copper of aviation Content: This method covers the distillation
gasoline, aviation turbine fuel, automotive of natural gasoline. A sample of 100 ml is
gasoline, natural gasoline or other hydrocar­ distilled at atmospheric pressure without
bons having a Reid vapor pressure no greater fractionation, and readings are taken of the
than 18 psi (124 kPa), cleaners (Stoddard) vapor temperatures corresponding to the
solvents, kerosine, diesel fuel, distillate fuel amounts distilled.

208

 PETROLEUM-DERIVED LIQUID FUELS

(!:iTANDARDS)

Availability: ASTM Title: Standard Specification for Fuel Oils 1

1 This method is under the jurisdiction of Citation: ASTM D 396-86

ASTM Committee D-2 on Petroleum Prod­
ucts and Lubricants. Content: This specification covers grades of
fuel oil intended for use in various types of
fuel-oil-burning equipment under various
Title: Standard Method for Distillation of climatic and operating conditions. This spec­
Crude Petroleum 1 ification is for the use of purchasing agencies
in formulating specifications to be included
Citation: ASTM D 285-62 (1978) in contracts for purchases of fuel oils and for
Discontinued 1987 the guidance of consumers of fuel oils in the
selection of the grades most suitable for
Content: This method covers the determina­ their needs.
tion of the percentages and distillation range
of the naphtha in any crude petroleum of the Availability: ASTM
class known commercially as refinable crude
oils. This method does not attempt to spec­ 1 Thisspecification is under the jurisdiction
ify what quality of product shall be defined of ASTM Committee D-2 on Petroleum
as naphtha, nor can it be expected to dupli­ Products and Lubricants and is the direct
cate the results of commercial refining oper­ responsibility of Subcommittee D02.E on
ations. It specifies apparatus and procedure, Burner, Diesel, and Gas Turbine Fuels Oils.
leaving selection of numerical limits and in­
terpretation of results to be agreed upon by
the interested parties. Title: Standard Specification for Automotive
Gasoline 1
Availability: ASTM
Citation: ASTM D 439-86
1 This method is under the jurisdiction of Content: This specification guides in estab­
ASTM Committee D-2 on P etroleum Prod­ lishing the requirements of gasoline for
ucts and Lubricants. ground vehicles equipped with spark-ignition
engines. This specification describes various
Title: Standard Test Method for Vapor characteristics of gasolines for use over a
Pressure of Petroleum Products (Reid wide range of operating conditions. It neither
Method)l necessarily includes all types of gasolines
that are satisfactory for automotive vehi­
Citation: ASTM D 323-82 cles, nor necessarily excludes gasolines that
may perform unsatisfactorily under certain
Content: This test method covers a determi­ operating conditions or in certain equipment.
nation of vapor pressure of gasoline. It is
also applied to volatile crude oil and other Availability: ASTM
volatile petroleum products, except liquefied
petroleum gases. 1 Thisspecification is under the jurisdiction
of ASTM Committee D-2 on Petroleum
Availability: ASTM Products and Lubricants and is the direct
responsibillty of Subcommittee D02.A on
1 This test method is under the jurisdiction of Gasoline.
ASTM Committee D-2 on Petroleum Prod­
ucts and Lubricants.

209

PETROLEUM-DERIVED LIQUID FUELS

(STANDARDS)

Title: Standard Test Method for Kinematic Availability: ASTM

Viscosity of Transparent and Opaque
Liquids (and the Calculation of I This test method is under the jurisdiction of

Dynamic Viscosity) 1 ASTM Committee D-2 on Petroleum Prod­

ucts and Lubricants and is the direct re­

Citation: ASTM D 445-86 sponsibility of Subcommittee D02.09 on
Oxidation.
Content: This test method covers the de­
termination of the kinematic viscosity of
liquid petroleum products, both transparent Title: Standard Test Method for Ignition
and opaque, by measuring the time for a vol­ Quality of Diesel Fuels by the Cetane
ume of liquid to flow under gravity through a Method 1
calibrated glass capillary viscometer. The
dynamic viscosity can be obtained by multi­ Citation: ASTM D 613-86
plying the measured kinematic viscosity by
the density of the liquid. Content: This test method describes the test
for determining the ignition quality of diesel
Availability: ASTM fuels in terms of ASTM cetane number.

I This test method is under the jurisdiction of Availability: ASTM

ASTM Committee D-2 on Petroleum Prod­
ucts and Lubricants and is the direct re­ I This test method is under the jurisdiction of
sponsibility of Subcommittee D02.07 on ASTM Committee D-2 on Petroleum Prod­
F low Properties. ucts and Lubr icants.

Title: Test Method for Sediment in Crude Title: Standard Test Method for Acid
Oils and Fuel Oils by the Extraction Number of Petroleum Products by
Method Potentiometric Titration 1
Citation: ASTM D 473-87 Citation: ASTM D 664-87
Content: Content: This test method covers procedures
for the determination of acidic constituents
Availability: ASTM in petroleum products and lubricants. The
test method resolves these constituents into
groups having weak-acid and strong-acid,
Title: Standard Test Method for Oxidation
Stability of Gasoline {Induction Period ionization properties, provided the dissocia­
Method)l tion constants of the more strongly acidic
compounds are at least 1000 times that of
Citation: ASTM D 525-86 the next weaker groups.

Content: This test method covers the de­ Availability: ASTM

termination of the stability of gasoline under
accelerated oxidation conditions. 1 This test method is under the jurisdiction of
ASTM Committee D-2 on Petroleum Prod­
ucts and Lubricants and is the direct re­
sponsibility of Subcommittee D02.06 on
Analysis of Lubricants.

210

 PETROLEUM-DERIVED LIQUID FUELS

(::iTANDARDS)

Title: Standard Test Method for Rust­ Title: Standard Test Method for
Preventing Characteristics of Inhib­ Neutralization Number by Color­
ited Mineral Oil in the Presence of Indicator Titration 1
Water 1
Citation: ASTM 0 974-87
Citation: ASTM 0 665-82
Content: This method covers the determina­
Content: This method is used to evaluate the tion of acidic or basic constituents in petro­
ability of inhibited mineral oils, particularly leum products and lubricants soluble or
steam-turbine oils, to aid in preventing the nearly soluble in mixtures of toluene. It is
rusting of ferrous parts should water become applicable for the determination of acids or
mixed with the oil. This method is also used bases whose dissociation constants in water
for testing other oils, such as hydraulic oils are larger than 10- 9; extremely weak acids
and circulating oils. Provision is made in the or bases whose dissociation constants are
procedure for testing heavier-than-water smaller than 10- 9 do not interfere. Salts
fluids. react if their hydrolysis constants are larger
than 10- 9 •
Availability: ASTM
Availability: ASTM
I This test method is under the jurisdiction of
ASTM Committee 0-2 on Petroleum Prod­ 1 This test method is under the jur isdiction of
ucts and Lubr icants. ASTM Committee 0-2 on Petroleum Prod­
ucts and Lubricants.
Title: Standard Test Method for Knock
Characteristics of Aviation Gasolines Title: Standard Specification for Diesel Fuel
by the Supercharge Method 1 Oilsl

Citation: ASTM 0 909-86 Citation: ASTM 0 975-81

Content: This test method covers the deter­ Content: This specification covers three
mination of the knock-limited power, under grades of diesel fuel oils suitable for various
supercharge rich-mixture conditions, of fuels types of diesel engines. This specification,
for use in spark-ignition reciprocating air­ unless otherwise provided by agreement be­
craft engines, in terms of ASTM supercharge. tween the purchaser and the supplier, pre­
By operational considerations, this method is scribes the required properties of diesel fuels
restricted to testing fuels of 85 ASTM super­ at the time and place of delivery.
charge octane number and over.
Availability: ASTM
Availability: ASTM
1 This specification is under the jurisdiction
1 This test method is under the jurisdiction of of ASTM Committee 0-2 on Petroleum
ASTM Committee 0-2 on Petroleum Prod­ Products and Lubricants.
ucts and Lubricants.

211

PETROLEUM-DERIVED LIQUID FUELS

(STANDARDS)

Title: Standard Test Method for D~sti~laVon Availability: ASTM

Range of Volatile Organic LlqUids
1 This method is under the jurisdiction of
Citation: ASTM D 1078-86 ASTM Committee D-2 on Petroleum Prod­
ucts and Lubricants.
Content: This test method covers the de­
termination of the distillation range of
liquids boiling between 30.° and 35?0<?, t~at Title: Standard Test Method for Distillation
are chemically stable dunn& the d:stlllatlOn of Petroleum Products at Reduced
process. This test method IS appllcable to Pressures l
organic liquids such as hyd~ocarbon~, oxygen­
ated compounds, chemical mtermedlates, and Citation: ASTM D 1160-87
blends thereof.
Content: This test method covers the de­
Availability: ASTM termination, at reduced pressures, of the
boiling temperature ranges of petroleum
1 Thistest method is under the jurisdiction of products that can b~ partic:llY. or completely
ASTM Committee D-l on Paint and Related vaporized at a maXImum hqUld temperature
Coatings and Materials a~d is the direct of 750°F (400°C) at pressures of 50 to 1 mm
responsibility of Subcommlttee D01.35. on Hg (6.55 to 0.133 kPa), absolute.
Solvents, Plasticizers, and ChemIcal
Intermediates. Availability: ASTM

1 This test method is under the jurisdiction of

Title: Standard Test Method for Bromine
ASTM Committee D-2 on Petroleum Prod­
Number of Petroleum Distillates and
ucts and Lubricants and is the direct re­
Commercial Aliphatic
. Olefins by,
Electrometric Titration 1 sponsiBility of sUBcommiHee B6z.6g on
Volatility.
Citation: ASTM D 1159-84
Title: Standard Test Method for Flash Point
Content: This method covers the determina­ and Fire Point of Liquids by Tag
tion of the bromine number of the following Open-Cup Apparatus 1
materials: (1) Petroleum distillates that are
substantially free of material lighter than Citation: ASTM 0 1310-86
isobutane and that have 90% distillation
points under 327°C (620°F). The method is Content: This test method covers the de­
generally applicable to gasoline (including termination by Tag Open-Cup Apparatus of
leaded fuels), kerosine, and distillates in the the flash point and fire point of liquids hav­
gas oil range that fall in the following limits, ing flash points between 0° and 325° (-18°
but not when blending agents such as alco­ and 165°C) and fire points up to 325°F. This
hols, ketones, ethers, or amines are present. test method, when applied to paints and resin
(2) Commercial ole tins that are essentially solutions that tend to skin over or that are
mixtures of aliphatic mono-ole tins and that very viscous, gives less reproducible results
fall within the range from 95 to 165 bromine than when applied to solvents.
number. The method has been found suitable
for such materials as commercial propylene
trimer and tetramer, butene dimer, and
mixed nonenes, octenes, and heptenes. The
method is not satisfactory for normal alpha­
oletins.

212

 PETROLEUM-DERIVED LIQUID FUELS

(STANDARDS)

Availability: ASTM Availability: ASTM

1 This test method is under the jurisdiction of 1 This specification is under the jur isdiction
ASTM Committee D-1 on Paint and Related of ASTM Committee D-2 on Petroleum
Coatings and Materials and is the direct Products and Lubricants and is the direct
responsibility of Subcommittee D01.22 on responsibility of Subcommittee D02.J on
Health and Safety. Aviation Fuels.

Title: Standard Test Method for Title: Standard Test Method for Smoke
Hydrocarbon Types in Liquid Petro­ Density in Flue Gases from Burning
leum Products by Fluorescent Indica­ Distillate Fuels 1
tor Adsorption 1
Citation: ASTM D 2156-80
Citation: ASTM D 1319-84
Content: This method covers the evaluation
Content: This test method covers the de­ of smoke density in the flue gases from burn­
termination of hydrocarbon types over the ing distillate fuels. It is intended primarily
concentration ranges from 5 to 99 volume % for use with home heating equipment burning
aromatics, 0.3 to 55 volume % olefins, and 1 kerosine or heating oils. It may be used in the
to 95 volume % saturates in petroleum frac­ laboratory or in the field to compare fuels
tions that distill below 600°F (315°C). The for clean burning or to compare heating
method may apply to concentrations outside equipment.
these ranges, but the precision has not been
determined. Availability: AST M

Availability: ASTM 1 This method is under the jurisdiction of

ASTM Committee D-2 on Petroleum Prod­
1 This test method is under the jurisdiction of ucts and Lubricants.
ASTM Committee D-2 on Petroleum Prod­
ucts and Lubricants and is the direct re­
sponsibility of Subcommittee D02.04 on Title: Standard Method for Conversion of
Hydrocarbon Analyses. Kinematic Viscosity to Saybolt Uni­
versal Viscosity or to Saybolt Furol
Viscosityl
Title: Standard Specification for Aviation
Turbine Fuels 1 Citation: ASTM 0 2161-87

Citation: ASTM D 1655-88 Content: This method covers the conversion

tables and equations for converting kine­
Content: This specification is for the use of matic viscosity in centistokes (cSt) at any
purchasing agencies in formulating specifica­ temperature to Saybolt Universal viscosity in
tions for purchases of aviation turbine fuel Saybolt Universal seconds (SUS) at the same
under contract. This specification defines temperature and for converting kinematic
specific types of aviation turbine fuel for viscosity in centistokes at 122° and 210°F to
civil use. It does not include all fuels satis­ Saybolt furol viscosity in Saybolt Furol sec­
factory for aviation turbine engines. Certain onds (SFS) at the same temperatures. Kine­
equipment or conditions of use may permit a matic viscosity values are based on water be­
wider, or require a narrower, range of char­ ing 1.0038 cSt at 68°F (20°C).
acteristics than is shown by the
specification.

213

PETROLEUM-DERIVED LIQUID FUELS

(STANDARDS)

Availability: ASTM determined by Method D 86. Samples with

average carbon number value of paraffins
C 12 and C 16 and containing paraffins from
1 This method is under the jurisdiction of C 1 0 and C 18 can be analyzed. Eleven hydro­
ASTM Committee D-2 on Petroleum Prod­ carbon types are determined. These include:
ucts and Lubricants. paraffins, noncondensed cycloparaffins, con­
densed dicycloparaffins, condensed tricylo­
Title: Test Method for Viscosity Measure­ paraff ins, alky lbenzenes, indans or tetralins,
ments and Rheological Properties of or both, Cnl!zn- 1 Q (indenes, etc.), naphtha­
Non-Newtonian Materials by Rota­ lenes, C nH 2n _ 1,+ (acenaphthenes, etc.),
tional (Brookfield) Viscometer CnH.2n_16 (ac:enaphthylenes, etc.), and tri­
cyclic aromatiCS.
Citation: ASTM D 2196-81
Availability: ASTM
Content:
1 This method is under the jurisdiction of
Availability: ASTM ASTM Committee D-2 on Petroleum Prod­
ucts and Lubricants and is the direct re­
sponsibility of Subcommittee D02.04 on
Title: Standard Method for Calculating
Hydrocarbon Analyses.
Viscosity fndex from Kinematic Vis­
cosity at 40° and 100°Cl
Title: Standard Test Method for
Citation: ASTM D 2270-86 Determination of C 2 Through C s
Hydrocarbons in Gasolines by Gas
Content: This method specifies the proce­ Chromatography 1
dures for calculating the viscosity index of
petroleum products, such as lubricating oils, Citation: ASTM D 2427-87
and related materials from their kinematic
viscosities at 40° and 100°C. Procedure A ­ Content: This test method covers the de­
For petroleum products of viscosity index up termination of the two- (C 2) through tive­
to and including 100. Procedure B - For pe­ (C s -) carbon paraffins and mono-ole tins in
troleum products of which the viscosity index gasolines. The concentrations by volume or
is 100 or greater. weight (mass) of the following components
are generally reported: Ethylene plus
Availability: ASTM ethane, propane, propylene, isobutane,
n-butane, butene-l plus isobutylene, trans­
1This method is under the jurisdiction of butene-2, cis-butene-2, isopentane 3-methyl­
ASTM Committee D-2 on Petroleum Prod­ butene-I, n-pentane, pentene-l, 2-methy 1­
ucts and Lubr icants. butene-I, trans-pentene-2, cis-pentene-2,
and 2-methylbutene-2.

Title: Standard Test Method for This test method does not provide for the dT
Hydrocarbon Types in Middle Distil­ of cyclic oletins, diolefins, or acetylenes.
lates by Mass Spectrometry 1 These are usually minor components in fin­
ished gasolines. Samples to be analyzed
Citation: ASTM D 2425-83 should not contain significant amounts of
material boiling lower than ethylene.
Content: This test method covers an analyt­
ical scheme using the mass spectrometer to
determine the hydrocarbon types present in
virgin middle distillates 400° to 650°F (204°
to 343°C) boiling range, 5 to 95 volume 96 as

214

 PETROLEUM-DERIVED LIQUID FUELS

(STANDARDS)

Availability: ASTM Availability: ASTM

1 This test method is under the jurisdiction of 1 This test method is under the jurisdiction of
ASTM Committee 0-2 on Petroleum Prod­ ASTM Committee 0-2 on Petroleum Prod­
ucts and Lubricants and is the direct re­ ucts and Lubricants and is the direct
sponsibility of Subcommittee 002.04 on responsibility of Subcommittee 002.04 on
Hydrocarbon Analysis. Hydrocarbon Analysis.

Title: Standard Test Method for Cloud Point Title: Standard Test Method for Molecular
of Petroleum Oils 1 Weight (Relative Molecular Mass) of
Hydrocarbons by Thermoelectric Mea­
Citation: ASTM 0 2500-86 surement of Vapor Pressure 1

Citation: ASTM 0 2503-82 (1987)

Content: !his t.est method covers only pe­
troleum oils WhICh are transparent in layers
Content: This method covers the determina­
38 mm 0-1/2 in.) in thickness, and with a
t~on of the average molecular weight (rela­
cloud point below 40°C (l20°F). The values
tIve molecular mass) of hydrocarbon oils. It
stated in SI units are to be regarded as the
can be applied to petroleum fractions with
standard. The values given in parentheses
molecular weights (relative molecular mass)
are for information only.
up to 3000; however, the precision of the
method has not been established above 800
Availability: ASTM molecular weight (relative molecular mass).
The method should not be applied to oils hav­
1 This test method is under the jurisdiction of ing initial boiling points lower than 220°C.
ASTM Committee 0-2 011 Petroleum Prod­
ucts and Lubricants and is the direct re­ Availability: ASTM
sponsibility of Subcommittee 002.07 on
Flow Properties.
1 This method is under the jurisdiction of
ASTM Committee 0-2 on Petroleum Prod­
Title: Standard Test Method for Estimation ucts and Lubricants.
of Molecular Weight (Relative Mo­
lecular Mass) of Petroleum Oils from Title: Standard Test Method for Separation
Viscosity Measurements 1 of Representative Aromatics and
NO!l?-rom,:tics Fractions of High­
Citation: ASTM 0 2502-87 Bollmg OIls by Elution
Chromatography 1
Content: This test method covers the esti­
n:ation of the mean molecular weight (rela­ Citation: ASTM 0 2549-85
tIVe molecular mass) of petroleum oils from
kinematic viscosity measurements at 100° C~ntent: This test method covers the separ­
and 210°F (37.78° and 98.89°C). It is appli­ atIOn and determination of representative
cable to samples with molecular weights in aromatics and nonaromatics fractions from
the range from 250 to 700 and is intended for hydrocarbon mixtures that boil between 232°
use with average petroleum fractions. It and 538°C (450° and 1000°F). Alternative
should not be applied indiscriminately to oils procedures are provided for the separation of
that represent extremes of composition or 2 g or 109 of hydrocarbon mixture.
possess an exceptionally narrow molecular
weight (relative molecular mass) range.

215

PETROLEUM-DERIVED LIQUID FUELS

(STANDARDS)

Availability: ASTM Title: Standard Test Method for

Hydrocarbon Types Analysis of Gas­
Oil Saturates Fractions by High Ioniz­
I This test method is under the jurisdiction of ing Voltage Mass Spectrometry 1
ASTM Committee 0-2 on Petroleum Prod­
ucts and Lubricants and is the direct re­ Citation: ASTM 0 2786-86
sponsibility of Subcommittee 002.04 on
Hydrocarbon Analysis. Content: This test method covers the de­
termination by high ionizing voltage mass
Title: Standard Test Method for Knock spectrometry of seven saturated hydrocarbon
Characteristics of Motor Fuels by the types and one aromatic type in saturate pe­
Research Method 1 troleum fractions having average carbon
numbers 16 through 32. The saturate types
Citation: ASTM 0 2699-86 include alkanes (O-rings), single-ring naph­
thenes, and five fused naphthene types with
Content: This test method covers the de­ 2, 3, 4, 5, and 6 rings. The nonsaturate type
termination of the knock characteristics of is monoaromatic. Noncondensed naphthenes
motor gasolines intended for use in spark­ are analyzed as single rings. Samples must
ignition engines, in terms of ASTM-IP re­ be nonolefinic and must contain less than
search octane numbers. 5 volume % monoaromatic. Composition
data are in volume percent.
Availability: ASTM
Availability: ASTM
1 This test method is under the jurisdiction of
ASTM Committee 0-2 on Petroleum Prod­ 1 This test method is under the jurisdiction of
ucts and Lubricants. ASTM Committee 0-2 on Petroleum Prod­
ucts and Lubricants and is the direct re­
sponsibility of Subcommittee 002.04 on
Title: Standard Test Method for Knock Hydrocarbon Analysis.
Characteristics of Motor and Aviation
Fuels by the Motor Method 1
Title: Standard Test Method for
Citation: ASTM 0 2700-86 Hydrocarbon Types in Low Olefinic
Gasoline by Mass Spectrometry 1
Content: This test method covers the de­
termination of the knock characteristics of Citation: ASTM 0 2789-86
motor and aviation gasolines intended for use
in spark-ignition engines. Content: This test method covers the de­
termination by mass spectrometry of the
The knock characteristics of motor gasolines total paraffins, monocyc1oparaffins, dicyclo­
are reported in terms of ASTM-IP motor paraffins, alkylbenzenes, indans or tetralins
octane numbers. or both, and naphthalenes in gasoline having
The knock characteristics of aviation gaso­ an olefin content of less than 3 volume % and
lines are reported in terms of aviation a 95% distillation point of less than 210°C
method octane numbers below 100 and avia­ (411°F) as determined in accordance with
tion method performance numbers above 100. Method 0 86. Ole fins are determined by
Method 0 1319, or by Method 0 87.
Availability: ASTM

1 Thistest method is under the jurisdiction of

ASTM Committee 0-2 on Petroleum Prod­
ucts and Lubricants.

216

 PETROLEUM-DERIVED LIQUID FUELS

(STANDARDS)

Availability: ASTM operated in accordance with this method are

equivalent to ASTM research or motor
1 Thistest method is under the jurisdiction of method octane numbers.
ASTM Committee D-2 on Petroleum Prod­
ucts and Lubricants and is the direct re­ Availability: ASTM
sponsibility of Subcommittee D02.04 on
Hydrocarbon Analysis. 1 This test method is under the jurisdiction of
ASTM Committee D-2 on Petroleum Prod­
ucts and Lubricants.
Title: Standard Test Method for Vapor
Pressure-Temperature Relationship
and Initial Decomposition Tempera­ Title: Standard Test Method for Knock
ture of Liquids by Isoteniscope 1 Characteristics of Motor Fuels by the
Distribution Octane Number (DON)
Citation: ASTM D 2879-86 Method l

Content: This test method covers the de­ Citation: ASTM D 2886-86
termination of the vapor pressure of purE!
liquids, the pressure exerted by mixed liquids Content: This test method covers the de­
in a closed vessel at 40 ± 596 ullage, and the termination of the knock characteristics of
initial thermal decomposition temperature of fuels for use in spark-ignition engines in
pure and mixed liquids. It is applicable to terms of distribution octane numbers.
liquids that are compatible with borosilicate
glass and that have a vapor pressure between Availability: ASTM
133 kPa (l.0 torr) and 101.3 kPa (760 torr) at
the selected test temperatures. The method
is suitable for use over the range from ambi­ 1 This test method is under the jurisdiction of
ent to 748 K. The temperature range may be ASTM Committee D-2 on Petroleum Prod­
ucts and Lubricants.
extended to include temperatures below
ambient provided a suitable constant­
temperature bath for such temperatures is Title: Standard Test Method for Boiling
used. Range Distribution of Petroleum
Fractions by Gas Chromatography 1
Availability: ASTM
Citation: ASTM D 2887-84
1 Thistest method is under the jurisdiction of
ASTM Committee D-2 on Petroleum Prod­ Content: This test method covers the de­
ucts and Lubricants and is the direct re­ termination of the boiling range distribution
sponsibility of Subcommittee D02.11 on of petroleum products. The method is appli­
Engineering Science of High Performance cable to petroleum products and fractions
Fluids and Solids. with a final boiling point of 538°C (lOOO°F)
or lower at atmospheric pressure as mea­
sured by this method. The method is not
Title: Standard Test Method for Research designed for use with gasoline samples or
and Motor Method Octane Ratings gasoline components. These samples must be
Using On-Line Analyzers 1 analyzed by Test Method D37l0. The
method is limited to samples having a boiling
Citation: ASTM D 2885-86 range greater than 55°C (IOO°F) and having a
vapor pressure sufficiently low to permit
Content: This test method covers the cali­ sampling at ambient temperature.
bration and use of automatic analyzers for
determining the antiknock quality of motor
gasolines. Octane numbers from analyzers

217

PETROLEUM-DERIVED LIQUID FUELS

(STANDARDS)

Availability: ASTM apparatus. The method offers a compromise

between efficiency and time in order to
facilitate the comparison of distillation data
! This test method is under the jurisdiction of between laboratories.
ASTM Committee D-2 on Petroleum Prod­
ucts and Lubricants and is the direct re­ Availability: ASTM
sponsibility of Subcommittee D02.04 on
Hydrocarbon Analysis.
1 This method is under the jurisdiction of
ASTM Committee D-2 on Petroleum Prod­
Title: Standard Test Method for Calculation ucts and Lubricants.
of True Vapor Pressures of Petroleum
Distillate Fuels!
Title: Standard Test Method for Total Base
Citation: ASTM D 2889-86 Number of Petroleum Products by
Potentiometric Perchloric Acid
Content: This test method describes the cal­ Titration!
culation of true vapor pressures of petroleum
distillate fuels for which distillation data Citation: ASTM D 2896-85
may be obtained in accordance with Method
D 86 without reaching a decomposition point Content: This method covers the determina­
prior to obtaining 90 volume % distilled. tion of basic constituents in petroleum prod­
ucts by titration with perchloric acid.
The test method may be used to calculate
vapor pressures at temperatures between the Availability: ASTM
0% equilibrium flash temperature and the
critical temperature of the fuel. Provision is
included for obtaining a calculated critical 1 This test method is under the jurisdiction of
temperature for fuels for which it is not ASTM Committee D-2 on Petroleum Prod­
known. ucts and Lubricants.

Availability: ASTM
Title: Standard Test Method for Phosphorus
in Gasoline!
! This test method is under the jurisdiction of
ASTM Committee D-2 on Petroleum Prod­ Citation: ASTM D 3231-83
ucts and Lubricants and is the direct re­
sponsibillty of Subcommittee D02.04 on Content: This test method covers the de­
Hydrocarbon Analysis. termination of phosphorus generally present
as pentavalent phosphate esters or salts, or
Title: Standard Method for Distillation of both, in gasoline. This test method is appli­
Crude Petroleum (15-Theoretical cable for the determination of phosphorus in
Plate Column)! the range from 0.0008 to 0.15 g P/U.S. gal,
or 0.2 to 40 mg PI Iiter.
Citation: ASTM D 2892-84
Availability: ASTM
Content: This method describes the proce­
dure for the distillation of stabilized crude 1 This method is under the jurisdiction of
petroleum. It is based on a charge of 1 to ASTM Committee D-2 on Petroleum Prod­
10 litres and employs a fractionating column ucts and Lubricants and is the direct
having an efficiency of 14 to 18 theoretical responsibility of Subcommittee D02.03 on
plates and operated at a reflux ratio of 5: 1. Elemental Analysis.
It specifies performance criteria for the nec­
essary equipment and presents in schematic
form some typical examples of acceptable

218

 PETROLEUM-DERIVED LIQUID FUELS

(STANDARDS)

Title: Standard Test Method for Lead in Title: Standard Test Method for Pumpabiiity
Gasoline by Atomic Absorption of Industrial Fuel Oils 1
Spectrometry 1
Citation: ASTM D 3245-85
Citation: ASTM 0 3237-79 (1984)
Content: This test method is intended for
Content: This method covers the determina­ use on petroleum fuel oils, such as those cov­
tion of the total lead content of gasoline ered in Specification D 396 Grade No.4
within the concentration range of 0.010 to (Light), 4, 5 (Light), 5, and 6, or similar fuels.
0.10 g of lead/U.S. gal (2.5 to 25 mg/liter).
The method compensates for variations in Availability: ASTM
gasoline composition and is independent of
lead alkyl type.
1 This test method is under the jurisdiction of
Availability: ASTM ASTM Committee 0-2 on Petroleum Prod­
ucts and Lubricants and is the direct re­
sponsibility of Subcommittee 002.07 on
1 This method is under the jurisdiction of Flow Properties. It is based on IP 230 but
ASTM Committee 0-2 on Petroleum Prod­ , contains a precision statement based on an
ucts and Lubricants. ASTM/l P round robin using waxy and non­
waxy fuel oils typical of those marketed in
North America.
Title: Standard Test Method for Aromatic
Types Analysis of Gas-Oil Aromatic
Fractions by High Ionizing Voltage Title: Standard Test Method for Boiling
Mass Spectrometry 1 Range Distribution of Gasoline
and Gasoline Fractions by Gas
Citation: ASTM 0 3239-86 Chromatography 1

Content: This test method covers the deter­ Citation: ASTM 0 371 0-83
mination by high ionizing voltage, low resolu­
tion mass spectrometry of 18 aromatic Content: This test method covers determi­
hydrocarbon types and 3 aromatic thiopheno­ nation of the boiling range distribution of
types in straight run aromatic petroleum gasoline and gasoline components. This test
fractions boiling within the range from 205 0 method is applicable to petroleum products
to 540°C (400 0 to 1000°F) (corrected to and fractions with a final boiling point of
atmospheric pressure). Samples must be 260°C (500°F) or lower as measured by this
nonolefinic, must contain not more than 1 test method.
mass 96 of total sulfur, and must contain not
more than 596 nonaromatic hydrocarbons. Availability: ASTM
Composition data are in volume percent.
1 This test method is under the jurisdiction of
Availability: ASTM
ASTM Committee 0-2 on Petroleum Prod­
ucts and Lubricants and is the direct
1 This test method is under the jurisdiction of responsibility of Subcommittee 002.04 on
ASTM Committee 0-2 on Petroleum Prod­ Hydrocarbon Analysis.
ucts and Lubricants and is the direct re­
sponsibility of Subcommittee D02.04 on
Hydrocarbon Analysis.

219

PETROLEUM-DERIVED LIQUID FUELS

(STANDARDS)

Title: Method for Analysis of O-Xylene by above 38°C (lOO°F) and 90% recovered
Gas Chromatography points below 340°C (644°F).

Citation: ASTM 0 3797-88 Availability: ASTM

Content: 1 This test method is under the jurisdiction of

ASTM Committee 0-2 on Petroleum Prod­
Availability: ASTM ucts and Lubricants and is the direct re­
sponsibility of Subcommittee 002.3 on
Title: Test Method for Flash Point by
Burner, Diesel, and Gas Turbine Fuel Oils.
Setaflash Closed Tester

Title: Test Method for Sediment in Crude

Citation: ASTM 0 3828-87 Oil by Membrane Filtration
Content: Citation: ASTM 0 4807-88
Availability: ASTM Content: This test method covers the deter­
mination of sediment in crude oils by mem­
Title: Standard Test Method for Kinematic brane filtration. This test method has been
Viscosity of Volatile and Reactive validated for crude oils with sediments up to
Liquids 1 about 0.15 mass %.

Citation: ASTM 0 4486-85 Availability: ASTM

Content: This test method covers the mea­ Title: Test Method for Hydrogen Content of
surement of kinematic viscosity of transpar­ Light Distillates, Middle Distillates,
ent, Newtonian liquids which because of their Gas Oils, and Residues by Low Resolu­
reactivity, instability, or volatility cannot be tion Nuclear Magnetic Resonance
used in conventional capillary kinematic vis­ Spectroscopy
cometers. This test method is applicable up
to 2 atm (2 x 10-5 N/m2) pressure and tem­
Citation: ASTM 0 4808-88
perature range from -65° to +275°F (-53° to
+135°C). Content: These test methods cover the de­
termination of the hydrogen content of pe­
Availability: ASTM troleum products ranging from atmospheric
distillates to vacuum residual using a con­
1This test method is under the jurisdiction of tinuous wave, low-resolution nuclear mag­
Committee 0-2 on Petroleum Products and netic resonance spectrometer. (Test Meth­
Lubricants and is the direct responsibility of od 0 370 I is the preferred method for
Subcommittee 002.11 on Engineering Sci­ determining the hydrogen content of aviation
ence of High Performance Fluids and Solids. turbine fuels using nuclear magnetic reso­
nance spectroscopy.)
Title: Standard Test Method for Distillate Availability: ASTM
Fuel Storage Stability at 43°C
(llO°F)l

Citation: ASTM 0 4625-86

Content: This test method covers one meth­

od for an evaluation of the inherent storage
stability of distillate fuels having flash points

220

 PETROLEUM-DERIVED LIQUID FUELS

(STANDARDS)

Title: Standard Specification for Automotive Title: Test Method for Analysis of CI to C4
Spark-Ignition Engine Fuel Alcohols and MTBE in Gasoline by Gas
Chromatography
Citation: ASTM 04814-88
Citation: ASTM D 4815-88
Content: This specification guides in estab­
lishing the requirements of automotive fuels Content: This test method covers a proce­
for ground vehicles equipped with spark­ dure for determination of methanol, ethanol,
ignition engines. isopropanol, n-propanol, isobutanol, sec­
This specification describes various charac­ butanol, tert-butanol, n-butanol, and methyl
teristics of automotive fuels for use over a tertiary buty 1 ether (MTBE) in gasoline by
gas chromatography.
wide range of operating conditions. It
neither necessarily includes all types of fuels Individual alcohols and MTBE are determined
that are satisfactory for automotive vehi­ from 0.1 to 10 volume %.
cles, nor necessarily excludes fuels that may
perform unsatisfactorily under certain oper­ Availability: ASTM
ating conditions or in certain equipment.
The spark-ignition engine fuels covered in Title: Test Method for Estimation of Net
this specification are gasoline and its blends and Gross Heat of Combustion of
with oxygenates such as alcohols and ethers. Petroleum Fuels
The concentrations and types of oxygenates
are not specifically limited in this specifi­ Citation: ASTM 0 4868-88
cation. However, depending on oxygenate
type, as oxygenate content increases above Content:
some threshold level, the likelihood for vehi­
cle problems also increases. The composition Availability: ASTM
of both unleaded and lead fuel is limited by
economic, legal, and technical consideration,
but their properties, including volatility, are Title: Specification for Coal Tar Fuels
defined by this specification. In addition, the
composition of unleaded fuel is subject to the Citation: BS 1469: 1962
rules, regulations, and Clean Air Act waivers
of the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency Content: Specifications are given for two
(EPA). With regard to fuel properties, includ­ distillate fuels (C.T.F. 50, C.T.F. 100) and
ing volatility, this specification may be more four heavier fuels (C.T.F. 200, C.T.F 250,
or less restrictive than the EPA rules, regu­ C.T.F. 300, C.T.F 400) derived from tars
lations, and waivers. obtained in coal-carbonizing and coal­
gasification processes. Viscosity, flash point,
Tests applicable to gasoline are not neces­ gross calorific value, water content, matter
sarily applicable to its blends with oxygen­ insoluble in toluene, ash. For distillate fuels:
ates. Consequently, the type of fuel under liquidity, carbon residue, strong acid number.
consideration must first be identified, in Methods of test appended.
order to select applicable tests. A method
for identifying gasolines that contain Availability: BSI
alcohols is described. A method to identify
gasolines that contain MTBE is under
development. Title: Methods of Test for Petroleum and Its
Products
Availability: ASTM
Citation: BS 2000 (Many Parts)

Content: Physical methods of analysis and

test for petroleum and its products,

221

PETROLEUM-DERIVED LIQUID FUELS

(STANDARDS)

developed through the machinery of the ignition engines equipped with emission con­
Institute of Petroleum and accorded the trol systems requiring the use of unleaded
status of British Standards. Each Part re­ gasoline. In the interest of conservation of
produces in facsimile an [P method with petroleum products it is essential that engine
additional information in a foreword, mar­ manufacturers continue to design engines to
ginal notes to the text and occasionally an operate on Type 2 gasoline. Type I is then
appendix. reserved for cases where octane requirement
increase in use is such that a higher octane
Availability: BSI gasoline is required to prevent excessive
knock.
Title: Gasoline, Automotive Availability: CSA
Citation: CAN 3.I-M78
Title: Diesel Fuel
Content: Applies to two types of gasoline
suitable for use in automotive and spark igni­ Citation: CAN 2-3.6-MS3
tion engines operating under all climatic
condi tions. Content: Applies to three types of distillate
fuels which are suitable for use in high and
Availability: CSA medium speed internal combustion engines of
the compression-ignition type.
Title: Fuel Oil, Heating Availability: CSA
Citation: CAN 2-3.2-MSl
Title: Testing of Liquid Fuels;
'L.on'll:!Ift: ?-\Wi~ +~1J +n.)(.I1. +c~ ,t.A 1.iWL;}}.cJ"L'C r.1R;t~~I7i.ina.tJ.cm, tV. Q.:I{J.d.VJro"). ~ahiJit~
fuel oils suitable for use in liquid-oil-burning <Induction Period)
equipment without preheating, and three
types of fuel which may contain residual fuel Citation: DIN 51780
components and may require preheating.
Content:
Availability: CSA
Availability: DIN
Title: Kerosine
Title: Testing of Mineral Oils and Fuels

Citation: CAN 2-3.3-MS5

Citation: DIN 51400 (Several Parts)

Content: Applies to two types of hydrocar­

bon oils, which differ only in the sulfur Content:

requirement.
Availability: DIN

Availability: CSA
Title: Testing of Liquid Fuels;
Title: Gasoline, Automotive, Unleaded Determination of Smoke Point

Citation: CAN 3.5-M79 Citation: DIN 51406

Content: This standard applies to two types Content:

of gasoline to which no lead or phosphorus
has been added and are therefore suitable for Availability: DIN
use under all climatic conditions in spark

222

 PETROLEUM-DERIVED LIQUID FUELS

(~TANDARDS)

Title: Fuels and Fuel Additives Registration Title: Motor Fuels--Determlnation of

Knock Characteristics--Research
Citation: EPA 40 CFR 79 Method

Content: Citation: ISO 5164: 1977

Availability: EPA/CFR Content:

Availability: ISO
Title: Fuels and Fuel Additives Regulation
Title: Diesel Fuels--Determination of
Citation: EPA 40 CFR 80 Ignition Quality--Cetane Method
Content: Citation: ISO 5165: 1977
EPA/CFR Content:

Title: Motor and Aviation-Type Fuels-­ Availability: ISO

Determination of Knock
Characteristics--Motor Method

Citation: ISO 5163: 1977

Content:

ISO

223

224

 PETROLEUM-DERIVED LIQUID FUELS

(LITERATURE)

Title: Industrial and Marine Fuels Reference Title: Manual on Significance of Tests for
Book Petroleum Products

Citation: Clark, George H. Stoneham, MA: Citation: 5th Ed. New York: ASTM, 169 pp.
Butterworths, 1988, 784 pp.
Content: A handy reference to ASTM and
Content: Major section includes laboratory Institute of Petroleum OP) standards used in
test on fuels. commercial transactions to definitively de­
scribe petroleum raw materials and petro­
leum products. All chapters have been up­
Title: Improving Refining Efficiency Using dated since the 1977 edition to reflect new,
High-Temperature Simulated revised standards by ASTM and IP.
Distillation
Features complete descriptions of the raw
Citation: Bashall, Anthony D. American material or product, as well as its known or
Laboratory, May 1987. prospective use applications; primary quality
characteristics that define the material in
Content: use applications; and tests and analytical
procedures that apply to the quality assess­
ment of the material. Materials such as
Title: ASTM and Other Specifications for crude oils, gaseous products, and a wide
Petroleum Products and Lubricants range of liquid materials and greases and
waxes are covered (Replaces STP 7C).
Citation: 4th Ed. New York: ASTM,
1985, 350 pp.

Content: Aimed particularly at individuals

outside of laboratories or libraries, this book
compiles specifications and classifications of
interest to the petroleum industry. Includes
ASTM standards on petroleum and lubricants,
asphal t, roofing, insulating oils, and indus­
trial chemicals. Also includes SAE, API,
NLGI, federal, and military standards.

225

226

 LIGNOCELLULOSIC AND OXYGENATED LIQUID FUELS

(~TANDARDS)

Title: Proposed Specification for Gasohol Title: Standard Specification for Denatured
and Leaded Gasohol l Fuel Ethanol To Be Blended with Gas­
oEnes for Use as Automotive Spark­
Citation: ASTM D-2 Proposal P 104 Ignition Engine Fuel l

Content: This proposed specification for Citation: ASTM 0 4806-88

gasohol and leaded gasohol is to guide pro­
ducers, marketers, and users of these pro­ Content: This specification covers nominally
ducts during the period that a standard anhydrous denatured fuel ethanol intended to
specification for these products is being be blended with unleaded or leaded gasolines
developed. at 5 to 10 volume % for use as a spark­
ignition automotive engine fuel.
Availability: ASTM
Availability: ASTM
1 This proposed specification is under the
jurisdiction of ASTM Committee D-2 on 1 This specification is under the jurisdiction
Petroleum and Lubricants. of ASTM Committee 0-2 on Petroleum
Products and Lubricants and is the direct
responsibility of Subcommittee D02.A on
Title: Proposed Information Document on specifications.
Fuel Alcohol

Citation: ASTM 194RO

Content:

Availability: ASTM

227

228

 LIGNOCELLULOSIC AND OXYGENATED LIQUID FUELS

(LITERATURE)

Title: Pyrolysis Oils from Biomass: aromatic compounds. HPSEC provides very
Producing, Analyzing, and Upgrading good information on the shelf life and reac­
• tivity of pyrolysis oils, and can be used to
Citation: Edited by Ed J. Soltes and compare oils produced under different
T. A. Milne. ACS Symposium process conditions.
Series 376. Washington, DC:
American Chemical Society, 1988. Title: Composition of Oils Obtained by Fast
Pyrolysis of Different Woods
Content: Developed from a symposium
sponsored by the Cellulose, Paper, and Citation: Piskorz, J., D. S. Scott, and
Textile Division and the Division of Fuel D. Radlein. Chapter 16 in Pyroly­
Chemistry at the 193rd Meeting of the sis Oils from Biomass: Producing,
American Chemical Society, Denver, Analyzing, and Upgrading, edited
Colorado, April 5-10, 1987. by Ed J. Soltes and Thomas A.
Milne. ACS Symposium Series
Title: Some Aspects of Pyrolysis Olls 376. Washington, DC: American
Characterization by High­ Chemical Society, 1988.
Performance Size Exclusion
Chromatography Content: Liquids obtained by fast pyrolysis
of four different woods were analyzed. On
Citation: Johnson, David K. and Helena L. addition of excess water they separated into
Chum. Chapter 15 in Pyrolysis water-soluble and water-insoluble fractions.
Oils from Biomass: Producing, The former, which is principally of carbohy­
Analyzing, and Upgrading, edited drate origin, was shown by HPLC analysis to
by Ed J. Soltes and Thomas A. consist of sugars, anhydrosugars, and low
Milne. ACS Symposium Series molecular weight carbonyl compounds. The
376. Washington, DC: American latter was shown by 13C NMR to be a "pyro­
Chemical Society, 1988. lytic lignin." In this way 81 % to 92% of the
organic content of the liquids has been char­
Content: The utilization of biomass pyrolysis acterized.
oils or isolated fractions of these feedstocks
requires a fast overall characterization tech­ Title: Product Analysis from Direct Lique­
nique. Gas chromatographic techniques typi­ faction of Several High-Moisture
cally analyze only the volatile fraction (5%­ Biomass Feedstocks
50%) of underivatized oils. With proper
choice of solvent and detector systems the Citation: Elliott, Douglas C., L. John
HPSEC, on polystyrene-divinylbenzene co­ Sealock, Jr., and R. Scott Butner.
polymer gels, of the whole oils can provide Chapter 17 in Pyrolysis Oils from
valuable information on their apparent mol­ Biomass: Producing, Analyzing,
ecular weight distributions and changes that and Upgrading, edited by Ed
occur upon aging or chemical fractionation. J. Soltes and Thomas A. Milne.
Several pyrolysis oils have been analyzed as ACS Symposium Series 376.
well as fractions isolated by solvent elution Washington, DC: American Chem­
chromatography. In order to better under­ ical Society, 1988.
stand the observed low-molecular-weight
region, a number of model substances of the Content: Experimental results are reported
main classes of compounds found in pyrolysis for high-pressure liquefaction of high­
oils have been investigated. While hydrogen moisture biomass. The feedstocks included
bonding between the phenolic groups and macrocystis kelp, water hyacinths, spent
tetrahydrofuran occurs, solute-solute inter­ grain from a brewery, grain sorghum field
actions can be kept very small by operating residue, and napier grass. The biomass was
at very low concentrations of solute; solute­ processed in a batch autoclave as a ten
gel interactions do occur with polycyclic weight percent slurry in water with sodium

229

 LIGNOCELLULOSIC AND OXYGENATED LIQUID FUELS

(LITERATURE)

carbonate catalyst and carbon monoxide techniques. The approach described is

gas. Thirty-minute experiments were per­ generally applicable to multisource analyti­
formed at 350°C with operating pressures cal dcfta on pyrolysis oils and other complex
ranging from 270 to 340 atmospheres. The mixtures.
oil products were collected by methylene
chloride and acetone extractions. Oil yields Title: Chemical Characterization of Wood

ranged from 19 to 35 mass percent on a Pyrolysis Oils Obtained in a Vacuum­

moisture and ash-free basis. The oil products Pyrolysis Multiple-Hearth Reactor

contained from 9.9 to 16.7 percent oxygen

with hydrogen to carbon atomic ratios from Citation: Pakdel, H. and Christian Roy.
1.36 to 1.61. Significant nitrogen content Chapter 19 in Pyrolysis Oils from
was noted in the oil product from those feed­ Biomass: Producing, Analyzing,
stocks containing nitrogen (kelp, hyacinth, and Upgrading, edited by
spent grain). Chemical composition analysis Ed J. Soltes and Thomas A. Milne.
by gas chromatography/mass spectrometry ACS Symposium Series 376.
demonstrated many similar i ties between Washington, DC: American
these products and wood-derived oils. The Chemical Society, 1988.
nitrogen components were found to be mainly
saturated heterocyclics. Content: A multiple hearth reactor has been
used to produce high yield of pyrolysis oil
Title: An Integrated Spectroscopic Approach from aspen poplar. The Process Develop­
to the Chemical Characterization of ment Unit (P.D.U.) has the capability of
Pyrolysis Oils achieving a fair fractionation of wood oils by
using six heat exchangers (Primary Condens­
Citation: Hoesterey, Barbara L., William ing Unit, P.C.U.) and a series of cooling trap
Windig, Henk L. C. Meuzelaar, receivers (Secondary Condensing Unit,
Edward M. Eyring, David M. Grant, S.C.U.) at the outlets of the reactor. While
and Ronald J. Pugmire. Chap­ the weight average molecular weights (Mw)
ter 18 in Pyrolysis Oils from Bio­ of the recovered compounds in the P.C.u.
mass: Producing, Analyzing, and were 342, 528, 572, 393, 233 and 123 from
Upgrading, edited by Ed J. Soltes top to bottom of the reactor..t... the low molec­
and Thomas A. Milne. ACS Sympo­ ular weight compounds with M '" 100 or be­
sium Series 376. Washington, low were recovered in the S.C.lJ., which con­
DC: American Chemical Society, tained at least 90% of the total water.
1988. Silica-gel column chromatography enabled us
to fractionate the oil from P .D.U. into
Content: The hydrocarbon ("oil") fraction of fourteen fractions. Aromatic hydrocarbons
a coal pyrolysis tar prepared by open column were collected in Fraction 1 (F 1) and F2
liquid chromatography (LC) was separated followed by elution of moderately polar
into 16 subfractions by a second LC proce­ compounds in F3 to F 11 with about 23%-35%
dure. Low voltage mass spectrometry (MS), of P .C.U. oil which can be fully charac­
infrared spectroscopy (IR), and proton (PMR) terized. 8.1 % sugar in P.C.U., mainly glu­
as well as carbon-13 nuclear magnetic reso­ cose, was found in F 13. Usefulness of
nance spectrometry (CMR) were performed 1 H-FTNMR and infrared spectroscopy was
on the first 13 subfractions. Computerized shown for preliminary characterization of
multivariate analysis procedures such as fac­ the F 12, F 13 and F 14. Overall 27.89% of the
tor analysis followed by canonical correlation P .C.U. including water and low molecular
techniques were used to extract the over­ weight carboxylic acids have been measured
lapping information from the analytical data. and identified so far.
Subsequent evaluation of the integrated
analytical data revealed chemical informa­
tion which could not have been obtained
readily from the individual spectroscopic

230
 LIGNOCELLULOSIC AND OXYGENATED LIQUID FUELS

(LITERATURE)

Title: Fourier Transform Infrared Spectro­ particularly for the quantifications of C 3 to

metry and Thermogravimetry of Par­ C 7 carboxylic acids. The method of C l-C 7
tially Converted Lignocellulosic acid production of vacuum pyrolysis of wood
Materials and the reactor overall separation efficiency
are also discussed.
Citation: Grandmaison, J. L., Jules
Thibault, Serge Kaliaguine, and Title: Degradation of Polysaccharides in
P. D. Chantal. Anal. Chern. 59: Alkaline Solution to Organic Acids:
2153-2157 (1987). Product Characterization and
Identification
Content: The solid residues from a series of
extraction of aspen poplar experiments con­ Citation: Krochta, John M., Sandra J. Tillin,
ducted in supercritical methanol at tempera­ and Joyce S. Hudson. Journal of
tures ranging from 250° to 350°C have been Applied Polymer Science 33:1413­
further analyzed by using diffuse reflectance 1425 (1987).
Fourier transform infrared spectrometry
(DRIFT) and thermogravimetric analysis Content: Agricultural products have consid­
(IG/DTG) in flowing nitrogen. The results erable potential for conversion to valuable
are compared with previous data obtained by oxychemicals. Analyses by ether extraction,
wet chemistry analysis for the same sam­ titration, and anion-exchange classification
ples. Equations relating the various sample of the alkaline degradation products of to­
characteristics obtained from this previous tally converted starch and cellulosics showed
study (Klason residue, unconverted lignin, that the product compounds are mainly or­
recondensed material, glucose and xylose) ganic acids. Almost all the organic acids are
and DRIFT absorbance intensity ratios are monocarboxylic in nature, with an average
reported. equivalent weight in the range 76-84. The
organic acids identified thus far by HPLC
Title: Production and Characterization of and GC are formic, acetic, glycolic, lactic,
Carboxylic Acids from Wood. Part I: 2-hydroxybutyric, 2-hydroxyisobutyr ic, and
Low Molecular Weight Carboxylic 2-hydroxyvaleric acids. Together, these com­
Acids pounds represent 4196-4696 of the starting
material weight.
Citation: Pakdel, Hooshang and
Christian Roy. Biomass 13:155­ Title: On the Presence of Anhydro­
171 (1987). Oligosaccharides in the Sirups from
the Fast Pyrolysis of Cellulose
Content: Pyrolysis oil from wood has been
fractionated directly at the outlets of a mul­ Citation: Radlein, Desmond St. A. G.,
tiple hearth reactor using six heat exchang­ Anna Grinshpun, Jan Piskorz, and
ers in parallel. A large portion of the organic Donald S. Scott. Journal of
liquid phase was recovered in the heat ex­ Analytical and Applied Pyrolysis
changers, and the bulk of the aqueous phase 12:39-49 (I 987).
was condensed in a series of cooling traps
(secondary condensing unit). The C 1 to C 7 Content: Analysis by high-performance liq­
carboxy lic acids in the wood pyrolysis oils uid chromatography of the carbohydrate
were analyzed using gas chromatography fol­ fraction of sirups obtained from the fast
lowing conversion into benzyl esters via pyrolysis of Avicel cellulose (8296 yield of
tetrabutylammonium salts, purification by organic liquid) indicated the presence of a
solvent extraction and Silica-gel elution considerable amount of an unknown oligosac­
chromatography. The technique of benzyla­ charide, presumably a disaccharide. If this
tion and purification is an improved ca~­ was formed from recombination of levoglu­
boxylic acid determination method and IS cosan (the major product) it would be expec­
more accurate than the other techniques ted to be a mixture of disaccharides, with

231

LIGNOCELLULOSIC AND OXYGENATED LIQUID FUELS

(LITERATURE)

maltosan as a major component. If the un­ obtained from pine barks and wastes by the
known disaccharide was a primary product it Tech-Air pyrolysis process, and its hydrogen­
should have a cellobiose structure. Maltosan ation products have been separated by GPC
and cellobiosan were synthesized and the un­ into aromatics, phenols, light nonvolatiles
known disaccharide was identified as almost and alkanes, and heavy nonvolatile fractions.
entirely cellobiosan in yields varying from The GPC using lO-nm llStyragel columns and
696 to 1596 of the sirup product. It is postu­ THF as a solvent results in reasonably clean
lated that the production of cellobiosan as a separations. The GC with the use of an inter­
primary pyrolysis product lends support to nal standard gives percentage of volatiles.
recent theories that cellulose is a polymer of High resolution gas chromatography-mass
cellobioside units rather than of glucoside spectrometry (GC-MS) has been used to char­
units. acterize the separated fractions. Changes in
composition during hydrogenation have been
Title: Chromatographic Studies of Crude determined by comparing the GPC and GC
Oils from Wood analyses of the charge stocks and products.
This technique provides fast analyses and
Citation: Meier, D., R. Doring, and O. Faix. allows the determination of compositional
Energy from Biomass, edited by changes during the upgrading process.
W. Palz, J. Coombs, and D. O.
Hall. London and New York: Title: High-Performance Liquid Chromat­
Elsevier Applied Science Pub­ ographic Analysis of Carboxylic Acids
lishers, 1985. in Pyroligneous Liquors

Content: Product oils derived from the dir­ Citation: Menard, Hugues, Alain Gaboury,
ect thermochemical conversion of wood have Denis Belanger, and Christian
been analyzed and characterized using one Roy. Journal of Analytical and
Liquid and two gas chromatographic methods. Applied Pyrolysis 6:45-57 (1984).
High Performance Gel Permeation Chro­
matography (HPGPC) was applied to achieve Content: The qualitative and quantitative
a separation according to molecular size. analysis of carboxylic acids present in pyro­
Capillary gas chromatography was used for ligneous liquors was performed by high­
the separation and quantification of single performance liquid chromatography. The
components in the crude oil. A packed method was essentially based on the de­
column was used to determine the boiling rivatization of the various acids with
point distribution. All methods applied p-bromophenacyl bromide. Results are re­
turned out to be suitable for the chemical ported for analyses performed on pyroligne­
comparison of oils from different feedstocks ous liquors obtained from aspen poplar (Popu­
and processes. lus tremuloides) and pure cellulose.

Title: Separation of Functionalities in Title: High-Performance Liquid Chromato­

Pyrolytic Tar by Gel Permeation graphic Elution Behaviour of Alcohols,
Chromatography-Gas Chroma tography Aldehydes, Ketones, Organic Acids
and Carbohydrates on a Strong
Citation: Sheu, Y.-H.E., C. V. Phillip, Cation-Exchange Stationary Phase
R. G. Anthony, and Ed J. Soltes.
J. of Chromatic Science 22:497 Citation: Pecina, R., G. Bonn, E. Burtscher,
(I 984). and O. Bobleter. Journal of Chro­
matography 287: 245-258 (1984).
Content: An analytical method combining
gel permeation chromatography (GPC) and Content: The high-performance liquid chro­
high resolution gas chromatography (GC) has matographic separation of alcohols, alde­
been developed to analyze pine pyrolytic tars hydes, ketones, carboxylic acids and carbo­
and their upgraded products. Pyrolytic tar, hydrates on a polystyrene-based strong

232

 LIGNOCELLULOSIC AND OXYGENATED LIQUID FUELS

(LITERATURE)

cation-exchange resin is described. The col­ Title: Chemical Comparisons of Liquid Fuels
umn temperature was found to be a very Produced by Thermochemical Lique­
important parameter for optimizing separa­ faction of Various Biomass Materials
tions of these substances. The effect of dif­
ferent functional groups on the elution be­ Citation: Russell, J. A., P. M. Molton, and
haviour is discussed. S. D. Landsman. pp. 307-322 in
Alternative Energy Sources III,
Title: Information Document on Gasohol Vol. 3. Solar Energy 3. Edited by
(Motor Fuel Containing 10% Volume T. N. Viziroglu. New York:
of Denatured Ethanol in Gasoline) Hemisphere Publishing Company,
1983.
Citation: New York: ASTM, 1983.
Content:
Content: This document summarizes pres­
ently available information for motor fuels
Title: Analysis of Oil Fractions Derived
containing a nominal 10 volume % of dena­
tured ethanol in leaded or unleaded gaso­ from Hydrogenation of Aspen Wood.
line. It must be recognized that experience
Citation: Boocock, D. G. B.,
with gasohol is presently inadequate to set
R. K. M. G. Kallury, and T. T.
limits on some properties, or to identify pos­
Tidwell. Anal. Chern. 55:1689
sible long-term effects.
(1983).
Title: Coal Liquefaction: The Chemistry Content:
and Technology of Thermal Processes

Citation: Whitehurst, D. Duayne, Thomas O. Title: Biomass Liquefication: Centralized

Mitchell, and Malvina Farcasiu. Analysis
New York: Academic Press, 1980.
Citation: McKinley, J. W. Vancouver, B. C.,
Content: Contains principles of preparative Canada: B. C. Research, 1989.
fractionation and characterization that may
be applicable to biomass oils. Content:

Title: Alcohols, A Technical Assessment of Title: Preparative Separation of Chemicals

Their Application as Fuels from Wood Vacuum Pyrolysis Oil,
Part I: Method Development
Citation: Publ. 4261-76. American
Petroleum Institute. Citation: Pakdel, Hooshang, Zhang
Hong-Gen, and Christian Roy.
Content: Fifth International Syposium on
Wood and Pulping Chemistry.
North Carolina State University,
Raleigh, NC, May 22-25, 1989.

Content: The main ob jective of this investi­

gation is to find a reliable technique for
large scale separation of valuable compounds
from wood pyrolysis oils. These oils mainly
contain low molecular weight oxygenated

233

LIGNOCELLULOSIC AND OXYGENATED LIQUID FUELS

(LITERATURE)

compounds with Mw < 500. They are distri­ 0.44% of the oil phase and 0.0 I % to 0.02% of
buted in a wide range of compounds with dif­ the aqueous phase. The aliphatic hydrocar­
ferent polarity ranging from non polar hydro­ bon fraction of the H-VI was surprisingly
carbons to high polar carboxylic acids and dominated with n-alkanes in the range of
carbohydrates. Sequential elution solvent n-C 1 3 to n-C 2 8 and n-alkenes in the range of
chromatography was the basic separation n-C 1 9 to n-C 26' Aromatic hydrocarbons
method used in this investigation. contributed between 0.06% to 0.24% of the
organic phase and were detected only in
Following a method developed on a small trace amounts in the aqueous phase. FTNMR
column with 1 g capacity, a large column and FTIR spectroscopic analyses of the aro­
with 100 g capacity and 80 ml- min- 1 flow matic fractions showed a complex mixture of
rate was designed. Satisfactory column highly branched aromatic hydrocarbons. Due
reproducibility, yield and recycling of the to the highly branched nature of the aro­
solvent and stationary phase were achieved. matic fractions, both organic and aqueous
The large column was designed to prefrac­ phases were believed not to have any signifi­
tio~ate ~h~ pyrolysis oil into various groups
can,t ~nvironmental and toxicological impact.
WhICh elIminated the undesirable compounds. EffICIency of the separation technique was
Further purification of the fractions obtained also tested on tar sample from a lOt h- 1
will be conducted in a high performance wood gasifier which contained over 50%
liquid chromatography column. Interestingly, polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons.
a few compounds were separated which
degree of purity was at least 70%. Their
further purification and characterization are Title: Study on the Corrosiveness of Wood
also discussed. Pyrolysis Oils
Citation: Aubin, H~lene and Christian Roy.
Title: Chemical Characterization of Submitted to Fuel Science and
Hydrocarbons Produced by Vacuum Technology Intern. December
Pyrolysis of Aspen Poplar Wood Chips 1988.
Content: A study has been conducted on the
Citation: Pakdel, H., C. Roy, and
rate of corrosion of wood pyrolysis oils in the
K. Zeidan. Research in Thermo­
chemical Biomass Conversion, May presence of carbon and stainless steel plates.
2-6, 1988, Phoenix, Arizona. New Tests were performed to simulate the condi­
York: Elsevier, 1989. tions existing in storage tanks. The effect of
temperature, water content and acetic/
Content:, Vacuum pyrolysis of aspen poplar formic acid concentration on the rate of
wood ChIPS was performed in a Process corrosion of metals was studied, as well as
Development Unit multiple hearth furnace. their possible interaction effects. The meth­
~d used involv:d a factorial design of exper­
Various pyrolysis oils were collected in a ser­
ies of cooling traps installed in parallel at Iments. All pnmary effects with their inter­
the reactor outlets (Primary Condensation aC,tions were found statistically significant
Train, H-I to H-VO. Aqueous phase with USing the Fischer criterion at F 0 1 % for the
about 45% water (96% of the total pyrolysis analysis of variance. Stainless steel resisted
water) was collected separately in a Second­ corrosion activity under all sets of conditions
ary Condensation Train (C-l to C-4) and con­ used. Wood oils were found not corrosive or
taine~ high volatile and partially soluble
slightly corrosive for cast iron at ambient
orgamc matter. Liquid-liquid and liquid-solid temperature and low water content, what­
chromatograp~ic t:chniques were developed
ever the acid concentration used. Increasing
to separate ,alIphatIC and aromatic hydrocar­ ~he te,mperature to 45°C, however, dramat­
bons. PrelIminary characterization of the Ically Increased the oil corrosion activity.
aliphatic and aromatic hydrocarbons was per­
formed by gas Chromatography. Aliphatic
hydrocarbons comprised between 0.08% to

234
 LIGNOCELLULOSIC AND OXYGENATED LIQUID FUELS

(LITERATURE)

Title: lEA CO-Operative Project Dl Biomass Title: Characterization of Peat and Biomass
Liquefaction Test Facility Project Liquids

Citation: Elliott, D. C. Volume 4: Analysis Citation: Karlsson, O. and P. Bjornbom.

and Upgrading of Biomass Lique­ Fundamantals of Thermochemical
faction Products. NTIS Biomass Conversion, pp. 1019­
DOE/NBM--I062 Vol. 4, July 1988. 1026. Barking, England: Elsevier
Applied Science Publishers, 1985.
Content:
Content:
Title: Analysis and Comparison of Biomass
Pyrolysis/Gasificat ion Condensa tes­ Title: Research in Thermochemical Biomass
Final Report Conversion

Citation: Elliott, D. C. PNL-5943. Richland, Citation: Edited by A. V. Bridgwater and

WA: Pacific Northwest J. L. Kuester. London and New
Laboratory, June 1986. York: Elsevier Applied Science
Publishers, 1988.
Content:
Content: Edited and reviewed papers from
Title: Description and Utilization of Product the International Conference on Research in
from Direct Liquefaction of Biomass Thermochemical Biomass Conversion, April
1988, Phoenix, Arizona.
Citation: Biotechnol. and Bioeng. Symp.
No. 11. pp. 187-198. New York: Title: Analytical Methodology Development
John Wiley & Sons, 1981. for the Characterization of Products
Content: Obtained By Fractionation of Biomass,
Final Report
Title: Chemistry and Stoichiometry of Wood Citation: Bouchard, J., E. Chornet, and
Liquefaction R. P. Overend. Prepared for Bio­
energy Development Program,
Citation: Davis, H. G., D. J. Kloden, and Renewable Energy Division, Coal
L. L. Schaleger. Biotechnol. and and Alternative Energy Branch,
Bioeng. Symp. No. 11, pp. 151 169. Energy, Mines and Resources
New York: John Wiley and Sons, Canada, Ottawa, Canada. DSS
1981. Contract File No: 24ST.23216-6­
Content: 6168, 1988.

Content:
Title: The Products of Direct Liquefaction
of Biomass
Title: Analysis and Comparison of Products
Citation: Davis, H. G., M. A. Eames, from Wood Liquefaction
C. Figueroa, R. R. Gansley,
L. L. Schaleger, and D. W. Watt. Citation: Elliott, D. C. In Fundamentals of
Fundamentals of Thermochemical Thermochemical Biomass Conver­
Biomass Conversion, pp. 1027­ sion. Edited by R. P. Overend,
1038. Barking, England: Elsevier T. A. Milne, and L. K. Mudge.
Applied Science Publishers, 1985. London and New York: Elsevier
Applied Science Publishers, 1985.
Content:
Content:

235

LIGNOCELLULOSIC AND OXYGENATED LIQUID FUELS

(LITERATURE)

Title: Fundamentals of Thermochemical Title: Evolution Study and Stabilization of

Biomass Conversion Pyrolytic Oils Influence of Pyrolytic
Water pH
Citation: Edited by R. P. Overend,
T. A. Milne, and L. K. Mudge. Citation: Essayegh, M., C. Mezerette,
London and New York: Elsevier F. Villeneuve, and P. L. Desbene.
Applied Science Publishers, 1985. Euroforum new Energies 88,
Contractors Meeting (Energy from
Content: Biomass R&D Program),
Sarbrucken, 24-28 October 1988.
Title: Process Development for Direct Content:
Liquefaction of Biomass

Citation: Elliott, D. C. Chapter 24 in Fuels Title: Implementation of a Technique for

From Biomass and Waste. Edited Particle and Gaseous Sampling in
by D. L. Klass and G. H. Emert. Effluents Issued from Pyrolysis in a
Ann Arbor, MI: Ann Arbor Science Metallic Kiln
Publishers, Inc., 1981.
Citation: Lachenal, J. and C. Mezerette.
Content: International Conference on
"Pyrolysis and Gasification" at
Luxembourg, May 1989.
Title: Stablization and Utilization of
Pyrolytic Oils Content:
Citation: Villeneuve, J., T. Huard,
M. Essayegh, and P. L. Desbene. Title: Caracterisation des emissions de
Biomass for Energy and Industry, a
carbonisation en four combustion
4th E.C. Conference, Orleans, partielle
France. London: Elsevier Applied
Science, 1987. Citation: Girard, P., C. Meyer, J. P.
Fontelle, and M. Boillot. Mise au
Content: point d~ systemes de traitement
des funees de carbonisation.
Biomass for Energy and Industry,
Title: New Process of Suspension Pyrolysis 4th EC Conference, Orleans.
and Use of Charcoal Slurry Elsevier Applied Science ed. 1987.
Citation: Mezerette, C., M. Essayegh, Content:
F. Villeneuve, and P. L. Desbene.
ECC Contractors Meeting (Energy
from Biomass R&D Program),
Paestum, 24-27 May 1988.

Content:

236

- LIGNOCELLULOSIC AND OXYGENATED LIQUID FUELS

(LITERATURE)

Title: Analytical Techniques Suitable for Title: A Methodology for Analysis of Wood
Pyrolysis Liquid and Gas from Liquefaction Products
Tropical Biomass
Citation: Burton, A., D. de Zutter,
Citation: Vergnet, A.-M. and F. Villeneuve. E. Churin, J. M. Liesse, P. Grange,
In Cahiers Scientifiques. No.9. and G. Ponce let. In Biomass for
Supplement de Bois et Forets des Energy and Industry, Proceedings
Tropiques. Edited by Centre of the 4th E.C. Conference.
Techique Forestier Tropical, Edited by G. Grassi, B. Delmon,
France, 1988. J.-F. Molle, and H. Zibetta.
London and New York: Elsevier
Content: Charcoal, with firewood, repre­ Applied Science, 1987.
sen ts one of the basic energy sources in
developing countries. In fact, the release of Content: The analytical procedure used for
smoke in the processes of partial combustion the evaluation of products obtained by cata­
represents 70% of the initial product mass or lytic liquefaction of wood by mild hydro­
50% of the initial energy. genolysis in an organic solvent using hydro­
treating catalyst is presented. Because two
To enable the development of the by­ objectives were defined for the hydrotreat­
products of the pyrolysis of tropical biomass,
ment, namely the depolymerization of the
through chemical or energy means, the ligneous material into molecules of commer­
constituents of the gas and liquid fractions cial value and the hydrocracking of the non­
should be known. ligneous organic material into liquid fuels,
For that purpose, an analytical method was the analytical method should give informa­
determined to make the study of these tion concerning the catalytic selectivity to
fractions possible. This analysis is based on phenolic compounds and the yield in neutral
separation by gas chromatography whose fractions as well. The analysis starts with
parameters are given in the herein article. distillations at atmospheric and lower pres­
sures in such a way that the light fraction
and water are collected. A phenolic fraction
is separated by alkaline extraction. The resi­
due of distillation is extracted in a soxhlet
for recovery of benzene soluble products.
This methodology can be extended to the
analysis of complex mixtures obtained by
conversion of biomass.

237

238

 GASEOUS FUELS
(STANDARDS)

Title: National Fuel Gas Code of sample with the analysis to be done subse­
quently on that sample.
Citation: AGA Z223.1-84
Availability: ASTM
Content:

Availability: AGA 1 This method is under the jurisdiction of

ASTM Committee D-3 on Gaseous Fuels and
is the direct responsibility of D03.0 I on
Title: Gaseous Fuels Collection and Measurement of Gaseous
Samples.
Citation: ASME PTC 3.3-69
Title: Standard Method for Analysis of
Content: Reformed Gas by Gas
Chromatography 1
Availability: ASME
Citation: ASTM D 1946-82
Title: Standard Methods for Volumetric
Measurement of Gaseous Fuel Content: This method covers the determina­
Samples l tion of the chemical composition of reformed
gases and similar gaseous mixtures contain­
Citation: ASTM D 1071-83 ing the following components: hydrogen,
oxygen, nitrogen, carbon monoxide, carbon
Content: These methods cover the volu­ dioxide, methane, ethane, and ethylene.
metric measuring of gaseous fuel samples,
including liquefied petroleum gases, in the Availability: ASTM
gaseous state at normal temperatures and
pressures. The apparatus selected covers a 1 This method is under the jurisdiction of
sufficient variety of types so that one or ASTM Committee D-3 on Gaseous Fuels and
more of the methods prescribed may be is the direct responsibility of Subcommittee
employed for laboratory control, reference, D03.07 on Analysis of Chemical Composi­
or in fact any purpose where it is desired to tion of Gaseous Fuels.
know the quantity of gaseous fuel or fuel
samples under consideration.
Title: Standard Test Method for Chemical
Availability: ASTM Composition of Gases by Mass
Spectrometry 1
1 These methods are under the jurisdiction of Citation: ASTM D 2650-83
ASTM Committee D-3 on Gaseous Fuels and
are the direct responsibility of Subcommit­ Content: This test method covers the quan­
tee D03.01 on Collection and Measurement titative analysis of gases containing specific
of Gaseous Samples. combinations of the following components:
hydrogen; hydrocarbons with up to six carbon
Title: Standard Method of Sampling atoms per molecule; carbon monoxide; car­
Manufactured Gas 1 bon dioxide; mercaptans with one or two car­
bon atoms per molecule; hydrogen sulfide;
Citation: ASTM D 1247-80 and air (nitrogen, oxygen, and argon).
(Discontinued 1987)

Content: This method covers the procedures

fo securing representative samples of manu­
factured gas, and correlates the size or type

239

GASEOUS FUELS
(STANDARDS)

Availability: ASTM Availability: ASTM

1 This test method is under the jurisdiction of 1 This method is under the jurisdiction of
ASTM Committee D-2 on Petroleum Prod­ ASTM Committee 0-3 on Gaseous Fuels and
ucts and Lubricants and is the direct re­ is the direct responsibility of Subcommittee
sponsiblity of Subcommittee D02.04 on 003.05 on Determination of Special Consti­
Hydrocarbon Analyses. tuents of Gaseous Fuels.

Title: Standard Method of Calculating Title: Standard Terminology Relating to

Calorific Value and Specific Gravity Gaseous Fuels l
(Relative Density) of Gaseous Fuels 1
Citation: ASTM 0 4150-84
Citation: ASTM 0 3588-81
Content:
Content: This method describes the calcula­
tion of calorific value and specific gravity Availability: ASTM
(relative density) of gaseous fuel from its
composition. It is applicable to all common 1 This terminology is under the jurisdiction of
types of utility gaseous fuels (for example, ASTM Committee 0-3 on Gaseous Fuels and
dry natural gas, reformed gases, oil gas (both is the direct responsiblity of Subcommittee
high- and low-Btu), propane-air, carbureted
003.92 on Definitions and Nomenclature.
water gas, and coke oven and retort coal gas)
for which suitable methods of analysis are
available. Title: Standard Practice for Calculation of
Gas Chromatographic Response
Availability: ASTM Factors 1

1This method is under the jurisdiction of Citation: ASTM 0 4626-86

ASTM Committee 0-3 on Gaseous Fuels and
is the direct responsibility of Subcommittee Content: This practice describes a procedure
003.03 on Determination of Calorific Value for calculating gas chromatographic response
of Gaseous Fuels. factors. It is applicable to chromatographic
data obtained from a gaseous mixture or
from any mixture of compounds that is nor­
Title: Standard Method for Analysis of mally liquid at room temperature and pres­
Hydrogen Sulfide in Gaseous Fuels sure or solids, or both, that will form a solu­
(Lead Acetate Reaction Rate tion with liquids. It is not intended to be
Method)l applied to those compounds that react in the
chromatographic or are not quantitatively
Citation: ASTM 0 4084-82 eluted. Normal C 6 through C 1 1 paraffins
have been chosen as model compounds for
Content: This method covers the determina­ demonstration purposes.
tion of hydrogen sulfide (H 2 S) in gaseous
fuels. It is applicable to the measurement of Availability: ASTM
H 2S in natural gas, liquefied petroleum gas
(LPG), substitute natural gas, and mixtures
of fuel gases. Air doe not interfere. The 1 This practice is under the jurisdiction of
applicable range is 0.1 to 16 parts per million ASTM Committee 0-2 on Petroleum Prod­
by volume (ppm/v) (approximtely 0.1 to ucts and Lubricants and is the direct re­
22 mg/m 3 ) and may be extended to 100% H 2 S sponsibility of Subcommittee 002.04 on
by manual or automatic volumetric dilution. Hydrocarbon Analysis.

240

 GASEOUS FUELS
(STANDARDS)

Title: Methods for the Analysis of Fuel Title: Testing of Gaseous Fuels and Other
Gases Gases

Citation: BS 3156 Citation: DIN 51872 Parts 1-4

Content: Consists of 11 parts. Content: 1. Determination of the main com­

ponents, general statements. 2. Methods
Availability: BSI according to Orsat. 3. Methods according to
Orsat and Janak. 4. Gas chromatographic
procedure.
Title: Specification for Apparatus for
Physical Methods of Gas Analysis Availability: DIN
Citation: BS 4314:Part 1: 1968
Title: Testing of Fuel Gases, Protective
Content: Gases and Exhaust Gases; Sampling

Availability: BSI Citation: DIN 51853

Content:
Title: Gaseous Fuels and Other Gases;
Types, Constituents, Application Availability: DIN
Citation: DIN 1340
Title: Gas Analysis--Vocabulary
Content:
Citation: ISO 7504:1984
Availability: DIN
Content: Bilingual Edition.

Availability: ISO

241

242

 NON-FuEL PRODUCTS
(STANDARDS)

Title: Standard Method for Distillation of Title: Standard Definitions of Terms

Creosote and Creosote-Coal Tar Relating to Activated Carbon 1
Solutions l
Citation: ASTM D 2652-76 (1987)
Citation: ASTM D 246-84
Content:
Content: This method covers a procedure for
the distillation of creosote and creosote-coal Availability: ASTM
tar solution.

Availability: ASTM 1 These definitions are under the jurisdiction

of ASTM Committee D-28 on Activated
Carbon and are the direct responsibility of
1 This method is under the jurisdiction of Subcommittee D28.03 on Nomenclature and
ASTM Committee D-7 on Wood and is the Editorial.
direct responsibility of Subcommittee
D07.06 on Wood Preservatives.
Title: Standard Test Method for pH of
Activated Carbon 1
Title: Standard Test Method for Acidity in
Volatile Solvents and Chemical Inter­ Citation: ASTM D 3838-80 (1986)
mediates Used in Paint, Varnish,
Lacquer, and Related Products 1 Content: This test method covers detemina­
tion of the pH of a water extract of acti­
Citation: ASTM D 1613-85 vated carbon.

Content: This method covers the determina­ Availability: ASTM

tion of total acidity as acetic acid, in con­
centrations below 0.05%, in organic com­
1This test method is under the jurisdiction of
pounds and hydrocarbon mixtures used in
ASTM Committee D-28 on Activated Car­
paint, varnish, and lacquer solvents and dilu­
bon and is the direct responsibility of Sub­
ents. It is known to be applicable to such
committee D28.04 on Gas Phase Evaluation
mixtures as low molecular weight saturated
Tests.
and unsaturated alcohols, ketones, ethers,
esters, hydrocarbon diluents, naphtha, and
other light distillate petroleum fractions. Title: Practice for Estimating the Operating
Performance of Granular Activated
Availability: ASTM Carbon for Removal of Soluble Pol­
lutants from Water
1 This test method is under the jurisdiction of
ASTM Committee D-l on Paint and Related Citation: ASTM D 3922-80
Coatings and Materials and is the direct
responsibility of Subcommittee D01.35 on Content:
Solvents, Plasticizers, and Chemical
Intermediates. Availability: ASTM

243

NON-FuEL PRODUCTS
<STANDARDS)

Title: Standard Test Method for Determi­

ation of Iodine Number of Activated
Carbon 1

Citation: ASTM D 4607-87

Content: This test method covers the de­

termination of the relative activation level
of unused or reactivated carbons by adsorp­
tion of iodine from aqueous solution. The
amount of iodine absorbed (in milligrams) by
1 g of carbon using test conditions listed
herein is called the iodine number.

Availability: ASTM

This test method is under the jurisdiction of

1
ASTM Committee D-28 on Activated Car­
bon and is the direct responsibility of Sub­
committee D2&.02 on Liquid Phase Evalua­
tion Tests.

244
.
245

 SOLID WASTE
(~TANDARDS)

Title: Method for Leaching Solid Waste in a Title: Criteria for Classification of Solid
Column Apparatus Waste Disposal Facilities and
Practices
Citation: ASTM 0 4874
Citation: 40 CFR 257 (See also
Content: 40 CFR Parts 261, 264, and 265).

Availability: ASTM Content:

Availability: EPA/CFR
Title: The Anaerobic Biodegradation
Potential of Solid Wastes

Citation: ASTM Committee 0-34, Subcom­

mittee 034.09.03 on Biological
Treatment and Land Applications

Content:

ASTM

247

248

 SOLID WASTE
(LITERATURE)

Title: Anaerobic Biodegradation Potential of Title: Test Methods for Evaluating Solid
Solid Wastes Waste, Physical/Chemical Methods

Citation: ASTM Standarization News. Citation: 3rd Ed., 2 Vols. SW-846.

October 1988, p. 11. Washington, DC: U.S.
Environmental Protection Agency,
Content: The anaerobic biodegradation 1986.
potential of solid wastes containing organic
material wiil be studied by Subcommittee Content:
034.09.03 on Biological Treatment and Land Ch. l--Quality Control;
Application. The goal is to develop a stan­ Ch. 2--Choosing the Correct Procedure;
dard laboratory procedure that will simulate Ch. 3--Metallic Analytes;
naturally occurring anaerobic microbial pro­ Ch. 4--0rganic Analytes;
cesses that may alter or degrade complex Ch. 5--Miscellaneous Test Methods;
solid waste materials in a disposal environ­ Ch. 6--Properties;
ment, and would be applicable to any organic Ch. 7--Introduction and Regulator
waste material. Industries and municipalities Definitions;
who generate organic solid wastes that are Ch. 8--Methods for Determining
currently disposed of on land or are land­ Characteristics;
treated will benefit. Ch. 9--Sampling Plan;
Ch. lO--Sampling Methods;
Ch. Il--Ground Water Monitoring;
Title: Chemical and Biological Charac­ Ch. l2--Land Treatment Monitoring;
terization of Municipal Sludges, Sedi­ Ch. 13--Incineration
ments, Dredge Spoils, and Drilling
Muds

Citation: STP 976. New York: ASTM, 1988.

Content: This volume is based on a sympo­

sium held to determine the state of the art in
sampling and anaytical methods for sludges
and other solids. U.S. Environmental Protec­
tion Agency (EPA) program office and re­
gional representatives at the program de­
scribed the status of the regulations and the
analytical needs related to characterization
and regulation of sludge, sediment, and waste
streams. Technical papers addressed quality
assurance, sampling, organic and inorganic
chemical methods, aquatic biological, micro­
biological, and virological methods and risk
asessment.

249

250

 LIQUID WASTE
(~TANDARDS)

Title: Tests for Water: Determination of Title: Standard Test Methods for pH of
Biological Oxygen Demand (BOD) Water 1

Citation: NF T 90-103-75 Citation: ASTM D 1293-84

Content: Content: These methods cover the determi­

Availability: AFNOR nation of pH by electrometric measurement
using the glass electrode as the sensor. Two
procedures are included: Method A--Precise
Title: Standard Methods for the Examination Laboratory Measurement; Method B--Routine
of Water and Wastewater; Sixteenth or Continuous Measurement.
Edition
Availability: ASTM
Citation: APHA, AWWA, WPCF
1 These test methods are under the jurisdic­
Content: Part 100--General Introduction; tion of ASTM Committee 0-19 on Water.
Part 200--Physical Examination; Part 300-­
Determination of Metals; Part 400--Determi­
nation of Inorganic Nonmetallic Constitu­ Title: Standard Test Methods for Particulate
ents; Part 500--Determination of Organic and Dissolved Matter, Solids, or Resi­
Constituents; Part 600--Automated Labora­ due in Water 1
tory Analyses; Part 700--Examination of
Water and Wastewater for Radioactivity; Citation: ASTM 0 1888-78
Part 800--Toxicity Test Methods; Part 900-­
Microbiological Examination of Water; Content: These methods cover the deter­
Part lOOO--Biological Examination of Water. mination of particulate, dissolved, and total
matter, sometimes referred to as the sus­
Availability: APHA pended, dissolved, and total solids, in water.
Two procedures, consistent with the total
matter content, are provided as follows:
Title: Standard Test Methods for Chemical Method A--Particulate and Dissolved Matter
Oxygen Demand (Dichromate Oxygen in Water with More Than 25 ppm of Total
Demand) of Water l Matter; Method B--Particulate and Dissolved
Matter in Water with 25 ppm or Less of Total
Citation: ASTM D 1252-88 Matter (Automatic Evaporation).
Content: These test methods cover the de­ Availability: ASTM
termination of the quantity of oxygen that
certain impurities in water will consume,
based on the reduction of a dichromate solu­ 1 These methods are under the jurisdiction of
tion under specified conditions. The following ASTM Committee 0-19 on Water.
test methods are included: Test Method A-­
COD by Reflux Digestion; Test Method B-­ Title: Standard Test Methods for Total and
Micro COD by Spectrophotometric Organic Carbon in Water 1
Procedure.
Citation: ASTM D 2579-85
Availabi~ity: ASTM
Content: These test methods cover the de­
termination of total and organic carbon in
1 These test methods are under the jurisdic­ water and wastewater, including brackish
tion of ASTM Committee 0-19 on Water waters, and brines. The following methods
and are the direct responsibility of Sub­ are included: Method A--Oxidation--Infrared
committee 019.06 on Methods for Analysis Detection; Method B--Reduction--Flame
for Substances in Water. Ionization Detection.

251

LIQUID WASTE
(STANDARDS)

Availability: ASTM infrared, mass spectroscopy, and 9as ~hroma­

tography will yield .more quahtatlye a~d
quantitative informatIOn than a gravImetriC
1 These test methods are under the jurisdic­ measurement of the residue from solvent
tion of ASTM Committee D-19 on Water evaporation. The choice is left to the ~ser of
and are the direct responsibility of Su~­ the adsorption-extraction method. sub}:ct to
committee D 19.06 on Methods for AnalysIs his particular needs and the avallabillty of
for Substances in Water. equipment.

Title: Standard Practice for Measuring Availability: ASTM

Volatile Organic Matter in Water by
Aqueous-Injection Gas 1This practice is under the jurisdicti?n of
Chromatography 1 ASTM Committee D-19 on Water and IS the
direct responsibility of Subcommittee
Citation: ASTM D 2908-74 (1987) D19.06 on Methods for Analysis for Organic
Substances in Water.
Content: This practice covers general guid­
ance applicable to certain ~est. methods f,?r
the qualitative and quantItatIve determI­ Title: Standard Test Method for Total
nation of specific organic compounds, or Oxygen Demand in Water l
classes of compounds, in water by direct
aqueous injection gas chromatography. Citation: ASTM D 3250-77 (1982)
Volatile organic compounds at aqueous con­
centrations greater than about 1 mg/L can Content: This method covers the determina­
generally be determined by direct aqueous tion of total oxygen demand in the ranges
injection gas chromatography. from 10 to 200, 25 to 500, 50 to 1000 mg/ L,
in water including brackish waters and
Availability: ASTM brines. Larger concentrations may be deter­
mined by suitable dilution of the sample.
1 This practice is under the jurisdicti?n of The procedures are applicable to all oxygen­
ASTM Committee D-19 on Water and IS the demanding substances in the sample that can
direct responsibility of Subcommittee be injected into the reaction zone. The in­
D19.06 on Methods for Analysis for Organic jector opening limits the maximum size of
Substances in Water. particles which can be injected. If oxygen­
demanding substances that are water­
insoluble liquids or solids are present, a
Title: Standard Practice for Concentration preliminary treatment may be desired.
and Recovery of Organic Matter from This method is particularly useful for mea­
Water by Activated Carbon 1
suring oxygen demand in certain industrial
effluents and process streams. Its applica­
Citation: ASTM D 2910-85
tion for monitoring secondary sewage efflu­
ents is not established. Its use for the
Content: This practice provides a technique
monitoring of natural waters is greatly limi­
for the concentration and recovery of or­
ted by the interferences defined in Section 5.
ganic matter from water for analytical pur­
poses. The organic matter is adsorbed from Availability: ASTM
the water onto activated carbon which is
solvent-extracted to recover the organic
constituents. I This method is under the jurisdiction of

The practice is terminated without a pre­ ASTM Committee D-19 on Water and is the
scribed analytical measurement of the or­ direct responsibility of Subcommittee D 19.06
ganic matter. Analytical methods such as on Methods for Analysis for Organic Sub­
stances in Water.

252

 LIQUID WASTE
(STANDARDS)

Title: Standard Practices for Sampling Availability: ASTM

Water l

Citation: ASTM 0 3370-82 1 This practice is under the jurisdiction of

Committee 0-19 on Water and is the direct
Content: These practices cover the sampling responsibility of Subcommittee 0119.06 on
of water for chemical, physical, microbiolog­ Methods for Analysis for Organic Sub­
ical, and radiological analysis. The following stances in Water.
are included: Practice A--Grab samples, Title: Standard Test Method for Polynuclear
Practice B--Composite samples, Practice C-­ Aromatic Hydrocarbons in Water 1
Continual sampling.
Citation: ASTM 0 4657-87
Availability: ASTM
Content: This test method covers the deter­
1 These practices are under the jurisdiction of mination of certain polynuclear aromatic hy­
ASTM Committee 0-19 on Water and are drocarbons (PAHs) in water and wastewater.
the direct responsibility of Subcommittee The following compounds may be determined
019.03 on Hydraulics, Sampling, and Sur­ by this method: Acenaphthene, acenaph­
veillance of Water and Water-Formed thylene, anthracene, benzo(a)anthracene,
benzo(a)pyrene, benzo(b)fluoranthene, benzo­
(ghi)perylene, benzo(k)fluoranthene, chrys­
ene, dibenzo(ah)anthracene, fluoranthene,
Title: Standard Practice for Identification of fluorene, indeno( 1,2,3-cd)pyrene, naphtha­
Organic Compounds in Water by Com­ lene, phenathrene, and pyrene. Additional
bined Gas Chromatography and Elec­ PAHs may also be determined; however, the
tron Impact Mass Spectrometry 1 analyst should demonstrate that the test
method is in fact applicable to the specific
Citation: ASTM 04128-82 PAH(s) of interest before applying it to sam­
ple analysis. This test method has high sensi­
Content: This practice covers the gas tivity for the compounds of interest. It is
chromatography/mass spectrometry (electron limited to use by analysts familiar with high­
impact) identification of organic compounds performance liquid chromatography (HPLC)
that are present in or extracted from water or working under close supervision of such
and are capable of passing through a gas persons.
chromatograph without alteration. The prac­
tice is intended primarily for, but not re­ Availability: ASTM
stricted to, solutions containing at least
50 ng of any component of interest. The
1 This test method is under the jurisdiction of
practice has the advantage of providing ten­
ASTM Committee 0-19 on Water and is the
tative identifications of volatile organics,
direct responsibility of Subcommittee
but is restricted to (a) compounds for which
019.06 on Methods for Analysis for Organic
reference spectra can be obtained and (b)
Substances in Water.
compounds that can be separated by gas
chromatography (GC). These restrictions are
imposed on the practice but are not a limi­ Title: Determination of Biochemical Oxygen
tation of the technique. The practice is Demand
written for, but not restricted to, analyses
using automated data acquisition and Citation: CPPA H.2
handling.
This practice is applicable to the identifica­ Content: This is a test for the determination
tion of many organic constituents of natural of the oxygen depletion capacity of effluent
and treated waters. It includes all modes of or water. It is indirectly a measure of the
sample introduction. organic concentration, but since only part of

253

LIQUID WASTE

(STANDARDS)

the organic material is oxidized biochem.i­ Title: Water P ollution Effluent Guidelines
cally, it does not measure the total orgamc and Standards for Point Source
concentration. Categories: Pulp Paper, and
Paperboard
In its commonest form, the B.O.D. test is
based on a five-day period of 0x:idatio~ at Citation: 40 CFR 430
20°C and does not include the Immediate
oxygen demand. Content:
Availability: CPPA Availability: CFR

Title: Chemical Oxygen Demand Title: Water Programs

Citation: CPPA H.3P Citation: 40 CFR 117 (Hazardous sub­

stances, reportable quantities
Content: This method is used to determine determination)
Chemical Oxygen Demand (C.O.D.) of water 40 CFR 116 (Hazardous substances
and waste water, where C.O.D. is defined as designation)
the milligrams of oxygen consumed by I L of
sample under the conditions of the test. 40 CFR 129 (Toxic pollutants
effluent standards, prohibitions)
This test method should not be considered as
a substitute for the Biochemical Oxygen 40 CFR 131 (Water quality
Demand (B.O.D.) test, Tech. Sect., CPPA standards)
Standard H.2. The conditions of oxidation
are much more severe in the C.O.D. test and Content:
it follows that C.O.D. results are usually Availability: CFR
higher than corresponding B.O.D. results for
the same sample. However, in the case of
wastes containing substances which are toxic Title: Waste Waters Permanganate Number
toward the micro-organisms essential to the
B.O.D. test, or which are resistant to biode­ Citation: SCAN-W 1:66
gradation, the C.O.D. procedure may be the
only method suitable for evaluating oxidiz­ Content: The permanganate number of
able matter in an effluent. waste waters is defined as the number of
milligrams of potassium permanganate con­
Availability: CPPA sumed by one liter of waste water under
standard conditions of test as specified in
Title: Water Resources Council, National this method.
Environmental Policy Act, To the acidified sample is added a known
Compliance amount of potassium permanganate at the
temperature of a boiling water bath. The
Citation: 1& CFR 707 consumption of permanganate is taken as a
measure of the content of organic matter in
Content: the sample. Unconsumed permanganate is
Availability: CFR determined iodometrically.
This method applies to waste waters and
receiving waters, or dilutions thereof, con­
taining less than 300 mg of chlor ide ions per
litre.

Availability: SCAN

254

 LIQUID WASTE
(~TANDARDS)

Title: Biochemical Oxygen Demand of

Industrial Effluents

Citation: SCAN-W 5:71

Content: The biochemical oxygen demand of

an industrial effluent is the amount of dis­
solved oxygen that is consumed in biochem­
ical oxidation of organic matter under spe­
cified conditions.
This method is designed for application to
normal industrial effluents containing no
other toxic or interferr ing substances than
active chlorine, sulfur dioxide, hydrogen
sulfide, or other volatile sulfides.
The pretreated and suitably diluted sample is
seeded with domestic sewage to initiate bio­
chemical oxidation. Inorganic nutrient salts
are added and the oxygen content is mea­
sured immediately and after an incubation
period of 7 days at 20 G C.
The oxygen dissolved in the sample is deter­
mined by adding Mn 2 + ions, which are oxi­
dized to manganese (III) hydroxide, MnO(OH).
On the addition of potassium iodide and acid­
ification an equivalent amount of iodine is
liberated and this is titrated with sodium
thiosulfate.

Availability: SCAN

255

256

 LIQUID WASTE
(LITERATURE)

Title: Waste Testing and Quality Assurance Title: Selection of a TOC Analyzer

Citation: STP 999. New York: ASTM Citation: Crane, Godfrey A. American
Laboratory, July 1988, p. 51.
Content: Focuses on methodology and qual­
ity assurance practices that are being de­ Content: Total organic carbon (TOC) mea­
veloped for or applied to the Resource surement has come to the forefront as a fast
Conservation and Recovery Act (RCRA) and and simple means of assessing water quality,
the Comprehensive Environmental Response, as people the world over become increasing
Compensation, and Liability Act (CER-CLA). concerned about environmental pollution,
The papers discuss leachability estimation, especially of water. This article summarizes
data assurance, and analytical applications for the measurement of TOC
method and evalua!ion. and related parameters, reviews the various
methods available, and offers guidance on
choosing a method.
Title: Digestion and Analysis of Wastewater
Liquids, Solids and Sludges

Citation: First Edition. Loveland, CO:

Hach Company, 1987

Content: Selected methods for the determi­

nation of solid fractions and total elemental
concentrations.

257

258

 ATMOSPHERI§ ANALYSIS
( TANDARDS)

Title: Particle Size Classifiers: A Guide to Title: Standard Definitions of Terms

Performance Evaluation Relating to Atmospheric Sampling and
Analysisl
Citation: AIChE E20-80
Citation: ASTM 0 1356-73a (1979)
Content:
Content:
Availability: A IChE
Availability: ASTM
Title: Determining the Properties of Fine
Particulate Matter 1 These definitions are under the jurisdiction
of ASTM Committee D-22 on Sampling and
Citation: ASME PTC 28-65 Analysis of Atmospheres.

Content:
Title: Standard Recommended Practices for
Sampling Atmospheres for Analysis of
Availability: ASME Gases and Vapors 1

Title: Determining the Concentration of Citation: ASTM 0 1605-60 (1979)

Particulate Matter in a Gas Stream
Content: These recommended practices
Citation: ASME PTC 38-80 cover the sampling of atmospheres for analy­
sis of gases and vapors. Two types of sampl­
Content: ing methods are covered: Sampling Atmos­
pheres Without Concentration of Gases and
Availability: ASME Vapors; Sampling Atmospheres With Concen­
tration of Gases and Vapors.

Title: Flue and Exhaust Gas Analyses Availability: ASTM

Instruments and Apparatus
1 These recommended practices are under the
Citation: ASME PTC 19.10-81 jurisdiction of ASTM Committee 0-22 on
Sampling and Analysis of Atmospheres.
Content:

Availability: ASME Title: Standard Test Method for Oxides of

Nitrogen in Gaseous Combustion
Products (Phenol-Disulfonic Acid
Title: Dust Separating Apparatus Procedures) 1
Citation: ASME PTC 21-41 Citation: ASTM 0 1608-77 (1985)
Content: Content: This method describes the phenol­
disulfonic acid colorimetric procedure for
Availability: ASME the determination of total oxides of nitrogen
[nitrous oxide (N 20) excepted] in gaseous
effluents from combustion and other nitrogen
oxida tion processes.

259

ATMOSPHERIC ANALYSIS
(STANDARDS)

Availability: ASTM Availability: ASTM

This method is under the jurisdiction of

1 This practice is under the jurisdiction of
1

ASTM Committee D-22 on Sampling and ASTM Committee D-22 on Sampling and
Analysis of Atmospheres and is the direct Analysis of Atmospheres and is the direct
responsibility of Subcommittee D22.06 on responsibility of Subcommittee D22.0 I on
Source Sampling. Quality Control..

Title: Standard Test Method for Particulate Title: Standard Recommended Practice for
Matter in the Atmosphere (Optical Collection by Filtration and Determi­
Density of Filtered Deposit) I nation of Mass, Number, and Optical
Sizing of Atmospheric Particulates 1
Citation: ASTM D 1704--78
Citation: ASTM D 2009-65 (1979)
Content: This method covers the measure­
ment of the extent of soiling or darkening of Content: This recommended practice covers
clean filter paper or other white fibrous the sample collection of particulate matter
media by filtration of particulate matter in from an atmosphere by filtration and for
the atmosphere. Measurement is based on measurement of mass amount, particle size,
the light transmission or reflectance proper­ and particle size distribution of the collected
ties of the deposited solid or liquid particles material. Variations in the recommended
that originally were dispersed in a gaseous practice permit sampling to meet a number
medium. of widely different assay needs. Although
especially applicable to collection of solid
Availability: ASTM particles, the filter method may be used also
to collect liquid particles if droplet size need
I This method is under the jurisdiction of not be determined.
ASTM Committee D-22 on Sampling and
Analysis of Atmospheres and is the direct Availability: ASTM
responsibility of Subcommittee D22.03 on
Monitoring Instrumentation. 1 Thisrecommended practice is under the jur­
isdiction of ASTM Committee D-22 on Sam­
pling and Analysis of Atmospheres.
Title: Standard Practice for Conversion
Units and Factors Relating to Atmos­
pheric Analysis 1 Title: Standard Test Method for Carbon
Monoxide in the Atmosphere (Contin­
Citation: ASTM D 1914--68 (1983) uous Measurement by Nondispersive
Infrared Spectrometry) 1
Content: ASTM requires the use of SI units
in all of its publications and strongly recom­ Citation: ASTM D 3162-78
mends their use in reporting atmospheric
measurement data. However, there is a Content: This method covers the continuous
wealth of historical data and even data analysis and automatic recording of the car­
reported at the present time that is based on bon monoxide (CO) content of the ambient
a variety of units of measurement. This atmosphere in range of 0.6 mg/m 3 (0.5 ppm)
standard tabulates factors that are necessary to. I ~ 5 mg/ m 3 (Ioo ppm). The measuring
to correct such data to other units of p.rmClple makes use of absorption of radia­
measurement. tiOn by CO in the infrared region. The
method has a limit of detection of about
0.6 mg/m3 (0.5 ppm) carbon monoxide in air.

260

 ATMOSPHERIC ANALYSIS
(STANDARDS)

Availability: ASTM Availability: ASTM

1 This method is under the jurisdiction of 1 Thisrecommended practice is under the jur­
ASTM Committee D-22 on Sampling and isdiction of ASTM Committee D-22 on Sam­
Analysis of Atmospheres, and is the direct pling and Analysis of Atmosphere:; and is
responsibility of Subcommittee D22.03 on the direct responsibility of 022.03 on Moni­
Monitoring Instrumentation. toring Instrumentation.

Title: Standard Test Method for Relative Title: Standard Test Method for
Density of Black Smoke (Ringelmann Concentration and Particle Size Dis­
Method)l tribution of Airborne Particulates
Collected in Liquid Media Using an
Citation: ASTM D 3211-79 Electronic Counter 1

Content: This method covers the determina­ Citation: ASTM 0 3365-77 (Discontinued)
tion of the relative density of black smoke.
Content: This method covers the determina­
Availability: ASTM tion of quantitative counts and size distribu­
tion of insoluble airborne particulate matter
greater than 0.6-].lm diameter collected in a
I This method is under the jurisdiction of Greenburg-Smith or a midget liquid impinger,
ASTM Committee D-22 on Sampling and using an electronic particle size analyzer and
Analysis of Atmospheres and is the direct counter. Both ambient and stack particu­
responsibility of Subcommittee D22.06 on lates can be analyzed by this method.
Source Sampling.
Availability: ASTM
Title: Standard Recommended Practice for
General Ambient Air Analyzer 1 This
test method is under the jurisdiction of
Procedures 1 ASTM Committee D-22 on Sampling and
Analysis of Atmospheres.
Citation: ASTM 0 3249-79

Content: This recommended practice is a Title: Standard Test Method for Total
general guide for ambient air anlayzers used Hydrocarbons, Methane, and Carbon
in determining air quality. Monoxide in the Atmosphere (Gas
Chromatographic Method) 1
The actual method, or analyzer chosen,
depends on the ultimate aim of the user: Citation: ASTM D 3416-7&
whether it is for regulatory compliance,
process monitoring, or to alert the user of Content: This method covers a collection of
adverse trends. If the method or analyzer is components which is designed for the semi­
to be used for federal or local compliance, it continuous measurement of total hydrocar­
is recommended that the method published or bons, methane, and carbon monoxide in
referenced in the regulations be used in con­ ambient air using the specificity of the hy­
junction with this and other ASTM methods. drogen flame ionization detector for hydro­
carbons, and a gas chromatographic tech­
nique for carbon monoxide and methane.

261

 ATMOSPHERIC ANALYSIS
(STANDARDS)

Availability: ASTM Availability: ASTM

1 This
test method is under the jurisdiction of 1 This practice is under the jurisdiction of
ASTM Committee D-22 on Sampling and ASTM Committee D-22 on Sampling and
Analysis of Atmospheres and is the direct Analysis of Atmospheres and is the direct
responsibility of Subcommittee D22.03 on responsibility of Subcommittee D22.04 on
Monitor ing Instrumentation. Analysis of Workplace Atmospheres.

Title: Standard Test Method for Particulates Title: Standard Practice for Analysis of
Independently or for Particulates and Organic Compound Vapors Collected
Collected Residue Simultaneously in by the Activated Charcoal Tube
Stack Gases 1 Adsorption Method 1

Citation: ASTM D 368.5-78 Citation: ASTM D 3687-84

Content: This method covers the determina­ Content: This practice covers the applica­
tion of the mass emission rate of particulate tions of methods for the desorption and gas
matter in effluent, in-stack (Method A--Dry) chromatographic determination of organic
or out-of-stack (Method B--Wet) gas streams. vapors that have been adsorbed from air in
The method also covers the simultaneous sampling tubes packed with activated
determination of particulate matter and col­ charcoal.
lected residue in effluent gas streams.
Availability: ASTM
Availability: ASTM
1 Thispractice is under the jurisdiction of
1 Thistest method is under the jurisdiction of ASTM Committee D-22 on Sampling and
ASTM Committee D-22 on Sampling and Analysis of Atmospheres and is the direct
Analysis of Atmospheres and is the direct responsibility of Subcommittee D22.04 on
responsibility of Subcommittee D22.06 on Analysis of Workplace Atmospheres.
Source Sampling.

Title: Standard Practice for Application of

Title: Standard Practice for Sampling the Hi-Vol (High-Volume) Sampler
Atmospheres to Collect Organic Com­ Method for Collection and Mass
pound Vapors (Activated Charcoal Determination of Airborne Particulate
Tube Adsorption Method) 1 Matter 1
Citation: ASTM D 3686-84 Citation: ASTM D 4096-82
Content: This practice covers a method for Content: This practice provides for sampling
the sampling of atmospheres for determining a large volume of atmosphere, 1600 to
the presence of certain organic vapors by 2400 m 3 (.55,000 to 85,000 ft ), by means of a
means of adsorption on activated charcoal high flowrate blower at a rate of 1.13 to
using a charcoal tube and a small portable 1.70 m 3 /min (40 to 60 ft 3 /min).
sampling pump worn by a worker. A list of
some of the organic chemical vapors that can
be sampled by this practice is provided in
Annex A 1. This list is presented as a guide
and should not be considered as absolute or
complete.

262

 ATMOSPHERIC ANALYSIS
(STANDARDS)

Availability: ASTM Part 2: I 984--Recommendations for Gravi­

tational Liquid Sedimentation Methods for
I This practice is under the jur isdiction of Powders and Suspensions
ASTM Committee 0-22 on Sampling and Part 3: 1963--Air Elutriation Methods
Analysis of Atmospheres and is the direct
responsibility of Subcommittee 022.03 on Part 4: I 963--0ptical Microscope Method
Ambient Atmospheres. Part 5: I 983--Recommendations for Electri­
cal Sensing Zone Method (the Coulter
Principle)
Title: Standard Test Method for High­
Volume Sampling for Solid Particulate Part 6:1 985--Recommendations for Cen­
Matter and Determination of Particu­ trifugal Liquid Sedimentation Methods for
late Emissons 1 Powders and Suspensions

Citation: ASTM 0 4536-86a Availability: BSI

Content: This test method can be used to

estimate the particulate matter concentra­ Title: Testing of Fuel Gases of Oil Burning
tion in stationary source stacks. Systems; Visual and Photometric
Determination of the Smoke Number
Availability: ASTM
Citation: DIN 51402 Part I

1 This test method is under the jurisdiction of Content:

ASTM Committee 0-22 on Sampling and Availability: DIN
Analysis of Atmospheres and is the direct
responsibility of Subcommittee 022.02 on
Source Sampling. Title: Compendium of Methods for the
Determination of Toxic Organic Com­
pounds in Ambient Air
Title: Method for Measurement of
Partculate Emission Including Grit and Citation: EPA/600/S4-87/006
Dust (Simplified Method)
Content:
Citation: BS 3405: 1983
Availability: EPA
Content: States the principles to adopt in
carrying out a simplified method for the
determination of particulate matter in efflu­ Title: Continuous Analyzers for Oxygen in
ent gases from industrial processes and des­ Flue Gas
cribes the procedure. Sets out requirements
to be met in designing apparatus required and Citation: JIS B 7963-79
indicates basic sampling procedures.
Content:
Availability: BSI Availability: JIS

Title: Methods for the Determination of Title: Method for Sampling of Stack Gas
Particle Size Distribution
Citation: JIS K 0095-79
Citation: BS 3406
Content:
Content: Part I:l986--Guide to Powder
Sampling Availability: JIS

263

ATMOSPHERIC ANALYSIS
(STANDARDS)

Title: Use of the Ringlemann and Miniature Title: New Stationary Sources Performance
Smoke Charts Standards

Citation: NZS 520 I :1973 Citation: 40 CFR 60

(Identical to BS 2742:1969)
Content:
Content: Method l--Sample and velocity traverses for
stationary sources,
Availability: SANZ Method 2--Determination of stack gas veloc­
ity and volumetric flow rate (Type S pitot
tube),
Title: Ringlemann Chart Method 3--Gas analysis for carbon dioxide,
oxygen, excess air, and dry molecular
Citation: NZS 5201C:1975 (Identical to weight,
BS 2742C:1957 Method 4--Determination of moisture con­
tent in stack gases,
Content: Method 5--Determination of particulate
emissions from stationary sources,
Availability: SANZ Method 6--Determination of sulfur dioxide
emissions from stationary sources,
Method 6C--Determination of sulfur dioxide
Title: British Standard Miniature Smoke emissions from stationary sources,
Chart Method 7--Determination of nitrogen oxide
emissions from stationary sources,
Citation: NZS 520lM:l975
Method 7A--Determination of nitrogen oxide
(Identical to BS 2742M:l960)
emissions from stationary sources--Ion
chromatographic method,
Content: \~n:!L'tIlu61'b--'be"(ermma't'lOn 01 riltrogen oxide

Availability: SANZ emissions from stationary sources (Ultra­

violet spectrophotometry),
Method 7C--Determination of nitrogen oxide
Title: Ambient Air Quality Standards, emissions from stationary sources-­
National Primary and Secondary Alkaline-permanganate/colorimetric
method,
Citation: 40 CFR 50 Method 7D--Determination of nitrogen oxide
emissions from stationary sources-­
Content: Alkaline-permanganate/ion
chromatographic method,
Availability: EPA/CFR Method 7E--Determination of nitrogen oxides
emissions from stationary sources (Instru­
mental Analyzer Procedure),
Title: Ambient Air Monitoring Reference Method 9--Visual determination of the opa­
and Equivalent Methods city of emissions from stationary sources,
Alternate Method I--Determination of the
Citation: 40 CFR 53 opacity of emissions from stationary
sources remotely by Hdar,
Content: Method 10--Determination of carbon mono­
xide emissions from stationary sources,
Availability: EPA/CFR Method 17--Determination of particulate
emissions from stationary sources (instack
filtration method),

264

 ATMOSPHERI~ ANALYSIS
(STANDARDS)

Method l8--Measurement of gaseous organic Title: National Emission Standards for

compound emissions by gas Hazardous Air Pollutants

chromatography,
Method 19--Determination of sulfur dioxide Citation: 40 CFR 61
removal efficiency and particulate, sulfur
dioxide and nitrogen oxides emission rates Content:
from electric utility steam generators,
Method 20--Determination of nitrogen Availability: EPA/CFR
oxides, sulfur dioxide, and diluent
emissions from stationary gas turbines,
Method 21--Determination of volatile or­ Title: Clean Air Act Requirements, Special
ganic compound leaks, Exemptions
Method 22--Visual determination of fugitive
emissions from material sources and smoke Citation: 40 CFR 69
emissions from flares
Content:
Availability: EPA/CFR
Availability: EPA/CFR

265

 ""'"

266
 ATMOSPHERIC ANALYSIS
(LITERATURE)

Title: Sampling and Calibration for Title: Climate Models and CO 2 Warming: A
Atmospher ic Measurements Selective Review and Summary
Citation: Edited by J. K. Taylor. ASTM STP Citation: PUBL 4347-82. American
957. New York: ASTM,1987, Petroleum Institute, 48 pp.
228 pp.
Content:
Content: Papers explain how to design and
carry out atmospheric sampling, how to reli­
ably calibrate instruments, and thus how to Title: Economic Methods for Multipollutant
obtain more reliable measurements in rela­ Analysis and Evaluation
tion to understanding and controlling air pol­
lution, work place atmospheres, and indoor Citation: Baasel, William D. New York:
air quality. This publication will be of inter­ Marcel Dekker, Inc., 1985.
est to industrial hygienists, analytical chem­
ists involved with atmospheres, building Content:
designers, and regulators.
Title: Modified Method 5 Train and Source
Title: Air Sampling Instruments Assessment Sampling System
Operator's Manual
Citation: Edited by P. J. Lioy and M. J. Y.
Lioy. 6th Edition. Cincinnati: Citation: Schlickenrieder, Lynn M., Jeffrey
American Conference of Govern­ W. Adams, and Kathleen E. Thrun.
mental Industrial Hygienists, 1983, EPA-600/8-85-003. Washington,
552 pp. DC: United States Environmental
Protection Agency, 1985.
Content: Background Discussions--Air Sam­
pling for Specific Purposes; Background Content:
Discussions--Instrument Operation and Per­
f ormance; Discussions and Descriptions of
Sampling Systems and Components; Discus­
sions and Descriptons of Direct Reading
Instruments.

267

268

269

Title: Proposed Safety Test Standard for Title: Measurement of Shaft Power
Automatic Feed Appliances Instruments and Apparatus

Citation: Prepared by APFI Store Safety Citation: ASME PTC 19.7-80

Standards Committee
Content:
Content: This proposed standard covers all
automated feed, solid fuel appliances for Availability: ASME
residential use which are intended to burn
densified biomass or other suitable solid fuel.
Title: Gas Turbine Power Plants
Availability: APFI
Citation: ASME PTC 22-85

Title: Steam Generating Units Content:

Citation: ASME PTC 4.1-64 Availability: ASME

Content:
Title: Large Incinerators
Availability: ASME
Citation: ASME PTC 33-78
(Appendix 33A-1980, 1987)
Title: Air Heaters
Content:
Citation: ASME PTC 4.3-68
Availability: ASME
Content:

Availability: ASME Title: Boiler and Pressure Vessel Codes

Non-Interfiled - (1986)

Title: Routine Performance Tests of Steam Citation: ASME

Turbines, Simplified
Content: Contains many subsections.
Citation: ASME PTC 6S-70
Availability: ASME
Content:

Availability: ASME Title: Glossary of Terms Relating to Solid

Fuel Burning Equipment

Title: Reciprocating Internal-Combustion Citation: BS 1846:-­

Engines Part 1:1968 (Domestic Appliances)
Part 2:1969 (Industrial Water
Citation: ASME PTC 17-73 Heating and Steam Raising
Installations)
Content:
Content:
~vailabi1ity: ASME
Availability: BSI

271

 ,
I
COMBUSTION

<STANDARDS)

Title: Combination Gas and Solid-Fuel Fired Title: Installation Code for Solid-Fuel­
Furnaces Burning Appliances and Equipment

Citation: CAN 1-2.27 -M84 Citation: CAN/CSA-B365-M87

Content: This standard applies to newly Content: Covers minimum requirements for
produced combination gas/solid-fuel furnaces the installation of, alteration to, addition to
having an input on gas not exceeding 120 kW and provision for maintenance for solid-fuel
(400,000 Btuh) that have provision for vent­ burning appliances and equipment intended to
ing directly to the outdoors by means of flue supply heat to air or water. It does not apply
pipes, chimneys, and are intended primarily to the installation of incinerators, site-built
for residential heating. fireplaces or process equipment. For the
purpose of this standard, solid-fuel burning
Note: Gas means natural gas or propane. appliances shall include furnaces, bOilers,
This standard applies to furnaces, factory or stoves, ranges, space heaters, factory-built
field-assembled, that have been, or could fireplaces, and service water heaters.
have been, completely assembled at the man­
ufacturer's plant and transported in the Availability: CSA
assembled condition.
This standard also applies to outdoor-aired Title: Solid-Fuel-Fired Central Heating
combination gas/solid-fuel fired furnaces. Appliances
For the purposes of these requirements,
"outdoor-aired" refers to furnaces wherein Citation: CAN/CSA-B366.1-M87
all combustion air is to be taken directly
from the outdoors. Content: Applies to (a) hand-fueled or
An appliance submitted for examination stoker-equipped solid-fuel fired appliances
under this standard shall be constructed so navmg ali Ihput ratmg not eXCeeding 3UU kW
that every part is secured against displace­ (1 million Btu/h) that have provision for
ment and that a fixed relationship is main­ venting directly to the outdoors by means of
tained between essential parts under normal flue pipes, chimneys, etc. and are intended
and reasonable conditions of handling and primarily for residential heatings; (b) appli­
use. ances, factory- or field-assembled, that have
been, or could have been, completely assem­
This standard does not cover fireplaces or bled at the manufacturer's plant and trans­
incinerators. ported in the assembled condition; (c) the
hand-fueled or stoker-equipped solid-fuel
Availability: CGA features of a combination solid-fuel-/fuel­
oil-fired appliance, intended primarily for
Title: General Requirements for Oll Burning residential heating, where the solid-fuel
Equipment features may affect the safety or perfor­
mance of the oil-fired appliance. In these
Citation: CAN/CSA-BI40.0-M87 cases, requirements in this standard are addi­
tional to the requirements for the specific
Content: oil-fired appliance; (d) outdoor-aired solid­
fuel-fired appliances. For the purpose of
A vailabHity: CSA these requirements, "outdoor-aired" refers to
appliances wherein all combustion air is to
be taken directly from the outdoors; and
(e) solid-fuel-fired furnaces intended to be
added on directly in series at a point after

272

 COMBUSTION
(STANDARDS)

the warm air leaves the eXIstmg forced­ Title: Boilers for Central Heating
warm-air oil furnace (downstream series add­
on). Contains suggested wood-chip and Citation: DIN 4702, 1987
wood-pellet grades.
Content: Terms, requirements, testing,
Availability: CSA marking.

Availability: DIN
Title: List of Certified Fuel Burning
Equipment and Fuels Handling
Equipment Title: Efficiency of Combustors and
Gasifiers
Citation: CSA DIR.006-1988
Citation: DIN 18800
Content:
Content:
Availability: CSA
Availability: DIN
Title: Incinerator Performance
Title: Slow-Combustion Stoves for Solid Fuel
Citation: CSA Z I 03-1976
Citation: DIN 18890
Content:
Content:
Availability: CSA
Availability: DIN
Title: Space Heaters for Use with Solid
Fuels Title: Standard Glossary of Terms Relating
to Chimneys, Vents, and Heat
Citation: CAN/CSA B366.2-MI984 Producing Appliances

Content: Citation: NFPA 97M-88

Availability: CSA Content:

Availability: NFPA
Title: Acceptance Test Code for Steam
Generators
Title: Chimneys, Fireplaces, Vents and Solid
Citation: DIN 1942, 1979 Fuel Burning Appliances

Content: Citation: NFPA 211:88

Availability: DIN Content: Presents requirements for the

construction and installation of chimneys,
fireplaces, vents, and solid fuel burning
appliances in residential, commercial, and
industrial applications.

Availability: NFPA

273

 COMBUSTION
(STANDARDS)

Title: Specification for Incinerators atmosphere) type for supplying hot water.
Radiators and their piping are excluded.
Citation: NZS 5202:1979
Availability: SANZ
Content: The design, performance, construc­
tion, installation and operation of industrial,
Title: Chimneys, Factory-Built, Residential
local authority, and commercial incinerators.
Type and Building Heating Appliance
Availability: SANZ
Citation: UL 103

Title: Specification of Solid Fuel Burning

Content:
Domestic Appliances

Availabili ty: U L
Citation: NZS 7401: 1985

Content: This standard applies to solid fuel Title: Solid-Fuel and Combination-Fuel
fired heating appliances intended primarily Central and Supplementary Furnaces
for domestic use which have an input rating
not exceeding 50 kW and provision for Citation: UL 391
venting directly to the outdoors by means of
flue pipes and chimneys. Content:
This standard applies to appliances, factory Availability: UL
or field-assembled, that have been, or could
have been, completely assembled at the
manufacturer's plant and transported in the Title: Chimneys, Medium Heat Appliance,
assembled condition. Factory-Built
This standard does not cover open fireplaces.
Citation: UL 959
A test for the pollution requirements for
appliances is specifically excluded from this Content:
standard.
Availability: UL
Availability: SANZ
Title: Solid Fuel Type Room Heaters
Title: Specification for Installation of Solid
Fuel Appliances Citation: UL 1482
Citation: NZS 7421:1985 Content:
Content: This standard relates to the Availability: UL
installation of solid fuel burning domestic
appliances of the following classes: (a) Room
heaters heating by direct radiation and/or Title: Chimney Liners
convection. Open fires in conventional
grates or fireplaces are excluded, but free Citation: UL 1777
standing open fires with hood and flue pipe
over are included. Flueless portable Content:
appliances are excluded. (b) Ducted heaters
heating spaces other than those in which they Availability: UL
are installed by means of warm air passing
through ducts. The air ducting is excluded.
(c) Water heaters of non-pressure (vented to

274

 COMBUSTION

<STANDARDS)

Title: Chimneys, Type A, Factory-Built

Title: Chimneys, 650°C, Factory-Built

Citation: CAN/ULC-S604 (1982)

Citation: CAN/ULC-S629 (1987)

Content:
Content:

Availability: ULC
Availability: ULC

Title: Space Heaters for Use with Solid Title: Chimney Connectors, Factory-Built

Fuels
Citation: CAN/ULC-S641 (1987)

Citation: CAN/ULC-S627 (1983)

Content:

Content:
Availability: ULC

Availability: ULC

275

276

 COMBUSTION
(LITERATURE)

Title: Correct Determination of Efficiency The efficiency of the domestic heating boiler
with Special Reference to Small as a function of summer and winter operation
Boilers has been studied. The study shows that effi­
ciency is higher in summer than in winter and
Citation: Asplund, Frank. Information that the environmental losses during the
No. 447. Swedish National Board ''heating season," i.e. the season when the
for Technical Development, 1985. house requires heating, are not, in most
cases, true losses, since they contribute to
Content: It should be possible, knowing the heating the house.
efficiency of a boiler installation and the
useful power delivered by the installation, to
determine the fuel demand. It should also be Title: Combustion and Emission Research on
possible to compare the performances of dif­ Wood-Refuse Boilers. Volume II.
ferent bo!lers with each other. Description of Program and Common
Methods
Neither of these things is possible with the
methods generally used to determine effi­ Citation: Prepared for Bioenergy
ciency today. Two boilers can have the same Development Program, Renewable
"efficiency" at the same useful power output, Energy Branch, Energy, Mines and
but the fuel consumption of one boiler may Resources Canada, Ottawa,
be 30% higher than that of the other. Obvi­ Canada. Coordinated by Canadian
ousl y such an unsatisfactory method of de­ Boiler Society, Niagara Falls,
termining efficiency can only be of interest Ontario, June, 1984.
to the supplier of the less efficient boiler!
In order to achieve correct determination of Content:
efficiency, a method that takes account of
significant losses has been described. With
the lowest possible input values, the proce­ Title: Sampling and Chemical Analyses of
dure for calculating the efficiency and for Air Pollution from Combustion of
calculating gas data after combustion has Biomass: A Draft
been stated. Provided that the input values
Citation: Benestad, Christel. Oslo,
are correct, it is estimated that the maxi­
mum deviation of the calculated efficiency Norway: Center for Industrial
Research, 1987.
from the correct efficiency is less than
0.1 percentage point in the area of
Content:
definition.
Definitions of heating value that occur are
clarified, as are the various efficiency terms. Title: The National Incinerator Testing and
Evaluation Program (NITEP)
For many processes, efficiency varies with
time. This is the case with wood-fired or oil­ Citation: Ottawa, Canada: NITEP,
fired domestic heating boilers, for example. Environmental Protection Service,
To determine efficiency correctly in such April 1985.
cases, the average boiler efficiency over
time has been defined, and a suitable method Content:
is described for indirect determination of
efficiency.

277

278

 GASIFICATION
(STANDARDS)

Title: Gas Producers and Continuous Gas Title: Proposed Standard Test Methods for
Generators Performance Evaluation of Biomass
Gasifiers
Citation: ASME PTC 16-58
Citation: Proposal Document No. l08RD,
Content: Committee E48.05

Availability: ASME Content:

Availability: ASTM (not yet released)

279

280

 GASIFICATION

(LITERATURE)

Title: Development of Sampling and Title: UNDP/World Bank Guidelines for

Analytical Procedures for Biomass Field Monitoring of Small Scale
Gasifiers Biomass Gasifiers
Citation: Esplin, G. J., D. P. C. Fung, and Citation: Draft, Prepared by Energy
C. C. Hsu. The Canadian Journal Department, The World Bank,
of Chemical Engineering 63:946 Washington, D.C. and Chemical
(1985). Engineering Department, Twente
University of Technology,
Content: A design of a sampling train Enschede, The Netherlands, 1984.
suitable for the analysis of raw producer gas
from biomass gasifiers is presented. The Content:
sampler was designed to allow sampling of
gas streams at a wide range of temperatures
and tar concentrations and to facilitate the Title: Determination of Polycyclic Aromatic
separation of gases, particulate, tar and Hydrocarbons in Biomass Gasifer
aqueous fractions. The procedure for the Effluents with Liquid
collection, separation and analysis was Chromatography/Diode Array
evaluated on the results obtained from the Spectroscopy
biomass fluidized bed gasifier located at B.C.
Research, Vancouver, B.C. Citation: Desilets, David J., Peter T.
Kissinger, Fred Lytle, Mark A.
Horne, Mark S. Ludwiczak, and
Title: Characterization of Wood-Derived Robert B. Jacko. Environ. Sci.
Tars Technol. 18:386-391 (1984).

Citation: Beall, K. and Douglas W. Duncan. Content: Liquid chromatography/diode array

B.C. Research Project No. 203­ spectroscopy (LC/DAS) is used for the deter­
540, Vancouver, B.C.: B.C. mination of polycyclic aromatic hydrocar­
Research, 1981. bons (PAH) isolated from the emissions of
biomass gasifiers. The spectrometer is capa­
Content: Tar and condensate samples have ble of obtaining complete absorption spectra
been collected from four different wood­ of components as they elute from the chro­
waste gasifiers operating in Canada. Various matograph, thus confirming the identities of
solvent systems for the tars have been inves­ pure peaks and mixed or poorly resolved
tigated and a mixture of ether: Tetra hydro­ peaks. This technique is especially well
furan: ethanol 0:8:1) was found to give the suited for the determination of polynuclear
best results. Dissolved tars are absorbed on aromatics, where many isomers difficult to
neutral alumina and 5 fractions eluted: resolve chromatographically are easily dis­
hydrocarbons, aromatic hydrocarbons and tinguished by their electronic spectra. The
benzofurans, ethers, nitrogen compounds and instrument is also capable of differentiating
hydroxyl compounds. An unrecovered frac­ between unsubstituted PAH and their meth­
tion remains on the column. The composition ylated analogues, even though methylation
of the various fractions is being determined does not greatly perturb the electronic
using GC and HPLC analysis. nature of the parent hydrocarbon.

281

GASIFICATION

(LITERATURE)

Title: A Comparison of the Energy and

Title: A Workbook for Biomass Gasifier

Product Distribution from Biomass

Sampling and Analysis

Gasifiers

Citation: Esplin, G. J., M. Aiken, and

Citation: Esplin, G. J., D. P. C. Fung, and E~ C. McDonald. ENFOR Project
C. C. Hsu. Can. J. Chern. Eng. 64, No. C-I72 DSS File No.
6511986. 41 SS.KL229-1-4114. (Available
through Energy, Mines and
Content: A detailed analyses of the raw Resources). March 1983.
producer gas streams generated by a
downdraft gasifier and by a fluidized-bed Content: This workbook provides a meth­
gasifier are presented and are discussed in odology for the following procedures:
terms of raw gas clean-up considerations and a. Obtaining an accurate sample of the raw
of energy conversion efficiency. producer gas. The components of this sample
consist of coarse particles and/or aerosols as
The major gasifier operating parameters such they exist at the sampling temperature, fine
as fuel/air ratio, carbon conversion particles and those tars which condense at or
efficiency, net energy conversion efficiency, above 200°C, tars and aqueous condensate
and producer gas heating value are then which condense between 200°C and O°C, and
compared between seven operational noncondensable, dry producer gas.
gasifiers and a computer simulation model of b. Measuring the total flow rate of the gas
a fluidized-bed gasifier developed by Queen's streams entering and leaving the gasifier sys­
Uni versi ty. tem. Alternatively, these flows may be esti­
It is concluded that the Queen's University mated using elemental mass balances.
model correctly predicts that the fuel/air c. Recovery and analyzing the components
ratio is the single most important parameter of the product stream for mass concentra­
for detemining gasifier performance. tion, elemental composition and calorific
Downdraft gasifiers exhibit superior energy value.
conversion efficiency and producer gas d. Using these data to calculate mass
quality because they utilize a higher fuel/air balances, energy balances, net conversion
ratio than do fluidized bed gasifiers. efficiency, and gross conversion efficiency.
e. Analyzing the aqueous condensate for
phenolics, organic acids, alcohols and other
Title: A Manual for Evaluating Biomass components.
Gasifiers f. Modifying a commercial high volume
stack sampler to enable it to sample the hot
Citation: Esplin, G. J., M. Aiken, and gases and tarry residues.
E. McDonald. B.C. Research for
Techwest Enterprises Ltd. Energy,
Mines and Resources. Canada,
Ottawa. March 1984.

Content: Section B--Review of gasifier

performance testing, including calculations
of material and energy balances. Section C-­
Data needed for calculations. Section D-­
Collecting samples for analyses. Section E-­
Field and laboratory analyses. Section F-­
General calculation method, plus a sample
calculation. Section G--Effects of omitting
data.

282

 BIO§ONVERSION
( TANDARDS)

Title: Standard Method for Performance Title: Proposed Standard Test Methods for
Evaluation of Fermentation Fuel Performance Evaluation of Anaerobic
Manufacturing Facilities 1 Digesters

Citation: ASTM E 869-82 (1987) Citation: Proposal Document No. l09RD,

Committee E48.05
Content: This method covers the determina­
tion of relative performance characteristics Content:
of mass-produced alcohol manufacturing
plants. Availability: ASTM (not yet released)
This method is applicable for all fermentable
feedstocks. Title: Installation Code for Digester Gas
This method is applicable to both batch and Systems
continuous alcohol manufacturing processes.
Citation: CAN/CGA-BI05-M87
Availability: ASTM
Content: This code applies to the installa­
tion of systems for the production, '1andling,
1 This method is under the jurisdiction of storage, and utilization of digester gas in
ASTM Committee E-44 on Solar Energy newly constructed wastewater treatment
Conversion and is the direct responsibility plants, as well as additions to, and the
of Subcommittee E44.12 on Biomass Con­ upgrading of, existing systems.
version Systems.
This code applies to the safety aspects of the
operation and maintenance for handling,
Title: Standard Practice for Designs of Fuel­ storage, and utilization of digester gas in
Alcohol Manufacturing Facilities wastewater treatment plants.
This code applies to existing digester gas
Citation: ASTM E 1117-86 systems where, in the opinion of the
authority having jurisdiction, a hazard or
Content: potential hazard exists.
Availability: ASTM Availability: CGA

283

284

 BIOCONVERSION

(LITERATURE)

Title: Standard Methods for the Examination Title: A Practical Method to Estimate the
of Water and Wastewater Acetoclastic Methanogenic Biomass in
Anaerobic Sludges
Citation: 15th Edition, APHA-A WWA­
WPCF, 1980. Citation: Valcke, D. and W. Verstraete.
J. Water Pollution Control
Content: Federation 55:1191-1194 (1983).

Content:
Title: Manual of Methods for General
Bacteriology
Title: Volatile Acids by Direct Titration
Citation: American Society for
Microbiology, 1981. Citation: Dilallo, R. and O. E. Albertson.
J. Water Pollution Control
Content: Federation 33(4):356 (1961).

Content:
Title: A Serum Bottle Modification of the
Hungate Technique for Cultivating
Obligate Anaerobes Title: Bioassay for Monitoring Biochemical
Methane Potential and Anaerobic
Citation: Miller, T. L. and M. J. Wolin. Toxicity
Applied Microbiology 27(5):985-987
(1974). Citation: Owens, W. F. et aZ. Water
Research 13:485 (1979).
Content:
Content:
Title: General Method for Determining
Anaerobic Biodegradation Potential Title: Anaerobe Laboratory Manual

Citation: Shelton, D. R. and J. M. Tiedje. Citation: Holdeman, L. V. and W. E. C.

Applied and Environmental Micro­ Moore. Blacksburg, VA: Virginia
biology 47(4):850-857 (1984). Polytechnic Institute and State
University, 1972.
Content:
Content:
Title: Anaerobic Biogasification Potential
Assay Title: Proposal for the Definition of
Parameters and Analytical Measure­
Citation: Chynoweth, D. P. et al. In ments Applicable to Carbohydrate
Gasification of Land-Based Bio­ Hydrolysis Processes
mass. IGT Project 30564 Final
Report. Chicago: Institute of Gas Citation: Belaich, J., G. L. Ferrero, M. P.
Technology, June 1983. L'Hermite, H. Naveau, Ph.
Thonart, and T. M. Wood. Process
Content: Biochemistry 19:2 (February 1984).

Content: The term "carbohydrate hydrolysis

process" is applied to a variety of processes
that can be a microbiological fermentation
process carried out by undefined or defined
mixed or pure populations of microorganisms

285

BIOCONVERSION
(LITERATURE)

or hydrolysis catalyzed by pure or mixed Title: Living Resources for Biotechnology

enzymes or that can be a chemical process,
each performed in a variety of types of Citation: An International Initiative by the
reactors with feedstocks of different origins World Federation for Culture
varying from wet solids to clear liquids. The Collections with Financial Support
feedstock may be synthetic and of exact from UNESCO. Editorial Board,
analysis or it may be complex and only par­ A. Doyle, D. Hawksworth, R. L.
tially defined by analysis. Hill, B. E. Kirsop, K. Komagata,
and R. E. Stevenson. Cambridge
Describing hydrolysis in such a way that one University Press, 1989.
set of results can be compared with another,
or meaningful predictions of behavior of a Content: This series of source books has
full size plant can be made from pilot ex­ been assembled to meet the needs of scien­
periments, is thus difficult. tists using microbiological materials as tools
The amount of data that can be given about a in biotechnological investigations. When
fermentation of hydrolysis reaction must starting to handle bacteria, filamentous
depend to some extent on the facilities avail­ fungi, yeasts, algae, viruses, animal and plant
able: for example, a full laboratory service cells, research workers are faced with a
may not be available for every plant. In addi­ number of questions. Where can the material
tion, different data may be important in dif­ be obtained and who will supply basic infor­
ferent circumstances. The power input to a mation about its use and preservation? Are
laboratory fermentor may not be important there identification services available? How
in describing the biochemistry of the fermen­ is material deposited in gene banks? How
tation, but this input is obviously important are patents taken out? Are there centers
in assessing the energy output from, or the that will carry out contract work? What
cost of, a full-scale plant. safety regulations should be taken into
To try to overcome some of these difficulties account and what organizations exist to
help?
in description and to give a guide to what in­
formation should be given if at all possible, This is the first time that such data have
we have drawn up these notes on the data been drawn together in single volumes. The
needed to describe adequately a fermenta­ series will be valuable to workers all over the
tion or hydrolysis experiment. world in universities, research institutes, and
industry.
Title: Glossary of Terms Used in
Biotechnology for Chemists

Citation: Nagel, B., H. Dellweg, and L.

Gierasch. International Union of
Pure and Applied Chemistry,
Applied Chemistry Division,
Commission VI.2 (Biotechnology)
Project 4/87. Contributions from
H. Dellweg, J. Engels, L. M.
Gierasch, R. P. Gregson, B.
Heinritz, H. G. Leuenberger, M.
Moo-Young, A. Moser, B. Nagel, L.
Nyeste, L. Penasse, G. B.
Petersen, M. van Montagu.

Content:

286

287

 ENZYMATIC ASSAYS
(LITERATURE)

Title: Production and Applications of Title: A Xylanase Gene from Bacillus

Cellulase--Laboratory Procedures subtilis: Nucleotide Sequence and
Comparison with B. pumilus Gene
Citation: Adapted from Mary Mandels, U.S.
Army Materials Laboratories, Citation: Paice, Michael G., Robert
December 1974 and 1. W. Jeffries, Bourbonnais, Michel Desrochers,
USDA, Forest Products Labor­ Lubomir Jurasek, and Makoto
atory, Madison, WI February 1987. Yaguchi. Arch. Microbiol.
144:201-206 (1986).
Content:
Content: A gene coding for xylanase (endo­
1,4-a-D-xylan xylanohydrolase, EC 3.2.1.8)
Title: Oxidation and Reduction of Lignin­ from Bacillus subtilis PAP 115 has been iso­
Related Aromatic Compounds by lated and its complete nucleoide sequence
Aureobasidium pullulans determined. Starting from an ATG initiator
codon, an open reading frame coding for 213
Citation: Bourbonnais, Robert and amino acids was found. The N terminus of
Michael G. Paice. Appl. Microbiol. the processed enzyme as expressed in
Biotechnol. 26: 164-169 (I987). Escherichia coli was located by amino acid
sequence analysis. The amino acid analysis
Content: A yeast-like fungus, identified as and apparent molecular weight (22,000) of
Aureobasidium pullulans, was isolated from a the expressed enzyme were consistent with
kraft mill settling pond by enrichment cul­ the translated nucleotide sequence. A pro­
ture on 1-( 4-hydroxy-3-methoxyphenyl)-2-(2­ posed 28-residue signal sequence of the
methoxyphenoxy)-propane-l,3-diol (I). The enzyme shows features comparable with
fungus was also able to use the following other bacilus signal sequences, namely a
aromatic acids as sole carbon source: negatively charged region close to meth­
Benzoic, p-hydroxybenzoic, vanillic, syringic, ionine followed by a long hydrophobic string.
ferulic and protocatechuic acids. Various The coding sequence is preceded by a pos­
aromatic alcohols were oxidized to their sible ribosome binding site and, further
corresponding aldehydes and acids during upstream, by potential transcription initia­
aerobic culture, while aromatic aldehydes tion signals. When the xylanase amino acid
were both oxidized and reduced. However, sequence was compared to a xylanase from
the aromatic acids were not reduced, but B. pumilus, strong evidence for homology was
were slowly metabolized. Dimer I was found, with over 50% identities in the pro­
cleaved at the alkyl-phenyl linkage to give cessed enzymes.
glycerol-2-guaiacyl ether in high yield. The
identity of the latter was determined by
mass spectrometry and proton nmr. The Title: Xylanase
dimers 1-(3,4-dimethoxypheny l)-2-(2-metho­
xyphenoxy)-propane 1,3-diol (In, 3,4-dime­ Citation: Biotecnol. and Bioeng. 25:1127­
thoxy-a-(2,6-dimethoxy-4-carboxyphenoxy)­ 1146 (1983).
acetophenone (III) and 5-carboxy-7-methoxy­
2-( 4-hydroxy-3-methoxypheny1)- 3-methyl-2, Content: This paper describes a method
3-dihydrobenzo-[b]-furan (IV) were not whereby xylanase was measured against
metabolized. It is concluded that the fungus sugarcane bagasse hemicellulose A as sub­
resembles Fusarium in many of its metabolic strate. This resulted in a linear response
properties and could be considered as a between xylanase activity and time of
potential lignin degrader. hydrolysis for up to 20-30 min.

289

ENZYMATIC ASSAYS
(LITERATURE)

Title: Cellobiase/ a-glucosidase

Title: Lignin Modification by Enzymes

Citation: J. Gen. Microbiol. 127:177 (1981).

Citation: Kirk T. K. et al. PNAS 72:2515
(l975).
Content:

Content:
Title: Cellobiase/ B-glucosidase
Title: Lignin Modification by Enzymes
Citation: Biotechnol. and Bioeng. 28:1438
(l986). Citation: Tien, M. and T. K. Kirk.
PNAS 81:2280 (1984).
Content:
Content:
Title: Assay Procedures for the
Determination of Cellobiase Activity, Title: Mikrobiologisch-fermentative
and Measurement of Glucose in Verwendungsmoglichkeiten von
Enzymic Digests of Lignocellulose Lignocellulosen

Citation: Dekker, R. F. H. Program Report Citation: Esterbauer, H. and M. Hayn.

No. G-12 (GA), CSIRO, Division of Das Papier 39( 12):608-616 (1985).
Chemical and Wood Technology,
1982. Content:

Content: Title: Methods in Enzymology

Title: Cellulase A.ctivity Citation: Biomass. Cellulose and

Hemicellulose. Vol. 160, Part A.
Edited by Willis A. Wood and Scott
Citation: Mendels, M. et aZ. BiotechnoZ.
T. Kellogg. New York: Academic
Bioeng. Symp. 6:21-33 (1976).
Press, Inc., 1988.
Content: Content:

Section I: Cellulose

Title: Xylanase Assays A. Preparation of Cellulosic Substrates

B. Assays for Cellulolytic Enzymes
Citation: Dekker, R. F. H. and G. N. C. Chromatographic Methods for
Richards. Adv. Carbo Chem. Carbohydrates
Biochem. 32:277 (I976). D. Miscellaneous Methods for Cellulolytic
Enzymes
Content: E. Purification of Cellulose-Degrading
Enzymes

Title: Xy lanase Section II. Hemicellulose

A. Preparation of Substrates for
Citation: Biotechnol. and Bioeng. 26:988 Hemicellulases
(1984). B. Analysis of B-Glucan and Enzyme Assays
C. Purification of Hemicellulose-Degrading
Content: A report on the effect of enzyme Enzymes
dilution on enzyme activity.

290

IF

ENZYMATIC ASSAYS
(LITERATURE)

Title: Role of the Activity and Adsorption of The inhibition constant by cellobiose was
Cellulases in the Efficiency of the (6 ± 1)+ I 0- 6 M. The value of the catalytic
Enzymatic Hydrolysis of Amorphous constant for the hydrolysis of p=nitrophenyl­
and Crystalline Cellulose B-D-lactoside calculated from the titration
data was equal to 0.063 S-l. CM-cellulose
Citation: Klyosov, A. A., O. V. Mitkevich, turned out to be a more efficient titration
and A. P. Sinitsyn. Biochemistry agent for cellobiohydrolase than cellobiose,
25:540-542 (1986). and might be used for the titration of the
enzyme in concentrations of the latter of
Content: With several different cellulase 0.008-0.02 mg/mt. The titration data showed
preparations from various microbial sources that the inhibition constant of CM­
(fungi Trichoderma, Geotrichum, Myro­ cellulose toward CBH I was equal to
thecium, Sporotrichum, and Aspergillus and (l.0 ± 10- 7 M.
actinomycete Thermomonospora), it was
shown that the mechanisms of enzymatic hy­
drolysis of a crystalline and an amorphous Title: Methods in Enzymology
cellulose are different. The major factor
related to cellulases that control the differ­ Citation: Biomass. Lignin, Pectin, and
ence in the reactivity of the crystalline and Chitin. Vol. 161, Part B. Edited
amorphous cellulose appears to be the ad­ by Willis A. Wood and Scott T.
sorption capacity of endoglucanase on cellu­ Kellogg, New York: Academic
lose. Taking this factor into account as a Press, [nc., 1988.
partition coefficient of cellulases between
the substrate surface and the bulk solution Content:

allows a quantitative prediction to be made Section 1. Lignin

of the enzymatic hydrolysis rate for both A. Preparation of Substrates for Ligninases
amorphous and crystalline celluloses. B. Assays for Ligninases
C. Chemical Methods for Characterization
of Lignin
Title: The Titration of the Active Centers of D. Chromatographic Methods for Lignin and
Cellobiohydrolase from Trichoderma Related Compounds
reesei E. Nucleic Acid Preparations Related to
Lignin Degradation
Citation: Rabinowitch, M. L., A. A. Klyosov, F. Purification of Lignin-Degrading
and M. S. Melnick. Analytical Enzymes
Biochemistry 156:489-494 (1986).
Section II. Pectin
Content: A novel approach has been devel­ A. Assays for Pectin-Degrading Enzymes
oped for the titration of enzyme active cen­ B. Purification of Pectin-Degrading
ters and for the determination of the mole­ Enzymes
cular activity of enzymes. It is based on the
simultaneous use of a nonspecific chromo­ Section III. Chitin
genic substrate and a specific ligand (a sub­ A. Preparation of Substrates for Chitin-
strate or an inhibitor), the latter being Degrading Enzymes
tightly bound with the enzyme's active cen­ B. Assay for Chitin-Degrading Enzymes
ter. The approach is demonstrated using the C. Analytical Methods for Chitin
titration (that is, the determination of the D. Purification of Chitin-Degrading
molar concentration of the enzyme active Enzymes
centers) of purified cellobiohydrolase I
(CBH I) (EC 3.2.1.91) of the fungus Tri­
choderma reesei. p-Nitrophenyl-B-D­
lactoside was used as a reference substrate
(K = 0.5 mM), and cellobiose and CM­
cefrulose cellobiose was 42,000 ± 3,000.

291

 ,
ENZYMATIC ASSAYS
(LITERATURE)

Title: Measurement of Cellulase Activities Title: Measurement of Hemicellulase

Activities Part 1: Xytanases
Citation: Ghose, T. K. Pure and Appl. Chern.
59:257-268 (1987). Citation: Ghose, T. K. and V. S. Bisaria.
Pure and Appl. Chern. 59:1739­
Content: 1752 (1987).

Content:

292

293

 FIRE AND FLAMMABILITY

(STANDARDS)

Title: T_est Method for Combustible Proper­ Availability: ASTM

tIes of Treated Wood by the Fire-Tube
Apparatus
1 This method is under the jurisdiction of
Citation: ASTM E 69-80 ASTM Committee E-27 on Hazard Potential
of Chemicals. and is the direct responsibility
Content: of Subcommlttee E27.04 on Flammability
and of Chemicals.
Availability: ASTM
Title: S~ar:dard Practice for Determining
Title: Standard Test Method for Minimum LImIts of Flammability of Chemicals
Ig!lition E!lergy and Quenching at Elevated Temperature and
Dlstance m Gaseous Mixtures 1 Pressure 1

Citation: ASTM E 582-88 Citation: ASTM E 918-83

Content: This method covers the deter­ Content: This practice covers the deter­
n:inat~or:of the lower and upper concentra­
~i~c:ti~n of minimum _energy for ignition
(mltiatlOn of deflagratlOn) and associated tlOn l1mlts of flammability at temperatures
flat-plate ignition quenching distances. The up to 200°C and initial pressures up to as
~u<?h as 1.38 ~Pa (200 psia). This practice is
complete description is specific to alkane or
alkene fuels admixed with air at normal am­ lImIted to mIxtures which would have an
bient temperature and pressure. This method explosion pressure less than 13.79 MPa
(2000 psia).
is applicable to mixtures of the specified
~ue.ls with aJr, varying from the most easily
Availability: ASTM
19nItable mIxture to mixtures near to the
lim it-of- f lammabili ty compressions.
1 This practice is under the jurisdiction of
Availability: ASTM ASTM Committe E-27 on Hazard Potential
of Chemicals and is the direct responsibility
1 This method is under the jurisdiction of of Subcommittee E 27.04 on Flammability
and Ignition of Chemicals.
ASTM Committee E-27 on Hazard Potential
of Chemicals and is the direct responsibility
of Subcommittee E27.04 on Flammability Title: Determination of Limits of Flam­
and of Chemicals. mability of Gases and Gas Mixtures in
Air

Title: Standard Test Method for Autoignition Citation: DIN 51649 Part I
Temperature of Liquid Chemicals 1
Content:
Citation: ASTM E 659-78 (I984)
Availability: DIN
Content: This method covers the deter­
mination of hot- and cool-flame autoignition
temperature of a liquid chemical in air at Title: Method of Inflammability Test for
atmospheric pressure in a uniformly heated Wood
vessel.
Citation: JIS Z 2120-58

Content:

Availability: JIS

295

FIRE AND FLAMMABILITY

(STANDARDS)

Title: Chemistry and Physics of Fire 1 Title: Dusts 1

Citation: NFP A SEC 4-1 Citation: NFPA SEC 5-9

Content: Content:

Availability: NFP A Availability: NFPA

1 Fire Protection Handbook, 16th Edition, 1 Fire Protection Handbook, 16th Edition,
1986. 1986.

Title: Combustion Products and Their Title: Boiler Furnaces 1

Effects on Life Safety 1
Citation: NFPA SEC 10-1
Citation: NFPA SEC 4-3
Content:
Content:
Availability: NFP A
Availability: NFPA
1 Fire Protection Handbook, 16th Edition,
1 Fire Protection Handbook, 16th Edition, 1986.
1986.

Title: Grinding Processes 1

Title: Theory of Fire and Explosion Control l
Citation: NFPA SEC 10-11
Citation: NFPA SEC 4-4
Content:
Content:
Availability: NFPA
Availability: NFPA

1 Fire Protection Handbook, 16th Edition,

1 Fire Protection Handbook, 16th Edition,
1986.
1986.

Title: Wood and Wood Based Products l Title: Extrusion and Forming Processes 1
Citation: NFPA SEC 5-2 Citation: NFPA SEC 10-12
Content: Content:
Availability: NFPA Availability: NFP A

1 Fire Protection Handbook, 16th Edition, 1 Fire Protection Handbook, 16th Edition,
1986. 1986.

296
 FIRE AND FLAMMABILITY
(STANDARDS)

Title: Solvent Extraction 1 Title: Complete Titles of All Official NFPA

Documents l
Citation: NFPA SEC 10-14
Citation: NFPA APP B
Content:
Content:
Availability: NFP A
Availability: NFPA
1 Fire Protection Handbook, 16th Edition,
1986. 1 Fire Protection Handbook, 16th Edition,
1986.
Title: Storage and Handling of Solid Fuels 1

Citation: NFPA SEC 11-8 Title: Vegetable and Animal Oil Processing 1

Citation: NFPA Pt 2 Ch 7
Content:
Content:
Availability: NFP A
Availability: NFPA
1 Fire Protection Handbook, 16th Edition,
1986.
lIndustrial Fire Hazards Handbook, 1984.

Title: Forest, Brush and Grass Fires 1

Title: Wood Products!

Citation: NFPA SEC 12-9

Citation: NFPA Pt 2 Ch 12

Content: Content:

Availability: NFPA
Availability: NFPA

1 Fire Protection Handbook, 16th Edition, lIndustrial Fire Hazards Handbook, 1984.
1986.

Title: Gas and Vapor Testing 1 Title: Pulp and Paper Processing 1

Citation: NFPA SEC 16-5 Citation: NFP A Pt 2 Ch 14

Contents: Content:

AvailabiUty: NFP A Availability: NFPA

1 Fire Protection Handbook, 16th Edition, lIndustrial Fire Hazards Handbook, 1984.
1986.

297

Title: Solvent Extraction 1 Title: Stationary Combustion Engines and

Gas Turbines
CItation: NFP A Pt 3 Ch 32
Citation: NFPA 37-84
Content:
Content: Covers location, protective dJE
Availability: NFPA vices, fuel supply, and exhaust piping.

Availability: NFPA
lIndustrial Fire Hazards Handbook, 1984.

Title: Lumber Kilns and Agricultural Title: Storage of Forest Products

Dehydrators and Dryers 1
Citation: NFPA 46-85
Citation: NFPA Pt 3 Ch 33
Content: Outlines recommendations to mini-­
Content: mize hazards and control fires in storage~
areas that contain lumber, timber, wood
chips, logs and similar products.
Availability: NFPA
Availability: NFPA
lIndusttial Fire Hazards Handbook, 1984.

Title: Standard for Bulk Oxygen Systems at

Title: Grinding and Milling Operations 1 Consumer Sites 1

Citation: NFP A Pt 3 Ch 34 Citation: NFP A 50-85

Content: Content: Provides recommendations for

location, distance between bulk systems and
Availability: NFP A exposures, containers and associa ted
equipment.
lIndustrial Fire Hazards Handbook, 1984.
Availability: NFPA

Title: Boiler-Furnaces 1 1 Na tional Fire ,"-,v'u'::;,;). Vol. 2.

Citation: NFPA Pt 4 Ch 42
Title: National Fuel Gas Code
Content:
Availability: NFP A Citation: NFPA 54-88

Content: Provides requirements for the safe

lIndustrial Fire Hazards Handbook, 1984. design, installation, operation, and mainten­
ance of gas piping and for installation and
venting of gas appliances in residential,
Title: Flammable and Combustible Liquids commercial, and industrial applications.
Code Handbook, Third Edition, 1987
Availability: NFPA
Citation: NFP A

Content:
Availability: NFPA

298

 FIRE AND FLAMMABILITY

(STANDARDS)

Title: Standard for the Prevention of Fires Title: Standard for Prevention of Furnace
and Explosions in Grain Elevators and Explosions in Natural Gas-Fired
Facilities Handling Bulk Raw Agri­ Multiple Burner Boiler-Furnaces 1
cultural Commodities
Citation: NFPA 85B-84
Citation: NFPA 61B-89
Content:
Content: Outlines updated practices to pre­
vent dust explosions and to minimize damage Availability: NFPA
if an explosion should occur.
1 National Fire Codes, Vol. 3
Availability: NFPA

Title: Standard for the Prevention of Fire Title: Standard for Prevention of Furnace
and Dust Explosions in Feed Mills Explosions in Fuel Oil-Fired Multiple
Burner Boiler-Furnaces 1
Citation: NFPA 61C-89
Citation: NFPA 850-84
Content: Provides the updated standard for
Content:
construction, ventilation, and equipment in
feed mills. Supplemental precautions are
Availability: NFPA
also included.

Availability: NFPA 1 National Fire Codes, Vol. 3

Title: Standard for the Prevention of Fire Title: Standard for Prevention of Furnace
and Dust Explosions in the Milling of Explosions in Pulverized Coal-Fired
Agricultural Commodities for Human Multiple Burner Boiler-Furnaces 1
Consumption 1
Citation: NFPA 85E-85
Citation: NFPA 610-84
Content:
Content:
Availability: NFPA
Availability: NFPA
INational Fire Codes, Vol. 3
INational Fire Codes, Vol. 2
Title: Standard for the Installation and
Title: Standard for Prevention of Furnace Operation of Pulverized Fuel
Explosions in Fuel Oil- and Natural Systems 1
Gas-Fired Single Burner Boiler­
Furnaces l Citation: NFPA 85F-88

Citation: NFPA 85A-87 Content:

Content: Availability: NFPA

Availability: NFPA INational Fire Codes, Vol. 3

1 National Fire Codes, Vol. 3

299

FIRE AND FLAMMABILITY

(STANDARDS)

Title: Standard for the Prevention of Title: Basic Classification of Flammable and
Furnace Implosions in Multiple Burner Combustible Liquids 1
Boiler-Furnaces
Citation: NFPA 321-87
Citation: NFPA 85G-&7
Content:
Content:
Availability: NFPA
Availability: NFPA
1 National Fire. Codes, Vol. 6
1 National Fire Codes, Vol. 3
Title: Standard for the Prevention of Fires
Title: Standard for Chimneys, Fireplaces, and Explosions in Wood Processing and
Vents, and Solid Fuel Burning Woodworking Facilities
Appliances 1
Citation: NFPA 664-87
Citation: NFPA 211-88
Content:
Content:
Availability: NFP A
Availability: NFPA
1 National Fire Codes, Vol. 6
INational Fire Codes, Vol. 6

Title: Standard Test Method for Potential

Heat of Building Materials 1

Citation: NFPA 259-87

Content:

Availability: NFPA

1 National Fire Codes, Vol. 6

Title: Standard Method of Test for Heat and

Visible Smoke Release Rates for
Mater ials and Products 1

Citation: NFPA 263-86

Content:

Availability: NFPA

lNational Fire Codes, Vol. 6

300

 FIRE AND FLAMMABILITY

(LITERATURE)

Title: Dust Explosions and Fires Title: Fundamentals of Fire and Explosion
Citation: Palmer, K. N. London: Chapman Citation: Stull, D. R. AIChE Monograph
and Hall, 1973. Series. No. 10, Vol. 73, 1977.

Content: Chapter 3. Tests for dust explosi­ Content: The growth of chemical production
bility: Reasons for tests; Selection of dust in recent years has been accompanied by a
sample; Toxicity of dust; Test methods in noticeable increase in the number of chemi­
various countries (United Kingdom, United cal fires and explosions. Information on the
States, Federal German Republic, other technology of such energy releases is scat­
countries); Special methods. tered across many disciplines and varies from
adequate in some places to inadequate in
others. Moreover, while the basic funda­
mentals are well known for some chemical
types, they are poorly understood for others.
A review of the fundamentals of fire and
explosion was undertaken for a better
understanding of this complicated subject.

301

302

303

 MEASUREMENTS, UNITS, QUALITY ASSURANCE. AND ROUND-ROBIN TESTS

(::iTANDARDS)

Title: Statistical Audit of Test Results establish whether a well written test mehod
is good enough to justify an interlaboratory
Citation: Appita P403 rp-73 study. Annex Al provides the details of the
procedure with an example and Annex A2
Content: gives the theoretical background.
Availability: Appita Availability: ASTM

Title: Use of 51 (Metric) Units 1This practice is under the jurisdiction of

ASTM Committee C-9 on Concrete and Con­
Citation: ASAE EP285.7 crete Aggregates and is the direct responsi­
bility of Subcommittee C09.02.01 on Evalua­
Content: This engineering practice is in­ tion of Data.
tended as a guide for uniformly incorporating
the International System of Units (51). It is
intended for use in implementing ASAE pol­ Title: Standard Practice for Determination
icy, "Use of 51 Units in ASAE Standards, of Precision and Bias of Applicable
Engineering Practices, and Data." This engi­ Methods of Committee D-19 on
Water 1
neering practice includes a list of preferred
units and conversion factors.
Citation: ASTM D 2777-86
Availability: ASAE
Content: This practice establishes uniform
standards for expressing the precision and
Title: Measurement Uncertainty ­ bias of applicable test methods for Commit­
Instruments and Apparatus tee D-19 on Water.
Except as specified, this practice requires
Citation: ASME PTC 19.1-85 that the task group proposing a new test
method must carry out a collaborative study
Content: from which statements for precision (multi­
ple laboratory operational and single­
Availability: ASME operator standard deviation estimates) and
observed bias can be developed. This prac­
tice provides general guidance to task groups
Title: Standard Practice for Conducting a
inplanning and conducting such determina­
Ruggedness or Screening Program for
tions of precision and bias.
Test Methods for Construction
Materials 1
Availability: ASTM
Citation: ASTM C 1067-87
1 This practice is under the jurisdiction of
Content: This practice covers a procedure ASTM Committee D-19 on General Specifi­
for detecting and reducing sources of varia­ cations and Technical Resources.
tion in a test method early in its develop­
ment and prior to an inter laboratory study.
One of the main purposes of the procedure, Title: Standard Practice for Determination
by means of a ruggedness or screening pro­ of Precision and Accuracy of Methods
gram, is the elimination of test mehods that of Committee D-221
exhibit poor precision even after vigorous
efforts to reduce their var iability. Citation: ASTM D 3670-81
This practice covers, in very general terms, Content: This standard practice establishes
techniques fo planning, conducting, and ana­ uniform standards and procedures for evalua­
lyzing results from a few laboratories to tion of the precision and accuracy of test

305

MEASUREMENTS, UNITS, QUALITY ASSURANCE, AND ROUND-RoBIN TESTS

(STANDARDS)

methods for Committee 0-22 on Sampling Availability: ASTM

and Analysis of Atmospheres.
1 This practice is under the jurisdiction of
Availability: ASTM ASTM Committee D-19 on Water and is the
responsibility of Subcommittee 019.02 on
1 This practice is under the jurisdiction of General Specifications.
ASTM Committee 0-22 on Sampling and
Analysis of Atmospheres and is the direct
responsibility of Subcommittee 022.07 on Title: Standard Guide for Accountability and
Precision and Accuracy of Methods. Quality Control in the Coal Analysis
Laboratory 1

Title: Standard Practice for Evaluation of Citation: ASTM 0 4621-86

Laboratories Using ASTM Procedures
in the Sampling and Anaysis of Coal Content: This guide descr ibes the essential
and Coke l aspects of an accountability and quality con­
trol program for a coal analysis laboratory.
Citation: ASTM 0 4182-87a
Availability: ASTM
Content: This practice is limited to the
evaluation of laboratories using ASTM proce­ 1 This guide is under the jurisdiction of ASTM
dures under the jurisdiction of Committee D­ Committee 0-5 on Coal and Coke and is the
5 on Coal and Coke. They may be used to direct responsibility of Subcommittee
evaluate a laboratory's capability to perform 005.30 on Accreditation.
the functionfor which it has been estab­
lished. It is not the intention that this prac­
tice be used to evaluate capabilities beyond Title: Standard Practice for Use of the
those specifically claimed by the laboratory. Terms Precision and Bias in ASTM
Test Methods I
Availability: ASTM
Citation: ASTM E 177-86
1 This practice is under the jurisdiction of
ASTM Committee 0-5 on Coal and Coke and Content: The purpose of this practice is to
is the direct responsibility of Subcommittee present concepts necessary to the under­
0-05.30 on Accreditation. standing of the terms "precision" and "bias"
as used in quantitative test methods. This
practice also describes methods of expressing
Title: Standard Practice for Intralaboratory precision and bias and, in a final section,
Quality Control Procedures and a Dis­ gives examples of how statements on preci­
cussion on Reporting Low-Level Oatal sion and bias may be written for ASTM test
methods.
Citation: ASTM 0 4210-83
Availability: ASTM
Content: This practice is applicable to all
laboratories that provide chemical and physi­
cal measurements in water, and provides 1 This practice is under the jurisdiction of
guidelines for intralaboratory control and ASTM Committee E-ll on Statistical
suggested procedures for reporting low-level Methods and is the direct responsibility of
data. Subcommittee El1.04 on Oevelopment and
Evaluation of Test Methods.

306

 MEASUREMENTS, UNITS, QUALITY ASSURANCE, AND ROUND-RoBIN TESTS

(STANDARDS)

Title: Standard Practice for Dealing with Title: Definitions of Terms Relating to
Outlying Observations 1 Statistical Methods
Citation: ASTM E 178-80 Citation: ASTM E 456-88
Content: This practice deals with the prob­ Content:
lem of outlying observations in samples and
how to test the statistical significance of Availability: ASTM
them. An outlying observation, or "outlier,"
is one that appears to deviate markedly from
other members of the sample in which it Title: Standard Practice for Conducting an
occurs. Interlaboratory Study to Determine
the Precision of a Test Method l
Availability: ASTM
Citation: ASTM E 691-87
1 This practice is under the jurisdiction of Content: This practice describes the tech­
ASTM Committee E-ll on Statistical niques for planning, conducting, analyzing,
Methods. and treating the results of an interlaboratory
study (ILS) of a test method. The statistical
Title: Standard for Metric Practice 1 techniques described in this pracice provide
adequate information for formulating the
precision statement of a test method.
Citation: ASTM E 380-86
This practice does not concern itself with the
Content: This standard gives guidance for development of test methods but rather with
application of the modernized metric system gathering the information needed for a test
in the United States. The International Sys­ method precision statement after the devel­
tem of Units, developed and maintained by opment stage has been successfully com­
the General conference on Weights and Mea­ pleted. The data obtained in the interlabora­
sures (abbreviated GPM from the official tory study may indicate, however, that fur­
French name Conference Generale des Poids ther effort is needed to improve the test
et Measures) is intended as a basis for method.
worldwide standardization of measurement
Since the pr imary purpose of this practice is
units. The name International System of
the development of the information needed
Units and the international abbreviation SI for a precision statement, the experimental
were adopted by the 11 th GPM in 1960. SI is design in this practice may not be optimum
a complete, coherent system that is being
for evaluating materials, apparatus, or indi­
universally adopted.
vidual laboratories.
Information is included on SI, a limited list of
non-SI units recognized for use with SI units, Availability: ASTM
and a list of conversion factors from non-SI
to SI units, together with general guidance 1This practice is under the jurisdiction of
onproper style and usage. ASTM Committee E-il on Statistical Meth­
ods and is the direct responsibility of Sub­
Availability: ASTM committee EIl.04 on Development and
Evaluation of Test Methods.
1 This standard is under the jurisdiction of
ASTM Committee E-43 on Metric Practice
and is the direct responsibility of Subcom­
mittee E43.10 on Standards.

307

MEASUREMENTS, UNITS, QUALITY ASSURANCE, AND ROUND-RoBIN TESTS

(STANDARDS)

Title: Standard Guide for Records their symbols; prefixes and their symbols;
Management in Mass Spectrometry rules for their manipulation; and extracted
Laboratories Performing Analysis in historical decisions of the General Confer­
Support of Nonclinical Laboratory ence which relate to the SI. An appendix
Studies l also provides some details regarding the
practical realization of most of the base
Citation: ASTM E 899-82 (1987) units for guidance to those who wish to gen­
erate their own primary standards.
Content: This guide presents a summary of
the records needed to demonstrate, in a Availability: CSA
retrospective audit, that scientifically sound
mass spectral data have been generated.
Title: Glossary of Metric Units
This guide outlines a set of written labora­
tory procedures for the documentation of in­ Citation: CSA 2351-1980
strument operation, testing, and mainte­
nance, as well as for the documentation of Content:
the analyses performed.
CSA
Availability: ASTM
Title: Metric Editorial Handbook
1 This guide is under the jurisdiction of ASTM
Committee E-14 on Mass Spectrometry and Citation: CSA Z372-1980
is the direct responsibility of Subcommittee
E 14.14 on General Practices. Content:

Title: Canadian Metric Practice Guide Availability: CSA

Citation: CSA CAN3-Z234.1-79 Title: General Rules for Chemical Analysis

Content: This standard has ben prepared as a Citation: J1S K 0050-83
guide for the application of the International
System of Units (S1). Information is included Content:
on S1 units, recommended application of mul­
tiples and sub-multiples of the units, up-to­ Availability: JIS
date terminology concerning the names of
quantities, conversion factors that relate the
Sl and the yard/pound system, conversion and Title: Statistical Treatment of Test Results
rounding of data, and dual dimensioning.
Citation: SCAN-G 2:63
Availability: CSA
Content: The advantage of statistical
methods for the purpose of interpreting test
Title: The International System of Units (S1)
results is the possibility of substituting
sub jective interpretation for strictly ob jec­
Citation: CSA CAN3-2234.2-76
tive criteria. Statistical analysis of test data
does not increase the experimental accuracy
Content: The International System of Units
(SO is the source document for the SI in by transforming uncertain results to certain­
ties, but it offers the possibility of express­
Canada. It is essentially a practical system
of units and is both coherent and decimal. ing more effectively, in the form of definite
This standard provides definitions for the in­ probabilities, the conclusions drawn from the
ternationally agreed base units together with results.

308

 MEASUREMENTS, UNITS, QUALITY ASSURANCE, AND ROUND-RgBIN TESTS

<STANDARDS)

Although statistical methods are based on

mathematical theories of probability, a
detailed knowledge of these theories is not
necessarily required in the application of the
methods.
The purpose of this guide is to give a brief
description of some of the simple statistical
methods commonly used in treating test data
and to promote uniformity in the use of
statistical terms and symbols, as well as in
the mode of expressing test results.
Concerning more advanced statistical
methods, reference is made to the special
literature on the sub ject li sted under
Literature.

Availability: SCAN

309

310

 MEASUREMENTS. UNITS, QUALITY ASSURANCE, AND ROUND-RoBIN TESTS

(LITERATURE)

Title: 1989 ASTM Directory of Testing Title: Extending the LIMS (Laboratory
Laboratories Information Management Systems)

Citation: New York: ASTM, 1988. Citation: Scott, Frederick I. Jr. American
Laboratory, May 1988, p. 8.
Content: This directory is a completely new
book each year. All lab information is rever­ Content:
ified or updated. The 1989 edition contains
400 labs not in the 1988 edition. Over 11 00
laboratories are featured. The majority are Title: Ruggedness Tests and Interlaboratory
located in the United States, 45 in Canada Studies
and several in 12 other countries.
Citation: Paule, Robert C. ASTM Stan­
dardization News, May 1988, p. 56.
Title: International Laboratory
Accreditation Content: What variables are important and
how tightly do they need to be specified?
Citation: Locke, John W. ASTM
Standardization News, September
1988, p. 24. Title: Round Robins

Content: A growing number of accreditation Citation: Lashof, Theodore W. and

systems around the world facilitate accep­ John Mandel. ASTM Stan­
tance of test data across international dardization News, July 1988, p. 42.
boundaries.
Content: Round robins are a way of life for
ASTM committees and the newly revised
Title: Chemometrics as a Practical ASTM Standard E 691, Practice for Conduct­
Research Tool ing an Interlabortory Test Program to Deter­
mine the Precision of Test· Methods, should
Citation: Windig, W. Chemometrics and help improve that way of life. Round robins,
Intelligent Laboratory Systems or more correctly interlaboratory studies,
3(3): 159 (March 1988). that are conducted in accordance with E 691,
will generally be simpler and more infor­
Content: mative than the usually prescribed inter­
laboratory studies
Title: Practical Statistics for the Physical
Sciences Title: Impediments to Analysis

Citation: Havlicek, Larry L. and Citation: Edited by J. Foster. STP 708. New
Ronald D. Crain. Washington, York: ASTM, 1980, 100 pp.
DC: American Chemical Society,
1988, 522 pp. Content:

Content: Written in understandable, easy-to­

follow steps, this book teaches the concepts Title: Quality Assurance of Chemical
underlying the use of statistics in research. Measurements
Worked-out examples are provided to illu­
strate each procedure, and commonly-used Citation: Taylor, John Keenan. Chelsea,
formulas, tables, and reference information MI: Lewis Publishers, 1987,
are also included. No prior knowledge of 328 pp.
statistics is necessary to use this practical
"how-to" book. Content:

311

 ...

MEASUREMENTS, UNITS, QUALITY ASSURANCE, AND ROUND-RoBIN TESTS

(LITERATURE)

Title: Quality Assurance Handbook practices on thermocouples. It also contains

a Temperature Electromotive Force (EMF)
Citation: Gaithersburg, MD: Center for Table for the NICROSIL-NISIL Thermocouple
Analytical Chemistry, National System.
Bureau of Standards, 1987.

Content: In an era of increased awareness Title: Quality Assurance for Environmental

and attention to quality in industrial produc­ Measurements
tion, there is a concomitant need for quality
in measurement. As the National Reference Citation: Editors: Taylor and Stanley.
Laboratory for chemical measurements, the STP 867. New York: ASTM, 1985,
Center for Analytical Chemistry has always 440 pp.
viewed its mission at NBS as one of quality
measurement and technology transfer of Content: Discusses data quality assurance,
quality measurement. Although quality has ambient air measurements, ambient water
been a major emphasis for the Center for measurements, source measurements, dis­
Analytical Chemistry, as in all environments, charge monitoring, and reference materials.
improvement is always possible. As part of Includes a general paper on quality assurance
quality improvement activities in the Center programs and a detailed paper on the U.S.
for Analytical Chemistry and to provide E.P.A.'s quality assurance program.
information to out measurement constit­
uency which was (and is still) requesting Title: User-Friendly IBM PC Computer
information, the Center for Analytical Programs f or Solving Sampling and
Chemistry established a Quality Assurance Statistical Problems
Task Force. The aim of this Task Force was
to document and, in some instances, better Citation: Lin, Philip C. L. EPA/600/
formalize quality assurance practices in our 54-86/023. Cincinnati, OH~ EPA
laboratories. Environmental Monitoring and
The project of this effort has been the series Support Laboratory, July 1986.
of documents contained in this Quality
Assurance Handbook. The Handbook is a liv­ Content: User-friendly IBM personal com­
ing document, with all its contents subject to puter programs for solving sampling and
updating and revision. As additional docu­ related statistical problems have been pre­
ments to address new topics are prepared, pared. The programs are designed so that
they will be added to the Handbook. persons without an in-depth understanding of
statistics can easily use them. Specific, de­
The Handbook is intentionally contained in a
tailed, written instructions for application of
loose leaf format to express that improve­
the programs are provided in the full report.
ment and addition are possible and desirable.
Comments are welcome on documents con­
tained in this Handbook; also welcome are Title: Trends in Analytical Instrumentation
suggestions for additional documents. Harry
S. Hertz, Directory, Center for Analytical Citation: McLafferty, Fred W. Science
Chemistry. 226(4672):251 (October 19, 1984).

Content: Methods for deriving chemical

Title: Thermocouples
information from a variety of systems and
environments have changed dramatically in
Citation: ASTM Standards on Thermo­
the last decade. Unique principles from
couples, 2nd Edition. New York:
physics, chemistry, and biology are the basis
ASTM, 1986, 257 pp.
for sophisticated instruments that incorpor­
Content: This edition has been expanded to ate computers for data acquisition, reduc­
include sixteen selected ASTM methods and tion, and interpretation. Such analytical

312

 MEASUREMENTS, UNITS, QUALITY ASSURANCE, AND ROUND-RoBIN TESTS

(LITERATURE)

systems have shown orders-of-magnitude Title: Quantities, Units and Symbols in

improvements in sensitivity, specificity, and Physical Chemistry
speed, yet with greater simplicity and lower
price. The increasing importance of analyti­ Citation: Prepared by I. Mills, T. Cvitas,
cal instrumentation requires reexamination K. Homann, N. Kallay and K.
of its coverage in educational curricula and Ruchilsn. Oxford, England:
of the role of the analytical chemist in its Blackwell Scientific Publications,
further development and application. 1988, 134 pp.

Content:
Title: Compendium of Chemical Terminol­
ogy: IUPAC Recommendations
Title: ASTM Standards on Precision and
Citation: Compiled by (the late) V. Gold, Bias for Various Applications
K. L. Loening, A. D. McNaught,
and P. Schmis. Oxford, England: Citation: New York: ASTM, 1985, 570 pp.
Blackwell Scientific Publications,
1987.456 pp. Content: Contains 38 standards which
describe procedures for obtaining data on the
Content: Contains alphabetical entries, precision and bias of test methods, i.e., how
references and source documents. well the method can be expected to measure
the quantity being tested. Covers the
measurements of different quantities in a
Title: Compendium of Analytical wide variety of materials.
Nomenclature: Definitive Rules

Citation: Prepared by H. Freiser and

G. H. Nancollas. 2nd ed. Oxford,
England: Blackwell Scientific
Publications, 1987, 279 pp.

Content: Includes index.

313

314

31.5

 TEMPERATURE, PRESSURE~ AND FLOW

(;)TANDARDS)

Title: Glossary of Terms Used in the Title: Standard Practice for Rotameter
Measurement of Fluid Flow in Pipes Calibration 1

Citation: ASME MFC-IM-1979 Citation: ASTM D 3195-73 (1985)

Content: Content: This practice covers the calibra­
tion of variable-area flowmeters (rota me­
Availability: ASME ters) used to determine air sample volumes
at or close to ambient conditions of pressure
and temperature, in the analysis of atmos­
Title: Measurement Uncertainty for Fluid pheres for pollutant content.
F low in Closed Conduits
Availability: ASTM
Citation: ASME MFC-2M-1983

Content: 1 This practice is under the jurisdiction of

ASTM Committee D-22 on Sampling and
Availability: ASME Analysis of Atmospheres and is the direct
responsibility of Subcommittee D22.0 I on
Quality Control.
Title: Measurement of Fluid Flow in Pipes
Using Orifice, Nozzle and Venturi
Title: Standard Specification for ASTM
Citation: ASME MFC-3M-1985 Thermometers 1

Content: Citation: ASTM E 1-88

Availability: ASME Content: This specification covers liquid­

in-glass thermometers graduated in Celsius
(centigrade) or Fahrenheit degrees which are
Title: Part 2: Pressure Measurement frequently specified in methods of the
Instruments and Apparatus American Society for Testing and Materials.

Citation: ASME PTC 19.2-64 Availability: ASTM

Content: 1 Thisspecification is under the jurisdiction

of ASTM Committee E-20 on Temperature
Availability: ASME Measurement and is the direct responsibility
of Subcommittee E20.05 on Liquid-in-Glass
Title: Part 3: Temperature Measurement Thermometers and Hydrometers.
Instruments and Apparatus
Title: Standard Method for Calibration of
Citation: ASME PTC 19.3-74 Thermocouples by Comparison
Techniques 1
Content:
Citation: ASTM E 220-86
Availability: ASME
Content: This method covers the techniques
of thermocouple calibration based upon com­
parisons of thermocouple indications with
those of a reference thermometer, different
from methods involving the use of fixed
points. The precise evaluation of the

317

TEMPERATURE. PRESSURE. AND FLOW

(STANDARDS)

electromotive forces (em f)-temperature Title: Standard Specification for Thermo­

relation of a thermocouple is accomplished couples, Sheathed, Type K, for
by determining its emf output at each of a Nuclear or for Other High-Reliability
series of measured temperatures. Calibra­ Applica tions 1
tions are covered over temperature ranges
appropriate to the individual types of Citation: ASTM E 235-82
thermocouples within an over-all range from
about -180° to 1700°C (-290° to 260°F). Content: This specification presents the
requirements for sheathed, Type K thermo­
In general, the method is applicable to bare couples for nuclear service. Depending on
wire thermocouples or sheathed thermocou­ size, these thermocouples are normally suit­
ples. The latter may require special care to able for operating temperatures to 1652°F
control thermal conduction losses. (900°C); special conditions of environment
and life expectancy may permit their use at
Availability: ASTM temperatures in excess of 2012° F (llOO°C).
This specification was prepared specifically
1 This method is under the jurisdiction of to detail requirements for using this type of
ASTM Commitee E-20 on Temperature sheathed thermocouple in nuclear environ­
Measurement and is the direct responsibility ments. This specification can be used for
of Subcommittee E20.04 on Thermocouples. sheathed thermocouples which are requried
for laboratory or general commercial appli­
cations where the environmental conditions
Title: Standard Temperature-Electromotive exceed normal service requirements.
Force (EMF) Tables for Standardized
Thermocouples 1 Availability: ASTM
Citation: ASTM E 230-87
1 This specification is und~r th~ jurisdietion
Content: This standard consists of reference of ASTM Committee E-20 on Temperature
tables (Tables 3 to 16) that give tempera­ Measurement and is the direct responsibility
ture-electromotive force (emf) relationships of Subcommittee E20.04 on Thermocouples.
for Types B, E, J, K, R, S, and T thermocou­
ples. These are the thermocouple types most Title: Method for Calibration of Refractory
commonly used in industry. Metal Thermocouples Using an Optical
Also included is a list (Table 1) of standard Pyrometer
and special tolerances on initial values of
emf verus temperature (tolerances), and Citation: ASTM E 452-83
recommendations (Table 2) covering upper
temperature limits for the thermocouple Content:
types listed above.
Availability: ASTM
Availability: ASTM
Title: Specification for Sheathed Base-Metal
1 These tables are under the jurisdiction of Thermocouple Materials
ASTM Committee E-20 on Temperature
Measurement and are the direct responsi­ Citation: ASTM E 585-88
bility of Subcommittee E20.04 on
Thermocouples. Content:

Availability: ASTM

318

 TEMPERATURE, PRESSURE~ AND FLOW

(~TANDARDS)

Title: Standard Methods for Testing Title: Code for Temperature Measurement
Industrial Resistance Thermometers 1
Citation: BS 1041
Citation: ASTM E 644-86
Content:
Content: These methods describe the prin­ Part 2: I 985--Expansion thermometers
ciples, apparatus, and procedures for calibra­ Section 2.1: 1985--Guide to selection and use
tion and testing of resistance thermometers. of liquid-in-glass thermometers
These methods cover definitions of terms and Part 3:l969--Industrial resistance
tests for insulation resistance, interchange­ thermometry
ability, calibration, humidity, immersion Part 4: 1966--Thermocouples
error, pressure effects, thermal response Part 5: 1972--Radiation pyrometers
time, vibration effect, self-heating effect, Part 7:1964--Temperature/time indicators
stability, and thermoelectric effect.
Availability: BSI
Availability: ASTM
Title: Measurement of Fluid Flow in Closed
1 These methods are under the jurisdiction of Conduits
ASTM Committee E-20 on Temperature
Measurement, and are the direct Citation: BS 1042
responsibility of Subcommittee E20.03 on
Resistance Thermometers. Content:
Part 1:--Pressure differential devices.
Section 1.1:1981 Specification for square-
Title: Standard Practice for Evaluating edged orifice plates, nozzles and venturi
Temperature Scale for tubes inserted in circular cross section
Thermogravimetry 1 conduits running full.
Section 1.2:1984 Specification for square­
Citation: ASTM E 914-83 (1987) edged orifice plates and nozzles (with
drain holes, in pipes below 50 mm
Content: This practice for evaluating tem­ diameter, as inlet and outlet devices) and
perture scale is for general use in thermo­ other orifice plates and Borda inlets.
gravimetry. It provides means of relating Section 1.4: 1984 Guide to the use of devices
temperatures of events observed in different specified in Sections 1.1 and 1.2.
laboratories and different instruments. Part 2:--Velocity area methods.
Section 2.1:1983 Method using Pitot static
The practice is applicable to commercial and
tubes.
custom-built apparatus. Section 2.2: 1983 Method of measurement of
The purpose of this practice is to determine velocity at one point of a conduit of
the agreement in temperature under the spe­ circular cross section.
cific conditions of the principle experiment
and not to determine the magnetic transition Availability: BSI
of Curie temperature of the certified refer­
ence materials.
Title: International Thermocouple Reference
Availability: ASTM Tables

Citation: BS 4937
1 This practice is under the jurisdiction of
ASTM Committee E-37 on Thermal Mea­ Content:
surements and is the direct responsibility of Part 1:1973 Platinum-IO percent rhodium/
Subcommittee E37.01 on Test Methods an platinum thermocouples. Type S.
Recommended Practices.

319

 4
TEMPERATURE, PRESSURE, AND FLOW
(STANDARDS)

Part 2:1973 Platinum-13 percent rhodium/ Title: Measurement of Fluid Flow by Means
platinum thermocouples. Type R. of Orifice Plates, Nozzles and Venturi
Part 3: 1973 Iron/copper-nickel thermocou­ Tubes Inserted in Circular Cross­
ples. Type J. Section Conduits Running Full (VDJ­
Part 4:1973 Nickel-chromium/nickel­ Rules for Measurement of Fluids)
aluminum thermocouples. Type K.
Part 5:1974 Copper/copper-nickel thermo­ Citation: DIN 1952
couples. Type T.
Part 6:1974 Nickel-chromium/copper-nickel Content:
thermocuples. Type E.
Availability: DIN
Availability: BSI

320

 TEMPERATURE. PRESSURE. AND FLOW

(LITERATURE)

Title: Radiation Thermometry Title: An Overview of Flow Metering

Devices
Citation: Peacock, G. Raymond, ASTM
Standardization News, May 1988, Citation: Okladek, Joseph. Part 1, American
p. 33. Laboratory, Jan. 1988, p. 84; Part
2, American Laboratory, May
Content: 1988, p. 92.

Content:
Title: International Temperature Scales

Citation: Mangum, B.W. ASTM Title: International Comparisons of Pressure

Standardization News, May 1988, Standards: A Status Report
p. 36.
Citation: Tilford, Charles R. Journal of
Content: Research of the National Bureau
of Standards 93(4):545 (July-Aug.
1988).
Title: Thermocouples
Content:
Citation: Biermann, Robert. ASTM
Standardization News, May 1988,
p.40. Title: Noncontact Temperature
Measurement
Content: What are thermocouples? When
should they be used? Which thermocouple Citation: Edited by M. C. Lee. Workshop on
should be used? Noncontact-Temperature Mea­
surement, NASA Headquarters,
Washington, DC, April 30-May 1,
Title: Industrial Temperature Sensors 1987. NASA Conference Publica­
tion, Vol. 2503. Washington, DC:
Citation: Herskovitz, M.B. ASTM NASA, 1988, 430 pp.
Standardization News, May 1988,
p.44. Content:
Content:
Title: Fluid Flow Measurement Uncertainty
Title: Liquid-in-Glass Thermometers Citation: Draft Revision of ISO/DIS 5168
for International Organization for
Citation: Wise, Jacquelyn A. ASTM Standardization Committee, ISO
Standardization News, May 1988, TC30 SC9, May 1987.
p.48.
Content:
Content:

Title: Resistance Thermometry

Citation: Ortolano, Dominic J. ASTM

Standardization News, May 1988,
p.52.

Content:

321

~-------------------- ......---------

TEMPERATURE( PRESSURE, AND FLOW

(LITERATURE}

Title: Thermocouples Title: Gas Temperature Measurement

Citation: ASTM Standards on Citation: Moffat, Robert J. Chapter 52 in

Thermocouples, 2nd Edition, New Temperature: Its Measurement
York: ASTM, 1986, 257 pp. and Control in Science and Indus­
try, Vol. Three, Part 2. Applied
Content: This edition has been expanded to Methods and Instruments, Edited
incude sixteen selected ASTM methods and by A. I. Dahl. New York:
practices on thermocouples. It also contains Reinhold Publishing Corporation.
a Temperature Electromotive Force (EMF)
Table for the NICROSIL-NISIL Thermocouple Content:
System.
323

 CHROMATOGRAPHY
(STANDARDS)

Title: Standard Practice for Packed Column Title: Test Method for Noncondensable
Gas Chromatography 1 Gases in C and Lighter Hydrocarbon
Products by Gas Chromatography
Citation: ASTM E 260-&5
Citation: ASTM 0 2504-&&
Content: This practice is intended to serve
as a general guide to the application of gas Content:
chromatography (GC) with packed columns
for the separation and analysis of vaporizable Availability: ASTM
or gaseous organic and inorganic mixtures
and as a reference for the writing and
reporting of GC methods.

Availability: ASTM

1This practice is under the jurisdiction of

ASTM Committee E-19 on Chromatography
and is the direct responsibility of Subcom­
mittee E19.03 on Methods and Specifica­
tions, Gas Chromatography.

Title: Standard Recommended Practice for

Testing Flame Ionization Detectors
Used in Gas Chromatography 1

Citation: ASTM E 594-77

Content: This recommended practice serves

as a guide for the testing of the performance
of a flame ionization detector (FlO) used as
the detection component of a gas chromato­
graphic system.

Availability: ASTM

1 This recommended practice is under the jur­

isdiction of ASTM Committee E-19 on
Chromatography and is the direct responsi­
bility of Subcommittee E19.03 on Methods
and Specifications, Gas Chromatography.

325

326

 \Lllr::.nl\lunr::./

Title: Supercritical Fluid Extraction and Title: Advances in Chromatography

Chromatography: Techniques and
Applications Citation: Edited by J. C. Giddings,
E. Grushka, and P. R. Brown. Vol.
Citation: Edited by B. A. Charpentier and 27. New York: Marcel Dekker,
M. R. Sevenants. ACS Symposium 1987, 359 pp.
Series. Vol. 366. Symposium on
Supercritical Fluid Extraction and Content:
Chromatography at the 193rd
Meeting of the American Chemical
Society, Denver, CO, April 5-10, Title: Quantitative Thin Layer
1987. Washington, DC: American Chromatography and Its Industrial
Chemical Society, 1988, 253 pp. Appications,

Content: Citation: Edited by L. Trieber. Chromato­

graphic Science Series, Vol. 36.
New York: Marce1 Dekker, 1987,
Title: Field Flow Fractionation 353 pp.

Citation: Giddings, J. Calvin. C&EN, Content:

October 10, 1988, p. 34.

Content: Title: Analytical Affinity Chromatography

Citation: Edited by Irwin M. Chaikenm. Boca

Title: Small-Molecule Gel Permeation Raton, FL: CRC Press, 1987,
Chromatography: A Technique for 196 pp.
Everyone
Content:
Citation: Bidlingmeyer, Brian A. and
F. Vincent Warren, Jr. LC-GC,
6(9):780. Title: Capillary Supercritical Fluid
Chromatography, An Emerging Tech­
Content: nology in Perspective

Citation: Later, Douglas W., Bruce E •

• Title: Absolute GPC Determinations of Richter, and Marion R. Andersen.
Molecular Weights and Sizes from LC-GC 4( 10):992.
Light Scattering
Content:
Citation: Wyatt, P. J., C. Jackson, and
G. K. Wyatt. American Labora­
tory, May 1988, p. 86. Title: Chromatography with Supercritical
Fluids
,Content:
Citation: Lee, Milton L. and Karin E.
Markides. Science 235:1342
(1987).

Content: In supercritical fluid chroma­

tography (SFC) the mobile phase is neither a
gas nor a liquid, but is a supercritical fluid.
As a result of the unique properties of super­
critical fluids, SFC is rapidly becoming a
prominent separation technique for the

327

CHROMATOGRAPHY
(LITERATURE)

analysis of reactive, thermally labile, and Title: Process Supercritical Fluid

nonvolatile compounds. This article reviews Chromatography: An Introduction
the history, instrumentation, and practice of
the technique. Particular emphasis is placed Citation: Levy, G. B. American Laboratory,
on the different programming methods that December 1986, p. 62.
allow elution to be selectively controlled in
ways that are unique to SFC. Content:

Title: Chromatography Title: Response Factors for Gas

Chromatographic Analyses
Citation: ASTM Standards on
Chromatography, New York: Citation: Dietz, W. A. J. of Gas
ASTM, 1981, 764 pp. Chromatography February 1967,
p.68.
Content: Contains 103 ASTM chromato­
graphic methods and practices. Provides an Content: While there are many types of
easy to use index that cross references ASTM detectors employed in gas chromatographs,
chromatographic procedures by material most units employ either flame ionization or
analyzed and also by component/measured thermal conductivity detectors. To obtain
property. quantitative results from the GC trace, it is
necessary to use correction factors; the
amount of the correction is a function of the
Title: Chromatography response of a given compound to the detect­
ing device.
Citation: Liquid Chromatographic
Jffi:trC&mnilntinn·((}MP~4J.I.. <ti.~y.;
York: ASTM, 1975, 196 pp. Title: Analytical Methods in Biomass
Chemistry
Content: Contains name, formula, and com­
pound type indexes and listing of abstracts. Citation: Bonn, G. Biomass for Energy and
Primary function is to provide information to Industry. Edited by G. Grassi, B.
separate one compound from another. Delmon, J.-F. Molle, and H.
Zibetta. New York: Elsevier
Applied Science, 1987.
Title: Chromatography
Content: For the description and optimiza- •
Citation: Bibliography on Size Exclusion tion of technical lignocellulose conversion
Chromatography (Gel Permeation processes, and for calculating their economic
Chromatography), 1979-1982. feasibility, exact analytical methods appli­
ADM 40-S3. New York: ASTM, cable to routine operation are of major im­
1985, 304 pp. portance. Several chromatographic systems
are described for the complete determination
Content: Lists 1042 literature references on of the degradation and transformation pro­
liquid size exclusion chromatography pub­ ducts obtained during thermochemical and
lished during 1979 through 1982. This volume enzymatic hydrolyses and in fermentations.
offers easy access to bibliographic refer­ Particular emphasis has been laid on the
ences by separating all references by year of analysis of carbohydrates, where a complete
publication, dividing the subject index into record extending to low concentrations is
eight major sections, and compiling an essential in studying the efficiency of
author-title index by year of publication. biomass hydrolysis processes.
 CHROMATOGRAPHY
(LITERATURE)

Title: Basic Tables for Chemical Analysis Title: Sadtler Digital GC Retention Index
Libraries
Citation: Bruno, Thomas J. and Paris D. N.
Svoronos. Gaithersburg, MD: Citation: Bio-Rad, Sadtler Division,
National Bureau of Standards, Philadelphia, PA.
April 1986.
Content: Sadtler Digital GC Retention Index
Content: Tables of important data for use in Libraries are available for the following
the analytical chemistry laboratory are pro­ capillary GC columns:
vided. These tables contain information for
use in gas chromatography, liquid chroma­ OV-l- a cross-linked methyl silicone col­
tography, infrared and ultraviolet spectro­ umn from Hewlett-Packard Co.
photometry, mass spectrometry, and wet (25 m x 0.31 mm, 0.52).1m film
chemical techniques. Tables relating to safe thickness, phase ratio 150, HP part
practice in the analytical laboratory are also IF 19091A-1l2)
included.
SE-54- a cross-linked 5% phenylmethyl sili­
cone column from Hewlett-Packard
Co. (25 m x 0.31 mm, 0.52 ).1m film
thickness, phase ratio 150, HP -part
IF 19091 B-112)
The libraries available include:
Library Number of Compounds
Standards 1965
Flavors and Fragrances 300
Solvents 285
Pollutants 165
Hydrocarbons 100
Nitrogen Containing Compounds 575
Aromatic Compounds 735
These libraries are being expanded on an on­
going basis.

329

330

---

331

 SPECTROMETRY

(STANDARDS)

Title: Standard Definitions of Terms and Title: Standard Practices for General
Symbols Relating to Molecular Techniques of Ultraviolet-Visible
Spectroscopy 1 Quantitative Analysis I

Citation: ASTM E 131-88 Citation: ASTM E 169-87

Content: Content: These practices are intended to

provide general information on the tech­
Availability: ASTM niques most often used in ultraviolet and
visible quantitative analysis. The purpose is
1 These definitions are under the jurisdiction to render unnecessary the repetition of these
description of techniques in individual meth­
of ASTM Committee E-13 on Molecular
ods for quantitative analysis.
Spectroscopy and are the direct respon­
sibility of Subcommittee E 13.04 on
Availability: ASTM
Nomenclature.

1 These practices are under the jurisdiction of

Title: Standard Practice for Evaluation of ASTM Committee E-13 on Molecular Spec­
Mass Spectrometers for Quantitative troscopy and are the direct responsibility of
Analysis from a Batch Inlet 1 Subcommittee ED.OI on Ultraviolet and
Visible Spectroscopy.
Citation: ASTM E 137-82 -(1987)

Content: This practice provides general cri­ Title: Standard Practices for Identification
teria and tests that are generally helpful for of Material by Infrared Absorption
evaluating a mass spectrometer for use in Spectroscopy, Using the ASTM Coded
ASTM mass spectrometric methods of chemi­ Band and Chemical Classification
cal analysis. The number of types of mass Index l
spectrometers available, and the variety of
materials that may be analyzed, preclude a Citation: ASTM E 204-78 (19&4)
discussion in this practice of the capabilities
of each type of mass spectrometer for each Content: These practices describe a data
specific method of analysis. Neither is it system generated from 1955 through 1974. It
intended to include all the technical consid­ is in worldwide use as the largest publicly
erations involved in procuring a new mass available data base. It is recognized that it
spectrometer. Such considerations as mass does not represent the optimum way to gen­
range, sample introduction facilities, pro­ erate a new data base.
gramming and data handling systems, scan
rate, maintenance requirements, and price These practices describe procedures for iden­
tification of individual chemical substances
must all be evaluated relative to the needs
using infrared absorption spectroscopy and
and facilities available in a specific
band indexes of spectral data. Use of ab­
laboratory.
sorption spectroscopy for qualitative analysis
has been described by many, but the rapid
Availability: ASTM
matching of the spectrogram of a sample
with a spectral data in the literature by use
1 T his practice is under the jurisdiction of of a band index system designed for machine
ASTM Committee 14 on Mass Spectrome­ sorting was contributed by Kuentzel. It is on
try and is the direct responsibility of Sub­ Kuentzel's system that the ASTM indexes of
committee E14.14 on General Practices. absorption spectral data are based.

333

 •
SPECTROMETRY
(STANDARDS)

Use of these practices requires, in addition Title: Standard Definitions of Terms,

to a recording spectrometer and access to Symbols, Conventions, and References
published reference spectra, the encoded Relating to High-Resolution Nuclear
data and suitable data handling equipment. Magnetic Resonance (NMR)
Spectroscopy 1
Availability: ASTM
Citation: ASTM E 386-78 (1984)
1 These practices are under the jurisdiction of Content: This standard contains definitions
ASTM Committee E-13 on Molecular Spec­ of basic terms, conventions, and recom­
troscopy and are the direct responsibility of mended practices for data presentation in
Subcommittee El3.03 on Infrared the area of high-resolution NMR spectros­
Spectroscopy. copy. Some of the basic definitions apply to
wide-line NMR or to NMR of metals, but in
Title: Standard Practice for Use and general it is not intended to cover these lat­
Evaluation of Spark Source Mass ter areas of NMR in this standard. This ver­
Spectrometers for Analysis of Solids 1 sion does not include definitions pertaining to
double resonance nor to rotating frame
Citation: ASTM E 304-81 (1987) experiments.

Content: This practice provides guidelines Availability: ASTM

for evaluation of suitability of solids mass
spectrometers for use in ASTM methods for 1 These definitions are under the jurisdiction
analysis of solids which specify the use of of ASTM Committee E-13 on Molecular
such apparatus. This practice is restricted to Spectroscopy and are the direct responsi­
those instruments in which ions are produced bility of Subcommittee E 13.07 on Nuclear
in an electriCal' discnaygt= cnrecny' ITurrr l't!e­ MagnetiC Resonance Spectroscopy.
solid.
Title: Practice for Flame Atomic
This practice also includes discussion of the Absorption Analysis
tests that are generally helpful in evaluating
and improving the performance of a particu­ Citation: ASTM E 663-86
lar instrument as used in a particular ASTM
method of analysis for solids. The variety of Content:
types of mass spectrometers which may
prove suitable for a particular analysis pre­ Availability: ASTM
cludes a discussion in this practice of the
capabili ties of each type of instrument or
analysis. Title: Molecular Absorption Spectrometry:
Vocabulary--General--Apparatus
Availability: ASTM
Citation: ISO 6286:1982
1 This practice is under the jurisdiction of
ASTM Committee E-14 on Mass Spectrom­ Content:
etry and is the direct responsibility of Sub­
committee E14.04 on Data and Information Availability: ISO
Problems.

334

---
SPECTROMETRY
(STANDARDS)

Title: Analytical Spectroscopic Methods-­ Title: General Rules for Mass Spectrometric
Flame Emission, Atomic Absorption, Analysis
and Atomic Fluorescence--Vocabulary
Citation: JIS K 0118-79
Citation: ISO 6955:1982
Content:
Content:
Availability: JIS
Availability: ISO

335

336

SPECTROMETRY

(LITERATURE)

Title: Problem Solving Using FTIR International Union of Pure and Applied
Spectroscopy Chemists (IUPAC), which commissioned the
paper presented here.
Citation: Pattacini, S. C. and T. J. Porro.
American Laboratory, August
1988, p. 24. Title: Fourier Transform-Mass Spectrometry
for Industrial Problem Solving
Content:
Citation: Asamoto, Bruce. Spectroscopy
3(6):38.
Title: Spectroscopy
Content: Fourier transform-mass spectrom­
Citation: Methods for Analytical Atomic etry (FT -MS) is a useful technique for
Spectroscopy. Eighth Edition. New analyzing "real-world" industrial samples.
York: ASTM, 1987, 1145 pp. This article presents a brief overview of the
theory of FT-MS and describes the instru­
Content: This compilation presents 185 mental setup required for calibration and in­
ASTM test methods and suggested methods creasing the dynamic range of this analytical
covering atomic absorption, inductively, technique. The combinations of FT -MS with
coupled plasma, direct current plasma, gas chromatography (GC/FT -MS) and laser
flame, x-ray, optical emission spectrometric, desorption (LD/FT -MS) methods are des­
as well as older, spectrographic methods. cribed in detail, and innovative methods such
This edition replaces the 1982 version. as plasma desorption and multiphoton ioniza­
tion are referenced. Specific topics dis­
cussed include using a dual-cell arrangement
Title: Inductively Coupled Plasma-Mass to improve sensitivity of GC/FT -MS and the
Spectrometry: An Introduction utility of preparative purification steps for
improving analytical capabilities.
Citation: Taylor, H. E. Spectroscopy
1(11):20.
Title: Hybridized Techniques: Hyphenated
Content: and Slashed Instrumental Methods

Citation: de Haseth, James A. Spectroscopy

Title: A Move Toward Standardization in 2(10):34.
Nuclear Magnetic Resonance
Spectrometry Content:
Citation: Coates, John P. Spectroscopy
2( 11): 18. Title: Hyphenated Techniques in Atomic
Spectroscopy: A Review
Content: When considering the measurement
of an NMR spectrum, it is readily apparent Citation: Tatro, Mark E. Spectroscopy
that the technique is one of the few methods 2(10):18.
of spectroscopy in which the results are not
obtained on an absolute scale. Instead, spec­ Content:
tra are presented relative to a standard re­
sonance for a given nucleus. A problem arises
when we move to multinuclear systems and
there is the need to cross-reference the
measured resonances within such systems.
This subject is currently under review by the

337

 --------------~~~~.-----------
SPECTROMETRY
.. ~

(LITERATURE)

Title: The Use of Off-Line Fourier Title: Thermogravimetric Analysis with

Transform Infrared Spectroscopy for Fourier Transform Infrared Detection
the Identification of High Perfor­ of Evolved Gases
mance Liquid Chromatography Peaks ,
Citation: Wieboldt, Dick and Greg Adams. 1
Citation: Hurst, W. Jeffrey, R. A. Martin, Spectroscopy 2( 10)46. i
Jr., and Richard M. Sheeley. Spec­ ,I I

troscopy 2(10):30. Content: The combined techniques of ther­ I

mogravimetric analysis and Fourier trans­ 1
1
I
Content: Fourier transform infrared (FT -IR) form infrared spectroscopy are capable of
spectroscopy has been used to identify peaks providing complete sample analysis. This ~
I
obtained from analytical and preparative technical note describes an interface that 1
I
high performance liquid chromatography can be used to create a TGA-FT -IR system.
(HPLC). This article outlines the methods In order to demonstrate this system's capa­ ,i
used to collect, prepare, and identify these bilities, an application is described in which 1
HPLC peaks. The studies in this article were the TGA-FT -IR system is used for the analy­ •
J

performed with phospholipids obtained from sis of calcium oxalate. l'

soy lecithin, and the data were collected to ,1

confirm the identities of individual phospho­
lipid peaks. Title: Fourier Transform-Mass ,
Spectrometry, Part 2 l'
,,,
Title: Evaluation of a Near-Infrared Citation: Johnston, Mark. Spectroscopy ,
Detector for High Performance Liquid 2(3):11. 1

Chroma tography
Content:
Citation~ Ciun:zak, Emi.l \'Ii. and
Frances M. B. Weis. Spectroscopy
2(10}:33. Title: Inductively Coupled Plasma Emission
Spectroscopy, Part II: Applications
Content: This article examines the effec­ and Fundamentals
tiveness of using a near-IR detector for high
performance liquid chromatography applica­ Citation: Edited by P. W. J. M. Boumans.
tions. The near-IR detector's performance is New York: John Wiley & Sons,
judged for drift and noise levels, sensitivity, 1987, 486 pp.
response time, linear dynamic range, dead
volume, selectivity, and nondestrictiveness Content: Wiley's "Chemical Analysis" mono­
of the sample. graph series, of which this book is the 90th
volume, presents recent advances of current
interest to practitioners and research experts
Title: A Practical System for Hyphenated in analytical chemistry. Boumans' voume on
Thin-Layer Chromatography IFourier the applications of ICP atomic emission
Transform Infrared Spectroscopy spectroscopy (ICP-AES) consists of 12 chap­
ters, authoritatively written by active con­
Citation: Bui, Hung. Spectroscopy 2(10):44. tributors in the field.

Content: This technical note discusses a

hyphenated system that combines thin-layer Title: PC Version of NBS/EPA/MSDC Mass
chromatography and Fourier transform in­ Spectral Database
frared spectroscopy techniques. Separations
performed with such a system use conven­ Citation: NBS Update, September 7, 1987.
tional TLC mobile phases and achieve posi­
tive identification through a spectral search Content: A major international resource of
routine performed with the spectrometer. more than 44,000 analytical mass spectra is
 SPECTROMETRY
(LITERATURE)

now available for use on personal computers Title: Investigations of Lignocellulosic

(PCs). The PC version was prepared from Materials by the Carbon-l 3 n.m.r.c.p.­
the NBS/EPA/MSDC Mass Spectral Database m.a.s. Method
that is in use worldwide in a computer­
magnetic tape format and as a six-volume, Citation: Sterk, H., W. Sattler, and
7"OOO-page reference. The collection of H. Esterbauer. Carbohydrate
evaluated electron ionization mass spectra of Research 164:85 (July 1, 1987).
organic and inorganic substances was origi­
nally put together by the Environmental Pro­ Content:
tection Agency (EPA) and the National Insti­
tu"tes of Health. It is now maintained by
NBS, EPA, and the Mass Spectrometry Data Title: Carbon-13 NMR Spectral Data
Centre (MSDC) in the United Kingdom. The
PC database was prepared by Dr. Stephen E. Citation: Bremser, W., L. Ernst,
Stein of NBS who compressed the 44,000 W. Fachinger, R. Gerhards,
spectra in the magnetic-tape version and new A. Hardt, and P. M. E. Lewis.
search programs into 13 high-density floppy VCH Publishers, 1987.
disks that can be stored on a hard disk of any
AT -class or XT-class PC. Rapid searches Content: This fourth edition of a major ref­
can be made for the spectra of specific erence work contains 58,108 spectra of
chemical names, formula, molecular weight, 48,357 compounds on 235 microfiche. It is
or Chemical Abstracts Registry Number, as time-tested and designed for maximum ease
well as for spectra with pre-selected charac­ of use.
teristics such as peaks at certain masses.
Title: Carbon-13 NMR Spectroscopy: High­
Title: 1987 Registry of Mass Spectral Data: Resolution Methods and Applications
CD-ROM Version in Organic Chemistry and
Biochemistry
Citation: McLafferty, Fred W. and
Sixten Abrahamsson. Available Citation: Breitmaier, Eberhard and Wolfgang
from John Wiley and Sons, 305 Voelter. Third edition. VCH Pub­
Third Ave., New York, NY 10158 lishers, 1987, 515 pp.

Content: The 1987 Registry of Mass Spectral Content:

Data is now available on CD-ROM. In addi­
tion to 123,000 spectra, the CD product
supports search access of the database's ex­ Title: Infrared Spectral Data
tensive chemical name and synonym files, in­
cluding nearly 90,000 CAS Registry Numbers. Citation: Passlack, M., W. Bremser,
M. Beckmann, and H. Wagner.
The CD-ROM incorporates PBM/STIRS soft­ VCH Publishers, 1986
ware, already in wide use for spectrome­
trists' computer-based laboratory instru­ Content: In this collection of IR spectral
ments. The search retrieval software is data the problem of plotting spectrum and
Findit. The Registry of Mass Spectral Data structure on the same microfiche has been
is also available as a magnetic tape, a mass solved. A versatile collection of indexes
spectral library, and as a dial-up database. permits flexible searching for spectral and
structural information in a way similar to an
expert computer system. For the elucidation
of structures and the evaluation of calcula­
tions, novel indexes of substructures and sub­
structure combinations allow the fast corre­
lation of structural w'ith spectral features.

339

 SPECTROMETRY
(LITERATURE)

This microfiche collection is compatible with Title: Analysis of Volatile Organic Solvents
the microfiche collection of Carbon-13 NMR by Inductively Coupled Plasma Emis­
Spectral Data by Bremser et al. (VCH Pub­ sion Spectrometry
lishers, 19&7).
Citation: Nygaard, Danton D. and
John J. Sotera. Applied Spec­
Title: Merck IR Atlas, A Collection of FT -IR troscopy 41(4):703.
Spectra, Part I
Content:
Citation: Editors: E. Merck, Darmstadt, in
collaboration with Bruker
Analytische Messtechnik, Title: Fourier Transform Infrared
Karlsruhe. VCH Publishers, 19&7, Spectrometry Chemical Anaysis
1146 pp.
Citation: Griffiths, P. R. and J. A. Dehaseth.
Content: The 3,000 quite frequently used New York: John Wiley and Sons,
standard spectra contained in this book were 1986.
generated in collaboration between the
E. Merck and Bruker companies. The collec­ Content:
tion is distinguished from other sources of
similar data by a number of special fea­
tures. All spectra represent FT-IR data of a Title: Expanded MS/MS Applications through
high quality as measured on a Bruker IFS 85 Improved Instrumentation
spectrometer.
Citation: Busch, Kenneth L. and
Gerald C. DiDonato. American
Title: Focal Points in Mass Spectrometry Laboratory, August 1986, p. 17.

Citation: Delgass, W. N. and R. G. Cooks. Content:

Science 235:545 (Jan. 30, 1987).

Content: Mass spectrometry has advanced Title: Rapid Analysis of Important Fuel
with the renaissance of time-of-flight mass Properties by FT-IR Spectroscopy
analysis, the use of ion traps as analyzers and
reactors, the application of tandem mass Citation: Aho, M. and P. Kortelainen. The
spectrometers to problems in ionic reaction Finnish Journal, SUO, in press.
mechanisms and chemical analysis, and the
development of new desorption ionization Content:
techniques. These developments have
allowed determination of the molecular
Title: Sadtler UV/Visible Library
weight distributions for polymers through the
iDlOO-dalton range, as well as the molecular
Citation: Philadelphia, PA: Bio-Rad, Sadtler
weight and partial sequence of biopolymers
Division.
of similar size. Surfaces can be character­
ized by use of the mass, energy, and angle
Content: The Sadtler UV /Visible Library
distributions of particles ejected by sputter­
features fully quantitative Sadtler and user
ing or by laser-induced desorption. Mass
generated library information. Samples have
spectrometry has yielded new information on
been prepared in methanol (at acidic, neu­
the kinetics of catalytic surface reactions
tral, and basic pH) and cyclohexane solvents.
and on the of metal clusters.
Cyclohexane and methanol were selected so
that spectral characteristics can best be
determined when comparing polar and non­
polar solvents. Sadtier presently has a
digital library of 2000 compounds. This will

340

 SPECTROMETRY
(LITERATURE)

be expanded on an annual basis. In addition, Sadtler's infrared search libraries, already

Sadtler will be preparing library subsets in the largest and highest quality available, are
order to meet the needs of many different currently being expanded at an accelerated
application areas. rate. These fully digital libraries now con­
tain over 120,000 spectra. Included are
Bio-Rad Laboratories, Sadtler Division offers 9,200 vapor phase spectra, 61,000 standard
a broad range of digital FT -IR search librar­ condensed phase IR spectra of pure com­
ies. These libraries include fixed size col­ pounds, and 53,000 spectra from Sadtler's
lections, incorporating selected compounds many commercial spectra libraries including
for specific applications, and continually monomers and polymers, surfactants, adhe­
expanding libraries to which new compounds sives and sealants, inorganics, coating
are regularly added as they become avail­ chemicals, controlled pyrolyzates of poly­
able. Sadtler digital libraries provide users mers, plasticizers, abused drugs, pharma­
with a wide selection of collection sizes, ceuticals, solvents, and others.
prices and applications to meet the specific
and growing needs within any laboratory.
Sadtler offers five different categories of Title: Handbook of Atomic Absorbtion
digital FT -IR libraries: the Sadtler Package Analysis
Libraries; the Sadtler Infrared Commercial
Libraries; the Sadtler Condensed Phase Citation: Varma, A. Handbook of Atomic
Library; the Hummel/Sadtler Polymer Absorbtion Analysis, Volume I and
Library and the Sadtler Standard Vapor Phase II, CRC Press, Boca Raton,
Library. Florida. 1984.
Sadtler Research Laboratories now offers it
13C NMR Search Libraries on the IBM PC Content: This two volume set is a very
Series computers. These search libraries complete and useful bibliography of
include over 26,000 compounds of pure ma­ literature on atomic absorbtion analysis. It
terials (98% purity or better) and also a is an excellent source for anyone wishing to
separate library of 13C NMR of monomers survey the literature for specific methods.
and polymers spectra. The standard library
contains data of simple aliphatic, aromatic,
alicyclic and heterocyclic compounds as well
as numerous complex materials. The
13C NMR of monomers and polymers library
contains data for 800 monomers, polymers
and resins.

341

342

343

 APPENDIX I

Working Group Members for the lEA Voluntary Standards Activity

Feedstocks Panel

Helena L. Chum Roger C. Pettersen

Solar Energy Research Institute Forest Products Laboratory
Golden, CO, USA Madison, WI, USA

Maurice Douek Roger Sutcliffe

Pulp and Paper Research Institute of Forintek Canada
Canada Ottawa, Ontario, Canada
Pointe Claire, Quebec, Canada

Wolfgang C. Glasser Olof Theander

Virginia Polytechnic Institute and University of Agricultural
State University Science
Blacksburg, VA, USA Uppsala, Sweden
W. E. Hillis Jack Ranney
CSIRO Oak Ridge National Laboratory
Clayton, Victoria, Australia Oak Ridge, TN, USA
Biochemical Panel

Tom Clark M. Moo-Young

Forest Research Institute University of Waterloo
New Zealand Waterloo, Ontario, Canada
R. F. H. Dekker Michael Paice
CSIRO Pulp and Paper Research
V ictoria, Australia Institute
Pointe Claire, Quebec, Canada
Hermann M. Esterbauer Jacques Pourquie
University of Graz Institut Francais du Petrole
Graz, Austria Fueil-Malmaison, France
Douglas Eveleigh Juergen PuIs
Rutgers University BFJ Inst. Wood Chemistry
New Brunswick, NJ, USA Hamburg
Federal Republic Germany
Karel Grohmann Jack Saddler
Solar Energy Research Institute Forintek Canada
Golden, CO, USA Ottawa, Ontario, Canada
Barbel Hahn-Hagerdahl M. Wayman
University of Lund Morris Wayman Ltd. Consultants
Sweden Toronto, Ontario, Canada

1-1

Thermochemical Panel

Xavier Deglise
Herbert L. Retcofsky
Universite de Nancy
Pittsburgh Energy Technology Center
Nancy, France
Pittsburgh, PA, USA

Eugene Domalski Geoffrey Richards

National Institute of Standards University of Montana
and Technology Missoula, MT, USA
Gaithersburg, MD, USA

Doug Elliott Donald S. Scott

Battelle Pacific Northwest Laboratories University of Waterloo
Richland, WA, USA Waterloo, Ontario, Canada
Ralph Overend Kai SipUa
National Research Council of Canada Tech. Research Centre of Finland
Division of Biosciences Espoo, Finland
Ottawa, Ontario, Canada

Hooshang Pakdel
Laval University
Ste-Foy, Quebec, Canada

I-2

 APPENDIX II

Standards Organizations

Quite a number of societies and organizations maintain a standard-setting fl.lnction or

provide information on standards. Many of these have been cited in the meth0e:!s section
and the key to the methods section. Here we list organizations, with full ade:!r-esses to
whom readers may want to refer--or better yet, become actively involved with, In s~me
cases details on relevant subcommittees, working groups, and the like are desctibed. We
encourage users of this source book to help fill in the many gaps for the secone:! edition
particularly for entities outside North America. Please communicate Q.dditionai
information to Thomas A. Milne or Ann Brennan at SERI.

AFNOR

Association Francaise de Normalisation

T our Europe, Cedex 7

92080 Paris La Defense

FRANCE

AGA
-----;.\merican Gas Association
1515 Wilson Boulevard
Ar ling ton, VA 22209
USA

AIChE
American Institute of Chemical Engineers
345 East 47th Street
New York, NY 10017
USA

ANMC
American National Metric Council
1010 Vermont Ave. NW
Suite 320
Washington, DC 20005
USA

ANSI
---;t\merican National Standards Institute
1430 Broadway
New York, NY 10018
USA

AOAC
Association of Official Analytical Chemists
Box 540 Benjamin Franklin Station
Washington, DC 20044
USA

All method numbers refer to the 14th Edition of Official Methods of AnalysiS of the
Associationof Analytical Chemists. Edited by S. Williams. 1984.

II-I

 APCA
Pollution Control Association

4400 Fifth Avenue

Pittsburgh, PA 15213

USA

The Air Pollution Control Association contributes to the development of standards

through representation in the following committees of standards-setting organiza­
tions: American National Standards Committee 2-21; Subcommittee on Standards for
Domestic Gas-Fired Incinerators; American National Standards 2-105; Air Cleaning
Equipment Committee of Installation Standards for Oil Burners and Oil Burning
Equipment; American National Standards 2-228; Incinerator Committee; International
Organization for Standardization; Technical Committee ISO/TC 146; Air Purity and
Intersociety Committee (Manual of Methods of Ambient Air Sampling Analysis).
APFI
------:t\ssociation of Pellet Fuel Industries

905 Greg Street

Sparks, NV 89431

USA

APHA-AWWA-WPCF

APHA

American Public Health Association

1015 15th Street NW

Washington, DC 20005

USA

AWWA

American Water Works Association

6666 West Quincy Avenue

Denver, CO 80235

USA

WPCF

Water Pollution Control Federation

2626 Pennsylvania Ave. NW

Washington, DC 20037

USA

These three groups have a standards committee on sludge gas and methane.
API
-American Paper Institute
260 Madison Ave.
New York, NY 10016
USA

This institute, formed. Jc~nuary 1966, is the successor organization of the American
~aper and Pulp AssoClatIOn and its divisions, and the National Paperboard Associa­
tIOn. Because of the num~rous grades of paper and paperboard and their various uses
there have. been no. quality standardization programs engaged in by the America~
Paper InstItute or its predecessor organizations. However, standards for testing

II-2

 certain physical characteristics such as bursting strength, tear, brightness, and

opacity have been developed for many grades of paper. These specifications are
officially published by the Technical Association of the Pulp and Paper Industry, One
Dunwoody Park, Atlanta, GA 30341. Standard gauge lists for combination paperboard
were revised effective January 1969 and adopted by members of the Combination
Paperboard Division of the Paperboard Group, API.

Although not directly related to standardization itself, the Dictionary of Paper

contains more than 500 pages of concise descriptions of pulp and other raw paper­
making materials, papers, paperboards, paper and properties, and paper making terms.

API
-American Petroleum Institute
1220 L Street NW
Washington, DC 20005
USA

Appita

Australian and New Zealand Pulp and Paper Industry Technical Association

Clunis Ross House

191 Royal Pde.

Parkville, Victoria 3052

AUSTRALIA

ASAE
-----:A'inerican Society of Agricultural Engineers
2950 Niles Road
St. Joseph, MI
USA

See ASAE Standards, 34th Edition. Edited by R. H. Hahn and E. E. Rosentreter. 1987
ASCE
---:i\merican Society of Civil Engineers
345 East 47th Street
New York, NY 10017
USA

The American Society of Civil Engineers has a Task Committee on Design of Anaero­
bic Digestors.

ASHRAE
American Society of Heating, Refrigerating and Air-Conditioning Engineers
1719 Tullie Circle NE

Atlanta, GA 30329

USA

ASME
American Society of Mechanical Engineers
United Engineering Center
345 East 47th Street
New York, NY 10017
USA

11-3
ASTM
---P;;-merican Society for Testing and Materials
1916 Race Street

Philadelphia, PA 19103

USA

See 1988 Annual Book of Standards, Vol. 00.01 for subject and alphanumeric list.
ASTM has many active committees and subcommittees that would welcome partici­
pation from the biomass-related community. Among these are:

ASTM Committee 0-1 (Paint and Related Coatings and Materials) now contains the
former Committee 0-23 on Cellulose and Cellulose Oerivatives.

ASTM Committee 0-2 on Petroleum has a subcommittee IV, Section M, looking at

mass spectrometry for fuel analysis of petrolum fractions and derivatives. It ~s
considering round-robin tests, and 0-2 is also working on two documents on speCl­
fication for fuel methanol.
ASTM Committee 0-3 on Gaseous Fuels has as its scope the promotion of knowledge
and the development of definitions; specifications; classifications; recommended
practices; and methods of sampling, analysis, and testing relating to gases used as
commercial fuels. Several subcommittees address subjects of relevance to biomass
gasification.
ASTM Committee 0-.5 on Coal has written many standards used by the biofuels com­
munity or used as a point of departure for specifically biofuels standards.

ASTM Committee 0-6 on Paper and Paper Products has as its scope the development
of specifications, methods of sampling and testing, and definitions of terms pertaining
to paper and paper products.

ASTM Committee 0-7 on Wood is responsible for several very relevant methods used
by the biofuels community. Its scope is the promotion of knowledge, stimulation of
research, and development of standardized nomenclature, quality classifications,
specifications, methods of test, methods of and materials for modifying properties;
study of the effect of various factors on the properties, questions of utility, and
related subjects pertaining to wood, veneer, plywood, laminated wood, and wood­
based laminates.

ASTM Committee 0-17 on Naval Stores has the following scope: the formulation of
specifications, methods of test, and definitions relating to the products generally
included in the term "naval stores," which includes turpentines, rosins, pine
oleoresins, pine oils, rosin oils, tall oils, wood tars, wood pitches, and other closely
related natural resinous materials. Naval stores could have increasing relevance to
the production of chemicals from biomass.

ASTM Committee 0-22 on Sampling and Analysis of Atmospheres seeks the promotion
of knowledge an~ the formulation of methods of sampling and analysis of atmos­
pheres, the selectlOn of acceptable nomenclature and definitions, and the stimulation
of res.earch to accomplish the foregoing purposes. As an example, in 1984 Sub­
commlttee 022.02 on Source SamplIng began developing documents on sampling
hydrochloric and sulfuric acid.

II-4
 Committee 0-23 on Cellulose and Cellulose Derivatives, developer of a number of
standards in this sourcebook, has now become a part of Committee 0-1 on Paint and
Related Coatings and Materials.

Committee 0-34 on Waste Disposal now includes the former Committee E-38 on
Resource Recovery. The proposed scope of the new merged 0-34 and E-38 Commit­
tee 1s the promotion and knowledge, stimulation of research, and development of test
methods, specifications, practices, nomenclature, classifications, and definitions
relating to the management of wastes. Wastes are here defined as those materials
that are generated by industrial, commercial or household sources and that are either
destined for disposal or already disposed. Management of such wastes is defined here
to include generation, storage, transportation, treatment, disposal, and resource
recovery. The activities of 0-34 will be coordinated in cooperation with other
relevant committees within ASTM and outside organizations.

Committee E-06 on Performance of Building Constructions has a subcommittee on

Solid Fuel Burning Appliances, E06.54, which addresses wood stove efficiency, safety,
and related matters.

Committee E-48 on Biotechnology has absorbed the former E44.12 subcommittee of

E-44 (Solar Energy Conversion), which is now the E48.05 subcommittee on Biomass
Conversion. Other relevant committees of E-48 are E48.0 I on Materials for Bio­
technology, E48.02 on Characterization and Identification of Biological Systems,
E48.03 on Unit Processes and Their Controls, E48.04 on Environmental Issues, and
E48.91 on Terminology. The scope of E-48 is the promotion of knowledge and the
development of standards (classifications, guides, practices, specifications,
terminology, and test methods) for biotechnology. Committee E48.05 is currently
working on a Test Method for Durability of Biomass Pellets and is considering test
methods for ash (D-7's method is currently used) and a microwave moisture content
analysis.
Information on joining ASTM and on committee structures and goals can be obtained
from ASTM, 1617 Race Street, Philadelphia, PA 19103, Phone (215) 299-5400.

ASTM offers an online index, through Pergamon. The Standards Search File has
moved to a new database provider, Pergamon ORBIT Infoline. This file provides
bibliographic information on all the standard documents developed by ASTM as well
as those developed by SAE. It's a search tool to help you find the standards you
need. When you use Standards Search, the file displays the document number and
title, date of issue, equivalent standards, 000 approval, cross references, index terms
for additional searching, and information on how to obtain the full test. You have
electronic access to more than 11,000 documents. To order Standards Search, or to
obtain technical details, contact ORBIT SEARCH, Division of Pergamon ORBIT
Infoline, 8000 Westpark Drive, McLean, VA 22102, 703-442-0900 (Va) or 800-421-7229
(Continental U.S. except Va).

ATIBT
International Technical Tropical Timber Association
45 bis
A venue de la Belle-Gabrielle
94130
FRANCE
Standardization Activities: Develops grading rules for the tropical timber trade (logs
and lumber) and standardized nomenclature for tropical timbers.

II-5
AWWA
American Water Works Association

6666 West Quincy Avenue

Denver, CO 80235

USA

BSI
-British Standards Institution
2 Park Street
London, WIA 2 BS
UNITED KINGDOM
Standards information provided by BSI, through their STANDARDLINE data base, is
greatfullyacknowledged.

CBS
--Canadian Boiler Society
4786 Queen Street
Niagara Falls, Ontario
CANADA L2E 2M3

CFR
--Code of Federal Regulations, United States

CGA
-Canadian Gas Association
55 Scarsdale Rd.
D'orr Miils, 6ht'ario
CANADA M3B ZR3

CIMAC
International Council on Combustion Engines

lOAvenue Hoche

7538208

FRANCE

Standardization Activities: Involved in the development of ISO standards related to

combustion engines (reciprocating engine and gas turbine types) and test methods. Is
not involved with combustion engines used to propel construction and earth moving
vehicles, tractors, automobiles, trucks, and aircraft.

CPPA
-----canadian Pulp and Paper Association
Sun Life Building, 23rd Floor
1155 Metcalfe Street
Montreal, Quebec
CANADA H3B 2X9

CSA
--Canadian Standards Association
178 Rexdale Boulevard
Rexdale, Ontario
CANADA M9W IR3

11-6
 (See also Standards Council of Canada, 350 Sparks Street, Ottawa, Ontario, CANADA
K 1R 7S8, which publishes a catalog of standards of the Canadian Gas Association and
the Canadian General Standards Board as well as CSA standards.)

CSIRO
Division of Chemical and Wood Technology

Private Bag No. 10,

Clayton, Victoria, 3168

AUSTRALIA

DIN
--Deutsches Institut fUr Normung
Burggrafenstrasse 4-10
Postfach 11 07, D-1000
Berlin 30
FEDERAL REPUBLIC OF GERMANY

EN
- European Committee for Standardization
rue Brederode 2 Bte 5
1000 Brussels
BELGIUM
(Member countries are Austria, Belgium, Denmark, Finland, France, Germany (F.R.),
Greece, Ireland, Italy, the Netherlands, Norway, Portugal, Spain, Sweden,
Switzerland, U.K.). (See P.W. Cooke. A Summary of the New European Community
Approach to Standards Development. NBSIR 88-3793-1, August 1988).

EPA
--U.S. Environmental Protection Agency
Office of Solid Waste and Emergency Response
Washington, DC 20460
USA

FAO
--Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations
(International Development)
Via delle Terme di Caracalla
1-00100 Rome
ITALY

Organizes special subject conferences and meetings; hosts expert consultations. Main­
tains library of 1 million volumes, in addition to films, videotapes, and computer
tapes. Computerized Services: Data bases; AGRIS (International Information System
for the Agricultural Sciences and Technology), which encompasses I million refer­
ences reported by national centers; CARIS (Current Agricultural Research Informa­
tion System), which functions as an information exchange for 70 countries; ICS
(Interlinked Computer Storage and Data Processing System of Food and Agricultural
Commodity Data); ASFIS (Aquatic Sciences and Fisheries Information System);
FISHDAB (Fisheries Data Base); FORIS (Forest Resources Information System).

II-7

 FPL

--Porest Products Laboratory

U.S. Department of Agriculture

One Gifford Pinchot Dr.

Madison, WI 53705

USA

Procedures for the Chemical Analysis of Wood and Wood Products (as used at the U.S.
Forest Proudcts Laboratory). W.E. Moore and D.B. Johnson. Revised, Dec. 1967.
(Unpublished) (Although FPL is not a standards-setting body, the FPL Procedures
Manual served as an ad-hoc standard for many early researchers.)

FRI
-Forest Research Institute

Private Bag

Rotorua

NEW ZEALAND

GOST
--USSR State Committee for Standards

Research and Production Association

4, ul. Schuseva

Moscow, 103001

USSR

ICSU-CODATA

International Council of Scientific Unions

Committee on Data for Science and Technology

CODATA Secretariat

51 bd. de Montmorency

75016

FRANCE

Publishes a newsletter.

ICUMSA
Interna~ional Commission for Uniform Methods for Sugar Analysis

c/o Instltut fur landwirtschaitliche

Technologie und Zuckerindustrie

Langer Kamp 5

P.O. Box 5224

0-3300 BRAUNSCHWEIG

F.R. GERMANY

Standardization Activities: De ve 1ops "form analytical methods for sugar analysis.

Un!

IPC
-Institute of Paper Chemistry
P.O. Box 1039

Appleton, WI 54912

USA

II-&

ISO
-International Standards Organization
1, rue de VarembE
Case posta Ie 56
CH-1211 Geneve 20
SWITZERLAND

IUFRO
International Union of Forestry Research Organizations (IUFRO)
(Internationaler Verband Forstlicher Forschungsanstalten)
Schonbrunn

Tirolergarten

A-113l Vienna

AUSTRIA

IUPAC
International Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry
Bank Court Chambers
2-3 Pound Way
Cowley Centre
Oxford OX4 3YF
UNITED KINGDOM

Two divisions of IUPAC are especially relevant to biomass for fuels and chemicals,
particularly at the basic research level. The Analytical Chemistry Division (V) has
subcommittees and commissions in Environmental Analytical Chemistry; Analytical
Reactions, Reagents, and Separations; Microchemical Techniques and Trace Analysis;
Analytical Nomenclature; Spectrochemical and Other Optical Procedures for
Analysis; Electroanalytical Chemistry; Equilibrium Data; Radiochemistry and Nuclear
Techniques; and Solubility Data.

The Applied Chemistry Division (VI) has commissions on Food Chemistry; Bio­
technology; Oils, Fats and Derivatives; Atmospheric Chemistry; Agrochemicals; and
Water Chemistry.

(Source: IUPAC Handbook, 1987-1989. Blackwell Scientific Publications, London,

England.)

JIS
Japanese Industrial Standards
1-24, Akaska 4, Minato - ku
Tokyo 107
JAPAN

(See G. Mori, ASTM Standardization News, Oct. 1987, p. 56 for a description of the
Japanese Standards Association and the scope and development of JIS Standards (e.g.,
a committee exists on natural resources and energy).

II-9

NCSL .
---r::Jational Conference of Standards Laboratones
325 Broadway
Radio Bldg., M.C. 104
Boulder, CO 80303
USA

NCWM
National Conference on Weights and Measures
National Institute of Standards and Technology
U.S. Department of Commerce
Gaithersburg, MD 20899
USA

NCSCI . . If .
National Center for Standards and CertiilcatlOn n ormatIon
Administration Building
Room A-629
Gaithersburg, MD 20899
USA
Phone (301) 975-4040
FAX 301-975-2128
TELEX TR T 197674 NISTUT
Housed at NIST this center maintains an extensive catalog of standards from many
countries as w~ll as many standards in hard copy or microform. NCSCI offers an
inquiry and referral service.

NFPA
National Fire Protection Association
Batterymarch Park
Quincy, MA 02269
USA
NIST (Formerly NBS)
~ational Institute of Standards and Technology
Gaithersburg, MD 20899
USA
The National Institute of Standards and Technology (NIST) is the new name of the
Commerce Department's National Bureau of Standards (NBS). NIST was created by
the Omnibus Trade and Competitiveness Act signed by President Reagan on
August 23, 1988.
NBS was originally established in 1901 as the government's science and engineering
laboratory for measurement technology and research on standards. Over the years it
evolved to become the sole federal laboratory directly concerned with aiding industry
and commerce.

The name National Institute of Standards and Technology reflects the broadened role
and new responsibilities assigned to the agency, which will include the traditional
functions of providing the measurements, calibrations, data, and quality assurance
support that are vital to U.S. commerce and industry, together with several new
programs to support the aggressive use of new technologies in American industry.

II-10
 NIST has a new purpose, "to assist industry in the development of technololgy and
procedures needed to improve quality, to modernize manufacturing processes, to
ensure product reliability, manufacturability, functionality, and cost-effectiveness,
and to facilitate the more rapid commercialization••.of products based on new
scientific discoveries."

NIST will maintain the traditional functions of NBS and will continue to offer the full
array of measurement and quality assurance services that were provided by NBS,
including calibration services, standard reference materials, standard reference data,
and measurement assurance programs.

NSF
':'--Norges Standardiseringsforbund
Postboks 7020 Homansbyen
N-0306 Oslo 3
NORWAY

pPRIC
- Pulp and Paper Research Institute of Canada
570 St. John's Boulevard
Pointe Claire, Quebec
CANADA H9R 3J9

SAA
--Standards Association of Australia
Head Office, Standards House
80 Arthur Street
P.O. Box 458

North Sydney, NSW 2059

AUSTRALIA

SANZ
Standards Association of New Zealand

Sixth Floor, Wellington Trade Centre

181-187 Victoria Street, Private Bag

Wellington

NEW ZEALAND

---
SCAN

Scandinavian Pulp, Paper and Board

Testing Committee (Denmark, Finland, Norway, Sweden)

Secretariat, Box 5604

S-11486 Stockholm

SWEDEN

S~C
---=
Standards Council of Canada

International Standardization Branch

2000 Argentia Road

Suite 2-40 1

Mississauga, Ontario L5N 1V8

CANADA

II-II
 SES
-Standards Engineering Society

1709 N. West Ave.

Suite 122

Jackson, MI 49202

USA

SES was established in 1947 to promote the use of standards; advance the techniques
of standardization; represent the views of standards users; and provide a network of
standards professionals from industry, academia, government, and standards­
developing organizations to address questions on standards and standardization.

SFS
-Suomen Standardisoimisliitto SFS

(Finnish Standards Association)

PL 205

SF-00121

Helsinki 12

FINLAND

SMS
--Sveriges Mekanstandardiser ing

Box 5395

S-102 46 Stockholm

SWEDEN

TAPPI

Technical Association of the Pulp and Paper Industry

Technology Park, P.O. Box 105113

Atlanta, GA 30348

USA

(Abstracts quoted for TAPPI methods are copywrited and are printed with permission
of TAPPI.)

UL
Underwriters' Laboratories, Inc.

333 Pfingsten Road

Northbrook, IL 60062

USA

ULC
--Underwriters' Laboratories of Canada
7 Crouse Rd.
Scarborough, Ontario
CANADA MIR 3A9
USDA
----U:S. Department of Agriculture
Indep~ndence Ave. and 14th St. SW
Washmgton, DC 20250
USA

II-12
VTT
--Technical Research Centre of Finland

Maintains a register of Methods for Testing and Inspection at VTT. Distributed by:
Government Printing Centre
P.O. Box 516
SF-00101, Helsinki 10
FINLAND

WPCF
Water Pollution' Control Federation
2626 Pennsylvania Ave., NW
Washington, DC 20037

(Issued by American National Standards Institute, 1430 Broadway, New York NY

10018)

Agents for Standards Throughout the World

National standardizing bodies, especially the Member Bodies of the International

Organization for Standardization (ISO), serve as national representatives for one
another. Each acts within its own country as sole sales agent and information center for
the standards of the other national standardizing bodies. Hence standards issued by the
American National Standards Institute, the United States Member Body of ISO, may be
purchased abroad from the respective national standardizing body in each of the
following countries. Overseas prices may differ from those listed in the current Catalog
of American National Standards.

ALGERIA BANGLADESH
Institut Algerien de Normalisation et Bangladesh Standards Institution
de Propriete Industrielle 3-DIT (Extension) Avenue
5 Rue Abou Hamou Moussa Motijheel Commercial Area
B.P. 1021 Dhaka 2
Centre de Tri, Alger
BARBADOS
!'\.RGENTINA Barbados National Standards
Instituto Argentino de Institution
RacionaHzacion de Materiales "Flodden" Culloden Road
Chile 1192 St. Michael
Buenos Aires
BELGIUM
!j.. USTRALIA Institut BeIge de Normalisation
Standards Association of Australia Av. de la Brabanconne 29
Standards House B-I040 Bruxelles
80-86 Arthur Street
North Sydney, N.S.W. 2060 BRAZIL
Associacao Brasileira de Normas
~USTRIA Tecnicas
Osterreichisches Normungsinsti tut Av. 13 de Maio, nO 13-28° andar
Leopoldsgasse 4 Caixa Postal 1680
Postfach 130 CEP: 20.003
A-I021 Wien 2 Rio de Janeiro

U-13

 BULGARIA
CZECHOSLOVAKIA

State Committee for Science and

Urad pro Normalizaci a Mereni

Technical Progress
Vaclavske Namesti 19

Standards Office
113 47 Praha 1

21, 6th September Street

1000 Sofia DENMARK

Oansk Standardiseringraad

CANADA Aurehojvej 12

Standards Council of Canada Postbox 77

International Standardization Branch OK-2900 Hellerup

2000 Argentia Road, Suite 2-401

Mississauga, Ontario L5N 1V8 DOMINICAN REPUBLIC

Direccion General de Normas y

CHILE Sistemas de CaUdad

Insti tuto Nacional de Normalizacion Secretaria de Industria y Comercio
Matias Cousino 64-6° piso Av. Mexico No. 30
Casilla 995-Correo 1 Santo Domingo
Santiago
EGYPT

CHINA--(Peking, Peoples Republic of Egyptian Organization for

China) Standardization

China Association for Standardization 2 Latin America Street

P.O. Box 820

Garden City, Cairo

Beijing

ELSALVAOOR
CHINA--(Republic of China)
Instituto Centroamericano de
National Bureau of Standards
Investigaciones y Tecnologia
Ministry of Economic Affairs
Industrial
102 Kwang-Fu S. Rd.
4a CaUe y Avenida la Reforma,
Taipei, Taiwan, 105
Zona 10
Guatemala City, Guatemala
COLOMBIA
Instituto Colombiano de Normas ETHIOPIA
Tecnicas Ethiopian Standards Institution
Carrera 37 No. 52-95 P.O. Box 2310

P.O. Box 14237

Addis Ababa

Bogota

FINLAND
COSTA RICA Suomen Standardisoimisliittro r.y.
Instituto Centramericano de
P.O. Box 205

Investigaciones y Tecnologla
SF-00121 Helsinki 12

Industrial

4a Calle y Avenida la Reforma,

FRANCE
Zona 10
Association Francaise de
Guatemala City, Guatemala
Normalisation

Tour Europe

CYPRUS Cedex 7

Cyprus Organization for Standards 92080 Paris La Defense

and Control of Quality

Ministry of Commerce and Industry GERMANY, F .R.
Nicosia
Deutsches Institut fur Normung
Burggrafenstrasse 4-10
Postfach 1107
0-1 000 Berlin 30

II-l4
CHANA INDONESIA
Ghana Standards Board Badan Kerjasama Standardisasi LIPI­
P.O. Box M.245
YDNI
Accra
(LIPI-YDNI Joint Standardization
Committee), Jln
GREECE Teuku Chik Ditiro 43
Hellenic Organization for P.O. Box 250

Standardiza tion
Jakarta

Didotou 15

10680 Athens
IRAN
--rr1stitute of Standards and Industrial
GUATEMALA Research of Iran
Instituto Centroamericano de Ministry of Industries
Investigaciones y Tecnologia P.O. Box 2937

Industrial Tehran

4a Calle y Avenida la Reforma

Zona 10 IRAQ
Apartado Postal 1552 Central Organization for
Guatemala City Standardization and Quality
Control Planning Board
HONDURAS P.O. Box 13032

Instituto Centroamericano de Aljadiria, Baghdad

Investigaciones y Tecnologia
Industrial IRELAND
4a Calle y Avenida la Reforma Institute for Industrial Research and
Zona 10 Standards

Guatemala City, Guatemala Ballymun Road

Dublin-9

HONG KONG
Hong Kong Standards and Testing ISRAEL
Centre
Standards Institution of Israel
Dai Wang Street
42 University Street
Taipo Industrial Estate
Tel Aviv 69977
Taipo N.T., Hong Kong

ITALY
HUNGARY Ente Nazionale Italiano di
Magyar Szabvanyugyi Hivatal Unificazione

Postafiok 24 Piazza Armando Diaz 2

1450 Budapest 1-20123 Milano

[CELAND JAMAICA
Technological Institute of Iceland Jamaica Bureau of Standards
Division of Standards 6 Winchester Rd.
Skipholt 37 P.O. Box 113

IS-IIO Reykjavik Kingston 10

INDIA JAPAN
, Indian Standards Institution Japanese Standards Association
Manak Bha van 1-24 Akasaka 4
9 Bahadur Shah Zafar Marg Minato-ku 107
New Delhi 110002 Tokyo

II-15

 MONGOLIA
JORDAN State Committee for Prices and
Directory of Standards
Ministry of Industry and Trade Standards of the Mongolian
P.O. Box 2019
People's Republic
Amman
Marshal Zhukov Avenue, 51
Ulan Bator
KENYA
Kenya Bureau of Standards MOROCCO
Off Mombasa Road Behind Belle Vue Service de Normalisation IndustrieUe
Cinema Marocain

P.O. Box 54974

Direction de l'Industrie

Nairobi
Ministere du Commerce, de

l'Industrie

KOREA 5 rue Arrich

Bureau of Standards Rabat

Industrial Advancement
Administration
NETHERLANDS
Yongdeungpo-Dong
Nederlands Normalisatie-Instituut
Seoul
Kalfijeslaan 2
P.O. Box 5059

KOREA 2600 GB Delft

Korea Standards Association

105-153 Kongduck-dong NEW ZEALAND
Mapo-ku Standards Association of New
Seoul Zealand

Private Bag

KUWAIT Wellington

Standards and Metrology Department

Ministry of Commerce and Industry NICARAGUA
Post Box No. 2944 Instituto Centroamericano de
Kuwait Investigaciones y Tecnologia
Industrial
LIBYAN ARAB JAMAHIRIYA 4a Calle y Avenida la Reforma
Libyan Standards and Patent Section Zona 10
Department of Industrial Guatemala City, Guatemala
Organization and Services
Secretariat of Light Industries NIGERIA
Tripoli Nigerian Standards Organization
Federal Ministry of Industries
MALAYSIA No. 4 Club Road
Standards and Industrial Research P.M,B, 1323
Institute of Malaysia Enugu
Lot 10810, Phase 3, Federal Highway
P.O. Box 35
NORWAY
Shah Alam, Selangor
Norges Standardiseringsforbund
Postboks 7020 Homansbyen
MEXICO N-Oslo 3
Direccion General de Normas
Calle Puente de Tecamachalco No.6 OMAN
Lomas de Tecamachalco Directorate General for
Seccion Fuentes Specifications and Measurements
Naulcalpan de Juarez 53 950 Ministry of Commerce and Industry
P.O. Box 550

Muscat

II-16

PAKISTAN SINGAPORE
Pakistan Standards Institution Singapore Institute of Standards and
39 Garden Road Industrial Research
Saddar, Karachi-3 Maxwell Road
P.O. Box 2611

PANAMA Singapore 9046

- Instituto Centroamericano de
Investigaciones y Tecnologia SPAIN
Industrial Instituto Nacional de Racionalizacion
4a Calle y Avenida la Reforma y Normalizacion

Zona 10 Calle Fernandez de la Hoz 52

Guatemala City, Guatemala Madrid 10

PERU SRI LANKA

Instituto de Investigacion Tecnologia Bureau of Ceylon Standards
Industrial y de Normas Tecnicas 53 Dharmapala Mawatha
Jr. Morelli--2da P.O. Box 17

Cuadra, Urbanizacion San Borja-­ Colombo 3

Surquillo

Lima 34
SUDAN
Standards and Quality Control
PHILIPPINES Department
Product Standards Agency Ministry of Industry
Ministry of Trade and Industry P.O. Box 2184

361 Buendia Avenue Extension, Khartoum

Makati

Metro Manila 3117, Manila

SWEDEN
Standardiseringskommissionen i
POLAND Sverige

Polish Committee for Standardization Tegnergatan 11

Measures and Quality Control, UI Box 3 295

Elektoralna 2 S-103 66 Stockholm

00-139 Warszawa
SWITZERLAND
PORTUGAL Association Suisse de Normalisation
Direccao-Geral de Qualidad Kirchenweg 4
Rua Jose Estevao 83-A Postfach
11 99 Lisboa Codex 8032 Zurich

REPUBLIC OF SOUTH AFRICA SYRIA

- South African Bureau of Standards Syrian Arab Organization for
Private Bag Xl91 Standardization and MetrOlogy
Pretoria 0001 P.O. Box 11836

Damascus

g,OMANIA
Institutul Roman de Standardizare TANZANIA
Casuta Postala 6214 Tanzania Bureau of Standards
Bucarest 1 P.O. Box 9524

Dar es Salaam

~A UDI ARABIA
Saudi Arabian Standards Organization
P.O. Box 3437

Riyadh

II-17

 THAILAND UNITED ARAB EMIRATES

Thai Industrial Standards Institute Directorate of Standardization and
Ministry of Industry Metrology
Rama VI Street P.O. Box 433

Bangkok 10400 Abu Dhabi

TRINIDAD and TOBAGO

UNITED KINGDOM

Trinidad and Tobago Bureau of

British Standards Institution

Standards
2 Park Street

Trincity Industrial Estate

London WlA 2BS

Tunapuna

P.O. Box 467

USSR
Trinidad and Tobago
---USSR State Committee for Standards
Leninsky Prospekt 9
TUNISIA Moskva 117049
Institut National de la Normalisation
et de la Propriete Industrielle VENEZUELA
B.P.23
Comision Venezolana de Normas
1012 Tunis-Belvedere
Industriales

Arda

TURKEY Andres Bello-Efd

Turk Standardlari Enstitusu Torre Fondo Comun

Necatibey Cad. 112 Piso 11

Bakanliklar Caracas 1050

Ankara
YUGOSLAVIA
Savezni zavod za Standardizaciju
Slobodana Penezica-Kruna br. 35
Post. Pregr. 933

11000 Belgrad

II-I8

Title: Standards Activities of Organiza­ Title: Directory of International and

tions in the United States Regional Organizations Conducting
Standards-Related Activities
Citation: NTIS, PB85-1 06151, Prepared by
Toth (R.B.) Associates, McLean, VA Citation: Maureen A. Brei tenberg, Editor.
Office of Product Standards Policy,
Content: This directory is a guide to National Bureau of Standards,
mandatory and voluntary standards activ­ Washington, DC 20234. April 1983.
ities in the United States at federal and
state levels and by nongovernment (trade Content: This directory contains infor­
associations, technical and other profes­ mation on 282. international and regional
sional societies). It supersedes the 1975 organizations that conduct standardiza­
edition (NBS SP 417), Directory of United tion, certification, laboratory accredita­
States Standardization Activities and, for tion, or other standards-related activities.
the first time, includes standards distri­ This volume describes their work in these
butors, libraries, and information centers, areas, as well as the scope of each organi­
and union lists of standards repositories by zation, national affiliations of members,
regional areas. It also lists organizations U.S. participants, restrictions on member­
that no longer develop standards or have ship. The availability of any standards in
become defunct since the previous direc­ English is also noted.
tory was issued.
This volume summarizes an effort by the
More than 750 current descriptive com­ National Bureau of Standards to obtain
mentaries are formatted, with subject information relevant to monitoring U.S.
headings to facilitate access to specific participation in the many international
information. The main sections cover organizations active in standardization. It
nongovernment; federal government; state is designed to serve the needs of federal
procurement offices; sources of standards agencies and standards writers for infor­
documents and information; a subject mation on international and regional
index and related listings covering acro­ organizations involved in standardization
nyms and initials, defunct bodies, and and related activities. It may also be
those organizations with name changes. useful to manufacturers, engineers, pur­
Organizations have been included if they chasing agents, and others.
develop standards or contribute to the
standardization process, whether volun­
tary or mandatory, or are sources of stan­
dards documents or information. An
introductory section provides general
information on federal (including military)
standards activities, a list of 20 major
nongovernment standards developers,
some historical notes, and an overview of
U.S. (national) standardization activities.

II-19

 APPENDIX III
Methods For Testing Combustion Equipment Energy efficiency

M.Sc. (Tech) Martti Flyktman

M. Sc. (Tech) Heikki Oravainen

Domestic Fuel Laboratory

Jyvasky la, Finland

October Itt, 1988

Project KPA7013/KPA3/02

ABSTRACT

In this report, efficiency testing methods for small size combust ion equipment are dis­
cussed. This work is part of the lEA (International Energy Agency) activity, Voluntary
Standards, under the Bioenergy Agreement. The aim of the activi'ty is to collect, select,
test, and disseminate key analytical methods for the thermochemical and biological
conversion of biomass to fuels and chemicals.

The material used in this report has been collected from the literature and with the help
of fellow researchers. In spite of that the material is limited and will be augmented in
the future.

A t first the theoretical background of efficiency determination and terms is discussed.

After that the methods used in a few countries are dealt with. Finally some conclusions
based on the work are presented.

It turned out that the need for standardized methods also for eff iciency determination
for biomass combustion equipment is essential. Available standards are basicly devel­
oped for big lignite and coal fired boilers. Biomass boilers differ from those boilers and
that is why problems occur in determination of radiant and convective heat losses and
ash losses. The essential part of an efficiency determination is to obtain representative
fuel samples. Very important is to develop sampling methods for biomass fuels. Terms
used should also be standardized.

III-I

 CONTENTS

Foreword ............................................................. III-3

1.0 Introduction ................................................ . III-3

2.0 Theoretical Background for Measuring and Calculating Efficiencies

of Heating Equipment ............................................. . III-3

2.1 Determination of efficiency III-3

2.2 Terms Used .•••.•.•••.•••.• III-5

2.2.1 Balance boundaries •. III-5

2.2.2 Reference temperature III-5

2.2.3 Definition of heating value III-5

2.2.4 Definitions for efficiency III-5

3.0 Determination Methods and Calculation of Efficiency in Different

Countries ........................................•............... III-7

3.1 General ...............•.•.. III-7

3.2 Fuel analysis III-7

3.2.1 Sampling of fuel and ash III-7

3.2.2 Laboratory analysis •••••.•.•.••••.•.••• III-S

3.3 Comparison of efficiency determination methods III-S
3.3.1 Heating value ........................ . III-.8
. l . . }.2 .§i'ff"d'N mni~S' and' ({replaces •••• III..,.S
3.3.3 Bigger bo Hers •.•.•.•.••••• I1I..:i5
3.4 Accuracy demands in measurements III-I 6

3.4.1 General ••.•.•...•.•.•.......... III-16

3.4.2 Measurements from water circulation III-iS

3.4.3 Measurements from flue gas ..•.•.•.• III-IS
4.0 Conclusions ...................................................... II1-19

References ......•....•...............•.....•.........•........•.•.•..• I1I-20

Other Literature •.•.•.•••••.•••. .. ............... .. .. .................. II1-21

Appendix I: List of standards ..•.•••.•..••.....•••••... III-24

Appendix 2: List of persons, to whom the inquiry was sent III-27

III-2

FOREWORD

This work is a part of the International Energy Agency (rEA) Bioenergy Agreement,
Biomass Conversion (Annex IV), Voluntary Standards Activity: Methods of Analysis of
Biomass for Fuels and Chemicals. The aim of the activity is to assemble and develop
methods for analysis of biomass and biomass products.

Countries carrying out the activity are Canada, Finland, New Zealand, USA, and in 1988,
Italy. This special project of Finland is called: "Methods for testing efficiency of bio­
mass combustion systems." The work is carried out in the Technical Research Centre of
Finland, in the Domestic Fuel Laboratory. M.Sc (Tech) Veli Seppanen has worked as a
project leader in the Domestic Fuel Laboratory. The work is carried out by M.Sc (Tech)
Martti Flyktman and M.Sc (Tech) Heikki Oravainen.

In this report the methods of determination and calculation of heating efficiencies of

fireplaces and boilers using biomass (including peat) as a fuel, are dealt with. The mater­
ial of this report comes from literature and standards used in different countries.

1.0 INTRODUCTION

In this report, the methods of determination and testing of heating efficiencies of fire­
places and boilers, using biomass as a fuel, are dealt with. Peat is also taken as biomass.
Combustion equipment has been separated into two categories: fireplaces and small
boilers (under 120 kW) under small equipment; and district heating size boilers 0-30 MW)
under bigger boilers.

Emissions of fireplaces and boilers are dealt with only if they have some effect on the
efficiency (CO and fly ash emissions).

In different countries there has been found to be a problem with lack of methods good
enough for testing and determination of heating efficiencies of combustion equipment
using biomass fuel. This is caused by the fact that properties of biomass differ greatly
from those of coal.

The methods of determination of efficiencies have been originally developed for big coal
and lignite boilers. When using these methods, typical problems arise in determination of
heat losses by radiation and convection and in determination of bottom ash and fly ash
losses.

Because of unsteady-state burning in fireplaces, the determination of produced energy,

and also the amount of flue gas losses, is difficult, which makes it difficult to measure
the behavior of such combustion equipment and thus the calculation of thermal
efficiency.

2.0 THEORETICAL BACKGROUND FOR DETERMINATION AND CALCULATION OF

COMBUSTION EQUIPMENT EFFICIENCY

2.1 The determination of efficiency

The efficiency of combustion equipment can be determined either by direct or by indi­

rect methods. When using direct methods, the efficiency is determined as the ratio of
produced energy to total energy fed to a process.

III-3
 By using indirect methods, the efficiency is c~lculated uSin& meas~red heat losses and
produced energy. Heat losses can be separated mto the followmg mam parts:

• sensible enthalpy of flue gas

• reaction enthalpy of flue gas
• unburned fuel in grate ash and fly ash
• losses by radiation and convection
• other losses
The calculation of efficiency is based on material and energy balances made over certain
balance limits. Balance limits must be the same for material and for energy balances.
Table I shows the measurements that are needed to determine different energy losses.

Table 1. Measurements Needed in the Determination of the Efficiency

of Combustion Equipment (1)

Energy losses through sensible enthalpy and reaction enthalpy of flue gases

• flue gas temperature at the balance limit

• flue gas composition (02' CO 2, CO, CxHy)
• temperature and moisture of combustion air
• fuel properties
• moisture content
• heating value
• ash content
• elemental analysis (C, H, N, 0, 5)
• temperature
• thermal output of the combustion equipment at the balance limit
• temperatures in the water circuit and water mass flow
• electric power of pumps, fans etc. inside the balance limit
Heat losses through unburnt fuel in grate ash and fly ash

• mass flow of grate ash or fly ash (usually fly ash)

• unburnt fuel in grate ash and in fly ash and its heating value
• temperatures of grate ash and fly ash

Heat losses through radiation and convection

• by estimating according to the standard or

• by calculating according to surface areas and surface temperatures

IlI-4
2.2 Terms used

2.2.1 Balance limit

Balance limit is the closed surface through which material and energy flows are deter­
mined. In figure 1, the balance limit of a big pulverized coal fired boiler, according to
the standard DIN 1942, is shown (2).

2.2.2 Reference temperature

Reference temperature is the temperature on the basis of which all input and output
energy streams are calculated. Reference temperature affects the enthalpies of com­
bustion air, flue gas and fuel and the heating value of fuel. Reference temperature is, in
most standards and methods, 25°C. This temperature is equivalent to normal room
temperature.

2.2.3 The definition of heating value

Higher heating value of a fuel refers to the amount of energy that is released by com­
plete combustion of a fuel unit, when the water formed from the hydrogen in the fuel is
condensed after combustion at the reference temperature.

Lower heating value of a fuel refers to the amount of energy that is released by com­
plete combustion of a fuel unit when the water formed from the hydrogen in the fuel
remains as vapor after combustion.

The effective heating value of a wet fuel refers to the heating value that has been cal­
culated from the heating value of dry fuel (usually from lower heating value, H'eff )
according to fuel moisture as follows:

Heff =H'eff (lOO-w)/lOO-O.0244 w, where (1)

H'eff is the lower heating value of dry fuel (MJ/kg), 2.44 MJ/kg is the heat of vaporiza­
tion of water at 25°C and w is the moisture content of fuel on a wet basis (%).

2.2.4 Definitions of efficiency

Combustion efficiency

Combustion efficiency refers to the ratio of reacted fuel to the total possible reactive
fuel. Combustion efficiency is not dependent on the flue gas temperature.

Boiler efficiency

Boiler efficiency refers to the ratio of energy supplied to the energy utilized. Energy
utilized includes both fuel energy and sensible enthalpy of fuel, combustion air and ash
and also electricity used inside the balance limit.

II1-5

 SG
'---1 rho ~ mzr ~ --'-I mu
Schema elnes
2 he N ~r c~ I ~ rhu,
Dampferzeugers II g N
h21
L--~"':E~i~~i1!..:I::=::::S4!:":"r-:Z~I--
&'s i1zwass.r 211 .

I I ~zlmEU

hED mED I
Ens rillWCl.5 'l'r I

~t~H~
I II
ZD-EinlritllI •
L_-+-==-=:-I;.;...;.- ~1I rTtzl 1
ZO- &llnlt I h .
~---...j L-----t-=.:......;;...-:-I-- , 'ZlI mnl
mAtI hAb ""!~:!.!!!=::":;::"'I"---T---' L_-t_____..pS:=fi=.:Stw~Q=.:sS4!;.;...r_ hsc ~

-~
_,"*,:..;Fo~lscn~l~u';.:.I'--~~amLb

OM I I
M;)hlffizusolzh.izung I
101 oder Gas I I
P I
sonsligutfktr. L'i"g,
Iw-.oantrifb,
5cNrusVlllebliiu
FUgsloubru::lc -
L I
I
K;lorllfr

~ ~MU~'·h~le~n~kQ~II~lu~rJ.'~1~~'="--9="""'---ff
" "_
IUhrung I - -- j- ~ ----
Q -----_-1I '" ]
' Ku" ~
.xl.rn. Kijhlung '!i _
E :::l ~
IBr.nnpr, MOhlen, _ -l '0; ~ 'i"0
f\JuchQ<lsurTl'wl3llgfbl~st. r"l
I I
I
I
1: ~ :a:
__-*................,~
}
Luvo I b
8 J:I
&
t , , ~
<

Cst ~ I\ca m., F} mKo ' rnA

Q SF 6hLl 0:06h A
hl(a

Fig 1. Balance limits of a big pulverized coal boiler according to

German standard DIN 1942 (2).

III-6

Annual efficiency
Annual efficiency refers to the ratio of energy transferred to boiler water or steam, to
the energy fed to a boiler, calculated during a period of one year.

3.0 EFFICIENCY DETERMINATION METHODS USED IN DIFFERENT COUNTRIES

AND THE CALCULATION OF EFFICIENCY

3.1 General

The efficiency determination methods are either direct or indirect. The method used has
been chosen mainly according to the heating rate of the combustion equipment and to the
combustion process. The efficiency of big boilers is determined usually by indirect
methods, because the accurate determination of fuel energy is difficult. The efficiency
of fireplaces or small boilers is usually determined by direct methods.

These methods are used, because fuel consumption of small equipment is easy to deter­
mine by weight and because the heat losses are difficult to measure because of unsteady­
state burning. The state of the fuel batch, heating rate, foue gas flow and combustion
temperature are never in steady-state.

3.2 Fuel analysis

3.2.1 Sampling of fuel and ash

Because fuel properties vary widely, the method of fuel sampling has a great effect on
the accuracy of efficiency determination. When the direct method is used, representa­
tive fuel sampling is even more important.

Standards used for fireplaces and small boilers often determine the propert~es of fuel
used in the tests. When testing bigger biomass boilers, there are seldom standards avail­
able for fuel sampling. Separate methods are used, or coal sampling standards are
adapted.

For example in Finland there are directions for fuel sampling for determination of fuel
energy, but there are none suitable for use in efficiency testing. In the Finnish recom­
mendation for biomass boiler guarantee tests, the following directions are given for fuel
sampling:

• fuel samples must be taken at 15 minute intervals, as near as possible to the boiler, for
example from the feeding hopper or from the conveyor feeding the boiler. Samples
must be taken without making any selections and they must contain all material, for
example f~es, sticks and snow. Each sample of milled peat or ,ood chips must be at
least 2 dm and sod peat and bark samples must be at least 4 dm . If the particle sije
distribution will be analyzed, a separate sample for sieving must be at at least 50 dm •
• samples of grate ash and fly ash must be taken at at least 30 minute intervals. Sam­
ples must be combined in a collection sample from which analysis will be made. The
volume of a collection sample must be at least 2 dm 3•

III-7

 , tt te t in flue gases is measured to deter-

In, efficiency t~sts'bth~l par~cu~~:~ :~nge~i~~sSnfuels, particle size distribution in flue
mm~ thethe<l:tf °mss J{,ich ~sakes measurements more complicated than, for exmple, in big
gas IS no unl or , . I ·t 1 particles
pulverized coal fired boilers. Flue gas can contam a so qUI e arge •

3.2.2 Laboratory analysis

There is a lack of uniform standards to determine bio~ass propertie~. In most cou~tri~s,
standards made for coal and lignite analysis .are apphed also for blon: ass analYSIS. 0
determine the efficiency of biomass combustIOn equipment, the followmg analyses must
be carried out:

• heating value
• moisture content
• ash content
• elementary anallysis (C, H, N, 0, 5)
To determine heat losses by grate ash and fly ash, unburn fuel in ash and/or the heating
value of the ash must be analyzed.
As an exmple it can be mentioned that in effic:iency ca~culations a term is used: vola~ile
matter of ash. It is quite difficult to determme for biomass fuels, because combustIOn
temperature affects quite a lot the analysis result.

In some countries moisture content is calculated on a wet basis, while some countries use
the dry basis expression (.5).

In elemental analysis of a fuel, the oxygen content is normally calculated by a differ­

ence: 0 = 100 - C - H - N - 5, because there is not an accurate method for direct analy­
sis of fu~ oxygen content. There is a list of fuel analysis standards in Appendix I (6).

3.3 Comparison of efficiency determination methods

3.3.1 Heating value

To determine the efficiency of combustion equipment, the heating value of a fuel must
be known. As a heating value lower or higher heating value can be used. In Europe,
lower heating value is normally used. In North-America, higher heating value is com­
monly used. The efficiency result depends on which heating value is used. The combus­
tion product of fuel hydrogen can be taken as liquid water or as water vapor.

If the flue gas is cooled so much that water vapor condenses, the efficiency can be over
10096 on a lower heating value basis. For example in Europe, the widely used standard
DIN 1942 (3) uses lower heating value. The theoretically correct way would be to use the
higher heating value. Then the efficiency is always lower than l0096.
3.3.2 Small boilers and fireplaces

In Fin,land a lot of w~rk was done to develop small boilers and fireplaces USing biomass
fuels 10 the late 1970 s and early 1980's. Then almost all small boilers were tested and
also ':l Fir:nish standard testing me.tho? was developed (7 - 9). The testing method is
explamed 10 reference 7. A schematiC diagram of the testing facility is shown in figure 2.

III-8

 tm

--,
tp

I
TV2
1
I I
I I
I
I I
I I
I I
I I
I TV1 I
L I
I
'-----'­ SCALE
I
I

ROTAMETER
WATER
SCALING

Fig 2. Efficiency testing facility for small biomass boilers (7).

IIJ-9

 The testing method is designed for small biomass boilers that have a max~muf!1 heating
rate of 120 kW. The efficiency is determined by the direct method. The ~011er IS located
on a scale by which the fuel consumption is followed. Also the propertIes of fuels are
presented in the standard.
In Sweden and in Austria testing of small boilers has been carried out according to the
German standard DIN 4702 (10 - 14).

The testing methods for fireplaces differ greatly in different countries. In efficiency
determination, direct or indirect methods or a combination of those has been used. At
the Technical University of Tampere (Finland), a calorimeter room for fireplace testing
has been built (15). The schematic of the calorimeter room is shown in figure 3. The
efficiency of fireplaces could be calculated when combustion efficiency and heat losses
and cooling of the calorimeter room were measured.

In the Technical Research Centre of Finland, Domestic Fuel Laboratory, small biomass
boiler efficiency testing has been carried out usually by the so-called direct method.
Fuel has been weighed, enthalpy of flue gas has been determined by measuring flue gas
temperature and flue gas composition by continuous IR-analyses and grate ash has been
analyzed in the laboratory. Boiler heat output has been measured. Heat losses by radia­
tion and convection, and possible other heat losses, have been calculated by difference:
total heat losses - (flue gas enthalpy + ash losses) (15).

At the University of Tasmania (Australia) a calorimeter room has been built where
efficiency is determined by measuring flue gas losses and measuring direct heating of the
calorimetric room. The cooling rate of the calorimetric room can be determined by
measuring air mass flow and air temperature of the cooling system. The enthalpy of the
combustion air is determined by temperature measurements. Also electricity consump­
tion of the testing facility is measured (16).

The small boile: and fireplace testing standard of the Wood Heating Alliance (previously
known as the FIreplace Institute) (USA) includes descriptions for open combustion cham­
ber ~ppliances and closed combusti.on chamber appliances. To test open chamber heating
appilances, measurements are carned out in the calorimetric room, a schematic diagram
of which is shown in figure 4(17). This test standard has been developed at Auburn
University.

A~r is re~irculated betw.een the inner and outer shell, which is cooled in the cooling coil.
AIr flowmg to the calonmeter room for combustion is measured. To calculate results, at
least the following measurements are needed:

1. mass flow of cooling water and input and output temperatures

2. temperature inside the calorimeter room
3. pressure difference between inlet to appliance and flue exit

111-10

 -®

Measuring points:

9 INSIDE TEMPERATURE
12 OUTSIDE TEMPERATURE
26, 27 TEMPERATURE OF THE COOLING WATER
28 REFERENCE TEMPERATURE (ICE-BATH)
29 WATER METER
32 COMBUSTION AIR FLOW
37 ELECTRICITY

Fig 3. Calorimeter room at the Technical University of Tampere Finland) (15).

III-I!

 OPENING IN COOLING
CEILING COIL

ROOM MAKEUP
AIR FOR
OPENINGS COMBUSTION
IN FLOOR
--+--,.",r- '", - DrR ECT
AIR FOR
COMBUSTION

Fig 4. Schematic diagram of the calorimeter room used by Wood

Heating Alliance (I 7).

UI-12
4. the flow of air to the calorimeter room
5. power input to fans, lights, and other power consuming devices placed in the calori­
meter room
6. weight of fuel

Heat loss of the calorimeter room is measured by an electric heater. Average heating
capacity, energy efficiency, fuel burning rate and air flow rate for heating appliance are
calculated from the measurement results.

Testing of closed chamber heating appliance is based on the indirect method. A sche­
matic diagram of the testing facility is shown in figure 5 (18). Flue gas losses and ash
loss are determined and on the basis of these values average power output and efficiency
can be calculated. A more exact description of the testing method is in reference (5).

In Norway fireplaces and stoves have been tested by, among others, Forsvarets
Forskningsinstitut (FFO and Selskapet for industriell og teknisk forskning ved Norges
Tekniske Hogskole (SINTEF). FFI has developed a unique continuous method for deter­
mining flue gas loss, that is based on continuous measurement of flue gas flow.

In the FFI laboratory a trace method has been adapted. A certain amount of some inert
gas is mixed with the flue gas leaving a heating appliance. The concentration of this
inert gas is then analyzed with a continuously working analyser. The flue gas flow can be
calculated on the basis of trace concentration. In addition, the components of flue gas
are analyzed continuously, so flue gas enthalpy can also be determined continuously.

Especially in batch combustion processes, like fireplaces and stoves, this method gives
better accuracy for efficiency determination (15).

The German standard for small combustion equipment is presented in reference (19).
Due to the standard, efficiency should be at least 70% and the flue gas temperature may
not exceed 400°C.

Great Britain has a long tradition of burning different kind of coal product in small
combustion equipment. Combustion equipment has exact standards for construction
details. Efficiency tests cannot be started unless the equipment meets those standards.
For every type of combustion equipment, standard fuels have been determined that must
be used in tests. Tests have been selected on the basis of the following principles:

• the method must be repeatable and it has to be suitable to be carried out in every
laboratory that has been instrumented for that purpose
• the method must describe the normal behavior of the combustion equipment

The efficiency of a boiler is determined normally using the indirect method in which flue
gas losses are mesured. The BCURA radiometer cage is used to measure direct radiative
heat transfer.

III-13

 Thermocouple Type K Thermocouple

Readout for Flue Gas
...-~-------, Temperature
0
11050 F I
T
To Orsat
Analyzer

15' _ - - 4 feet
(measured
along center
line of flue)

Combustion
Air in Intake

Scale

Fig 5. A schematic diagram of the closed combustion chamber testing

facility (18).

III-I 4
p

The use of test standards developed for coal combustion caused problems with wood
burning equipment, because the maximum heat output was much bigger than is needed in
Great Britain. The burning of wood is much more batch-wise compared with steady
burning, "smokeless" coals. That is why the determination of flue gas losses is difficult.
For that reason, testing of wood burning heating equipmjent is made by the indirect
method (20).

3.3.3 Large boilers

There is not a standard for determining efficiency of biomass boilers in many countries.
Normally the standards developed for coal or lignite fired boilers are used.

In Finland the Finnish District Heating Association has drawn up the recommendation of
approval tests for biomass boilers that have a heat output of 0, 2 -10 MW. According to
the recommendation, determination of efficiency should be carried out by applying the
German standard DIN 4702. For bigger boilers DIn 1942 should be applied (4).

The above mentioned German standards are developed for determination of coal and lig­
nite boiler efficiencies. In Austria, the German standard DIN 4702 is used for testing
bio mass boilers (2l). AIso standards used in Sweden and Norway are based on the
DIN 4702, but there is a small difference in applying them Ul,22}.

The differences in applying DIN 4702 are in how certain heat losses and substance pro­
perties are calculated. The main differences are in determination of ash losses and heat
losses by radiation and convection.

Heat loss by radiation and convection, in the Swedish recommendation, is calculated

according to DIN 4702 as a function of boiler surface temperature and the temperature
of the environment (il). In the Norwegian standard, heat loss by radiation and convec­
tion is assumed to be one percent of the nominal boiler output (22).

In the Finnish recommendation, heat loss by radiation and convection is calculated

according to DIN 1942 using equations developed for brown coal/lignite boilers (4).

Unburnt fuel in fly ash and grate ash are determined in a laboratory from ash samples.
Calculation methods differ in how the heating value of ash is taken into account.

In the Norwegian standard the heating value of unburnt fuel in the ash is assumed to be
33 MJ/kg, which corresponds nearly to the heating value of carbon (22). In the Swedish
recommendation the value is 30 MJ/kg if the ash does not contain flying unburnt parti­
cles. If it contains so much unburnt fuel that heat losses are over 0,3%, the heating
value of the ash must be determined (11).

According to the Finnish recommendation, the heating value of ash must be determined
if the unburnt fuel in the ash is over 30% and power output of a boiler is over 2 MW. If
the power output is less than 2 MW, the heating value of unburnt fuel in the ash is
assu med to be 30 MJ/kg. In boilers, where sample taking of fly ash is impossible, the
unburnt fuel in fly ash is assumed to be 30% and the heating value of the ash to be
9 M.J/kg (4).

In the Domestic Fuel Laboratory of the Technical Research Centre of Finland, the usual
procedure is to determine both the unburn fuel and the heating value of the ash. In
figure 6 the correlation between heating value of ash and unburnt fuel in ash is shown for

III-I 5

C1
.:s:
....,
2 3~
o§l §§
J:
(/) 25 [(liD
<!: D
u..
0
2B
00
L.U
::::> 15 o D
....J
<!:
> lB D Ow
I.J
-f­z 5 oDo
<!:
L.U
J:
B
tl 2B 4e SB Be leB 12e
COMBUSTIBLE IN ASH (%)

Fig 6. Correlation of heating value and unburnt fuel in ash for Finnish
wood and peat fuels.

1I1-16
wood and peat fuel. In many standards, flue gas substance properties are read directly
from nomograms.

A computer model for efficiency calculation based on the DIN 1942 standard has been
developed in the Domestic Fuel Laboratory of VTT. The original standard is developed
for large coal, lignite and oil-fired boilers. The standard must be modified when used for
biomass boilers, because fuels and combustion methods cause significant process heat
losses, which in big power plant boilers are usually small. The main activity in the VTT
standard development was the determination of grate ash and fly ash losses. When grate
ash and fly ash contain unburnt material (C, H, Nand S), the theoretical amount of
combustion air and the composition of the air do not correspond each other. If flue gas
contains unburnt gases, the situation is the same.

Besides the normal mass- and energy balances, carbon balance was also included in the
method. With this inclusion, grate ash and fly ash mass flows, and the energy losses
through grate ash and fly ash, could be determined more accurately. For example the
efficiency of a sod-peat fired grate boiler was 0.38 percent higher when calculated with
this modified method. When wood chips were used in the same boiler, the efficiency was
only 0.02 percent higher than when calculated according to the standard DIN 4702.

When mass balances were determined more accurately, it had very little effect on the
boiler efficiency. More significant was the effect of volatiles in ash, both for the mass
balances and for the efficiency. A new term was adopted, the "ash content of ash."
When using this new method, the grate ash mass flow became 38% higher in the sod peat
test and 17% higher in the wood chip test. Also the calculation of flue gas and combus­
tion air enthalpy, and the reaction enthalpy of unburnt gases in the flue, were described
more precisely.

3.4 Accuracy Requirements in Measurements

3.4.1 General

In the recommendations for district heating plant measurements the following introduc­
tory remarks are given (4):

• during the tests, boiler output and boiler water temperature must be as standard as
possible. If the temperatures differ at the beginning and at the end of the test, the
heat capacity of the boiler must be taken into account when calculating the boiler
output.
• The test period must be at least four hours. Before the test begins, the boiler must be
operated at least one hour at standard conditions. Especially for boilers having pre­
ovens or construction that has a lot of hot brickwork, the steady-state period before
the test must be long enough.

III-I 7

 • Measuring points must be located according to standards... This assures that mea~uring
equipment measures the desired values. Pipe angles, mixmg valves etc. cause distur­
bances to flow.

3.4.2 Measurements in the water circuit

Temperatures

According to the Finnish recommendation for district heating boilers (4), water- and fuel
gas temperatures are measured with resistance temperature probes. Probes must be in
accordance with DIN 43760 A-type PtlOO probes. Probes must be calibrated so that the
temperature difference in the whole measuring range is, at the maximum, 0.2°C. In the
water circuit, the distance before the mixing point in the flow must be at least 20 times
the pipe diameter, according to the Finnish standard SFS 5059.

Water flow measurement

According to the Swedish recommendation (11) water flow in small boilers can be mea­
sured with the aid of pressure difference in the measuring pipe. Water meters must be
calibrated to the right flow range and the measurement must be accurate to 0.5%. Water
flow of big boilers shall be measured with a throttle probe, according to DIN 1952 or
ISO R541.

3.4.3 Measurements in the flue

Flue gas temperature

In the Swedish recommendation (11) the measurement shall be accurate to 1 degree

Kelvin. Temperature shall be mesured at several places in the flue to get a precise
measurement. In standards there is often the demand that flue gas temperature of small
boilers shall not exceed 350°C or 400°C.

Flue gas analysis

Flue gas composition is measured from the flue, after the boiler, according to directions
that are the same in many countries. Measurements shall be made before flue gas cleaner
and blower to avoid air leakage (4).

The following flue gas components are continuously analyzed

• oxygen (02 96)

• carbon dioxide (C0 2 96)
• carbon monoxide (CO 96)

Continuously analyzed emissions are:

• nitrogen oxides (NO x ppm)

• sulphur dioxide (S02 ppm)
• total hydrocarbons (CxH y ppm)

Flue gas a~alysers sh~ll b~ calibrated with gases that are accurate to at least 1 %.
Concentra~lOn~ of calibratlOn gases shall be in the measurement range. Particulate
concentratlOn m the flue gas stream is often measured when efficiency of the boiler is

III-I 8

determined. Methods are quite similar in many countries and are based on isokinetic
sampling from the flue gas stream, with a probe.

4.0 CONCLUSIONS

Efficiency testing methods were originally developed for large lignite and coal boilers.
Biomass properties differ greatly from that of lignite and coal and boilers are often of
different type. TypicaUy biomass is used in smaUer boilers and combustion equipment.
Problems occur mostly in the determination of heat losses through radiation and convec­
tion. With small boilers, the significance of these losses is greater.

Biomass can be very inhomogeneous. The moisture content and ash content of fuel can
vary greatly. The determination of boiler efficiency is based on knowledge of fuel pro­
perties. That is why the sampling for laboratory analysis is very important. The devel­
opment of fuel sampling protocols and the development of standards is very important
also for the development of efficiency determination standards. Also the fuel analysis
methods are based on the standards developed for coal analysis. Methods should be
developed taking into account the specific properties of biomass fuels.

Special attention should be paid to precise measurements and accuracy. Standards should
be developed for measuring methods and accuracy. Methods should be simpler for small
boilers so that test prices would not become too high.

The efficiency calculation methods are facilitated today through the use of personal
computers. Very complicated calculations can be carried out quickly. The standardiza­
tion of efficiency determination methods is technically quite easy.

In Europe, the determination of boiler efficiency is commonly based on the lower heating
value. Efficiencies over 100% are possible if water in the flue gas is condensed. Of
course the efficiency of over lOO% is not theoreticaHy correct. In many countries, for
example, in the USA, the calculation is based on the higher heating value of the fuel.
The efficiency is the lower, but never over 100%. '"!"he standardization of methods is
necessary. The use of 51-units would also clarify the situation.

III-I 9

 ca

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Kunnallislii tto, "Kotimaista polttoainetta kayttavien aluelam polaitosten
teknistaloudellinen kehi ttaminen" . 24 s.

2. Din 1942 Abnahmeversuche an Dampferzeugern. (VDI-Dampferzeugerregeln).

Dusseldorf 1979. VDI-Verlag, 36 s.

3. Brandt, F. Erlauterungen zu den "Abnahme versuchen an Dampferzeugern" DIN

1942 (Ausgabe 1975), Fortschritt-Berichte der VDI Zeitschriften, Dusseldorf 1976.
Reihe 6, Nr 46, VDI Verlag.

4. Lampolaitosyhdistys ry. Kotimaista polttoainetta kayttavien 0.2 - 10 MW:n

kattiloiden vastaanottokokeet. Helsinki 1987. Suositus H6/ 1987. 22 s. + liitt.

5. ANSI/ ASH RAE Standard 106-1984. Method of testing for performance rating of
woodburning appliances. Atlanta 1984. The American Society of Heating, Refrig­
erating, and Air-Conditioning Engineers, Inc. 14 p.

6. Impola, R. Kallio, M., Pirkonen, P. Peat classification and standards. Helsinki

1986. International energy agency. Programme of research, development and
demonstration on peat production and utilization. Report No.5. 94 P + liitt.

7. Ketola, T., Siltanen, T. Tuominen, T. Kiinteilla polttoaineilla kaytettavien

pienkattiloiden testausmenetelma. Helsinki 1981. Valtion teknillinen
tutkimuskeskus. Tutkimuksia 42/1981. 20 s + liitt. lOs.

8. Ketola, T. Kotimaisten polttoaineiden pienkattiloiden testausmenetelma. LVI

(1981) 9, s. 54-56.

9. Siltanen, T. Kiinteiden polttoaineiden kaytto pientaloissa. LVI (1981) 9, s. 57 - 61.

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BmbH. 12 s.

11. Schust.~r, R., Wester, L... . Forslag. till .. provisorisk8- provnbngsregler for
fastbransleeldade pannanlaggnm&ar mmdre an 10MW fran miljovardssynpunkter.
Stockholm 1983. Statens Naturvardsverket Rapport snv pm 1668. 52 s. + liitt.
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Landtechnik Wieselburg/Erlauf, Osterreich.

13. Manfred Worgetter. Test methods of wood combustion systems up to 120 kW­
Experiences of Bli-Wieselburg. Finnish-Austrian Workshop on Energy from Wood 14­
16 November 1983 at Vienna.

14. Sund.~trom, L,. Sonsterod, G. Effektbvitetsprovning av vedeld~de kaminer, spisar

och oppna splsar med resultat fran 10 provningar. Boras 1981. Statens
Provningsanstalt. Teknisk rapport SP-RAPP 1981:19. s.75.

15. Oravainen, H., Takkojen ja tulisijojen tutkimusmenetelmat. Loppuraportti.

Esitutkimus. Jvaskyla 1986. Julkaisematon raportti. 25 s.

III-20

16. Fittas, A. C. & Sikorski, W. B. Design of a testing laboratory for wood stoves.
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17. Test standards for rating wood-fired, open combustion- chamber, heating appli­
ances. Chicago 1979. Fireplace Institute. 20 p.

18. Test standards for rating wood-fired, closed combustion-chamber, heating appli­
ances. Chicago 1979. Fireplace Institute. 20 p.

19. Din 18890. DauerbrandOfen fur feste brennstoffe. Berlin and Koln 1971. Beuth­
Vertrieb GmbH. lOp.

20. Kaye, W. G. UK standards for testing and approval of solid fuel burning appliances.
Novotel, Hammersmith, London 1985. Real Fire Heating International 1985, manu­
facturers seminar. 9 p. + Iii tt. 12 p.

21. Manfred Worgetter. Test results of biomass fired boilers for central heating.
FAO/CNRE. First technical consultation of the CNRE on biomass conversion for
energy. Freising (Germany), 14-17 October 1985.

22. Beregning av virkningsgrad. Kjelforening Norsk Energi.

OTHER LITERATURE

23. Norsk Standard NS 4861, NS 4862, NS 4863. Norges Standardiseringsforbund (NSF).

1985.

24. Asplund, F. Correct determination of efficiency with special reference to small

boilers. Stockholm 1985. Styrelsen for teknisk utveckling. Energy informaion
NO. 447 - 1985. 44 p.

25. Vuorelainen, O. Savukaasuh avioiden laskenta taydellissa ja epataydellisessa

palamisessa. Helsinki 1961. Valtion teknillinen tutkimuslaitos, Tiedotus. Sarja III­
Rakennus. 53. Pienpuualan toimikunnan julkaisu 133. 41 p.

26. Svedberg, G. Rokgaskondensering. Kungliga Tekniska Hogslan. Institut for

varmeteknik. p. 84-96.

27. Lampolaitosyhdistys ry. Kotimaista polttoainetta kayttavien 1-10 MWm

kattilalaitosten tekniset ratkaisut. Helsinki 1985. Suositus Hl/ 198.5. 37 s. + liitt.

28. ANSI Z21.13-1982. American National Standard for Gas-fired low-pressure steam
and hot water boilers. 83 p.

29. Cooke, W. M., Piispanen, W. H., Wensty, A. R., Levy, A. Barnes, R. H., Cormaby,
B. W., Degner, K. B. Candidate sampling and analysis methods for 21 suspect
carcinogens in combustion emissions. Columbus 1984. EPA project summary,
Research and development EPA-600/S7-84-078 Sept. 1984.

30. Dikke, R. D. DOE/NBS Forum on testing and rating procedures for consumer
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I1I-21

31. Esplin, G. J., Fung, D. P. c., Hue, C. C. De:vel~pment of samp~ing and. analytical
procedures for biomass gasifiers. The Canadian Journal of chemiCal engmeenng 63
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32. Mcdonald, E. C., Aiken, M., Development of anc:lytical metho?ology for biomass
gasification products. Vancouver 1983. Enfor Project C-172. Fmal Report. 29 p.

33. Milne, T. A. Proceedings workshop on standards in biomass for energy and chemi­
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34. Dyer, D. F., Maxwell, T. T., Maples, G. Improving the efficiency, safety and utility
of wood burning units. DOE technology for consumer reports branch. Contract
No. DE-As05-77ET 11288. October 1980.

35. Maxwell, T. T., Maples, G., Pruitt, T. M., Dyer, D. F., Wood burning handbook.
Design handbook for residential woodburning equipment. Prepare~ for pepartment
of Energy, Washington, D.C., DE-AS-5-77ET 11288. Auburn UniVerSity, Auburn,
Alabama, June 1981.

36. Harris, J. S., Larsen, D. J., Rechsteiner, C. E., Thrun, C. E. Combustion of hazard­
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Noyes Data Corp.

37. Valtion teknillinen tutkimuskeskus, Valtion maatalouskoneiden tutkimuslaitos.

Kotimaista po1ttoainetta kayttavien pienkattoloiden testaustuloksia. Helsinki
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38. Polcyn, A. J., Hesketh, H. E. A review of current sampling and analytical methods
for assessing toxic and hazardous organic emissions from stationary sources.
Journal of the Air Pollution Control Association 35 (1985) 1 p. 54-60.

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40. Particulate emissions from residential wood combustion. Northeast regional bio­
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41. Burnett, P. G. The northeast cooperative woodstove study. Volume I. Springfield

1987. United States Environmental Protection Agency. EPA Research and Devel­
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42. Burnet, P. G. Northeast cooperative woodstove study. Volume II. Technical

Appendix. Oregon 1987. United States Environmental Protection Agency. EPA
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43. Combustion and emission research on wood-refuse boilers. Volume II. Description
of program and common methods. Ottawa 1984. Bioenergy Development Program,
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45. Mitchell, W. J., Bruffey, C. L. Effect of sampling temperature, filter material and
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Techno!. (1984) 18 p. 803-808.

III-22
46. Stanze1, W., Hack, R., et al. Beg1eitendes messprogramm fuer die
ho1zheizungsan1age der waldbauerschu1e pichI. Institut fUr Urnweltforschung.
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1ampokeskuksissa: Kokemuksia poltto-tekniikan muutoksen vaikutuksista.
Esitutkimus. Kiuruvesi 1987. Projekti; Rno 25/881/86 KTM 13.3.1986. 32 p.

III-23

 Appendix 1

Representative standard methods for the determination of fuel properties of biomass

1. DEFINITIONS AND INTRODUCTION

ASTM D 121-78

Standard definitions of terms relating to coal and coke.

DIN 51700 (I 967)

Prufung fester Brennstoffe Allgemeines und ubersicht uber

Untersuchungsver fahren. ..

SS 18 71 06 (1984)

Biobdinslen - Terminologi for vissa biobranslen.

SS 187173(1984) 0

Biobranslen - Omrakning av analys resultat till olika provtillstand.

ISO 1170-1977

Coal and coke - Calculation of analyses to different bases

GOST 13674-68

Peat products - Rules for quality inspection

2. DETERMINATION OF MOISTURE CONTENT

2.1 Peat

ASTM D2974-71 (1980). Standard test methods for moisture, ash, and organic matter
of peat materials.
B.S 4156:1967
British standard specification for peat. Method for the determination of
moisture content.
GOST 11305-65
Method of determination of moisture content.
GOST 7302-73
Method of rapid determination of moisture content and ash content.
SS 187170 (1984)
Biobranslen - Bestamning av torr halt och fukthalt.
2.2 Other solid fuels

ASTM D3302-74 (1980)

Standard test method for total moisture in coal.
ASTM D3173-73 (1979)
Standard test method for moisture, in the analysis sample of coal and coke.

III-24
ASTM D2961-79
Standard test method for total moisture in coal reduced to no. 8 top sieve size.
DIN 51718(1978)

Feste Brennstoffe-Bestimmung des Wassergehaltiges.

ISO 589-1981 (E)

Hard coal - Determination of total moisture.

ISO 331-1975 (E)

Coal - Determination of moisture in analysis sample - Direct gravimetric
method.

ISO 348-1974 (E)

Coal - Determination of moisture in analysis sample - Distillation method.

ISO 687
Coke - Determination of moisture in analysis sample.

ISO 1015-1975 (E)

Brown coal - Determination of moisture content.

3. ASH CONTENT

3.1 Peat

ASTM D 2974-71 (1980).

Standard test methods for moisture, ash, and organic matter of peat materials.

B.s 4156:1967
British standard specification for peat. Method for the determination of ash
content.

GOST 11306-65
Peat Method of determination of ash content.

5S 18 71 70 (1984)
Biobrans1en - Bestamning av ask halt.

3.2 Other solid fuels

DIN 51719 (1978)

Prufung fester Brennstoffe - Bestimmung des Aschegehaltes.

A.STM D 2974-71 (1980)

Standard test method for ash in the analysis sample of coal and coke.

[SO 1171-1981 (E)

Solid mineral fuels - Determination of ash

III-25

4. HEATING VALUE

4.1 Peat
SS 18 71 72 (I 984)
Biobranslen Bestamning av kalorimetriskt varme-varde och berakning av
effektivt varmevarde.

GOST 147-64
Brown coals, anthracite, oil shales, peat and briquettes - Method for the
determination of calorific value.

4.2 Other solid fuels

DIN 51900 (1977)

Prufung fester und Flussiger Brennstoffe, Bestimmung des Brennwertes mit
dem Bombenkalorimeter und Berechnung des Heizwertes.

ISO 1928-1976 (E)

Solid mineral fuels - Determination of gross calorific value by the calorimetric
bomb method, and calculation of net calorific value.

ASTM D 2015-77 (I 978)

Standard test method for gross calorific value of solid fuel by adiabatic bomb
calorimeter•

ASTM D 3286-77
Standard test method for gross calorific value of solid fuel by the isothermal
jacket bomb calorimeter.

III-26

Appendix 2

An inquiry about standard methods available was sent to the following persons:

Prof. N. N. Bakhshi Dr. T. Funazukuri

Dept. of Chem. Engineer ing Dept. of Chemical Eng.
University of Saskatchewan Yokohama National University
Saskatoon S7N OWO, CANADA Tokiwadai, Yokohama 240, JAPAN

Dr. Christel Benestad Dr.M. H. Rei

Center for Industrial Research Department of Chemical Eng.
P.O. Box 124, Blindern National Taiwan University
0314 Oslo 3, Norway Taipei 10764, TAIW AN

Dr. Peter Benson Staten~ provningsanstalt

Renewable Energy Systems, Inc. Eddie Akesson
12115 So. 87th Avenue P.O. Box 857
Palos Park, IL 60464, USA 50115 BORAS, SVERIGE

Dr. Paul Blankenhorn KTH

School of Forest Resources Dept. of Heat and Furnace Tech
Penn. State University S - 100 44 Stockholm
University Park, Pa 16802, USA SVERIGE

Odf, Davud Boocock Studvik Energiteknik Ab

University of Toronto Niklas Berge
200 College St. Toronto S - 611 82
Ontario M5S lA4, Canada Nykoping, SVERIGE

Dr • Tony Bridgwater Statens Naturvardsverk

The University of Aston Leif Bernergard
Gosta Green P.O. Box 1302
Birmingham B4 7ET, ENGLAND S - 171 25 SoIna, SVERIGE
Dr. Tom Clark Ugnsgruppen AB

Forest Research Institute Lars-Erik Eriksson

Private Bag Rotorua Bygelvagen 20

New Zealand 722 33 Vasteras, SVERIGE

Dr. Janet H. Cushman Dr. Xavier Deglise

Oak Ridge National Lab E SSTIB-Universite de Nancy I

MS 352, P.O. Box X BP 239, 54506 Vandoeuvre

Oak Ridge, TN 37830, USA les Nancy Cedex, FRANCE

Dr. Bruce E. Dale Dr. Eugene Domalski

Dept. of Agric. and Chem. Eng. National Bureau of Standards

Colorado State University Gaithersburg, MD 20899

Fort Collins, CO 80523 USA USA

Dr. Robert F. H. Dekker Dr. Hooshang Pakdel

CSIRO, Div. of Chem. and Wood Dept. of Chemical Eng.

Private Bag 10, Clayton Laval University, Ste-Foy,

3168 Victoria, AUSTRALIA Quebec GIk 7P4, CANADA

III-27

Dr. Herbert L. Retcofsky Douglas C. Elliot

Division of Coal Science Battelle-Pacific Northwest Lab

Pittsburgh Energy Tech. Center P.O. Box 999

P.O. Box 10940, Pittsburgh PA 15236 Richland, WA 99352 USA
USA
Dave Keenan
Professor Geoffrey Richards National Wood Energy Association
Wood Chemistry Laboratory P.O. Box 4548
University of Montana Portsmouth, NH 03801 USA
Missoula, MT 59816, USA
William Newby
Professor Donald S. Scott Canadian Boiler Society
Dept. of Chemical Engineering 47&6 Queen Street, Niagara Falls
University of Waterloo Ontario L2E 2N3 CANADA
Waterloo, Ontario N2L 3Gl, CANADA
Jim Walsh
Alexis C. Pittas Eng. Experiment Station
University of Tasmania Georgia Inst. of Technology
P.O. Box 252C, G.P.O. Atlanta, GA 30332 USA
Hobart, 7005, AUSTRALIA
Ralph Overend Division of Energy R&D
Fireplace Institute National Research Council of Canada
111 East Wacker Drive Building M-55 Montreal Road Ottawa,
Chicago, Illinois 80801 Ontario KIA OR6
USA CANADA

Wood Heating Alliance Sam Ghosh

110 I Connecticut Avenue Institute of Gas Technology
Suite 700 3424 South State Street
Washington, D.C. 20036, USA ITT Center
Chicago, IL 60616 USA
Electr ic Power Research Institute
Don augenstein WHliam Bryan

3412 Hillview Avenue USDA

Palo Alto, CA 94303, USA Southern Agric. Energy Center

Tifton, GA 31794 USA

George T. Tsao
Lab. of Ren. Resource Eng. B. H. Levelton and Associates, Ltd.

Purdue University 8805 Osler Street

West Lafayette, IN 47907, USA Vancouver, B.C.

V6P 4Gl CANADA

Lawrence Hudson
New York State ERDA
Two Rockefeller Plaza
Albany, NY 12223 USA

Jim Fisher
Fiber Fuel Institute
310 Cedar Street, Suite 400
St. Paul, MN 55101 USA

III-28

 APPENDIX IV

Round-Robin Tests

An integral part of the lEA Voluntary Standards activity has been the planning and exe­
cution of round-robin tests of particularly critical methods. At the Working Group
meeting in Denver in 1987, each of three subpanels made recommendations for initiation,
or continuation, of round-robin testing.

Biochemical Panel of the Standards Working Group

This group laid plans to complete a round-robin assay of enzymatic hydrolysis of a pure
cellulose, using common enzymes and cellulose and an assay procedure developed by
Hermann Esterbauer (l). In addition, a common protein (bovine serum albumin - BSA)
was distributed by Karel Grohmann (2) so that each laboratory could analyze the enzymes
and BSA by the methods they normally use. The general plan and progress have been
described by Barbel Hahn-Hagerdahl (3).

This round-robin is an augmentation of efforts begun several years ago by another lEA
activity (CPD), and is continuing largely under the new lEA activity in bioconversion led
by Jack Saddler (4). The enzymatic hydrolysis results from some ten laboratories are
being submitted to the journal Biomass (5).

Thermochemical Panel of the Standards Working Group

This panel recommended a round-robin test of pyrolysis/liquefaction oils for moisture and
ultimate analysis (with direct oxygen determination when possible), using the methods
ordinarily used in each laboratory. This round-robin is being coordinated by
Jim McKinley (6), Ralph Overend, and Doug Elliott.

Two samples of pyrolysis/liquefaction oils from wood were distributed to participating

laboratories in October 1988.

Sample 1 was a Waterloo Fast Pyrolysis process oil.

Sample 2 was a PERC process oil from the U.S. Department of Energy's Biomass
Liquefaction Experimental Facility.

The samples have been analyzed by the procedures normally used .in the participant's
laboratory. The results are compiled, and a report will be published after all the infor­
mation is received.

Fifteen laboratories from five countries participated. The results were presented in a
poster session at the Seventh Canadian Bioenergy R&D Seminar in Ottawa, Ontario in
April 1989.

Feedstocks Panel of the Standards Working Group

This panel elected to test a new protocol for analyzing both woody and herbaceous
species (7).

The feedstocks analysis comparison is being coordinated by Olof Theander (Swedish

Agricultural University) and Helena Chum (SERI). Theander is finalizing his protocol,
and samples will be available from the Office of Standard Reference Materials of NIST

IV-l
 (Pinus radiata, Populus deZtoides, bagasse, and wheat straw). A fifth sample, sweet
sorghum, was recommended for testing. However, frozen and forced-air dried samples of
freshly harvested samples supplied by Jerry Cherney of Purdue University (as part of
Janet Cushman'S herbaceous species program at ORNL), were analyzed by Lundgren and
Theander at Uppsala. The results showed such great losses of some carbohydrates on
drying that the utility of maintaining a dried reference sorghum is questionable. As soon
as materials and protocols for these round-robins are finalized, a solicitation of cooper­
ating laboratories will be made •

. Please contact T. A. Milne if you wish to participate in any of the round-robin tests.

Notes to Appendix IV

0) Esterbauer, H., University of Graz, Graz, Austria.

(2) Grohmann, K. Bioconversion Research Branch, Solar Energy Research Institute,

1617 Cole Boulevard, Golden, CO 8040 I.

(3) Hahn-Hagerdahl, B. University of Lund, Sweden.

(4) Saddler, J. Forintek Canada, Ottawa, Ontario, Canada

(5) Esterbauer, H., W. Steiner, and W. Sattler. (1989). "The Results of a Round Robin
Test for the Evaluation of the Enzymatic Digestibility." Submitted to Biomass.

(6) McKinley, J. BC Research, 3650 Wesbrook Mall, Vancouver, BC V65 2L2, Canada.

q), r.~ftcrn~·, Q,. lmiYJ"er~IcyqfI ;]fgtrcutttrrHl 'sdre'nce, I Lrpps.:ira, '$weCre-n.

(8) M:ilne, T. A. (1989). "Voluntary Standards for Biomass for Fuels and Chemicals."
Fmal Report to the lEA for 1986-1988. To be published in Biomass together with
other lEA Task activity reports. '

IV-2

 APPENDIX V

Reference Biomass Materials

There exist few, if any, publicaUy available standard reference materials (SRMs) repre­
senting major biomass feedstocks ('). The National Institute of Standards and Technol­
ogy's (NIST) Office of Standard Rt ~erence Materials (OSRM) maintains a few SRMs of
plant materials, but these are inorganic trace materials (2). TAPPI formerly had some
standard pulps, but these are no longer available. Individual government programs and
laboratories have maintained supplies of wood chips or powdered wood for their own
analytical use and for use by their subcontractors (e.g., National Research Council of
Canada; Energy, Mines and Resources Canada; Forest Products Research Laboratory of
the U.S. Department of Agriculture). However, these are not generally available.

It has been a goal of the lEA activity, and was a major recommendation of the voluntary
standards working group (3), that a bare minimum of typical biomass materials be
obtained and made available for round-robin tests and analytical quality control. The
materials recommended were Pinus radiata (without bark), Populus deltoides (with bark),
wheat straw, sugarcane bagasse, and sweet sorghum. (Subsequent tests of sweet sorghum
showed such alteration on drying that it has been dropped from the list as impractical to
maintain in a representative form for several years).

Negotiations have been completed with NIST-OSRM to prepare, paCkage, maintain, list,
and sell 50-gm lots of these materials (sealed in IO-gm mylar-sealed packets). It is
planned that these will be available for the round-robin testing discussed in Appendix IV
and for use by many laboratories in both analytical method testing and small-scale con­
version tests. As studies are made on these materials, a data base on their varied pro­
perties will emerge and can be reported in the future.

References

1) Milne, T. A., editor. Proceedings: Workshop on Standards in Biomass for Energy

and Chemicals. SERI/CP-234-2506. Golden, CO: Solar Energy Research Institute.
November, 1984.

2) Seward, R. W., editor. NBS Standard Reference Materials Catalog 1988-89. NBS
Special Publication 260. Gaithersburg, MD: National Institute of Standards and
Technology. January, 1988. (Samples of citrus leaves, tomato leaves, pine needles,
corn stalks and corn kernels, certified for a large number of organic elements, are
available.)

3) Milne, T. A. Methods of Analysis of Biomass for Fuels and Chemicals, Annual

Progress Report for Energy, Mines and Resources of Canada. SERI-RR-3330.
Golden, CO: Solar Energy Research Institute. Apr ii, 1988.

V-I

 APPENDIX VI

Other Sources of Information

Considering the nascent state of much of the new industry using biomass for fuels and
chemicals, and considering the explosive growth in new analysis methods and techniques,
many of the methods of analysis are emerging from the literature or meetings and are
not yet codified. This short appendix lists some of the meetings, journals, and miscella­
neous sources of analytical information at the frontiers.

MEETINGS

Among the largest gatherings on analytical methods and instrumentation is the so-called
"Pittsburgh Conference and Exposition on Analytical Chemistry and Applied Spectro­
metry." This conference is now held in various U.S. cities, the 40th being in Atlanta in
1989. Contact: Pittsburgh Conference, 12 Federal Drive, Suite 322, Pittsburgh, PA
15235.

The Association of Official Analytical Chemists also holds annual meetings covering
areas of interest to biofuels and chemicals. The 103rd Annual International Meeting and
Exposition was held in 1989. Contact: Meeting Department, AOAC, 1111 North 19th
Street, Suite 210, Arlington, VA 22209.

The Federation of Analytical Chemistry and Spectroscopy Societies held its 16th annual
meeting in 1989. Contact: FACSS, c/o Dr. Edward G. Brame, Jr., 13 N. Cliffe Dr.,
Wilmington, DE 19809.

Two regional meeting series of international scope are the Eastern Analytical Symposium
and the Rocky Mountain Conference on Analytical Chemistry. The former holds its 28th
annual meeting in 1989 (Contact: Eastern Analytical Symposium, P.O. Box 633,
Montchanin, DE 19710) and the latter its 31st in Denver in 1989 (Contact: Rocky Moun­
tain Conference on Analytical Chemistry, c/o Carol Gies, 2155 W. 144th Avenue,
Broomfield, CO 80020.

The American Chemical Society holds national meetings every year plus regional and
specialized meetings. The Analytical Chemistry Division offers major sessions. Contact:
American Chemical Society, 1155 16th St. N.W., Washington, DC 20036.

JOURNALS AND SERIAL BOOKS

American Laboratory
Institute of Scientific Communication, Inc., 30 Contrtol Dr, Shelton, CT 06484.

Analysis
Societe Francaise Chemie, 250 Rue St., Jacques, 75005 Paris, France

Analytical Chemistry
American Chemical Society, 1155 16th St., N.W., Washington, DC 20036.

Analytical Instrumentation
Marcel Dekker Journals, 270 Madison Ave., New York, NY 10016.

Analytical Letters
Marcel Dekker, Journals, 270 Madison Ave., New York, NY 10016.

VI-I
 Analytical Sciences
Japan Society of Analytical Chemistry, 26-2 Nishigotanda l-choue, Shlnagawa-Ku,
Tokyo 141, Japan.

Appita Journal
Technical Association of the Australian and New Zealand Pulp and Paper Industry, Inc.,
Clunies Ross House, 191 Royal Pde., Parkeville, Victoria, 3052, Australia.

Applied Spectroscopy
Society of Applied Spectroscopy, Box 64008, Baltimore, MD 21264.

Biomass
Elsevier Applied Science Publishers, Ltd., Crown House, Linton Road, Barking, Essex
IGll 8JU, England.

Biomedical and Environmental Mass Spectrometry

WHey and Sons Ltd., Baffin's Lane, Chichester, Sussex PO 19 1UD, England.

CRC Critical Reviews in Analytical Chemistry

CRC Press, Inc., 2000 Corporate Blvd., Boca Raton, FL.

Environmental Science and Technology

American Chemical Society, 1155 16th St. N.W., Washington, DC 20036.

Journal of the Association of Official Analytical Chemists

AOAC, 1111 N. 19th Street, Suite 21 O-P, Arlington,. VA 22209.

Journal of Chromatographic Science

Preston Publications, Inc., 7800 Merrimac Ave., P.O. Box 48312, Niles, 1L 60648.

Journal of Chromatography
Elsevier Science Publishers B. V., Box 211, 1000 AE Amsterdam, The Netherlands.

Journal of High Resolution Chromatography

Journal of High Resolution Chromatography and Chromatography Communications, Dr.
Allred Huethig, VErlag CmbH, 1m Weher 10, Postlach 102869, 6900 Heidelberg 1,
W. Germany.

Journal of the Air Pollution Control Association

Three Gateway Center, Four West, Pittsburgh, PA 15222.

Journal of Testing and Evaluation

American Society for Testing and Materials, 1916 Race St., Philadelphia, PA 19103

LC-GC, Magazine of Liquid and Gas Chromatography

Aster Publishing Corp., 859 Willamette St., Box 10460, Eugene, OR 97440.
Organic Mass Spectrometry
Wiley and Sons, Ltd., Baffins Lane, Chichester, Sussex P019 IUD, England.
Spectroscopy
Aster Publishing Corp., 859 Willamette St., Box 10460, Eugene, OR 97440.

VI-2
Standardization News
American Society for Testing and Materials, 1916 Race St., Philadelphia, PA 19103.

The Analyst
Royal Society of Chemistry, Burlington House, London WI V OBN, England.

TAPPI Journal
The Technical Association of the Pulp and Paper Industry, Inc., TeChnology Park­
Atlanta, Box 105113, Atlanta, GA 30348.

Many other journals and other sources of methods information are cited in the literature
section of the methods section. Future editions of this source book will provide more
complete coverage of non-U.S. sources.

GENERAL STANDARDS INFORMATION

Hahn, R.H. "Standards--A Vital Tool in Engineered Agriculture." Agricultural Engineers

Yearbook. 1988.

Cooke, P.W. and D.R. Mackay. "The New European Community Approach--Harmonization
of Standards and Certification Systems." ASTM Standardization News, December 1988, p.
31.

Breitenberg, M.A. The ABC's of Standards-Related Activities in the United States.

NBSIR 87-3576. Gaithersburg, MD: National Bureau of Standards.

A Review of u.s. Participation in International Standards Activities. NBSIR 88-3698.

Gaithersburg, MD: National Bureau of Standards.

Bruno, T.J. and P.D.N. Svoronos. Basic Tables for Chemical Analysis. Gaithersburg,
MD: National Bureau of Standards, 1986.

Chemical Analysis-A Series of Monographs on Analytical Chemistry and Its Applica­

tions. Edited by P.J. Elving and J.D. Winefordner. New York: John Wiley and Sons.
Volume 83 is on Fourier Transform Infrared Spectrometry (Griffiths and deHaseth) and
Volume 82 on Chemometrics (M.A. Sharof, B.L. Illman, and B. Kowalski) for example.

"Information on Biomass: A Resource List." Appropriate Technology 12(2):16 (I985).

Contains information on data bases, networks, organizations, useful reference mater­
ial, and directories and bibliographies.

Bhagoroalia, B.S., J.L. Donaldson, R.B. Toth, and S.M. Spivak. "Standards Education:
Part III-Special Needs of the Developing Nations." ASTM Standardization News, March
1988, p. 54.

Biofuels and Municipal Waste Technical Information Guide. SERI/SP-220-3366. Golden,

CO: Solar Energy Research Institute, 1989.

"Summit calls for research integrat ion--Western political leaders endorsed demands to
harmonize technical norms and s .entific procedures in different nations." Science
228:825 (1985).

VI-3
L.M. Prigge, Managing Editor. Information Handling Services, Inverness Business Park,
15 Inverness Way East, Englewood, CO 80150.

Provides instant on-site access to standards information.

VI-4

 APPENDIX VII

Glossary of Useful Terms

Introduction

This glossary is a compendium of terms frequently encountered by those interested or

involved in the use of biomass for energy purposes. As this is a newly developing tech­
nology crossing many disciplines, there is a special need for definitions, including the
definition of biomass itself. This need was cited in a survey on standard needs in biomass
for energy and chemicals and has been recognized by the U.S. Department of Energy and
U.S. Department of Agriculture's biofuels conversion and production programs. The
Biomass Energy Research Association in a survey of information needs for research and
development identified a n • • • need for concise and consistent definitions of biomass
terms. Glossaries should be used more often."

The initial basis of the present glossary was a collection of terms prepared by George
Barton for the Bioenergy Program of the National Research Council of Canada. To this
list were added many terms from existing published glossaries and lists of definitions in
published government reports. This preliminary collection of terms was submitted to a
number of reviewers for initial screening and assessment. The reviewers', and SERI's,
consensus was that many extant definitions are in need of reformulating or are actually
technically incorrect. Furthermore, it became apparent that many different opinions
exist as to the proper thrust of definitions. This preliminary review experience leads us
to the following conclusions:

• There is need for a comprehensive, and comprehensively reviewed, glossary of biofuels

terms•
• A glossary is a living document, constantly in need of revision and tuning to reflect the
consensus of people actively involved in the relevant research and technology.
• Ultimately, the biofuels glossary would benefit from review and adoption by recog­
nized standards bodies such as ASTM and ASME.

This glossary is submitted as part of a continuing review and enhancement process, both
to improve the accuracy and appropriateness of the definitions and to enlarge the scope
of the coverage.

absorbance - a spectrophotometric term related to the ratio of the amount of photons

(light) transmitted through a sample to the amount of photons transmitted through a
reference substance. A =-log(TsiT). Absorbance is linear with respect. to the concen­
tration of the absorbing species. Absorbances are also additive when different absorbing
species are present in the same sample.

accuracy - a measure of agreement between an observed value and the accepted or

"true" value.

acetyl - a chemical group related to acetic acid. It is bound through an ester linkage to
polyose chains (especially xylans) in wood and other plants. The natural moisture present
in plants hydrolyzes the acetyl groups to acetic acid, particularly at elevated tempera­
tures. Most woods are naturally slightly acidic (ph =4.0-5.5).

VU-l
acid detergent fiber (ADF) - organic m~tter that is f.1ot solubi~ize? after one ~our .of
refluxing in an acid detergent of cety ltrImethylammomum bromIde In 1 N sulfuric aCld.
ADF includes cellulose and lignin.
acid gas - raw gaseous mixture of carbon dioxide (C0 2 ), hydrogen sulfide (H 2 S), and
carbon oxysulfide (COS) present in natural and synthetic fuel gases. Also, sulfur and
nitrogen oxides and chlorides in flue gases from combustion processes.

acid hydrolysis - the treatment of cellulosic, starch or hemicellulosic materials using

acid solutions (usually mineral acids) to break down the polysaccharides to simple sugars.

activated sludge - a product of processes used to biologically degrade organic matter in

water suspension. Generally, diffusion of air through a dilute slurry promotes the growth
of aerobic bacteria and other organisms that generate a sludge upon acting on the organ­
ic material. Their respiration reduces the amount of biomass that accumulates and thus
reduces the disposal problem.

adsorption - the adhesion, in an extremely thin layer, of molecules (as of gases, solutions,
or liquids) to the surface of solid bodies or liquids with which they are in contact. Used
also to describe a form of solar cooling employing this principle.

aerobic - able to live, grow, or take place only where free oxygen is present.

aerobic fermentation - fermentation processes that require the presence of air.

air gasification; oxygen gasification - processes in which biomass is converted to a low­

or medium-energy content gas through reaction with air or oxygen, respectively. The
processes are exothermic and operate typically at temperatures of 572 -20 12°F (300°­
0

I 100°C). The gases are composed primarily of CO, H 2 , CO 2 , and H 20 with lesser
amounts of hydrocarbon gases, primarily methane. They have an energy content of 250­
400 Btu/scf when oxygen is used, or 100-200 Btu/scf when air is used because of nitrogen
dilution of the gas. The gas produced with air is called producer gas. The gas produced
with oxygen, after reforming and acid-gas removal, is called synthesis gas and can be
used to make other fuels such as methane, methanol, or gasoline.

alcohols - the family name of a group of organic compounds that vary in chain length and
consist of a hydrocarbon plus one or more hydroxyl groups; for example, the straight
chain series CH 3 -(CH 2 )n-OH. Includes methanol, ethanol, isopropyl alcohol, etc. If the
hydrocarbon is aromatic, the compounds are called phenols.

aldehydes - any of a class of highly reactive organic chemical compounds characterized

by the common group CHO and used in the manufacture of resins, dyes, and organic
acids. Also the end group of reducing sugars.

algae - simple photosynthetic plants containing chlorophyll, often fast growing, and able
to live in fresh water, seawater, or damp soils. May be unicellular and microscopic or
very large, as in the giant kelps.

alkali - soluble mineral salt of alkali metals having characteristically ''basic'' properties.

alkaline hydrolysis - the use of solutions of sodium hydroxide (or other alkali) in the
treatment of cellulosic material (wood). Called the soda pulping process.

VII-2
amylase - a family of enzymes that act together to hydrolyze starch to individual glu­
cose, maltose, and dextrin units.

anaerobic - living or active in an airless environment.

anaerobic bacteria - microbes whose metabolisms require the absence of free oxygen.

anaerobic digester - a chemical reactor in which anaerobic bacteria are used to decom­
pose biomass or organic wastes to produce methane and carbon dioxide.

anaerobic digestion - degradation of organic matter by microbes in the absence of air

(oxygen) to produce methane and carbon dioxide (biogas).

anaerobic fermentation - fermentation processes conducted in the absence of air. The

following anaerobic fermentation processes are significant in obtaining useful forms of
energy from biomass: (I) alcoholic fermentation: fermentation processes whereby cer­
tain microorganisms convert glucose and other substrates, with alcohol as an end pro­
duct; (2) methane fermentation: generally termed anaerobic digestion (see above).

angiosperms - various orders of plants that have true flowers and seeds enclosed in a
fruit. Includes all the hardwoods.

anhydrous - a material that does not contain water either absorbed on its surface or as
water of crystallization; a water-free product.

apparent digestible organic matter (ADOM) - the observed or net digestibility achieved
regardless of whether refractory matter has substrate or bacterial origins. Synonymous
with volatile solids destroyed.

ash - inorganic residue remaining after combustion, determined by definite prescribed

methods.

ash fusion temperature - melting point of ash; usually expressed in degrees Fahrenheit.
Variations include oxidizing atmosphere or reducing atmosphere, initial softening, or
final fluid temperature. Some specifications include two intermediate points between
initial softening and final fluid.

autohydrolysis - literally "self" hydrolysis; in the case of biomass, the term refers to the
conversion of lignocellulosic matter to sugars under elevated temperatures and pressure
and in the absence of an external source of acid.

azeotrope - the chemical term for a mixture of two liquids that, at a certain concentra­
tion, boil at the same temperature; alcohol and water cannot be separated further than
194.4 proof because at this concentration, alcohol and water form an azeotrope and
vaporize together at lower temperature.

azeotropic distillation - distillation in which a substance is added to the mixture to be

separated in order to form an azeotropic mixture with one or more of the components of
the original mixture; the new azeotrope formed will have a boiling point lower than the
boiling point of the original mixture, thus allowing separation to occur.

bacteria - any of numerous unicellular or multicellular prokaryotic microorganisms

lacking chlorophyll, existing either as free-living organisms or as parasites, and having a
wide variety of biochemical properties.

VII-3
 bacteriophage - a type of virus that attacks bacteria rather than ordinary cells. A p~rti­
cle of bacteriophage consists of a nucleic acid (usually DNA) molecule enclosed In a
protein shell. The nucleic acid can enter a bacterium and either multiplr in it to form
progeny particles, or variously interact with the chromosome of the bactenum.

bagasse - residue remaining after extraction of a sugar containing juice from plants like
sugar cane.

ball mill - a device used to prepare uniform samples for testing. Usually a porcelain
crock charged with sample and small (9-13 mm diameter) stainless steel balls. The
chamber is sealed and mechanically rotated. The grinding action of the balls yields a
fine, well-mixed powder.

bar metric unit of pressure equivalent to about one atmosphere at sea level (llt.5 psi or
29.53 in. of Hg).

bark - the outer protective layer of a tree outside the cambium comprising the inner bark
and the outer bark.

bark, inner - the layer of living bark (phloem) that separates the outer bark from the
cambium and that in the living tree generally is moist and soft.

bark, outer - the layer of dead bark outside the inner bark, forming the exterior surface
of the tree stem. The outer bark frequently i.s corky and dry.

batch distillation - a process in which the liquid feed is placed in a single container and
the entire volume is heated, in contrast to continuous distillation in which the liquid is
,'-~ ,-u, l t".1.1 ,uvu,.)ly LV t..l H;;; .:>111.

batch fermentation - fermentation conducted from start to finish in a single vessel

without addition to or removal of major substrate or product stream, respectively, until
the process is complete.

batch process - unit operation where one cycle of feedstock preparation, reaction, and
product separation is completed before the next cycle is started.

bioassay - an assay method that uses a change in biological activity as a means of analyz­
ing a material's response to biological treatment; method of assessing toxic effects of
industrial wastes by using viable organisms as test species. .

bioconversion - a general term describing the use of biological systems to transform one
compound into another. Examples are digestion of organic wastes or sewage by micro­
organisms to produce methane.

bi~grad~le volatile S<?li~s .(BVS) - those volatile solids that have been stabilized by
microorgamsms after an InfImte amount of time.

bioenergy - the produ~tio~, con,version, ~nd use of material directly or indirectly pro­
duced by photosynthesIs (mcludmg orgamc waste) to manufacture fuels and substitutes
for petrochemical and other energy-intensive products.
biofuel - biomass-derived fuel.

VIr-lt
biogas - a gaseous mixture of mainly carbon dioxide and methane produced by the anaer­
obic digestion of organic matter.

biogasification - the process of gasifying biomass by biological treatment.

biological oxygen demand (BOD) - quantity of oxygen used in the biological oxidation of
organic matter within a specified time and temperature.

biomass - The total weight of living matter in a given volume. When considered as an
energy source, biomass is further subdivided into: (I) primary biomass - rapidly growing
plant material that may be used directly or after a conversion process for the production
of energy, and (2) secondary biomass - biomass residues remaining after the production of
fiber, food, or other products of agriculture, or biomass by-products from animal hus­
bandry or food preparation that are modified physically rather than chemically. Exam­
ples include waste materials from agricultural and forestry industries (manure, sewage,
etc.) from which energy may be produced. The above distinction noted between primary
and secondary biomass is based on economic factors; these terms are defined differently
in ecological science.

Also, material, excluding fossil fuels, which is or was a living organism that can be used
as a fuel directly or after a conversion process. Wood, peanut hulls, agricultural waste,
corn and other grains, sugar, and bagasse are all examples of biomass. Matter formed
from living cells.

Also the living materials in the biosphere and their refuse and waste products. Defined
in the Energy Security Act (P.L. 96-294) as any organic matter that is available on a
renewable basis, including agricultural crops and agricultural wastes and residues, wood
and wood wastes and residues, animal wastes, municipal wastes, and aquatic plants.

biomethanation - the formation of methane by microorganisms from hydrogen, carbon

monoxide, and carbon dioxide.

biophotolysis - the sunlight-driven production of hydrogen and oxygen from water using
photosynthetic organisms or isolated components as biological catalysts.

biosynthesis - production and transformation of substances from other compounds by

living organisms.

black liquor - the dark, alkaline waste liquor from the manufacture of pulp by the kraft
(sulfate) process or the soda process. Usually concentrated and burned in a furnace to
recover heat and chemicals.

bole - the stem or trunk of a tree large enough to yield lumber, veneer, or poles.

bone dry unit (BDU) - 2400 lb of moisture-free wood, unless otherwise stated.

bottom ash - noncombustible refuse collected in the bottom of the fuel bed combustors
or gasifiers.

bound water - water contained within the cell walls of organisms and held by hydroscopic
forces.

VII-5

briquette - a densified particle with all .s~rfaces die-forn:ed. Uniform in size ,with no
broken surfaces. Large diameter densified fuel, sometImes referred to as 'hockey
pucks," sometimes called briquettes, which are technically large pellets.
British thermal unit (Btu) the amount of heat required to raise the temperature of
I pound of water 1°F under one stated condition of pressure (l atm) and temperature
(from 60° to 61 ° F).
bulk density - mass per unit volume of material as packed in a container.

calorie (gram) - originally the energy required to heat one gram of w~ter lOC. Gram
calories are normally used in science and energy technology. Redefmed as equal to
4.184 joules.
calorie (kilogram) - energy required to heat one kilogram of water 1°C. Kilogram calo­
ries are normally used in food technology. (l kcal = 3.968 Btu).

calorific value - the potential heat-production value of a fuel source. For biomass
depends on the cellulose-lignin ratio, the percentage of extractives, the moisture con­
tent, and ash, among other parameters.

cambium - the layer of reproducing cells between the inner bark (phloem) and the wood
(xylem) of a tree that repeatedly subdivides to form new wood and bark cells.

carbohydrate - organic compounds made up of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen having

approximately the formula (CH 20)n; includes cellulosics, starches, and sugars.
rJu-hnni.zatjflJl. - ~ rp-.nr..A.lv::.. tV~ rlAr..nm~tj.cm. rVL 'L. <".RJitt. <"Jffi-~' "'1.£'", .- 'ml. 'l)1.
..... 'Vt:Un~ :ntL'\J ~idJ,
liquid, and gaseous products by heating.

catalyst - any substance that facilitates the occurrence of a chemical reaction but does
not itself undergo permanent change. In the presence of the appropriate catalyst, reac­
tions that are slow to reach equilibrium are facilitated.

ceU - a general term for the minute units of plant or animal structure. In plants, cells
have distinct walls and cavities, and include wood fibers, vessel segments, and other
elements of diverse structure and function.

cell recycle - the process of separating live cells such as yeast from fermentation pro­
ducts and returning them to the fermentation process for further conversion, in either
batch or continuous operations.

cell soluble matter - organic matter that is solubilized after one hour of refluxing in a
neutral detergent of sodium lauryl sulfate and EDTA at pH 7. This includes cell contents
and pectin.

cellulases - enzymes capable of degrading cellulose to its component sugars.

cellulose the carbohydrate that is the principal constituent of wood and forms the
structural framework of the wood celis.

c~tane r~ting (cetane ~um~r) ~ a measure of a fuel's ease of self ignition. Diesel fuel,
wlth a hIgh cetane ratmg, IS sUltable for compression ignition engines while alcohol and
gasoline with low cetane ratings are not. '

VII-6
char - a porous, solid carbonaceous residue resulting from the pyrolysis or incomplete
combustion of organic material. If produced from coal, it is called coke; if produced
from wood or bone, it is called charcoal. It is closer to pure carbon than the coal, wood,
or bone from which it is produced.

charcoal - a dark-colored or black porous carbonaceous material made from vegetable or

animal substances (i.e., by charring wood in a kiln) often used for fuel. Wood residue
after most volatile substances have been heated and driven off. Consists mainly of
carbon.

chemical oxygen demand (COO> - a measure of the amount of oxidizable components

present in water, as measured in specified test.

chips - small fragments of wood chopped or broken by cuts such as by a planer, chipper,
mechanical hog, or hammermill. Typically 1/4 in. x I in. x 2 in. (6.35 mm x 25.4 mm x
50.8 mm). Total tree chips include wood, bark, and foliage. Pulp chips or clean chips are
bark-free.

chromatography - a technique used to separate the chemical components of a mixture.

Gas chromatography and liquid Chromatography are two common methods used by analy[­
ical chemists. See column.

coke - a carbonaceous solid produced from coal, petroleum, or other materials by ther­
mal decomposition.

coke breeze - the fine screenings from crushed coke or from coke as taken from the
ovens, of a size varied in local practice, but usually passing a 1/2-in. 02.7-mm} or 3/4-in.
(19.0-mm) screen opening.

coke, by-product - coke manufactured with attendant recovery of by-products in ovens

that are heated externally.

column - in chromatography a tube packed with fine resin or coated on the inside with a
chemical. Sample mixtures are injected at one end of the tube and carried through with
a liquid or gaseous solvent. The different components of the mixture interact with the
resin or chemical coating and are carried through the column at different rates. As the
components elute from the opposite end of the tube, they can be detected, identified,
and measured quantitatively.

combustion - an exothermic chemical reaction of a fuel with oxygen, often intended for
the direct production of heat.

combustion efficiency - the efficiency computed by dividing the actual heat produced in
the firebox by the total heat potential of the fuel consumed.

comminution - mechanical shredding or pulverizing of waste; a process that converts

waste into a homogeneous and more manageable material. Used in solid waste manage­
ment and in the primary stage of wastewater treatment.

compression wood - abnormal wood formed typically on the lower side of branches and
inclined trunks of softwood trees. Compression wood is identified by its relatively wide
annual ring, usually eccentric; relatively large amount of latewood, sometimes more than
5096 of the width of the annual ring in which it occurs; and its lack of demarcation
between earlywood and latewood in the same annual rings. Compression wood shrinks

VII-7

excessively lengthwise, as compared with normal wood. Contains higher proportions of

lignin and galactans than normal wood.
conifer - a tree belonging to the order Coniferae, usually evergreen with cones and
needle-shaped or scale-like leaves, and producing wood known commercially as "soft­
wood."
continuous fermentation - a steady-state fermentation system in which substrate and is
continuously added to a fermenter while products and residues are removed at a steady
rate.
cooker - a tank or vessel designed to cook a liquid or extract or digest solids in suspen­
sion; the cooker usually contains a source of heat and is fitted with an agitator.

cord of wood - a stack of wood 4 ft )( 4 ft )( 8 ft (1.2 m )( 1.2 m )( 2.4 m) occupying a gross

space of 128 ft3 (3.7 m 3 ). Burned, it produces approximately 5 )( 10 6 kcal of energy,
equal to about 20 )( 10 6 Btu.

corn stover - the stalks of the maize plant.

cross section - a section of a stem, board, or other piece of wood taken at right angles to
its longitudinal axis. Often the surface exposed by crosscutting.

cutin - a nonphenolic complex lipid fraction found in the cuticle, measured as matter
resistant to hydrolysis in 72% sulfuric acid and oxidation by potassium permanganate.

cytoplasm - the main body of a ceil, exclusive of the nucleus (in a bacterium, exclusive
01 the ChromOSOme) ana 0'1 the ceil memorane ana wail.

dbh - diameter of a tree at breast height, usually taken as 4.5 ft 0.37 m) above ground.

decay - decomposition of organic material caused by action of bacteria, yeasts, and

molds.

decay, advanced (or typical) - the older stage of decay in wood in which the destruction
is readily recognized because the wood has become punky, soft and spongy, stringy, ring­
shaked, pitted, or crumbly. Decided discoloration or bleaching of the rotted wood is
often apparent.

decay, incipient - the early stage of decay in wood that has not proceeded far enough to
soften or otherwise perceptibly impair the hardness of the wood. It may be accompanied
by a slight discoloration or bleaching of the wood.

dehydration - the removal of a substantial portion of the water from any substance.

dehydrogenation removal of hydrogen from a chemical compound.

densified biomass fuels - fuel made by compressing biomass to increase the density and
to form the fuel into a specific shape such as cubes, pressed logs, pellets, or briquettes.

depolymerization - a breakdown of long-chain molecules, such as cellulose, into smaller

molecules.

VII-8
destructive distillation - the process (pyrolysis) of breaking down biomass or coal into
charcoal, gases, and liquids. Widely practiced in the last century for production of
chemicals.

detector - a broad term denoting the device on an analytical instrument that is able to
respond to the presence of one or more chemical species. The device usually responds in
such a way to produce an electrical signal, which is then output in graphical or digital
form.

dewatering - the separation of free water from the solids portion of spent mash, sludge,
or whole stillage by screening, centrifuging, filter pressing, pr other means. The remain­
ing solids portion is a wet cake that still contains 5096 to 8096 moisture.

dextran a polymer of glucose units. Also glucan or anhydroglucose.

dextrins - polymers of D-glucose that are intermediate in complexity between starch

00,000 structural units} and maltose (2 structural units); formed by hydrolysis of
starches.

digester - a bioreactor in which anaerobic bacteria are used to decompose biomass or

organic wastes into methane and carbon dioxide.

disaccharides - the class of compound sugars that yields two monosaccharide units upon
hydrolysis; examples are sucrose, maltose, and lactose.

distillate - the portion of a liquid that is removed as vapor and condensed during a distil­
lation process.

distillation - the process by which the components of a liquid mixture are separated by
boiling and recondensing the resultant vapors. The main components in the case of
alcohol production are water and ethyl alcohol.

dry fuel - biomass materials with low moisture content, generally 896 to 1096. The allow­
able moisture content for dry fuel varies with requirements of the combustion or gasifi­
cation system.

drying (seasoning) - moisture removal from biomass to improve its serviceability and
utility.

dry ton - 2000 Ib of biomass on a moisture-free basis.

dry-weight-basis moisture content - moisture content expressed as a percentage of the

dry fuel (weight of water/weight of oven-dry wood).

early wood - the less dense, large-celled part of the growth layer of a tree formed first
during the annual growth cycle. A synonym is springwood.

efficiency, thermal - fraction or percentage of available energy input that is converted

to useful purposes; i.e., Btu output/Btu input.

effluent - the liquid or gas discharged after processing activities, usually containing
residues from such use. Also discharge from a chemical reactor.

VII-9
emulsification - the mixing of two fluids that do not dissolve in each other (e.g., oil and
water). The result is an emulsion where one fluid is dispersed in very fine droplets in the
other fluid.
ensilage - green forage crops and grains that are by-products of an anaerobic fermenta­
tion process.
enzymatic hydrolysis - use of an enzyme to promote the conversion, by reaction with
water, of a complex substance into two or more smaller molecules.

enzymes - a class of proteins that catalyze specific biochemical reactions.

equilibrium moisture content - a moisture content at which biomass neither gains nor
loses moisture to the surrounding air.

essential oils - pleasant smelling oils prepared by passing steam through foliage and
finely divided twigs of several wood species (mainly cedars, Douglas fir, and western
hemlock in the United States).

ethanol (ethyl alcohol, grain alcohol) - CH 3 CH 2 0H; can be produced chemically from
ethylene or biologically from the fermentation of various sugars from carbohydrates
found in agricultural crops and cellulosic residues from crops or wood.

extractives - substances in biomass, not an integral part of the cellular structure, that
can be removed by solution in hot or cold water, ether, benzene, methanol, or other
solvents that do not substantially degrade the biomass structure.

fast pyrolysis pyrolysis in which reaction times are short, resulting in higher yields of
certain fuel products, which may range from primary oils to olefins and aromatics
depending on the severity of conditions. Rapid heating suppresses the formation of
charcoal.

fatty acids - any of a number of organic acids such as the acetic, propionic, butyric, and
valeric acids formed (among other means) as intermediates in the anaerobic digestion
process.

fermentation - decomposition of organic compounds, by microorganisms, to fuels and

chemicals such as alcohols, acids, and energy-rich gases.

fiber saturation point - the moisture content at which the cell walls are saturated with
water (bound water) and no water is held in the cell cavities by capillary forces. It
usually is taken as 2596 to 3096 moisture content, based on oven dry weight.

fiber, wood - a comparatively long 0/25 in. [1.02 mm] or less to 1/3 in. [8.47 mm]),
narrow, tapering wood cell closed at both ends.

fixed carbon carbon remaining after heating in a prescribed manner to decompose

thermally unstable components and to distill volatiles.

flash point - the temperature at which a combustible liquid will ignite when a flame is
held over the liquid; anhydrous ethanol will flash at 51°F (i0.6°C) and 90-proof ethanol
will flash at 78°F (25.6°C).

fly ash - small ash particles carr ied in suspension in combustion products.

VII-IO
forest residues - unused wood in the forest including logging residue; rough, rotten, and
dead trees; and annual mortality.

fossil fuel - organic fuels formed from the remains of plants or animals within or beneath
the earth's crust, e.g., coal, petroleum, and natural gas.

free water - moisture that is contained in cell cavities and intercellular spaces and is
held by capillary forces only.

friability index - a fuel quality measurement, also called durability index. Expressed in
percent of the total weight degraded to fines in a standard test procedure.

furfural - an aldehyde; derivative of certain biomass conversion processes; used as a

solvent.

fuse1 oil - a clear, colorless, poisonous, liquid mixture of alcohols obtained as a by­
product of grain fermentation; generally amyl, isoamyl, propyl, isopropyl, butyl, and
isobutyl alcohols and acetic and lactic acids.

gasification - any chemical or heat process used to convert a feedstock to a gaseous fuel.
(See also air gasification).

gasifier - a device that converts solid fuel to gas. Generally refers to thermochemical
processes. Major types are moving bed (fixed bed), entrained bed, and fluidized bed.

gasohol - a blend of 10% anhydrous ethanol and 90% unleaded gasoline.

gigajoule (GJ) - one billion joules. One million Btu (MBtu) equals 0.9486 GJ.

glucose - a simple sugar containing six carbon atoms (CSH1 2 0 S). A sweet, colorless
sugar that is the most common sugar in nature and the primary component of starch and
cellulose. The sugar most commonly fermented by yeast to produce ethyl alcohol.

grain - the fruit of members of the grass (Poaceae) family; e.g., corn, wheat.

green wood - freshly sawed wood, or wood that has received no drying; unseasoned wood.
Lumber that may have become wet to above the fiber saturation point may be referred
to as being in the "green condition."

green fuel - freshly harvested biomass not substantially dried.

green ton - 2000 Ib of undried material, (e.g., wood residue including moisture content).

gross calorific value - (gross heat of combustion at constant volume). Q)gross) - the
heat produced by combustion of a unit quantity of a solid or liquid fuel when burned at a
constant volume in an oxygen bomb calorimeter under specified conditions with the
resulting water condensed to a liquid. Also higher heating value, HHV.

guaiacyl - a chemical component of lignin. It has a six-carbon aromatic ring with one
methoxyl group attached. It is the predominant aromatic structure in softwood lignins.
See syringyl.

gum - a light colored carbohydrate exudate from specific woody genera, insoluable in
organic solvents, slowly soluable in hot water.

VII-11
gymnosperms - plants producing seeds that are not enclosed in a fruit; includes the
conifers.
hammermill - a device consisting of a rotating head with free-swinging hammers that
reduce in suspension~ chips~ hogged fuels, pellets~ etc. to a predetermined particle size
through a perforated screen. Moisture content of hammer-milled material should not
exceed 20%.
hardwood - generally one of the botanical groups of dicotyledonous trees that have broad
leaves in contrast to the conifers or softwoods. The term has no reference to the actual
hardness of the wood.

heartwood - the inner portion of a wood stem wholly composed of nonliving cells and
usually differentiated from the outer enveloping layer (sapwood) by its darker color. It is
usually more decay resistant than sapwood.

heating value - (I) higher heating value (HHV) is the potential combustion energy when
water vapor from combustion is condensed to recover the latent heat of vaporization,
commonly used in the United States; (2) lower heating value (LHV) is the potential com­
bustion energy when water vapor from combustion is not condensed, commonly used in
Europe.

hemicellulose - noncellulosic polysaccharides of the cell wall that are easily decomposed
by dilute acid, yielding several different simple sugars such as xylose, arabinose, man­
nose, and galactose. Also called polyose.

herbaceous plants - non-woody species of vegetation, usually of low lignin content such
as grasses.

hexose any of various simple sugars that have six carbon atoms per molecule (e.g.,
glucose).

high-Btu gas (HBG) - a gas containing mostly methane with a heating value of 800­
1100 Btu per standard cubic foot (heating value of natural gas = 1000 Btu/set).

holocellulose - the total carbohydrate fraction of wood; - i.e., cellulose plus

hemicellulose.

hydrocarbon - a chemical compound containing only hydrogen and carbon.

hydrolysis - the conversion, by reaction with water, of a complex substance into two or
more smaller units, such as the conversion of cellulose into smaller sugar units.

immobilized cells - microbial cells that have been fixed onto solid supports such that the
cells will remain in the system during product removal.

immobilized enzymes - stable, enzymes entrained on solid supports by various chemical

techniques such that the enzymes remain in the reaction system during product removal.

indirect liquefaction - conversion of biomass to a liquid fuel through a synthesis-gas

intermediate step.

inoculum - microorganisms produced from a pure culture that are used to start a new
culture in a larger vessel than that in which they were grown.

VII-1 2
in vitro - isolated from a living organism and maintained in an artificial environment.
Literally, in glass.

in vivo - in the living body of a plant or animal.

joule (J) the amount of energy produced by one watt in one second. One newton of

force over a distance of one meter. One joule = 0.239 calories.

juvenile wood - the wood formed adjacent to the pith, characterized by progressive
change in cell dimension and chemical composition, different microstructure than mature
wood, and greater shrinkage parallel to the grain.

kiln - a chamber used for drying and conditioning lumber, veneer, and other wood pro­
ducts in which the temperature and relative humidity of the circulated air can be varied
and controlled, often steam heated and vented.

knot - that portion of a branch or limb that has been surrounded by subsequent growth of
the wood of the tree. As a knot appears on the cut surface, it is merely a section of the
entire knot, its shape depending upon the direction of the cut.

kraft (sulfate) process - a chemical pulping process in which lignin is dissolved by a

solution of sodium hydroxide and sodium sulfide.

landfill gas - biogas produced from the natural degradation of the organic material in

landfills.

latewood - the denser, smaller celled, later formed part of a growth layer. A synonym is

summer wood.

lignin - the noncarbohydrate, polyphenolic structural constituent of wood and some other

plant tissues, which encrusts the cell walls and cements the cells together.

lignin, alkali - lignin obtained by acidification of an alkaline extract of wood.

lignin, klason - lignin obtained from wood after the nonlignin components of the wood

have been removed with a prescribed sulfuric acid treatment.

lignin, native - the lignin as it exists in the lignocellulosic complex before separation.

lignin, wiUstatter - lignin obtained from the lignocellulosic complex after it has been

extracted with fuming hydrochloric acid.

lignin, acid soluble - lignin from hardwoods soluble in sulfur ic acid.

lignocellulose - refers to plant materials made up primarily of lignin, cellulose, and

hemicelluloses.

lipases - enzymes that break down fats.

lipids - water-insoluble biomolecules, such as fats and oils.

low-Btu gas (LBG) - a gas composed of H 2 0, CO 2 , CO, H 2 , CHI+' and N 2 with a heating

value of about 90 to 200 Btu per standard cubic foot (Btu/scf).

VlI-13
mash - a mixture of grain and other ingredients with water to prepare wort for brewing
opera tions.
mean - a statistical term denoting the average of several repeated measurements.
Mathematically it is the sum of all the repeated measurement values divided by the
number of measurements.
medium-Btu gas (MBG) - a gas composed of CO u CO, Hz, CH 4 , and higher hydrocarbons
but little or no N 2 , having a heating value of 250 to 500 Btu/scf.
megagram (Mg) - A unit of mass equal to 1000 kilograms (kg). A form for expressing a
metric tonne.
membrane - a sheet polymer capable of separating liquid solutions; for example, mem­
brane separation of alcohol and water.
mesophilic - organisms that thrive in a temperature range of 68° to 95°F (20°-35°C).

metabolism - the sum of the physical and chemical processes involved in the maintenance
of life and by which energy is made available to the organism.

metabolite - a general term for a biological compound that is produced or used in metab­
olism.
methanation - a process for producing methane by passing carbon oxides and hydrogen
mixtures over nickel catalysts. Medium-Btu gas can be upgraded to high-Btu gas by
methanation. The reactions are CO + 3H z =CH 4 + H 2 0; CO 2 + 4H2 -+- CH 4 + 2H 2 0.
methane CH 4 , the major component of natural gas. It can be formed by anaerobic
digestion of biomass or gasification of coal or biomass.

methane fermentation - a bacteria-mediated process whereby organic matter is metabo­

lized in an oxygen-free environment with a net release of energy, resulting in end­
products of carbon dioxide and methane gas.

methanogenic bacteria - microorganisms capable of producing methane.

methanol (methyl alcohol, wood alcohol) - an alcohol, CH 3 0H, formed by catalytically

combining carbon monoxide (CO) with hydrogen (H 2 ) in a 1:2 ratio, under high tempera­
ture and pressure. Commercially, it is often manufactured by steam reforming natural
gas. Also formed in the destructive distillation of wood.

methoxyl - a chemical group bonded to the aromatic rings in lignin. A quantitative

determination of methoxyls in lignin is used to characterize the lignin.

microalgae - unicellular, photosynthetic aquatic plants.

microorganism - refers to any microscopic organism such as yeast, bacteria, fungi, or

actinomycete.

middle lamella - the lignin-rich layer that cements ad joining wood cells together. This
layer is dissolved in the chemical pulping processes that separate wood into pulp fibers.

VrI-14
million (10 6 ) Btu (MBtu) - the predominant unit of energy in the United States. Fre­
quently written M!ABtu in non-metric, historical usage.

moisture content - the amount of water contained in the biomass, expressed as either a
percentage of the mass of the oven-dry biomass or of the wet biomass.

moisture content, dry basis = (weight wet sample-weight dry sample) x 100.
weight dry sample

(weight wet sample-weight dry sample)

moisture content, wet basis = weight wet sample x 100.

monosaccharide - a simple sugar such as a five-carbon sugar (ribose, xylose) or six­

carbon sugar (glucose, fructose). Sucrose on the other hand is a disaccharide, composed
of a combination of two simple sugar units, glucose and fructose.

morphology - the structure of the vegetative and reproductive features of an organism.

municipal solid wastes (MSW) the refuse materials collected from urban areas in the
fQrm of organic matter, glass, plastics, waste paper, etc., not including human wastes.

naval stores - oils, resins, tars, and pitch extracted from pine and fir trees. Historically,
the term was derived to describe those products when they were used in the construction
of wooden sailing vessels.

net calorific value (net heat of combustion at constant pressure). Qp(net) - the heat
produced by combustion of a unit quantity of a solid or liquid fuel When burned at a
constant pressure of I atm (D.I MPa) under conditions such that all the water in the
products remains in the form of vapor. Also the lower heating value, LHV.

neutral detergent fiber (NDF) - organic matter that is not solubilized after one hour of
refluxing in a neutral detergent consisting of sodium laury I sulfate and EDT A at pH 7.
NDF includes hemicellulose, cellulose, and lignin.

NO - nitrogen oxides; regulated air pollutants, primarily nitric oxide (NO) and nitrogen
x
diOXide (N0 2 ), but including other nitrogen oxides in minute concentrations.

octane rating (octane number) - a measure of a fuel's resistance to self ignition, hence a
measure as well of the antiknock properties of the fuel. Whereas diesel fuel has a low
octane rating, gasoline and alcohol have high octane ratings and are suitable for spark
ignition engines.

oleoresin - essentially a solution of resin acids in turpentine, which exudes when the resin
canals in the wood of conifers are ruptured; and on evaporation leaves a brittle solid
(rosin). Their function is to protect the plant.

other forest land forest land incapable of producing 20 ft3 per acre of industrial wood
under natural conditions because of adverse site conditions such as sterile soils, dry
climate, poor drainage, high elevation, steepness, or rockiness.

outplanting the establishment of a forest stand by planting tree seedlings or tree

cuttings.

VU-15
oven dry megagram or metric tome (ODMg) - an amount of wood that weighs 1000 kg or
2204.6 lb at 0% moisture content.
oven dry ton (ODT) - an amount of wood that weighs 2000 Ib at 0% moisture content.

oven dry wood - wood that has been dried to constant weight at about 215 GF (looGe) and
low humidity. By definition, oven dry wood has zero moisture content.

PAH - polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons.

particulate emissions - solid particles discharged with exhaust gas. Usually expressed in
terms of grains per cubic foot or pounds per million Btu input.
particulates - minute solid or liquid particles in the air or in an emission. Particulates
include dust, smoke, fumes, mist, spray, and fog.
particulate size - size of small particles expressed in many ways including ASTM mesh,
microns, equivalent diameter, chip size range, etc. Specification may include maximum
and minimum or percent of various sizes.
pasteurization - the destruction of bacteria in media by maintaining a temperature over
a sufficient period of time to obtain a desired bacteria kill.

peat - carbonaceous material formed in swamps from accumulated plant organic matter
as a result of varying degrees of decomposition of plant components.

pellet - a densified fuel form, usually cylindrical, die-formed, usually by extrusion, with
random lengths and open broken ends. Generally of high density.

pelletizing - the densification of finely sized wood and bark into a uniform, usually
cylindrical, shape by high pressure and intermediate temperature.

pH - a measure of acidity, the negative log of the hydrogen ion concentration, pH 1 is

very acid, pH 7 is neutral, and pH 14 is very alkaline (basic).

phase separation - separation of a mixture into two or more phases under an external
influence. An example is when water is added to gasohol or diesohol. The alcohol/water
mix may separate from the gasoline or diesel fuel and settle to the bottom of the tank.

phloem - in plants, the inner bark; the principal tissue in a tree concerned with the
transport of sugars and other nutrients from the leaves. A synonym is bast.

photosynthesis - the process generally by which chlorophyll-containing cells in green

plants convert incident light to chemical energy and synthesize organic compounds from
inorganic compounds, especially carbohydrates from carbon dioxide and water, with the
simultaneous release of oxygen.

pitch - a term applied to the resin occurring in the wood of certain conifers.

pith - the small soft tissue occurring in the structural center of a tree trunk, branch,
twig, or log.

PNA - polynuclear aromatic compounds.

VII-16
 polyose - a polysaccharide composed of more than one simple sugar as a repeating unit.
• G~lacto-gl~coma~nan is a.n example, commonly found in softwoods. Most polyoses con­
tam branchmg umts on a lmear backbone. See hemiceUuloses.

polysaccharide - a long-chain carbohydrate containing at least three molecules of simple

anhydro-sugars linked together; examples would include cellulose and starch.

POM - in chemistry, polycyclic organic matter including polynuclear aromatic com­

pounds. In aquatic ecology, particulate organic matter.

pores - in wood anatomy, a term applied to the cross section of a vessel or of a vascular
tracheid.

preservative - a chemical mixture which, when absorbed by wood, makes the wood resis­
tant to attack by fungi, insects, marine borers, or weather conditions.

pressure-treated wood - wood treated by applying pressure to force a preservative into

it.

protein - a protein molecule is a chain of up to several hundred amino acids and is folded
into a more or less compact structure. Because some 20 different amino acids are used
by living matter in making proteins, the variety of protein types is enormous. In their
biologically active states, proteins function as catalysts in metabolism and to some
extent as structural elements of cells and tissues.

provenance - the original geographic source of seed, seedlings, or cuttings.

proximate analysis - the determination, by prescribed methods, of moisture, volatile

matter, fixed carbon (by difference), and ash. The term proximate analysis does not
include determinations of chemical elements or determinations other than those named.

pulp, kraft a chemical wood pulp obtained by cooking wood chips at high temperature in
a solution of sodium hydroxide and sodium sulfide (kraft process).

pulp, semichemical - pulp obtained by mild treatment of wood chips by any of the chemi­
cal pulping processes, which remove only part of the lignin from the wood chips, followed
by mechanical treatment to complete the separation of individual wood fibers.

pulpwood - any wood cut or prepared primarily for the production of wood pulp.

pyroligneous acid - the acidic brown aqueous liquid obtained by condensing the gaseous
products of pyrolysis of wood. Pyroligneous acid, when distilled, yields wood creosote as
a fraction.

pyrolysis - the breaking apart of complex molecules by heating (over the range from 392°
to 932°F (200°-500°C) in the absence of oxygen, producing solid, liquid, and gaseous
fuels.

quad - one quadrillion (10 15 ) Btu.

reaction wood - wood with abnormal structure and chemical composition formed in parts
of leaning or crooked stems and in branches. In hardwoods it is called "tension wood"; in
softwoods, "compression wood."

VII-17
oven dry megagram or metric tonne (ODMg) - an amount of wood that weighs 1000 kg or
2204.6 lb at 096 moisture content.
oven dry ton (ODT) - an amount of wood that weighs 2000 lb at 096 moisture content.

oven dry wood - wood that has been dried to constant weight at about 215 GF (looGe) and
low humidity. By definition, oven dry wood has zero moisture content.

PAH - polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons.

particulate emissions - solid particles discharged with exhaust gas. Usually expressed in
terms of grains per cubic foot or pounds per million Btu input.

particulates - minute solid or liquid particles in the air or in an emission. Particulates

include dust, smoke, fumes, mist, spray, and fog.

particulate size - size of small particles expressed in many ways including ASTM mesh,
microns, equivalent diameter, chip size range, etc. Specification may include maximum
and minimum or percent of various sizes.

pasteurization - the destruction of bacteria in media by maintaining a temperature over

a sufficient period of time to obtain a desired bacteria kill.

peat - carbonaceous material formed in swamps from accumulated plant organic matter
as a result of varying degrees of decomposition of plant components.

pellet - a densified fuel form, usually cylindrical, die-formed, usually by extrusion, with
random lengths and open broken ends. Generally ot high density.

pelletizing - the densification of finely sized wood and bark into a uniform, usually
cylindrical, shape by high pressure and intermediate temperature.

pH - a measure of acidity, the negative log of the hydrogen ion concentration, pH 1 is

very acid, pH 7 is neutral, and pH 14 is very alkaline (basic).

phase separation - separation of a mixture into two or more phases under an external
influence. An example is when water is added to gasohol or diesohol. The alcohol/water
mix may separate from the gasoline or diesel fuel and settle to the bottom of the tank.

phloem - in plants, the inner bark; the principal tissue in a tree concerned with the
transport of sugars and other nutrients from the leaves. A synonym is bast.

photosynthesis - the process generally by which chlorophyll-eontaining cells in green

plants convert incident light to chemical energy and synthesize organic compounds from
inorganic compounds, especially carbohydrates from carbon dioxide and water, with the
simultaneous release of oxygen.

pitch - a term applied to the resin occurring in the wood of certain conifers.

pith - the small soft tissue occurring in the structural center of a tree trunk, branch,
twig, or log.

PNA - polynuclear aromatic compounds.

VII-16
polyose - a polysaccharide composed of more than one simple sugar as a repeating unit.
Galacto-glucomannan is an example, commonly found in softwoods. Most polyoses con­
tain branching units on a linear backbone. See hemicelluloses.

polysaccharide - a long-chain carbohydrate containing at least three molecules of simple

anhydro-sugars linked together; examples would include cellulose and starch.

POM - in chemistry, polycyclic organic matter including polynuclear aromatic com­

pounds. In aquatic ecology, particulate organic matter.

pores - in wood anatomy, a term applied to the cross section of a vessel or of a vascular
tracheid.

preservative - a chemical mixture which, when absorbed by wood, makes the wood resis­
tant to attack by fungi, insects, marine borers, or weather conditions.

pressure-treated wood - wood treated by applying pressure to force a preservative into

it.

protein - a protein molecule is a chain of up to several hundred amino acids and is folded
into a more or less compact structure. Because some 20 different amino acids are used
by living matter in making proteins, the variety of protein types is enormous. In their
biologically active states, proteins function as catalysts in metabolism and to some
extent as structural elements of cells and tissues.

provenance - the original geographic source of seed, seedlings, or cuttings.

proximate analysis - the determination, by prescribed methods, of moisture, volatile

matter, fixed carbon (by difference), and ash. The term proximate analysis does not
include determinations of chemical elements or determinations other than those named.

pulp, kraft - a chemical wood pulp obtained by cooking wood chips at high temperature in
a solution of sodium hydroxide and sodium sulfide (kraft process).

pulp, semichemical - pulp obtained by mild treatment of wood chips by any of the chemi­
cal pulping processes, which remove only part of the lignin from the wood chips, followed
by mechanical treatment to complete the separation of individual wood fibers.

pulpwood - any wood cut or prepared primarily for the production of wood pulp.

pyroligneous acid - the acidic brown aqueous liquid obtained by condensing the gaseous
products of pyrolysis of wood. Pyroligneous acid, when distilled, yields wood creosote as
a fraction.

pyrolysis - the breaking apart of complex molecules by heating (over the range from 392 0
to 932°F (200°-500°C) in the absence of oxygen, producing solid, liquid, and gaseous
fuels.

quad - one quadrillion (10 15 ) Btu.

reaction wood - wood with abnormal structure and chemical co.mposition formed in parts
of leaning or crooked stems and in branches. In hardwoods it is called "tension wood"; in
softwoods, "compression wood."

VII-I?
refuse-derived fuel (RDF) - fuel processed from industrial waste, municipal waste, gar­
bage, or sewage sludge. •
renewable energy resources - sources of energy that are regenerative or virtually inex­

haustible, such as solar, wind, ocean, biomass, municipal wastes, and hydropower energy.

Geothermal energy is sometimes also included in the term.

residues; wood:
• coarse residues - plant residues suitable for chipping, such as slabs, edgings, and ends.
• fine residues - plant residues not suitable for chipping, such as sawdust, shavings, and

veneer clippings.

• logging residues - the unused portions of sawtimber and poletimber trees cut or killed

by logging.

• plant residues - wood materials from primary manufacturing plants that are not used

for any product.

• urban residues - wood mater ials from urban areas, such as newspapers, lumber and

plywood from building demolition, and used packaging and shipping wood materials.

retention time - in anaerobic digestion, the average time that the slurry remains in the
digester.
RVP (Reid vapor pressure) - a measure in a test bomb of the vapor pressure of a sample
of gasoline (fuel) at lOO°F (37.S0C).
~...............ut..- ~ = .;niTryL\::- .;n.:IQU1-- Vl <1 IIIVl C \"V1IIPlI::A \..VllljJVUIIU· L'/\d.L' can De nyorolyzeo' to

simple sugar units.

saccharification - a conversion process using acids, bases, or enzymes in which long-chain
carbohydrates are broken down into their component fermentable sugars.

saccharify - to hydrolyze a complex carbohydrate into simpler soluble fermentable

sugars, such as glucose.
sap - the circulating fluid in living plants, containing nutrients and other chemicals in
solution.

sapwood - the initial wood layer beneath the bark of the tree containing some living
cells. The thickness of the sapwood layer varies by species and may be lighter in color
than heartwood. Under most conditions the sapwood is more susceptible to decay than
heartwood.

screen analysis - method for measuring proportion of variously sized particles in solid
fuels. The sample is passed through a series of screens of known size openings. Biomass
fuel screen sizes usually range from 5 to 100 openings per inch (square mesh).

short-rotation intensive culture (SRIC) - intensive management and harvesting at 2- to

10-year intervals or cycles of specially selected fast-growing species (generally hard­
woods) for the purpose of producing wood as an energy feedstock.

VII-IS

slash - the residue left on the ground after harvesting or thinning, or resulting from
storms, fire, etc.; it includes unused logs, uprooted stumps, broken or uprooted stems,
tops, and branch wood.

sludge - a nonpumpable mixture of solids and liquids. Often refers to the residue of
sewage treatment.
softwoods - generally, one of the botanical groups of trees that in most cases have nee­
dlelike or scalelike leaves; the conifers; also the wood produced by such trees. The term
has no reference to the actual hardness of the wood.

solvolysis - decomposition (thermal) ina solvent.

sound wood - wood free of any form of decay, incipient or advanced, and from insect
holes.
specific gravity - as applied to wood, the ratio of the oven dry weight of a sample to the
weight of a volume of water equal to the volume of the sample at some specific moisture
content, as green, air-dry, or oven dry.

specific heat - the heat in joules (Btu) required to raise the temperature of one gram of
substance 1°C.

spectrophotometer - an analytical instrument used to measure the interaction of photons

with different chemical species. The term is broad and includes different instruments
which measure photons in the ultraviolet, visible and infrared regions of the electro­
magnetic spectrum. The instrument is able to generate spectra that relate the amount
of photon absorption to the frequency or wavelength of the photons.

spent grains - the nonfermentable solids remaining after fermentation of a grain mash.

spent mash - the residual "slop" of unfermented matter plus the microbial cell mass that
has accumulated after fermentation. When the feedstock to the fermenter is corn or
cereal grain and the residual spent mash is dried, it is given the term "distillers dried
grain" (DOG).

standard deviation - a statistical term. It is a measure of the precision or scatter of a

set of data.

starch - a molecule composed of long chains of a-glucose molecules linked together.

Starch is a major component of potatoes and grains and can be readily broken down into
glucose and other simple sugars.

stem - the bole or trunk of a tree.

stillage - a mixture of nonfermentable solids and water that remains after removal of the
alcohol by distillation; also called spent beer.

stover - the dried stalks and leaves of a crop remaining after the grain has been
harvested.

substrate - the base on which an organism lives or a substance acts upon (as by an
enzyme).

VII-19
syngas - The synthetic gas resulting from incomplete combustion or pyrolysis of organic
material to primarily carbon monoxide and hydrogen. See synthesis gas.

synthesis gas - mixtures of gas in suitable proportions for the production of synthetic
products without adding further reactants, such as carbon monoxide and hydrogen for
synthesis of methanol.

syringyl - a component of lignin, normally found only in hardwood lignins. It has a six­
carbon aromatic ring with two methoxyl groups attached. See guaiacyl.

tannins - complex, water-soluble phenolic extractives of plants that precipitate gelatin

and are used to tan animal skins. Some classes are suitable as bases for wood adhesives.

tar - a liquid product of thermal processing of carbonaceous materials.

tension wood - an abnormal form of wood found in the upper side of the bole and
branches of leaning trees of some hardwood species and characterized by the presence of
gelatinous fibers and excessive longitudinal shrinkage. Tension wood fibers hold together
tenaciously so that sawed surfaces usually have projecting fibers, and planed surfaces
often are torn or have raised grain. Tension wood may cause warping. Contains greater
amounts of cellulose and lesser amounts of lignin than normal wood.

thermal efficiency - the ratio of energy output of a process to the energy input.

thermochemical conversion - the use of heat to change substances chemically to produce

energy products.

TOC - total organiC carbon.

TOO - total oxygen demand, i.e., BOD plus COD.

ton - a short ton or 2000 lb.

tonne - a metric ton or 2205 lb.

tree - a woody plant having one well-defined stem and a more or less definitely formed
crown, usually attaining a height of at least 8 ft (2.4 m).

ultimate analysis - the determination of the elemental composition of the organic portion
of carbonaceous materials as well as the total ash and moisture. Determined by pre­
scr ibed methods.

uronic acid - a simple sugar whose terminal -CH 20H group has been oxidized to an acid,
COOH group. The uronic acids occur as branching groups bonded to polyoses such as
xylans.

vacuum distillation - the separation of two or more liquids under reduced vapor pressure;
reduces the boiling points of the liquids being separated.

variance - a statistical term equal to the sum of the squares of the deviations from the
mean for a given set of repeated measurements. Variances are additive. It is a measure
of the precision of a set of data.

VII-20
vessels - wood cells of comparatively large diameter that have open ends and are set one
above the other so as to form continuous tubes. The openings of the vessels on the
surface of a piece of wood are usually referred to as pores.

volatile matter - those products, exclusive of moisture, given off by a material as gas or
vapor, determined by definite prescribed methods that may vary according to the nature
of the material.

wet air oxidation - a process that operates on the principle that the rate of oxidation of
organic compounds is increased at high pressures. By pressurizing an aqueous organic
waste, heating it to an appropriate temperature, and then introducing air or oxygen,
liquid-phase oxidation reaction is produced, destroying most of the organics.

wet basis moisture - the moisture content expressed as the ratio of the weight of water
in the fuel to the total weight of the fuel.

whole tree chips (WTC) - wood chips produced by chipping whole trees, usually in the
forest. Thus the chips contain both bark and wood. They are frequently produced from
low quality or from tops, limbs, and other logging residues.

whole tree harvesting - a harvesting method in which the whole tree is removed for use,
except for the stump and root system.

wood - a solid lignocellulosic material naturally produced in trees and some shrubs, made
up of 40% to 50% cellulose, 20% to 30% hemicellulose, and 20% to 30% lignin. An
empirical formula for wood is C 6 H g 0 4 •

wood-<>il - the fluid products of wood pyrolysis at temperatures below about 500°C,
composed of the monomers, oligomers, derivatives and fragments of the cellulose, hemi­
cellulose, lignin, and extractives that make up biomass.

wood-tar - the highly viscous products of pyrolysis of wood vapors above about 600°C,
often containing, among other things, polynuclear aromatics (PNAs) not originally found
in biomass.

wort - the liquid remaining from a brewing mash preparation following the filtration of
fermentable beer.

xylem - the portion of the tree trunk, branches, and roots that lies between the pith and
the cambium.

xylose - a five-carbon sugar, a product of hydrolysis of some hemicelluloses; naturally

occurs in many plants and trees, especially hardwood.

References

The following sources were used in compiling the terms and definitions included in this
glossary. Many of the borrowed terms have been altered based on reviewers' comments.

Agriculture Canada, n.d., Farm-Scale Production and Use of Fuel Alcohol-Opportunities

and Problems, Ottawa, Ontario, Canada: Agriculture Canada.

American Society for Testing and Materials, 1981, Standard Definitions of Terms Relat­
ing to Wood, ASTM-D 9-81, Philadelphia, PA: ASTM.

VII-21
American Society for Testing and Materials, 1983, Standard Definitions of Terms and
Abbreviations Relating to Physical and Chemical Characteristics of RefU3e-Derived
Fuel, ASTM-E 856-83, Philadelphia, PA: ASTM.

American Society for Testing and Materials, 1983, Standard Definitions of Terms Relat­
ing to Coal and Coke, ASTM-D 121-78, Philadelphia, PA: ASTM.

Barton, G., 1984, Original collection of terms submitted to R. Overend of the National
Research Council of Canada, unpublished.
Bonner, T., B. Desai, J. Fullenkamp, T. Hughes, E. Kennedy, R. McCormick, J. Peters,
and D. Zanders, 1981, HazardoU3 Waste Incineration Engineering, Park Ridge, NJ: Noyes
Data Corporation.
Bonneville Power Administration, 1985, Pacific Northwest and Alaska Bioenergy Program
Glossary, DOE/BP-395, Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Energy.

Chandler, J., and W. Jewell, 1980, Predicting Methane Fermentation Biodegradability,

Final report prepared by the Department of Agricultural Engineering, Cornell University,
Ithaca, NY, SERI/TR-09038-1, Golden, CO: Solar Energy Research Institute.

Cheremisinoff, N., 1979, Gasohol for Energy Production, Ann Arbor, MI: Ann Arbor
Science Publishers, Inc.

Davy McKee Corporation, 1980, Fuel Alcohol - Report and Analysis of Plant Conversion
Potential to Fuel Alcohol Production, Prepared for the U.S. National Alcohol Fuels
Commission under Contract No. T 16076552, Chicago, IL: Davy McKee Corp.
Fisher, J., 1984, Fiber Fuels - Standard Specifications Development, Final report ­
Phase I, St. Paul, MN: Fiber Fuels Institute.

Gibbs, D., and M. Greenhalgh, 1983, Biotechnology, Chemical Feedstocks and Energy
Utilization, Dover, NH: Francis Pinter for the Commission of the European Communities.

Hall, C., 1981, Biomass as an Alternative Fuel, Rockville, MD: Government Institutes,
Inc.

Hayes, R., and G. Timbers, 1980, Alcohol Fuels from Agriculture - A DiscU3sion Paper,
Report 1-165, Engineering and Statistical Research Institute, Ottawa, Ontario, Canada:
Agriculture Canada.

International Solar Energy Society Ad-Hoc Committee Members on Standardization and

Education, 1984, "Glossary of Terms Used in Solar Energy," Solar Energy, Vol. 33, No.1,
pp.97-114.

Kresovich, 5., C. Wagner, D. Scantland, S. Groet, and W. Lawhon, 1982, The Utilization
of Emergent Aquatic Plants for Biomass Energy Systems Development, Prepared by
Battelle Columbus, SERI/TR-98281-03, Golden, CO: Solar Energy Research Institute.

Levi, M., and M. O'Grady, 1980, Decision Maker's Guide to Wood Fuel for Small IndU3trial
Energy Users, Prepared by School of Forest Resources, North Carolina State University,
Raleigh, NC, SERI/TR-8234-1, Golden, CO: Solar Energy Research Institute.

VII-22
National Academy of Sciences, 1980, Firewood Crops-Shrub and Tree Species for Energy
Production, Washington, DC: National Academy of Sciences.

Palmer, L., R. McKusick, and M. Bailey, 1980, Wood and Energy in New England - A
Review and Bibliography, Bibliographies and Literature of Agriculture No.7, Washing­
ton, DC: USDA, Biomass, Statistics and Cooperative Services.

Sarkanen, K., and D. Tillman, editors, 1980, Progress in Biomass Conversion Vol. 2,
New York: Academic Press.

Snyder, E., editor, 1972, Glossary for Forest Tree Improvement Workers, New Orleans:
USDA Southern Forest Experiment Station, Forest Service.

Solar Energy Research Institute, Fuels from Farms - A Guide to Small-Scale Ethanol
Production, 1980, SERI/SP-451-519R, Golden, CO: Solar Energy Research Institute.

Solar Energy Research Institute, 1982, Biomass Research Highlights, SERI/SP-281-1742,

Golden, CO: Solar Energy Research Institute.

Solar Energy Research Institute, 1982, Ethanol Fuels - Reference Guide, SERI/SP-451­
442, Golden, CO; Solar Energy Research Institute.

Timbers, G., and D. Marshall, 1981, Biogas as a Farm Energy Source, Report 1-297,
Engineering and Statistical Research Institute, Ottawa, Ontario, Canada: Agriculture
Canada.

U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, n.d., An Analysis of the Timber Situa­
tion in the United States 1952-2030, Forest Resource Report No. 23, Washington, DC:
U.S. Department of Agriculture.

U.S. Department of Energy, 1982, Biomass Energy Technology Program Summary,

DOE/ET /20647-1, Prepared by Meridian Corporation/PRC Systems Services, Falls
Church, VA, Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Energy.

U.S. Department of Energy, Biomass Energy Technology Division, 1983, Biomass Energy
Technology Annual Technical Progress Report, FY 1982, Vol. I. Executive Summary,
SERI/SP-281-2154, Golden, CO: Solar Energy Research Institute.

U.S. Department of Energy, Office of Scientific and Technical Information, 1985,

Renewable Energy - A Glossary, DOE/TIC-1l617, Oak Ridge, TN: U.S. DOE Office of
Scientific and Technical Information.

U.S. National Alcohol Fuels Commission, 1980, Fuel Alcohol on the Farm - A Primer on
Production and Use, Washington, DC: U.S. National Alcohol Fuels Commission.

Wilcox, R., compiler, 1983, Energy Conversion and Utilization Technologies Program,
Chemical Processes Project Report FY 1982, JPL-PUB-83-58, Pasadena, CA: Jet Propul­
sion Laboratory. (Also DOE/CS/66001-1, Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Energy.)

World Energy Conference, 1983, Energy Terminology, A Multi-Lingual Glossary: A

Glossary for Engineers, Research Workers, Industrialists, and Economists, NY: Pergamon
Press.

VII-23
 Selected Readings

Although the publications on the following list were not used in compiling this glossary,
they may be of interest to the audience addressed here and may be consulted for special
interests.

American Society for Testing and Materials, 1982, Compilation of ASTM Standard Defi­
nitions, Philadelphia, PA: ASTM.

American Society for Testing and Materials, n.d., Excerpts from Standard for Metric
Practice, ASTM-380, Philadelphia, PA: ASTM.

American Society for Testing and Materials, 1980, Standard Nomenclature of Domestic
Hardwoods and Softwoods, ASTM-D 1165-80, Philadelphia, PAl ASTM.

American Society for Testing and Materials, n.d., Standard Terminology Relating to
Biomass Fuels, ASTM El126-86, Philadelphia, PAl ASTM.

American Society for Testing and Materials, n.d., Thesaurus on Resource Recovery
Terminology, ASTM STP-832, Philadelphia, PAl ASTM.

Association Francaise de Normalisation, n.d., Wood: Timber Glossary, AFNOR NF 850­

002-61, Par is: AFNOR.

Association Francaise de Normalisation, n.d., Wood: Vocabulary, AFNOR NF B50-003­

85, Paris: AFNOR.

Canad.i.a.n Standards Association,. .Il..d..,. M.aJl1JD1..o,f Ts.r.J1l8.and Ds,fir.Ut..iJ:lD3 BSCD:mWs.ndBd ,fnr

Use in CSA Wood Standards, CSA 0414-M1986, Rexdale, Ontario, Canada; CSA.

Dravo Corporation, 1980, Synfuels Glossary, Pittsburgh, PA: Dravo Corporation.

Drew, A.P., L. Zsuffs, and C. P. Mitchell, 1987, "Terminology Relating to Woody Plant
Biomass and Its Production," Biomass 128:79-82.

Fowler, J. M., and K. C. Kryger, 1977, .Alternative Energy Sources - A Glossary of

Terms, Factsheet No. 18, Washington, DC: National Science Teachers Association.

Gold, V., K. L. Loening, A.D. McNaught, and P. Sehmi, compilers, 1987, Compendium of
Chemical Terminology: International Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry Recommen­
dations, London: Blackwell Scientific Publications.

Harmathy, T. Z., 1984, "Burning, Pyrolysis, Combustion and Char-oxidation: Need for
Clarifying Terminology," Fire and Materials 8(4):224-226.

International Association of Wood Anatomists, Committee on Nomenclature, 1964,

Multilingual Glossary of Terms Used in Wood Anatomy, Winterthur: Verlaganstadt
Buchdruckerei Konkordia.

"IUPAC Recommendations on Nomenclature and Symbols and Technical Reports from

Commissions," September 1988, Pure and Applied Chemistry 60(9):1385-1461.

Japanese Industrial Standards, n.d., Glossary of Terms Used in the Pulp and Paper Indus­
try, JIS P 0001-79, Tokyo: JIS.

VII-24
"List of Symbols with Units Recommended for Use in Biotechnology," 1982, Pure and
Appl. Chem. 54(5):1743-1749.

Nentwig, K., compiler, 1985, Elsevier's Dictionary of Solar Technology (in English, Ger­
man, French, Spanish, and Italian), NY: Elsevier Science Publishing Co., Inc.

Secretariat of the European Parliament, 1982, Terminology of New and Renewable

Sources of Energy (English, French, Italian, German, Dutch, and Danish indexes),
Luxemburg.

Sicard-Lussier, T., 1984, Harvesting of Forest Biomass for Energy - A Terminology Study,
ENFOR P-280, Ottawa, Ontario, Canada: Forest Engineering Research Institute of
Canada.

Stanek, W., 1974, Peatland Terminology: A List of Terms and Definitions. Final Report
of the I.U.F.R.P. Working Group. 51.05.1.

Terminology on the Characteristics of Fuel Peat and Coal, 1983, SARJA 0:42, Helsinki,
Finland: Valtion Teknillinen Tutkimuskeskus, Poltto-Ja Voiteluainelaboratorio.

Thesaurus of Scientific, Technical, and Engineering Terms, 1988, New York: Hemisphere
Publishing Corp.

Worley, I. A., 1983, "A Terminology of Virgin Peat and Peatlands," In Symposium on Peat
Utilization, edited by C. H. Fuchsman and S. A. SpigareUi, pp. 75-102.

VII-25

 INDEX OF STANDARDS BY ORGANIZATION

Association Francalse de Normalisation Association of Omcial Analytical Chemists (can't)

NF B 51-003-85 9 AOAC 3.040 77

NF B 51-004-85 93 AOAC 3.041 78

NF B 51-005-85 21 AOAC 3,044 78

NF T 12-007-87 127 AOAC 3.045 78

NF T 12-008-87 123 AOAC 3.049 78

NF T 12-010-87 127 AOAC 3.052 78

NF T 12-014-61 127 AOAC 3.054 78

NF T 12-019-87 127 AOAC 3.061 78

NF T 12-028-87 lOS AOAC 3.066 78

NF T 90-103-75 251 AOAC 3.067 78

NF X 11-500-85 27 AOAC 3.068 78

NF X 11-507-70 27 AOAC 3.069 71

NF X 11-666-84 27 AOAC 3.070 71

NF X 11-671-81 27 AOAC 3.071 71

AOAC 3.072 71

American Gas AssociatIon AOAC 3.073 71

AGA Z223.l-84 239 AOAC 3.074 71

AOAC 3.075 71

American Institute of Chemical Engineers AOAC 3.081 71

AIChE E20-80 259 AOAC 3.082 71

AOAC 3.095 78

Assolcation of Ofnclal Analytical Chemists AOAC 3.097 79

AOAC 112 79 AOAC 3.098 79

AOAC 113 79 AOAC 3.101 79

AOAC 2198 9 AOAC 3.102 79

AOAC 2.199 9 AOAC 3.108 67

AOAC 2.200 93 AOAC 3.109 67

AOAC 2.201 93 AOAC 3.110 67

AOAC 2.202 27 AOAC 3.111 67

AOAC 2.207 lOS, 179 AOAC 3.112 155

AOAC 2.208 105, 179 AOAC 3.115 155

AOAC 2.209 lOS, 179 AOAC 3.116 155

AOAC 2.210 179 AOAC 3.118 155

AOAC 2.211 61, 179 AOAC 3.119 155

AOAC 2.212 93, 179 AOAC 3.120 155

AOAC 2.213 93, 179 AOAC 3.122 155

AOAC 2.214 93, 179 AOAC 3.124 163

AOAC 2.216 179 AOAC 3.125 163

AOAC 2.217 179 AOAC 3.126 163

AOAC 2.218 179 AOAC 3.127 163

AOAC 2.219 179 AOAC 3.128 155

AOAC 2.220 179 AOAC 3.130 127

AOAC 2.221 179 AOAC 3.131 127

AOAC 2.222 179 AOAC 3.132 127

AOAC 2.223 179 AOAC 3.133 127

AOAC 2.224 179 AOAC 3.134 127

AOAC 2,225 179 AOAC 7.001 9

AOAC 3.001 9 AOAC 7.003 93

AOAC 3.002 9 AOAC 7.004 93

AOAC 3.003 93 AOAC 7.005 93

AOAC 3.004 lOS AOAC 7.006 93

AOAC 3.005 lOS AOAC 7.007 93

AOAC 3.006 77 AOAC 7.009 105

AOAC 3,013 77 AOAC 7.010 163

AOAC 3.017 77 AOAC 7.015 163

AOAC 3.018 77 AOAC 7.016 163

AOAC 3.019 77 AOAC 7.021 163

AOAC 3.029 77 AOAC 7.025 163

AOAC 3.033 77 AOAC 7.033 163

AOAC 3.035 77 AOAC 7.066 169

AOAC 3.038 77 AOAC 7.067 169

AOAC 3.039 77 AOAC 7.068 169

Index 1-1

Association of Official Analytical Chemists (con't)

Australian and New Zealand Pulp and Paper
AOAC 7.069 169
Industry Technkal Association (ron't)
AOAC 7.070 169
Appita P408m-70 61

AOAC 7.071 169

Appita P41Om-56 105

AOAC 7.072 169

Appita P417m-73 9

AOAC 7.073 169

Appita P418s:78 106

AOAC 7.074 127, 169

AOAC 7.075 127, 169

American Society of Agricultural Engineers
AOAC 7.076 127, 169
ASAB D241.3 21,94

AOAC 7.077 127, 169

ASAB D243.3 45

AOAC 7.078 155

ASAB D245.4 94

AOAC 7.084 155

ASAB BP285.7 30S
AOAC 7.085 155
ASAB S269.3 94, 193

AOAC 7.090 123

ASAB S319.1 27

AOAC 7.091 156

ASAB S352.2 94

AOAC 7.093 105

ASAB S358.2 94

AOAC 7.094 105

ASAB S424 27

AOAC 7.095 105

AOAC 7.096 105

American Society of Mechanical Engineers

AOAC 7.097 105

ASMB MFC-IM-1979
317

AOAC 7.098 lOS

ASME MFC-2M-1983
317

AOAC 7.099 lOS

ASME MFC-3M-1985
317

AOAC 7.100 lOS

ASME FTC 3.1-58
207

AOAC 7.101 79
ASME FTC 3.2-54
193

AOAC 7.102 106

ASME FTC 3.3-69
239

AOAC 7.104 71
ASME FTC 4.1-64
271

AOAC 7.106 71
ASME FTC 4.3-68
271

AOAC 7.109 79
ASME FTC 6S-70
271

AOAC 7.110 79
ASME FTC 16-58
279

AOAC 7.111 79
ASME FTC 17-73
271

AOAC 7.114 71
ASME FTC 19.1-85
305

AOAC 7.119 71
ASME FTC 19.2-64
317

AOAC 7.111 7~ A§,MH ¥fC 1~J:74 :317

AOAC 7.123 79
ASME FTC 19.7-80 271

AOAC 7.125 79
ASME FTC 19.10-81 259

ASME FTC 19.16-65 21

Association of Pellet Fuel Industries

ASME FTC 19.17-65 207

APFI PF-I-88 193

ASME FTC 21-41
259

ASME FTC 22-85

271

American PubUc Health Association

ASME PTC 28-65
259

16th Bdition 251

ASME FTC 33-78
271

ASME PTC 38-80

259

American Petroleum Institute

Petroleum Measurements Standards

American Society for Testing and Materials

MlUlual 207
ASTM C 177-85
45

ASTM C 518-85
45

Australian and New Zealand Pulp and Paper ASTM C 1067-87

30S
Industry Technical Association
ASTM D-2 Prop:>sal P 104
227

Appita P1s:79 21
ASTM D 56-87
207

Appita P2m-73 9
ASTM D 70-82 (1986)
21

Appita P3s:78 106

ASTM D 86-82
207

Appita P4m-61 (1981) 139

ASTM D 88-81 (1987)
207

Appita P5m-68 (1981) 139

ASTM D 92-85
207

Appita P6rp-78 127

ASTM D 93-85
208

Appita P7m-70 139

ASTM D 95-83
94

Appita P8m-59 139

ASTM D 96-73 (1984)
95

Appita P9m-68 119

ASTM D 97-87
208

Appita PIOrp-86 93
ASTM D 121-85
193

Appita Plls:1978 128

ASTM D 129-64 (1978)
67

Appita PI2s-79 139

ASTM D 130-83
208

Appita P200m-77 94
ASTM D 167-73 (1979)
193

Appita P201m-86 128

ASTM D 189-88
208

Appita P204m-56 lOS

ASTM 194RO
227

Appita P2lOm-69 139

ASTM D 197-82 (1987)
28

Appita P401s-78 94
ASTM D 216-77 (1982)
208

Appita P403 rp-73 305

ASTM D 240-87
39

Index 1-2

American Society for Testing and Materials Con't American Society for Testing and Materials Con't
ASTM D 246-84 243 ASTM D 1613-85 243
ASTM D 285-62 (1978) 209 ASTM D 1619-86 67

ASTM D 287-82 (Reapproved 1987) 21 ASTM D 1627-71 (1987) 80

ASTM D 293-69 (1980) 28 ASTM D 1628-83 80

ASTM D 311-84 28 ASTM D 1655-88 213

ASTM D 323-82 209 ASTM D 1695-77 (1983) 117

ASTM D 346-78 9 ASTM D 1696-61 (1985) 117

ASTM D 396-86 209 ASTM D 1704-78 260

ASTM D 409-85 193 ASTM D 1716-82 (1987) 118

ASTM D 410-84 28 ASTM D 1744-83 95

ASTM D 431-84 28 ASTM D 1757-86 68

ASTM D 439-86 209 ASTM D 1762-84 194

ASTM D 440-86 193 ASTM D 1787-62 (1985) 123

ASTM D 441-86 194 ASTM D 1794-62 (1985) 141

ASTM D 445-86 210 ASTM D 1795-62 (1985) 118

ASTM D 473-87 210 ASTM D 1796-83 96

ASTM D 482-87 106 ASTM D 1826-88 39

ASTM D 525-86 210 ASTM D 1857-68 (1987) 194

ASTM D 547-41 (1980) 194 ASTM D 1888-78 251

ASTM D 583-63 Discontinued 106 ASTM D 1914-68 (1983) 260

ASTM D 588-42 (1971) Discontinued 117 ASTM D 1915-63 (1985) 118

ASTM D 613-86 210 ASTM D 1926-63 (1985) 151

ASTM D 644-88 95 ASTM D 1946-82 239

ASTM D 664-87 210 ASTM D 2009-65 (1979) 260

ASTM D 665-82 211 ASTM D 2013-72 (1986) 10

ASTM D 803-82 (1987) 139 ASTM D 2014-85 45

ASTM D 804-79 (1987) 140 ASTM D 2015-85 39

ASTM D 856-49 (1987) 140 ASTM D 2016-74 (1983) (Withdrawn 1988) 96

ASTM D 909-86 211 ASTM D 2019-65 (1970) Discontinued 107

ASTM D 974-87 211 ASTM D 2044-68 (1974) (Discontinued) 96

ASTM D 975-81 211 ASTM D 2156-80 213

ASTM D 982-65 (1971) 61 ASTM D 2161-87 213

ASTM D 1018-87 53 ASTM D 2196-81 214

ASTM D 1033-76 80 ASTM D 2234-82 (1986) 10

ASTM D 1035-76 (1987) 80 ASTM D 2270-86 214

ASTM D 1070-85 22 ASTM D 2361-85 72

ASTM D 1071-83 239 ASTM D 2382-83 39

ASTM D 1072-80 67 ASTM D 2395-83 22

ASTM D 1078-86 212 ASTM D 2425-83 214

ASTM D 1102-84 106 ASTM D 2427-87 214

ASTM D 1103-60 (1977) Discontinued 117 ASTM D 2438-68 (1985) 107

ASTM D 1104-56 (1978) Discontinued 117 ASTM D 2492-84 68

ASTM D 1105-84 10, 140 ASTM D 2500-86 215

ASTM D 1107-84 140 ASTM D 2502-87 215

ASTM D 1108-84 140 ASTM D 2503-82 (1987) 215

ASTM D 1109-84 141 ASTM D 2504-88 325

ASTM D 1110-84 141 ASTM D 2549-85 215

ASTM D 1142-86 95 ASTM D 2579-85 251

ASTM D 1159-84 212 ASTM D 2639-74 (1985) 195

ASTM D 1160-87 212 ASTM D 2641-70 (1985) 72

ASTM D 1161-70.(1974) 72 ASTM D 2650-83 239

ASTM D 1166-84 151 ASTM D 2652-76 (1987) 243

ASTM D 1247-80 (Discontinued 1987) 239 ASTM D 2699-86 216

ASTM D 1252-88 251 ASTM D 2700-86 216

ASTM D 1293-84 251 ASTM D 2717-86 45

ASTM D 1298-85 22 ASTM D 2766-86 46

ASTM D 1310-86 212 ASTM D 2777-86 305

ASTM D 1319-84 213 ASTM D 2786-86 216

ASTM D 1326-76 (1987) 80 ASTM D 2789-86 216

ASTM D 1348-61 (1985) 95 ASTM D 2795-86 107

ASTM D 1356-73a (1979) 259 ASTM D 2854-83 23

ASTM D 1481-81 22 ASTM D 2862-82 (1987) 29

ASTM D 1506-85 107 ASTM D 2866-83 107

ASTM D 1605-60 (1979) 259 ASTM D 2867-83 96

ASTM D 1608-77 (1985) 259 ASTM D 2879-86 217

Index 1-3
American Society for Testing and Materials Cont'd American Society for Testing and Materials Con't
ASTM D 2885-86 217 ASTM D 4150-84 240

ASTM D 2886-86 217 ASTM D 4182-87a 306

ASTM D 2887-84 217 ASTM D 4208-88 72

ASTM D 2889-86 218 ASTM D 4210-83 306

ASTM D 2890-87 46 ASTM D 4239-85 69

ASTM D 2892-84 218 ASTM D 4278-83 81

ASTM D 2896-85 218 ASTM D 4278-88 108

ASTM D 2908-74 (1987) 252 ASTM D 4326-84 81

ASTM D 2910-85 252 ASTM D 4377-86 98

ASTM D 2929-70 (1985) 68 ASTM D 4442-84 98

ASTM D 2961-87 97 ASTM D 4486-85 220

ASTM D 2973-71 (1981) 61 ASTM D 4536-86a 263

ASTM D 2974-87 179 ASTM D 4607-87 244

ASTM D 2976-71 (1981) 180 ASTM D 4621-86 306

ASTM D 2988-86 72 ASTM D 4625-86 220

ASTM D 3038-72 (1983) 195 ASTM D 4626-86 240

ASTM D 3162-78 260 ASTM D 4629-86 62

ASTM D 3173-87 97 ASTM D 4657-87 253

ASTM D 3172-73 (1984) 89 ASTM D 4749-87 29

ASTM D 3174-88 108 ASTM D 4806-88 227

ASTM D 3175-82 89 ASTM D 4807-88 220

ASTM D 3176-84 53 ASTM D 4808-88 53, 220

ASTM D 3177-84 68 ASTM D 4809-88 40

ASTM D 3178-84 53 ASTM D 4814-88 221

ASTM D 3179-84 61 ASTM D 4815-88 221

ASTM D 3180-84 195 ASTM D 4868-88 221

ASTM D 3195-73 (1985) 317 ASTM D 4874 247

ASTM D 3211-79 261 ASTM E 1-88 317

ASTM D 3231-83 218 ASTM E 11-87 29

ASTM D 3237-79 (1984) 219 ASTM E 69-80 295

ASTM D 3239-86 219 ASTM E 105-58 (1975) 11

ASTM D 3245-85 219 ASTM E 122-72 (1979) 11

ASTM D 3249-79 261 ASTM E 131-88 333

ASTM D 3250-77 (1982) 252 ASTM E 137-82 (1987) 333

ASTM D 3286-85 40 ASTM E 141-69 (1975) 11

ASTM D 3302-82 97 ASTM E 144-64 (1987) 40

ASTM D 3365-77 (Discontinued) 261 ASTM E 161-87 29

ASTM D 3370-82 253 ASTM E 169-87 333

ASTM D 3402-81 195 ASTM E 177-86 306

ASTM D 3416-78 261 ASTM E 178-80 307

ASTM D 3457-87 175 ASTM E 203-86 98

ASTM D 3507-86 183 ASTM E 204-78 (1984) 333

ASTM D 3516-76 (1985) 108 ASTM E 220-86 317

ASTM D 3588-81 240 ASTM E 230-87 318

ASTM D 3590-84 61 ASTM E 235-82 318

ASTM D 3670-81 305 ASTM E 258-67 (1987) 62

ASTM D 3682-87 81 ASTM E 260-85 325

ASTM D 3683-78 (1983) 81 ASTM E 304-81 (1987) 334

ASTM D 3685-78 262 ASTM E 323-80 (1985) 30

ASTM D 3686-84 262 ASTM E 380-86 307

ASTM D 3687-84 262 ASTM E 386-78 (1984) 334

ASTM D 3701-87 53 ASTM E 437-85 30

ASTM D 3710-83 219 ASTM E 452-83 318

ASTM D 3797-88 220 ASTM E 454-80 (1985) 30

ASTM D 3828-87 220 ASTM E 456-88 307

ASTM D 3838-80 (1986) 243 ASTM E 472-86 46

ASTM D 3922-80 243 ASTM E 473-85 46

ASTM D 3971-80 (1985) 141 ASTM E 537-86 47

ASTM D 4006-81 (1987) 97 ASTM E 582-88 295

ASTM D 4007-81 (1987) 98 ASTM E 585-88 318

ASTM D 4052-86 23 ASTM E 594-77 325

ASTM D 4084-82 240 ASTM E 644-86 319

ASTM D 4085-81 (1987) 81 ASTM E 659-78 (1984) 295

ASTM D 4096-82 262 ASTM E 663-86 334

ASTM D 4128-82 253 ASTM E 691-87 307

Index 1-4
American Society for Testing and Materials Con't British Standards Institution Con't
ASTM E 711-81
40
BS 1846:-Part 1:1968 271

ASTM E 775-87
69
BS 1846:-Part 2:1969 271

ASTM E 776-87
73
BS 2000 (Many Parts) 221

ASTM E 777-87
54
BS 2074:1967 31

ASTM E 778-87
62
BS 2511:1970 99

ASTM E 790-81 (1987)

98
BS 3156
241

ASTM E 791-87
195
BS 3405:1983 263

ASTM E 793-81 (1985)

47
BS 3406
263

ASTM E 828-81
30
BS 3406--Part 1:1986 32

ASTM E 829-81
11
BS 3631:1984 109

ASTM E 830-87
108
BS 4289
175

ASTM E 856-87
196
BS 4314:Part 1:1968 241

ASTM E 869-82 (1987)

283
BS 4496:1984 109

ASTM E 870-82 (1987)

196
BS 4498:1982 128

ASTM E 871-82 (1987)

99
BS 4499: 1984
141

ASTM E 872-82 (1987)

89
BS 4896: 1973
109

ASTM E 873-87
23
BS 4937
319

ASTM E 885-88
82
BS 6306:1982 183

ASTM E 886-88
82

ASTM E 887-88
108
Code of Federal Regulations Versus
ASTM E 889-82 (1988)
12
18 CPR 707
254

ASTM E 897-88
89
30 CPR 823
184

ASTM E 899-82 (1987)

308
40 CPR 50
264

ASTM E 914-83 (1987)

319
40 CPR 53
264

ASTM E 918-83
295
40 CPR 60
264

ASTM E 926-88
82
40 CFR 61
265

ASTM E 949-88
99
40 CFR 69
265

ASTM E 953-88
196
40 CFR 79
223

ASTM E 954-83 (1988)

12
40 CPR 80
223

ASTM E 955-83 (1988)

47
40 CFR 116
254

ASTM E 959-83 (1988)

196
40 CFR 117
254

ASTM E 1037-84
31
40 CPR 129
254

ASTM E 1076-85
196
40 CFR 131
254

ASTM E 1107-86
197
40 CFR 257
247

ASTM E 1108-86
197
40 CPR 430
254

ASTM E 1109-86
23

ASTM E 1117-86
283
Canadian Gas Association
ASTM E 1126-86
197
CANI-2.27-M84 272

ASTM E 1131-86
47
CAN/CGA·B 105-M87 283

ASTM E 1183 (1987)

99

ASTM E 1183-87
12
Canadian Pulp and Paper Association
ASTM E 1225-87
48
CPPA A.IH 23

ASTM E 1260·88
31
CPPA A.2 99

ASTM E 1269
48
CPPA A.8P 24

ASTM E 1288-89
197
CPPA D.18H 183

ASTM STP 832

12
CPPA G.l 100

CPPA G.3 100

American Water Works Association CPPA G.4 AND 0.5 141

16th Edition 251

CPPA 0.6 AND 0.7 142

CPPA 0.8 128

British Standards Institution

CPPA 0.9 128

BS 410:1986 '
31
CPPA 0.10 109

BS 627:1982
12, 175
CPPA G.11 109

BS 631:1967
175
CPPA 0.12 123

BS 651:1967
175
CPPA G.13 142

BS 653:1967
175
CPPA 0.14 142

BS 684:Part 0:1982
175
CPPA 0.15 142

BS 1016 (Many Parts)

197
CPPA G.16 129

BS 1017:1977 (Parts 1 and 2)

13
CPPA 0.17H 129

BS 1038
183
CPPA 0.18 129

BS 1041
319
CPPA G.20 142

BS 1042
319
CPPA G.24P 118

BS 1293
31
CPPA G.26 119. 142

BS 1301
183
CPPA G.27P 119

BS 1469:1962
221
CPPA G.28 69

Index 1-5

Canadian Pulp and Paper Association Con't Deutsches Institut fur Normung Con't
CPPA G.29P 119 DIN 51780 222
CPPA G.31P 13 DIN 51872 Parts 1-4 241
CPPA G.33P 109 DIN 51853 241
CPPA H.2 253 DIN 51900 Parts 1-3 40
CPPA H.3P 254 DIN 54352 184
CPPA Useful Method D.3U-77 109 DIN 54355 184
CPPA Useful Method D.12U-77 32 DIN 54356 142
CPPA Useful Method D.25U 32 DIN 54357 129
CPPA Useful Method D.26U 32 DIN 54361 123
CPPA Useful Method D.27H 32
CPPA Useful Method G.9U-77 118 European Committee for Standardization
EN 41 69
Canadian Standards Association see DIN 51400 222
CSA Z90-1975 13
CAN 3.1-M78 222 U.s. Environmental Protection Agency
CAN 2-3.2-M81 222 EPA 40 CFR 79 223
CAN 2-3.3-M85 222 EPA 40 CFR 80 223
CAN 3.5-M79 222 EPA 40 CFR 257 247
CAN 2-3.6·M83 222 EPN600/54-87/006 263
CAN/CSA-B 140.0-M87 272 30 CPR 823 184
CAN/CSA·B365-M87 272 40 CFR 50 264
CAN/CSA-B366.1-M87 272 40 CFR 53 264
CSA DIR.OO6-1988 273 40 CFR 60 264
CSA Z103·1976 273 40 CFR 61 265
CAN/CSA B366.2-MI984 273 40 CFR 69 265
CSA CAN3-Z234.1-79 308
CSA CAN3-Z234.2-76 308 USSR State Committee for Standards
CSA Z351-1980 308 GOST 147-74 198
CSA Z372-1980 308 GOST 10650·72 180
GOST 11305-83 100
Deutsches Instltut fur Normung GOST 11306-83 111
W~\~ ?All
DIN 1942; 1979
273 International Standards Organization
DIN 1952
320 ISO 186:1985 13
DIN 4702; 1987
273 ISO 302:1981 129
DIN 5499
40 ISO 331:1983 100
DIN 18800
273 ISO 332:1981 62
DIN 18890
273 ISO 333:1983 62
DIN 51400 (Many Parts)
222 ISO 334:1975 69
see EN 41
69 ISO 351:1984 69
DIN 51402 Part 1
263 ISO 352:1981 73
DIN 51406
222 ISO 540:1981 198
DIN 51649 (Part 1)
295 ISO 542:1980 176
E DIN 51700
198 ISO 556: 1980 198
DIN 51700, Part 1
198 ISO 565-83 33
DIN 51700, Parts 2-4
198 ISO 602:1983 111
DIN 51701 Part 2
13 ISO 609:1975 54
DIN 51718
100 ISO 625:1975 54
DIN 51718·78
180 ISO 638:1978 184
DIN 51719
110 ISO 659:1979 176
DIN 51719·78
180 ISO 664: 1972 176
DIN 51720
89 ISO 665:1977 176
DIN 51720-78
180 ISO 692:1982 142
DIN 51724 Parts 1-2
69 ISO 734:1979 176
DIN 51729 Part 1
110 ISO 760:1978 100
DIN 51729 Part 2
110 ISO 776: 1982 111
DIN 51729 Part 3
110 ISO 1170:1977 184
DIN 51729 Part 4
110 ISO 1171:1981 111
DIN 51729 Part 5
110 ISO 1762:1974 111
DIN 51729 Part 6
110 ISO 1928:1976 41
DIN 51729 Part 7
110 ISO 1953:1972 33
DIN 51729 Part 8
III ISO 1988:1975 13
DIN 51729 Part 9
111 ISO 1994:1976 57
DIN 51729, Parts 1-9
198 ISO 2395:72 33
DIN 51730
198 ISO 3129-75 13

Index 1·6
International Standards Organization Con',
National Fire Protection Association Con',

ISO 4471-82
13
NFPA 85F-88 299

ISO 5069-1:1983
14
NFPA 85G-87 300

ISO 5069-2:1983
14
NFPA 97M-88 273

ISO 5163:1972
223
NFPA 211:88 273,300

ISO 5164:1977
223
NFPA 259-87 300

ISO 5165:1977
223
NFPA 263-86 300

ISO 5507:1982
176
NFPA 321-87 300

ISO 5511:1984
176
NFPA 6M':87 300

ISO 6286:1982
334

ISO 6955:1982
335
Standards Association or Australia

ISO 7213:1981
14
AS P4m-61 143

ISO 7504:1984
241
AS 1038 198

AS 1301 139

Japanese Industrial Standards AS 1301, P3s:1978 106

JIS B 7963-79
263
AS 1301, p6rp:1978 127, 129

ns K 0050-83
308
AS 1301, P9m:1968 119

ns K 0095-79
263
AS 1301. PIOrp:1986 93

JIS K 0118-79
335
AS 1301, PUs: 1978 130

JIS P 8001-1976 (1985) 14

AS 1301. P12s-79 143

JIS P 8003-1976
111
AS 1301, P200m:1977 94

JIS P 8004-1976
143
AS 1301. P201m:1986 128

JIS P 8005-1976 (1985) 143

AS 1301, P418s:1978 106

JIS P 8007-1976 (1984) 119

AS 1301, 0058-1967 139

JIS P 8008-1976 (1984) 129

JIS P 8009-1976 (1984) 143

Standards Association or New Zealand

JIS P 8010-1976 (1984) 143

NZS 535 33

ns P 8011-1976
123
NZS 2175:1967 33

JIS P 8012-1976 (1984) 119

NZS 5201:1973 264

ns P 8013-1976
151
NZS 5201C:I975 264

JIS P 8015-1976
100
NZS 5201M:1975 264

JIS Z 2120-58
295
NZS 5202:1979 274

NZS 7401:1985 274

National Fire Protection Association

NZS 7421:1985 274

NFPA SEC APPB

297

NFPA SEC 4-1

296
ScandinavIan Pulp, Paper and Board

NFPA SEC 4-3

296
SCAN-C I:77R 130

NFPA SEC 4-4

296
SCAN-C 2:61 143

NFPA SEC 5-2

296
SCAN-C 3:78 184

NFPA SEC 5-9

296
SCAN-C 4:61 123

NFPA SEC 10-1

296
SCAN-C 6:62 111

NFPA SEC 10-11

296
SCAN-C 7:62 143

NFPA SEC 10-12

296
SCAN-C 8:62 144

NFPA SEC 10-14

297
SCAN-C 9:62 112

NFPA SEC 11-8

297
SCAN-C 10:62 83

NFPA SEC 12-9

297
SCAN-C 29:72 130

NFPA SEC 16-5

297
SCAN-C 30:73 83

NFPA Pt2 Ch7

297
SCAN-O 2:63 308

NFPA Pt2 Ch12

297
SCAN-G 3:71 119

NFPA Pt2 Ch14

297
SCAN-O 4:72 119

NFPA Pt3 Ch32

298
SCAN-P 1:61 14

NFPA Pt3 Ch33

298
SCAN-P 4:63 101

NFPA Pt3 Ch34

298
SCAN-P 5:63 111

NFPA Pt4 Ch42

298
SCAN-P 52:84 156, 184

NFPA 37-84
298
SCAN-P 54:84 73

NFPA 46-85
298
SCAN-P 56:86 63

NFPA 46A-1973
198
SCAN-T 1:65 144

NFPA 50-85
298
SCAN-T 2:65 144

NFPA 54-88
298
SCAN-T 3:66 144

NFPA 61B-89
299
SCAN-T 4:66 144

NFPA 61C-89
299
SCAN-T 5:67 144

NFPA 610-84
299
SCAN-T 6:67 145

NFPA 85A-87
299
SCAN-T 7:67 145

NFPA 85B-84
299
SCAN-T 8:68 145

NFPA 850-84
299
SCAN-T 9:68 145

NFPA 85E-85
299
SCAN-T 10:69 145

Index 1-7

Scandinavian Pulp, Paper and Board Con't Technical Association of the Pulp and Paper
SCAN-T 11:72 145 Industry Con't
SCAN-T 12:72 146 TAPPI T 418 om-85 63
SCAN-T 13:74 146 TAPPI T 429 em-84 120
SCAN-T 14:78 146 T APPI T 635 om-82 147
SCAN-T 15:78 146 T APPI T 638 em-85 156
SCAN-T 16:82 146 TAPPI T 689 om-88 147
SCAN-W 1:66 254 T APPI Useful Method 2 24
SCAN-W 5:71 255 T APPI Useful Method 4 14
TAPPI Useful Method 5 33
Technical Association of tbe Pulp and Paper TAPPI Useful Method 6 33
Industry TAPPI Useful Method 7 101
TAPPI T 1 wd-75 146 TAPPI Useful Method 8 101
TAPPI T 2 wd-72 151 TAPPI Useful Method 9 24
TAPPI T 17 wd-70 120 T APPI Useful Method 10 101
TAPPI T 20 wd-85 184 TAPPI Useful Method 11 113
TAPPI T 21 wd-82 24 TAPPI Useful Method 12 24
TAPPI T 201 wd-76 120 TAPPI Useful Method 13 33
TAPPI T 203 om-88 120 TAPPI Useful Method 16 24
TAPPI T 204 om-88 146 TAPPI Useful Method 21 33
TAPPI T 207 om-88 146 T APPI Useful Method 23 24
TAPPI T 208 om-84 101 TAPPI Useful Method 201 130
TAPPI T 209 wd-79 151 TAPPI Useful Method 228 130
TAPPI T 211 om-85 112 T APPI Useful Method 229 130
TAPPI T 213 om-85 112 TAPPI Useful Method 236 124
TAPPI T 222 om-88 131 T APPI Useful Method 245 130
TAPPI T 223 em-84 123 TAPPI Useful Method 246 130
TAPPI T 229 wd-76 70,73 TAPPI Useful Method 250 130
TAPPI T 230 om-82 185 TAPPI Useful Method 251 131
TAPPI T 236 em-85 131 TAPPI Useful Method 254 70,73
T APPI T 237 om-88 152 TAPPI Useful Method 257 147
T APPI T 238 wd-75 120 TAPPI Useful Method 496 113
T APPI T 244 om-88 112
T APPI T 245 om-88 112 Underwriters' Laboratodes, Inc.
TAPPI T 249 em-85 156 UL 103 274
TAPPI T 250 em-85 156 UL 391 274
TAPPI T 255 om-84 70 UL 959 274
TAPPI T 256 em-85 73 UL 1482 274
TAPPI T 257 em-85 14 UL 1777 274
TAPPI T 258 om-85 101
TAPPI T 264 om-88 14 Underwriters' Laboratories of Canada
TAPPI T 265 om-87 112 CAN/ULC-S604 (1982) 275
TAPPI T 266 om-88 83 CAN/ULC-S627 (1983) 275
TAPPI T 267 em-85 184 CAN/ULC-S629 (1987) 275
TAPPI T 412 om-88 102 CAN/ULC-S641 (1987) 275
TAPPI T 413 em-85 113

Index 1-8
 SUBJECT INDEX

acetyl 153, 154 coke 9, 13, 28, 31, 33, 39, 40, 53, 54, 61, 68,
acid copper chromate 80 69, 81. 89, 97, 107. 108, 183,
acid munber 145 184, 193-195, 197-199, 306
activated carbon 23, 29, 96, 107, 243, 244, 252, 262 combustion 271-277, ill-I
air heaters 271 combustors 273
alcohol fuels 221, 227. 232, 233 compound classes 151-154
aldehydes 103.232 copper 77, 79, 83, 108
algae see: micro algae creosote 243
a1k:oxyl 154 crude oil 95, 97, 98, 210, 220
aluminwn 77
ammoniacal copper arsenate 80 density 21-25, 94, 101, 145
anaerobic digestion 247. 249, 283. 285 diesel fuel 39, 40, 207, 210, 211, 222, 223
animal fat 12, 175,297 dirt 105-115
animal feed 9, 27, 71, 79, 93, 105, 123. 127, distillates 46, 53. 212-214. 218. 220, 222
155, 156. 163, 169, 299 dry matter 184
aqueous waste see: wastewater dust 296. 299, 301
arsenic 78, 85, 108. 199
ash 68, 81. 82, 105-115. 145, 179, 180. enzymatic assays 289-292
194, 198, 199. 201. 202. ill-I enzymology 290, 291
atmospheric analysis 259-267 ethanol 227,233
aviation fuels 53, 211, 213. 216. 223 extractives 139-150
beta-glucosidase 390 fats 13, 177
bioconversion 283-286 fatty acid 175
biological oxygen demand (BOD) 251. 253. 255 feedstock preparation see: preparation
biomass 1, 23. 43. 91, ill-I feedstock sampling see: sampling
biotechnology 286 fermentation 283
bituminous materials 21.28,94 fiber 17, 119, 127, 169
boilers 272, 273, 277. ill-I fire 295-301
boron 78.85 flammability 295-301
flash point 145, 207, 212, 220
calciwn 77. 79, 83, 105 flow 317-322
carbohydrates 9. 135, 155-162, 232 fluor-chrome-arsenate-phenol 80
carbon 53, 54. 55, 251 fluoride 71
carbon black 67, 107 fluorine 71, 85
carbon dioxide 264 forage 27, 94, 169-171
carbon monoxide 260, 261, 267 fossil fuels 91
carboxyl 151, 152 Fourier-Transfer Infrared Spectrometry see: spectrometry
carboxylic acids 231,232 fructose 155
cellobiase 290 functional groups 151-154
cellobiohydrolase 291 furfural 123, 154
cellulase 289, 290, 292 furnaces 272. 296, 298-300
cellulose 37, 68, 72, 81, 95. 107, 108, 117-121, 123,
127, 141, 151. 171, 183, 231, 290, 291 galactan 156
charcoal 194 gas turbines 39, 40, 271, 298
chemical oxygen demand (COD) 251, 254 gaseous fuels 22, 95, 239-241
chimneys 272, 273. 274, 275, 300 gases 39, 67, 259, 297, 322
chitin 291 gasification 235, 236, 273, 279-282
chloride 71, 72, 73 gasohol 227,233
chlorine 71-73, 75, 85, 199 gasoline 39, 40, 208-210, 214, 216,
chromated copper arsenate 80 218, 219, 221, 222, 227
chromated zinc chloride 80 glucose 155, 158. 161
chromatography 118, 134, 135, 156-160, 175, 204, 214, glycerol 154
215, 217, 219-221, 229, 232, 239, 240, grain 21.45,94
252, 253, 261. 264. 281, 325-329, 338
chromiwn 85, 108 halide 72,75
coal 10, 13, 14, 28. 29, 31. 33, 39, 40, 45, 53, 54, halogen analysis 71-75
61, 62, 68, 69, 72, 81, 89, 91, 97, 100, 107, Raise lignin 127, 129
108. 111. 183, 184, 193-195, 197-199, heating values 201
201, 202, 221, 233, 243, 306, ill-I heats of combustion 39-43,221
cobalt 77,79 hemicellulose 123-125, 290
hexuronic acid 153
holocellulose 117-121

Index II-I
hydrocarbons 39, 62, 213.216, 234, 253, 261, 325 paper 9, 14, 61, 70, 72, 73, 75, 83, 94-96, 100-102,
hydrogen 53·55 105-107, 109, 113, 117, 119, 120, 127,
hyrolysis 138 142, 143 159, 183, 188, 254, 297
hydroxyl 137 paperboard 9, 13, 14, 61, 63, 95, 96, 101. 102. 106,
107, 109, 112, 142, 254
incinerators 271·274, 277 paraffm 142
inorganics 77-85, 182 particle size 27-35, 259. 261, 263
internal combustion engines 271 particulates 251, 260-264
International System of Units (SI) 305, 307, 308 peat 9, 15, 27, 61, 91, 93, 105,
iodine 71 Ill, 179-182, 201, 235
iron 77, 83 pectic substances 291
itaconic acid 154 pentose 123. 124, 157, 158
permanganate number 127, 130, 131, 254
Kappa number 128·131, 133 petroleum 21, 22, 53, 62, 67, 94, 95, 106, 207-225
kerosine 39,40,222 phenol 137
ketones 103.232 phosphate 108
KJ.a.son lignin 127, 133 phosphorus 78, 79, 82, 199, 218
knock 211, 216, 217, 223 pitch 142, 145
plankton 157
lactic acid 154 plants 9, 16, 67, 71, 77, 93, lOS, 127,
lead 219 153, ISS, 160, 163
levulinic acid 154 polysaccharides 159, 231
lignins 127·138, 169, 171, 290, 291 pore size 37, 193
lignite 14, 91, 198, 201, 205, ill-I potassium 78
lipids 173 powders 27, 32
liquefaction 229. 233, 235-237 preparation 7, 9-17, 155, 181, 182
liquid fuels 1m, 222, 227-237 pressure 218,317-322
liquid waste 251-257 pressure vessels 271
liquids, 21, 23, 31, 45, 46, 210, 220 proteins 163-166
proximate analysis 89-91, 199, 201
magnesium 77 pulp 9, 14, 70, 73, 75, 82, 83, 85, 94, 99-101,
manganese 77, 79, 83 104-106, 109, 111, 112, 115, 119, 120,
~~~ ~f~~~!:!!}' 135. 137, 204, 205, 214, 216, 219
..w\"l"Tt ",",V.J, """, .... ..,., ...... u, MJ.;7
.. ,.., .... , .. 0.1; 't 1~: 117:139; 133; 139; 13§:13S;
239, 253. 308, 333-335, 338 141-143, 146, 149, lSI, 159,
measurements 305-313 183-185, 254, 297
mercury 85 pulpwood 14-16, 24, 32, 33
metals 77-85 pyrolysis 135, 137, 181, 182, 202-204, 229-237
methane 261,285
methoxyl 151, 153 quality assurance 257, 305-313
methyl 154
microalgae 173, 174 rape seed oil 175
mineral matter 105-115, 199 reference materials 1, 103
minerals 9, 105 refuse-deri.ved fuel (RDp) 11, 12, 30, 31, 40, 47, 54,
moisture 14, 21, 24, 61, 91, 93-104, 145, 62, 69, 73, 82, 89, 98,
176, 179, 180, 199,201,264 99, 108, 195, 196
molybdenum 78 resins 13, 149
monosaccharides 159, 160 Ringlemann chart 261, 264
motor fuels 216, 217, 223 round-robin tests 305-313
municipal solid waste (MSW) 43
salts 105
nitrogen 163, 179 sampling 7,9-17, 145, 175,239,241,253,259,
nitrogen analysis 61·65 262, 263, 267, 277, 281, 282, 306
nitrogen oxides 259, 264 sand lOS, 179
nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) spectrometry saponification 146
see: spectrometry sawdust 100, 151
seeds 94
octane 217 selenium 79
oils 22, 53, 69, 96, 177, 201 sieving 27-35
oilseeds 175-177 silica 105, 107, 108, 111
organic acids 232 sludge 16, 249, 257, 285
organic matter 179 sodium 78,83
organic solvents 72, 139, 149 sodium hydroxide 117
oxygen 57, 263, 264 soil 16, 137, 182
oxygen analysis 57-59 solid fuels 13, 41, 69, 73, 82, 89, 100, 110,
oxygenated liquid fuels 221, 227-237 193-205, 271, 297, 300
solid waste 12, 23, 43, 247-249

Index 11-2
solids 21, 37, 46 thermocouples 312, 317-319, 321, 322
solubility 119, 139, 141-143. 146, 149
space heaters 273,275 ultimate analysis 53-55, 199, 201
specific gravity 21-25, 94, 193, 240 units 305-313
spectrometry 53, 83, 133, 134, 137, 176, 182, 202, uronic acid 153, 154
204, 219, 230, 231, 260, 281, 333-341
spectroscopy see: spectrometry vapor pressure 208
spectrophotometry 77. 81, 82, 85, 136, 2M vegetable oil 12, 175, 177,297
standards organizations IT-I viscosity 118, 145, 183, 185, 207,
starch 63, ISS, 156, 160, 184 210, 213-215, 220
statistics 308, 311 volatile maner 89, 91, 176, 180, 201, 252, 265
steam generators 271,273
steam turbines 271 wastewater 173, 251. 257, 285
stoves 272,273 water see: moisture
straw 13 wood 9, 10, 13-15. 17, 21-25, 35, 37, 75, 81, 85,
sucrose 155 89, 93. 94, 96, 99, 103, 104, 106, 108,
sugars 155-162 100, 112, 115. 117, 119-121, 125.
sulfates 73 127-130, 133, 136-139, 141, 146.
sulfur analysis 67-70, 75, 199 149-151, 153, 161, 183, 187,
sulfur dioxide 264 188, 229, 232, 295, 296, 300
wood chips 14, IS, 21, 24, 33, 35, 37, 93, 100, 101.
tall oil 139, 144-147, 149 100, 112, 113, 183, 198, 234. 273
tars 140, 281
temperature 317-322 xylanase 289, 290, 292
thermal properties 19,45-49
zinc 78, 85, 108

Index II-3
-u.s. GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE: 1990-0-773107/00035