ARGUMENT: A form of thinking in which certain statements (reasons) are offered in support of
another statement (a conclusion). Hence, to identify an argument you will look for reason &
conclusion.
REASON: Statements that support another statement (known as a conclusion), justify it, or make it
more probable.
Since In View Of For
First/Second Because In the First/Second Place
As Shown By May be Inferred From As Indicated By
May be Deferred From May be Derived From Given That
Assuming That For the Reason That
CONCLUSION: A statement that explains, asserts, or predicts on the basis of statements (known as
reasons) that are offered as evidence for it.
Therefore It follows that Thus
Hence Thereby Showing Hence
Demonstrates that So Allows us to infer that
Shows that/Proves that Suggests strongly that Implies that
Points to As a result Then/Consequently
Use of arguments:
To Decide
To Explain
To Predict
To Persuade
EFFECTIVE ARGUMENTS: On the basis of effectiveness, and soundness, of arguments. Two
Questions:
How true are the reasons being offered to support the conclusion?
To what extent do the reasons support the conclusion, or to what extent does the conclusion
follow from the reasons offered?
VALID ARGUMENT: An argument in which the reasons support the conclusion so that the conclusion
follows from the reasons offered.
INVALID ARGUMENT: An argument in which the reasons do not support the conclusion so that the
conclusion does not follow from the reasons offered.
DEDUCTIVE ARGUMENT: most commonly associated with the study of logic. Though it has a variety
of valid forms, they all share one characteristic: If you accept the supporting reasons (also called
premises) as true, then you must necessarily accept the conclusion as true.
SYLLOGISM: An argument form that consists of two supporting premises and a conclusion.
Premise: All A, are B
Premise: S is A
Conclusion: Therefore, S is B.
MODUS PONENS: affirming the antecedent.
Premise: If A, then B
Premise: A
Conclusion: Therefore, B.
MODUS TOLLENS: Denying the Consequence. Like other valid reasoning forms, this form is valid no
matter what subject is being considered.
Premise: If A, then B
Premise: Not B
Conclusion: Therefore, Not A.
DISJUNCTIVE SYLLOGISM: valid deductive argument, where disjunctive means presenting several
alternatives.
Premise: Either A, or B
Premise: Not A
Conclusion: Therefore, B.
FALLACIES: Unsound arguments that are often persuasive and appearing to be logical because they
usually appeal to our emotions and prejudices, and because they often support conclusions that we
want to believe are accurate.
EMPIRICAL GENERALIZATION: A form of inductive reasoning in which a general statement is made
about an entire group (the “target population”) based on observing some members of the group (the
“sample population”).
SCIENTIFIC METHOD:
Identify an event for investigation
Gather information
Develop a theory/hypothesis
Test/experiment
Evaluate results
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CREATING A LIFE PHILOSOPHY: Establishing harmonious relationships, Choosing freely, Choosing a
meaningful life and Choosing a satisfying career. The challenge is to create a coherent view of the
world that expresses who you are as well as the person you want to become.
THINKING CRITICALLY: Carefully examining our thinking in order to clarify and improve
understanding. Clear thinking is a tool that helps you disentangle the often-confused jumble of
thoughts and feelings that compose much of your waking consciousness. Critical thinkers are people
who have developed thoughtful and well-founded beliefs to guide their choices in every area of their
lives.
LIVING CREATIVELY: Creativity is a powerful life force that can infuse your existence with meaning.
Developing ideas that are unique, useful, and worthy of further elaboration. A creative lens changes
everything for the better: Problems become opportunities for growth, mundane routines become
challenges for inventive approaches, relationships become intriguing adventures.
MYTHS OF FREEDOM:
Freedom Means Simply Making a Choice
Freedom Is Limited to Choosing from Available Options
Freedom Means Simply “Doing What You Want”
GOOD LIFE: s a process rather than a state of being, a direction rather than a destination.
Not a fixed state like virtue, contentment, nirvana, or happiness
Not a condition like being adjusted, fulfilled, or actualized
Not a psychological state like drive or tension reduction
