AP BIOLOGY MIDTERM STUDY GUIDE 2019

Below are a list of all the chapters and objectives in each chapter. For the most part they are the objectives
you have already received, however, I did delete some of the objectives that were not as important to try make
this more manageable. Use this list to study for the mid-term. Use these as a guide to go through your notes
and the textbook (whichever you prefer). I also suggest Looking over the “Self Quiz” at the back of each
chapter and the “AP Review Questions” at the back of each chapter. Just remember there may be some
topics/questions that we did not cover so don’t panic and ignore it if it is not on your objectives list. Also
practice the AP questions on the pink paper I have given you for each unit. I may choose some of these for
the exam.

There is also a mid-term essay list. For the mid-term exam, you will have to write one large essay and several
short answer questions. The large essay will come from the essay list of topics. Write out these essays or
make outlines and diagrams for each one if you have not already done so during the year. The short answers
will come directly from several of the objectives or shorter versions of the essays on the essay list

EXAM FORMAT: The mid-term exam format will be a modified version of the AP Biology exam. There will be
2 parts:

Part 1: Multiple Choice

Part 2: Free-Response (short answer and one essay (from the list at end of this study guide)

For the exam you will be provided with a copy of the AP Equation sheet and you will need a calculator.

*** THE MID-TERM EXAM will cover more of the objectives from ch 4 and ch 5 since we have not had a unit test on these chapters.
The essay list is composed of only topics from these chapters. I suggest studying these chapter first, then reviewing the previous
units.

Scientific Skills & Statistics

Resources:
1. AP BIO “Yellow Pages” (I gave you)
2. Ch. 1 in text

1. Define a hypothesis. Be able to correctly state a hypothesis as an “If…then” statement.

2. Distinguish between the NULL hypothesis (H0) and your experimental/alternative hypothesis (HA / H1)
3. Distinguish between the DEPENDENT VARIABLE and the INDEPENDENT VARIABLE in an experiment
and illustrate where each should be displayed in a data table and graph
4. State that the INDEPENDENT VARIABLE should be the only difference between your groups in an
experiment.
5. State that the INDEPENDENT VARIABLE is the variable being tested
6. Define EXPERIMENTAL GROUPS and CONTROL GROUPS and be able to design an experiment with
clearly stated experimental group(s) and control group(s). (see Olestra ex. On p. 14 text). Be able to read
an example of an experimental design and “pick out” the independent variable, dependent variable,
control group, controlled variables.
7. List and describe what the controlled variables are/should be in a controlled experiment
8. State the importance of replicates/ large sample size in an experiment to minimize SAMPLING ERROR.
(p. 16 Text, & Yellow Pages)
9. Review proper way to construct a graph (see Yellow Pages)
10. Distinguish between different types of graphs that can be used to present quantitative data including bar
graphs, histograms, pie graphs and line graphs and state which types of graphs are appropriate for
different types of data. (Yellow pages)
11. Construct a line graph using proper format including proper placement of the dependent & independent
variables, descriptive titles, labeled axis’ with units and, appropriate scale used for each axis, points
 plotted accurately, error bars if applicable, and a key if more than one data set is being plotted/compared.
Determine if you should “connect the dots” or do a line of best fit . (How?)

12. Interpret data on a line graph as either a positive correlation, negative correlation or a zero correlation.
Be able to use descriptive terms to describe the trend seen in a graph (see “interpreting Graphs” in Yellow
pages)
13. Be able to measure the slope of a line to calculate a rate (Yellow pages)

STATISTICS:

14. Define, distinguish between, and calculate the MEAN, MEDIAN & MODE for a data set.
15. Calculate the MEAN of a group of data
16. State the standard deviation is a method to measure the variability of spread in a set of data
17. State that one standard deviation represents 68% of the data spread from the mean and 2 standard
deviations represent 95% of the data spread from the mean
18. State that a higher STANDARD DEVIATION indicates data is more “spread”/ variable and therefore the
mean is not reliable; a lower STANDARD DEVIATION indicates there is less spread in the data from the
mean and the mean is more reliable.
19. Be able to calculate standard error of the mean & 95% CI (+- 2 SE) from a group of data and describe
what a higher or lower standard error indicates about the data.
20. Be able to draw error bars on a graph of means to represent the standard deviation, standard error, or
95% CI.
21. State that larger error bars mean a higher standard deviation/standard error/ CI and more variability in
data and that small error bars indicate a lower standard deviation/standard error/CI and less variability
in data
22. State that error bars could be used on a graph to represent variability but could be shown as: standard
deviation, range, 95% CI, standard error of the mean…. Variable

23. Be able to deduce if there is a statistical difference in groups of data by looking at the overlap/or lack of
overlap in the error bars on a graph. Overlap  there is no significant difference, no overlap ->
there is significant difference
*** NOTE: You will not have to calculate standard deviation on the exam, but know what it is, what a
larger vs smaller standard deviation tells you, and that it is represented as error bars on a graph

CH1: An Introduction to Biology

1. All organisms require ENERGY. How organisms acquire this energy puts them in two categories
(producers & consumers). Know the difference and examples (see figure 1.3)

2. Define Homeostasis and state as a characteristic that all living things do. Give examples

Keep conditions in the internal environment.

Keep temperature, blood sugar level, water balance constant.

3. List the three DOMAINS & SIX KINGDOMS that living things are classified into and for each if it is
prokaryotic cells or eukaryotic cells

Three Domains: Bacteria, Archaea, and Eukarya.

Six Kingdoms: Bacteria, Archaea, Protists, Plants, Fungi, and Animals.
 4. Describe the type of organisms in the ARCHEA domain (halophiles, thermophiles, methanogens)

Thermophiles: grow at very high temperature; Halophiles: grow in high salt; methanogens: can’t grow in
presence of oxygen, methane is waste product. In guts of animals especially cows.

5. State the taxonomic classification of living things is in the following order from largest grouping to
smallest most specific grouping: Domain, Kingdom, Phylum, Class, Order, Family , Genus Species

6. Be able to tell which two species are more closely related from their taxonomic classification. (see
Figure 1.6 as an example)

Domain, kingdom, phylum, class, order, family, genus, species.

Genus name(capitalized + Italicized) + Species name(italicized)

(Sunday, Day)

ECOLOGY

1. Define, compare & give examples of the following terms. Know their hierarchy from smallest to largest:
 Population / species
Population: a group of organisms of the same species that live in a certain area at a certain period of
time
 Community
All the Population in the given area, forming the food chain, interspecific competition.
 Ecosystem
Community(biotic factors) + environment(abiotic factors)
 Biosphere
All the parts of the earth.
CH 44 POPULATIONS

Population Size and Distribution:

2. Estimate the POPULATION SIZE of both plants and animals using the RANDOM/ QUADRANT SAMPLING
technique and the MARK AND RE-CAPTURE technique. Be able to solve problems as well as state which
technique should be used for plants and animals

Random Sampling: Non-mobile animals or plants, uniform spacing.

Mark and Re-capture: Larger and mobile animals, non-uniform spacing.

3. Describe the 3 types of dispersion/spacing seen in populations and briefly describe the environmental
and biological characteristics that cause each (p. 792-793 in text)

Random Spacing: Rare, environment condition uniform, no intra-specific competition,

Uniform Spacing: not common, environment condition uniform, intense intraspecific competition.
Clumped Spacing: Common, environment condition not uniform

4. State the 3 categories used to classify populations age structure. Explain why this information is
important in studying population growth. Be able to read the age structure diagram on p. 804
Pre-reproductive
Reproductive
Post-reproductive
///

Population Growth:

5. Draw an EXPONENTIAL GROWTH curve and label/describe the following components; x-axis as time, y-
axis as # of individuals. Explain that all populations have the potential for explosive exponential growth if
there are no limiting factors but that this is essentially a hypothetical situation that never exists for long.

dN/dt = rN

6. Define the intrinsic rate of increase/r max/biotic potential as r=b-d. Be able to calculate the per
capita rate of increase

r stands for per capita growth rate, b stands for per capita birth rate, d stands for per capita death rate.

7. Explain that different species have different intrinsic rates of increase (r max) and the factors that will
affect the intrinsic rate of increase

8. Be able to use the equation for Exponential growth (on pink equation sheet) to estimate increase in
populations
(Read pp. 794 – 795 in text for example)

9. Draw a “BOOM & BUST” Curve and explain that it is an exponential growth curve with sudden crashes
usually due to density-independent factors. This is the type of growth curve seen in some species (r-
selected)

10. Draw a LOGISTIC/ S-SHAPED GROWTH curve and label/describe the following components; x-axis as
time, y-axis as # of individuals, carrying capacity-K, transitional phase, plateau phase, exponential phase,
and point of maximum sustained yield (inflection point). State that this is the growth curve of K-selected
species

11. Define what the MAXIMUM SUSTAINED YIELD (inflection point) is and why it is important to ecologists

12. Define ZERO POPULATION GROWTH and be able to identify it on the logistic growth curve

13. State what occurs at all three phases of a logistic growth curve: exponential, transitional, plateau

14. Define CARRYING CAPACITY - K and state that it is defined by limiting factors. Also that it can change
over time. Identify factors that increase and decrease the K. Relate human impact to some of these

Increase: technology, change cimate

Decrease: environment degradation, depletion of non-renewable resources.

15. Be able to use the equation for logistic growth to explain the logistic growth curve. What happens if N is
smaller than K, what happens as N gets bigger and approaches K/, what happens when N=K:, what
happens if N gets bigger than K?
16. Define a limiting factor. Distinguish between DENSITY-DEPENDENT LIMITING FACTORS and
DENSITY-INDEPENDENT LIMITING FACTORS. Identify/give examples of each. State where on a growth
curve (S-shaped or exponential) each plays a role

Density dependent: infectious disease, parasites, competition for resources.

Density independent: Flood, fire, and drought.

17. Discuss the impact of PREDATOR-PREY relationships on the population growth curves of each species
(hare vs. Lynx)

18. Compare the two REPRODCUTIVE STRATEGIES used by species: r-STRATEGISTS vs. K-STRATEGISTS
 Compare the two types of growth curves : S-shaped/logistic and exponential/boom & bust
 Compare the characteristics of both types of strategists
 Compare the survivorship curves of both strategists
 Know examples of types of organisms that employ each strategy

19. Describe/ draw the three different types of SURVIVORSHIP CURVES. Relate them to the two
reproductive strategies (r vs. K) and give examples of organisms for each

Type 1: Large Mammals, Type 2: lizards, small mammals, and birds.

CH 45 COMMUNITY & ECOSYSTEM ECOLOGY

INTERACTION BETWEEN SPECIES:

1. Define an invasive species/alien species and the impact they can have on the new community. As an
example of how invasive species can disrupt a community, review the introduction of red fire ants to the
US and all that resulted in the US communities.

2. State that one way to control invasive species is BIOLOGICAL CONTROL. Be prepared with an example
(we did red fire ants) (p. 825, 827)

3. State that humans are often the disruptive factor in a community. Be able to describe an example (see
Operation Cat drop)

4. State that all of the following will affect the structure and stability of a community & be able to define:
Species diversity, abiotic factors, species interactions, symbiosis, competition, pred/prey, herbivory.

5. State that a community with more species diversity is usually a more stable community and able to
withstand disruptions easier.

6. Define symbiosis and distinguish between the three different types of symbiosis. Know examples of each
and be able to identify the type of symbiosis if given an example

Parasitism, Mutualism, and Commensalism.

7. Define co-evolution and give example

Interact that affect the revolution of each other.

8. Distinguish between interspecific competition and intraspecific competition and give examples

9. Define Niche and list factors that will define a species niche

TOTAL WAY OF LIFE

10. distinguish between HABITAT & NICHE

11. State Gauses’ Competitive Exclusion Principle and discuss what could happen if it is not met.
(extinction, resource partitioning). (see example with 2 species of paramecium)
Gauses’ competitive exclusion principle: No two species could occupy the same niche.

12. Define resource partitioning and character displacement and explain how interspecific competition
could lead to this. Describe the many species of finch on the Galapagos Islands as an example.

13. Describe the two different ways that resource partitioning can happen. One is a change in the use of the
resource, the other is a change in location/habitat. ( analogy: “Different slice, same restaurant, same
slice different restaurant”)

14. Define and distinguish between: warning coloration, mimicry, Batesian mimicry, Mullerian mimicry.

北极熊（Batesian） is stupid.

15. Define Keystone species and the effect on a community compared to other organisms

HOW DO COMMUNITIES ESTABLISH THEMSELVES? HOW DO THEY CHANGE OVER TIME ?

16. Describe the stages of PRIMARY SUCCESSION and SECONDARY SUCCESSION from pioneer species to
the climax community

Primary Succession: No soil/rock + lichen + moss + grass + shrubs + soft trees + hard trees
Secondary Succession: Annual plants + perennial plants + shrubs + soft trees + hard trees

17. Be able to identify /give examples of each type of succession (primary & secondary)

18. Describe what happens to species diversity, biomass, Niche formation, soil quality, complexity of food
webs during the process of succession

19. Define PIONEER SPECIES and give examples for both types of succession. State the characteristics of
pioneer species in terms of their reproductive strategies (r-selected species)

20. Define a CLIMAX COMMUNITY.

Sunday Night

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CH 46 ECOSYSTEMS

FLOW OF ENERGY THROUGH A COMMUNITY/ECOSYSTEM:

1. Define an ecosystem, heterotroph, autotroph, consumer, producer and give examples

Heterotroph: get energy & carbon by feeding on tissues, waste and remains of producers.
Autotroph: get energy from non-living sources.

2. Define a DECOMPOSER and explain its importance/role in a community/ecosystem. Note: Decomposers

RECYCLE NUTRIENTS (like N, P, K) to plants, but DO NOT RECYLE ENERGY!!!!!!
Energy is released as heat.

3. Distinguish between the two types of decomposers and give examples of each (SAPROTROPHS &
DETRIVORES)
 Detrivore – eat dead stuff. (earthworms, crab)
Saprotroph – live on/in dead stuff, secreting digestive enzymes and absorbing materials.

4. State that energy flows through an ecosystem and nutrients are cycled.

5. Describe the flow of energy through an ecosystems starting with sun. State that all energy enters an
ecosystem as sunlight and ultimately leaves as heat.- State that Energy from the sun (light energy)
through the process of photosynthesis is captured as organic molecules (chemical energy). This chemical
energy in the form of organic molecules is then passed through a food chain. When organisms metabolize
these organic molecules for ATP energy, energy is released as HEAT. Heat energy cannot be recycled but
is lost to the ecosystem to the atmosphere

6. State the equations for RESPIRATION & PHOTOSYNTHESIS and describe their overall role in an
organism and a community. State that producers do both and consumers only Respiration

7. Define Biomass and explain how it is related to organic molecules

8. Compare, define and understand the relationship between the following in a community/ecosystem
Heterotrophs/consumers vs. autotrophs/ producers
Primary, secondary, and tertiary consumers
Producers, consumers & decomposers

9. Define a food chain and state that the arrows represent the flow of energy in a food chain. Note: the
direction of the arrows. Be sure you could draw a food chain/web with arrows in the correct direction
and state what the arrows represent

10. Define a Trophic Level. Include a description of trophic levels (producers through decomposers.)

11. Define a food web and describe how all the organisms are inter-connected to create a stable community

12. If given a food web, Be able to label organisms in food chain/web with trophic levels, the terms from #8
above, determine the producer, the decomposers, which trophic level would have higher biomass/higher
numbers, what happens to energy as go “up” trophic levels, which organisms/trophic level would be most
affected by a toxic chemical (biomagnification)

13. Be able to predict different outcomes if a certain organism in a food web is eliminated. Predict the
“domino effect” through the food web.

14. State that organisms can exist at different trophic levels in a food web because they eat different sources.
Be able to determine the trophic level or levels for organisms in a given food web

15. State that most food chains only have 4 or 5 trophic levels due to the limit in energy that is passed.

16. Describe the ENERGY FLOW THROUGH A FOOD CHAIN starting with the sun/producers/
photosynthesis/GPP and ending with decomposers. State that all energy in an ecosystem ultimately
comes from the sun and that on average only about 10% of the energy is passed between trophic levels.

17. Explain what happens to the “rest” of the energy (the other ~ 90%) -- we listed four

Cell maintenance, heat lost, not digested into feces, not eaten such as bones.

18. Calculate the % of energy lost or passed on at each trophic level if given the numerical data

19. Draw and/or label correctly a PYRAMID OF ENERGY with trophic levels. Be sure you know the
appropriate unit for energy

20. Draw and/or label PYRAMID OF NUMBERS and PYRAMID OF BIOMASS and relate their shape to the
energy flow through the trophic levels
21. State the sometimes pyramids of numbers or biomass can be “inverted” but not pyramids energy. Explain
the situation that would allow the pyramids of numbers and biomass to be inverted

22. Compare and define GROSS PRODUCTIVITY (GPP) and NET PRODUCTIVITY (NPP).

23. State that any factor that affects the rate of photosynthesis will affect the productivity of an ecosystem.
State some examples of abiotic factors that can increase GPP

24. State that ecosystems with higher productivity have higher species diversity, more complex food webs and
are usually more stable and able to withstand changes

25. Be able to calculate sample problems of GPP and NPP

26. State that productivity can vary by seasons – higher in spring vs. winter in Atlantic ocean

27. Understand the NPP is the amount of energy available to primary consumers through a food chain

BIOGEOCHEMICAL CYCLES IN ECOSYSTEM:

28. Define a biogeochemical cycle. – elements cycle from biotic to abiotic reservoirs
29. State the main reservoirs for Carbon, Nitrogen and Phosphorus
30. Define evaporation, condensation, precipitation, transpiration & run –off and their roles in the water
cycle.
31. For Phosphorus cycle be able to state, which organic molecules require P, its main reservoir and how it
cycles abiotically (rock, runoff, back to rock) and biotically (rock, runoff, uptake by plants as inorganic
Phosphate, assimilation into organic molecules, passed through food chain, back into soil by decomposers
as inorganic phosphate when organisms die, or through excretion. Be able to determine where
Phosphorus is organic vs inorganic in the cycle and how it transitions from organic to inorganic and visa
versa.

32. Describe the process of LAKE EUTROPHICATION. State humans role in increase in eutrophication.
(notes and “Too Much of a Good Thing”. P.829 & 845)

33. Explain the Nitrogen Cycle. State which organic molecules in living things require Nitrogen. Include the
role of bacteria (like Rhizobia) and Fungi (like Mycorrihizae) in “fixing” Nitrogen, the main reservoir for
Nitrogen and the role of decomposers. State the mutualistic symbiosis between legume plants and
Rhizobia bacteria and/or Mycocorrhizae fungi. Be able to determine where Nitrogen is organic vs inorganic
in the cycle and how it transitions from organic to inorganic and visa versa.

Nitrogen fixation and assmililation.

34. Describe the Carbon cycle with regards to both the terrestrial/land carbon cycle and the marine carbon
cycle. State that the reservoir is atmosphere but carbon can also be dissolved in oceans and exist in rock
like sedimentary rock and limestone. State how fossil fuels are formed and their role in the cycle. State
examples of fossil fuels. State that photosynthesis is the only process to remove carbon dioxide from the
atmosphere and state all the other processes that add carbon dioxide to the atmosphere. Be able to
determine where carbon is organic vs inorganic in the cycle and how it transitions from organic to
inorganic and visa versa.

35. Describe how the actions of humans has affected the carbon cycle. Include the increased burning of
fossil fuels , using limestone to create cement , and cutting down/burning forests

36. Describe the GREENHOUSE EFFECT and how it affects the GLOBAL WARMING and carbon cycle.
37. State that carbon dioxide is the main greenhouse gas
38. State how humans have increased the greenhouse effect

Monday Day////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////

Ch 43 ANIMAL BEHAVIOR

1. Define a pheromone and state some examples of how animals use pheromones
Chemical signal influences behaviors of the same species. Mating, foraging for food, warning.

2. State that many behaviors are inherited in genes

3. Define and state the difference between instinctive behavior and learned behavior. Examples
4. State that some instinctive behavior can be modified by learning
5. Define imprinting and give example with geese
6. Define and give examples of the following types learning behaviors: classical conditioning, operant
conditioning, habituation, & observational learning. IF given an example, be able to state which of the
above types of learning it is an example of
7. State that all animals move, and some can navigate long distances
8. Define a circadian rhythm and explain how it works in humans (pineal gland, melatonin, hypothalamus).
Also state that plants have circadian rhythms and give an example ( p. 601 of text)
9. Define and give examples of two types of movement in animals: Kinesis(undirected) and taxis.
Distinguish between different types of Taxis: Geotaxis, Phototaxis, Chemotaxis.
10. Be able to design an experiment using a “Choice Chamber” that would test a Taxis behavior. (lab)
11. Define communication signals and what they are used for in animals
12. Distinguish, list different types of communication signals and give an example
13. State that many animal species live in groups for part or all of their lifetime
14. State benefits and costs to living in social groups
15. Define altruistic behavior and give an example. Why had altruistic behavior evolved?
CH. 2 Chemistry
1. State that the number of ELECTRONS in an atom will determine its chemical properties ( if it will form
chemical bonds, types of bonds it will form and other elements it will react with)
2. Define valence electrons. Explain how the number of valence electrons of an atom is related to its
chemical properties and for the top 6 elements in living things (S,P,O,N,C,H) know how many valence e-s
each has and therefore how many bonds and what types of bond they will form.( if given their atomic
numbers…do not memorize) Relate valence e-‘s to the “bonding capacity” of an element.
3. Define electronegativity and its significance in determining what type of bond will form between two
atoms ( ionic, polar covalent or nonpolar covalent)
4. Distinguish among covalent bonds, ionic bonds, hydrogen bonds, and van de Waals interactions.
Compare them in terms of the mechanisms by which they form and their relative strengths.
5. State that many ionic compounds exist as crystals in solid form and then are dissolved in water by
hydration spheres.
6. Compare polar and nonpolar covalent bonds
7. Define the following terms and how they are related: polar/nonpolar, hydrophilic/hydrophobic,
soluble/non-soluble
8. Describe the characteristics of the following types of weak bonds between atoms or molecules: a.
Hydrogen Bonds b. Hydrophobic interactions
9. Compare a solute and a solvent. Explain a hydration sphere
10. Describe the polar nature of the water molecules and Describe the interaction that takes place
between water molecules (hydrogen bonds)
11. Explain how hydrogen bonds between adjacent water (cohesion) molecules govern many of the
properties of water.
12. Describe the following properties of water: excellent solvent, cohesion, adhesion, capillary action,
surface tension, high specific heat, evaporative cooling, less dense as a solid than a liquid. Give
examples of each and explain why each is important to living things
13. Contrast acids and bases in terms of their influence on pH scale, concentration of H+ vs. OH-
14. Describe the PH scale and what PH’s are neutral, acidic and basic. Describe the characteristics of the
pH scale (7- neutral, lower is acid; above is basic)
15. State that acids release H+ ions and bases accept H+ ions.
16. State that the PH scale is a logarithmic scale --so that the difference of 1 on the scale represents a 10
fold change in H+ concentration
17. Know how to use the equation PH = - log(H+) . Ex. If concentration of H+ is 1 x 10 -3, then the pH = 3
18. Describe how buffers help minimize changes in pH. State the buffer that controls pH in human blood
-bicarbonate

CH. 3 ORGANIC MOLECULES

1. Distinguish between organic and inorganic compounds
2. Describe the properties of carbon that make it the central component of organic compounds.
Bonding capacity of 4 etc…
3. Identify the major functional groups (amino, carboxyl, hydroxyl, suflahydryl, methyl)present in organic
compounds ,describe their properties( polar/nonpolar, acidic/basic), be able to identify them in larger
organic molecules and explain the role each has on the properties of the larger molecule
4. List the 4 major groups of organic molecules (carbohydrates, lipids, proteins & nucleic acids) and
state that they compose approximately 30% of living things (water composing the other 70%)
5. Describe the relationship between monomers and polymers and explain the role of dehydration and
hydrolysis reactions in their formation/breakdown. Include which form and which produce water. For
each of the organic molecule groups (carbs, lipids, proteins, nucleic acids) know the monomers &
polymers.
CARBOHYDRATES:
6. State that for CARBOHYDRATES, the major function is energy (some are structure).
7. Distinguish among monosaccharides, disaccharides, and polysaccharides. Be able to identify
pictures of each, their functions and examples of each.
8. For monosaccharides be able to identify 6-carbon sugars (glucose, fructose, galactose—not the
difference between them) and 5 –carbon sugars (ribose & deoxyribose) and their respective functions.
6-c sugars--quick energy. 5-C sugars –DNA and RNA
9. For disaccharides identify structure: Examples: sucrose & lactose and function—quick energy
10. Compare storage polysaccharides (starch & glycogen) with structural polysaccharides (cellulose &
chitin). For each of the polysaccharides know where they are found and their function). Also be able to
identify pictures of the molecules
11. For the complex carbohydrates( polysaccharides), indicate which is associated with animals, which with
plants, and which with fungi

LIPIDS:
12. LIPIDS—Give General characteristics of lipids
13. Distinguish among fats, phospholipids, and steroids, and describe the composition/ structure,
characteristics, and biological functions of each. Be able to identify pictures of glycerol, a fatty acid
(both saturated and unsaturated, cis & trans), a triglyceride/fat, a phospholipid, and a steroid.
14. Know the difference in molecular structure of a saturated fatty acid and an unsaturated fatty acid as
well as how these will differ in chemical properties. (i.e solid or liquid at room temp)
15. Distinguish between the structure of cis and trans fatty acids. (p. 37) and why trans fatty acids are
very bad for your health. ( read p. 37)
16. Describe the structure of triglycerides (fats) and be able to label glycerol and fatty acids
17. Be able to label the components of a phospholipid (glycerol, 2 fatty acids, phosphate group) and
describe its amphipathic nature.
 18. State the importance and function of phospholipids in formation of cell membranes
19. Describe how waxes are used by organisms
20. State functions of steroids and identify structure as 4 rings of carbon
PROTEINS:
21. State all the functions of proteins and that proteins are composed of monomers called amino acids
linked by a covalent bond called a peptide bond in a condensation reaction/dehydration reaction

Proteins – CONHS, Amino group and carboxyl group. Peptide bond b/w C and N.
22. State that there are 20 different amino acids that differ only in their R group/side chains making some
of them polar, some charged (acidic or basic) and other non-polar.
23. Draw the basic structure of an amino acid identifying the major functional groups (amino, carboxyl)
24. Distinguish among the four levels of organization of protein molecules. Be sure you know the bonds
that are important at each level and the primary structure determines all the other structures. Describe
how the r-group side chains of the amino acids in the primary structure govern the secondary, tertiary
and quaternary structure. Know some examples of proteins at the secondary, tertiary and quaternary
level.
Secondary Structure: hydrogen bonding between amino group and carboxyl group.
Tertiary Structure: interactions among side chains (R groups).

25. Define denaturation of a protein (only weak bonds are broken…. Which are they?....what are the abioitic
factors that cause this? ….)

26. Review all the different functions that proteins can play in living things (enzymes, channels/pores,
carrier proteins, receptors, structural parts, pigments, antibodies in immune system, hormones/cell
signaling molecules.…. also See slide in ch 3 power point on protein functions)
NUCLEIC ACIDS:
27. Describe the 3 components of a nucleotide: 5-carbon sugar, P group and a Nitrogen containing base.
28. State that nucleic acids are polymers of nucleotides. Be able to identify a picture
29. State the two nucleic acids DNA and RNA, differences between their structure, and their basic function
SUMMARY: Be able to identify pictures of the following molecules as well as their functions and which types
of cells, where in a cell they would be found: glucose/monosacchardies,
ribose/deoxyribose/monosaccharide, disaccharide(sucrose, lactose), polysaccharides (starch, glycogen,
chitin, cellulose), glycerol, fatty acid (saturated & unsaturated, cis vs trans), triglyceride/fat, phospholipid,
steroid(cholesterol), amino acid, dipeptide, polypeptide/protein, protein structure (primary, secondary,
tertiary, quaternary), nucleotide, DNA, RNA, ATP
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Monday Night

CH. 4 CELLS
1. State the structures that are in all cells and define their function: plasma membrane, cytoplasm,
organelles, DNA
2. State the four parts of the cell theory
All living things made of cells, cells are the smallest units of life, cells come from pre-existing cells,
and cells contain hereditary materials.
3. Explain the relationship between cell size and homeostasis. Explain what happens to the surface :
volume ratio as cells get larger. Explain why this is a problem and relate it to why cells are so small.
Explain how larger organisms get larger by increasing in cell NUMBER.

4. Be able to calculate surface area, volume and surface to volume ratio of circular or cube-shape cells
5. Be able to predict which cells are more likely to survive if given surface : volume information
PROKARYOTIC CELLS
6. State that prokaryotic cells are the ancestral precursor of eukaryotes and describe the differences
between eukaryotic and prokaryotic cells in terms of organelles and size.
7. State which domains & kingdoms have prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells
Domain of prokaryotic: bacteria, and archaea. Eukarya.
8. State that bacteria and archaea bacteria are the two domains that have prokaryotic cells. State that
archaea are bacteria that live in harsh environments and describe the three types: halophiles,
thermophiles, & methanogens.
9. State that prokaryotic cells are bacteria cells and all are unicellular
10. Label a diagram of a prokaryotic cell with the following and state their functions: cell wall, nucleoid
region, flagella, cell membrane, plasmids, fimbrae, capsule, 70s ribosomes, cytoplasm, pili
Cell wall: peptidoglycan;
11. State that the DNA of prokaryotic bacteria is circular and not contained in a nuclear membrane –
is in a region called the nucleoid region. The DNA of prokaryotes is not associated with proteins
(histones).
Circular DNA(Non-linear), not contained in a nuclear membrane, no histone proteins.
12. Describe how bacteria reproduce asexually by binary fission
13. Describe how bacteria can acquire new genes by defining and describing the process of conjugation
14. State that some bacteria are harmful but most are beneficial.
15. State that some bacteria are heterotrophic and some are autotrophic
EUKARYOTIC CELLS:
16. Describe the structure and functions of the nucleus. Distinguish between DNA as chromatin and
DNA as chromosomes(after cell division) and when each would exist in a cell. Describe the role of
histone proteins in ”organizing” DNA. State that the nucleolus region is DNA that specifically codes
for how to make ribosomes (rRNA) and the nuclear membrane with specific nuclear pores controls
what gets in and out of the nucleus
17. Distinguish between smooth and rough endoplasmic reticulum in terms of both structure and
function, where they are located in a cell….
18. List the function of ribosomes. Know where ribosomes are found in a cell. State that there are two
different sizes 70s and 80s in pro and eukaryotes
19. Describe the functions of lysosomes, vacuoles, and peroxisomes. Describe how lysosomes are
formed using the endomembrane system
20. Describe how vacuoles are different between animal and plant cells in both structure and function.
Describe the function of contractile vacuoles in freshwater protozoans like the paramecium and
explain why they are needed…. Hypotonic
21. List the cell organelles that are part of the endomembrane system and describe their functions
(ribosomes, Rough ER, Smooth ER, Golgi, lysosomes) Describe how they work together to produce
and transport proteins, glycoproteins, and lipids. Explain that vesicles are another way for
organelles to be connected and work together.
22. State the function of the plastids in plant cells : chloroplasts, leucoplasts/amyloplasts &
chromoplasts
23. State the function of cell walls in plant cells, fungi and bacteria cells. Know for each what
 polysaccharide the cell wall is composed of: (cellulose, chitin, peptidoglycan)
24. Compare the functions of mitochondria and chloroplasts. Briefly describe the endosymbiotic
hypothesis regarding these two organelles. Be able to state the characteristics that make them like
prokaryotic cells. Be able to label the parts for mitochondria (outer membrane, inner
membrane/cristae, 70s ribosomes, matrix) and chloroplast (outer membrane, stroma, thylakoid,
grana, 70 S ribosomes)
25. Describe the structure and many functions of the cytoskeleton. Know composed of microtubules,
microfilaments, and intermediate filaments and the structure of each. Be able to label microtubules
and microfilaments in a diagram of the cell membrane.

Cytoskeleton: maintain, change cell shape, move cells，

26. State that the following are composed of microtubules and be able to discuss their
function/relevance; centrioles, spindle fibers, cilia/flagella, cytoskeleton
27. List the functions of microtubules and microfilaments in cells/organisms

Microfilament： actin protein, change shape of eukaryotic cells.

Microtubules: Tubulin protein, maintain shape, movement.

28. Describe the extracellular matrix (ECM) of a plant cell. Describe the difference between the primary
and secondary cell walls and the middle lamella. Also describe the function of plasmodesmata. Be
able to label all of these on a diagram as well. State that secondary cell walls are composed of lignin

29. Describe the three cell junctions seen in the extracellular matrix (ECM) between animal cells: tight
junctions, adhering junctions and gap junctions

Tight junctions: prevent body fluids from seeping in between cells.

Adhering junctions: connect microfilaments and intermediate filaments from cell to cell.
Gap junctions: channels that connect cytoplasm of cells.

30. For all of the organelles above, be able to identify them in a picture and be able to state which types
of cells they are found in (prokaryotic vs. eukaryotic, Plant vs. Animal)
31. Compare and contrast the general characteristics of prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells, and contrast
plant and animal cells.***** THIS IS A BIG ONE!! SPEND A LOT OF TIME ON THIS

CH 5 Enzymes, Energetics, Membranes & transport

Cell membrane structure and function:

1. Evaluate the importance of membranes to the homeostasis of the cell, emphasizing the various
functions.
2. Describe the fluid mosaic model of cell membrane structure. Be able to label; phospholipids (and its
 components), extrinsic and intrinsic proteins, glycoproteins, glycolipids, cholesterol, channels/pores,
receptors. Know information about all structure, roles and functions of each of these components
3. Describe how the amphipathic nature of a phospholipid causes lipid bilayers to spontaneously form
in water. Be able to identify the hydrophilic/hydrophobic, polar/nonpolar, soluble/non soluble parts
of a phospholipid bilayer
4. Describe the membranes fluidity and how cholesterol will change this
5. Describe the ways that membrane proteins associate with the lipid bilayer. Know how the
nonpolar/hydophobic amino acids in a protein and the polar/hydrophilic amino acids in a protein will
be oriented in an intrinsic protein.
6. Discuss the many functions of membrane proteins.
7. Explain that the cell membrane is “selectively permeable” and what this means. Be able to discuss
how different types of molecules (bases on size and charge) can or can not get through the cell
membrane
8. Compare the functions of carrier proteins and channel proteins.
9. List which types of molecules can get through lipid bilayer, which need a protein, and which types do
not get in at all.

Cell adhesion, transport, receptor, recognition, and enzymes.

Transport Across membranes: Passive vs. Active

10. Compare and contrast Active transport and Passive transport mechanisms across cell membranes
using the following terminology: uses energy/ATP or not, molecules move “up “ or “down” “with or
“against” their concentration gradient. Know diffusion, facilitative diffusion and osmosis as examples of
passive transport and “pumps” like the Na+/K+ pump, endocytosis/exocytosis/ phagocytosis/
pinocytosis/amoeba movement as active transport processes
11. For each of the following clarify if they require energy and if a protein in membrane is required: simple
diffusion, facilitative diffusion, active transport, osmosis
12. State that a solute dissolves in a solvent to form a solution. In living systems, the solvent is almost
always water. Diffusion involves the movement of solutes and osmosis involves the movement of the
solvent/water.
13. Define diffusion and facilitated diffusion and describe the similarities and differences between them.
Which one requires a membrane protein? Which one is faster? Do either of these require cell energy?
14. State factors that can cause diffusion to happen at a faster rate: higher temp, higher pressure,
steeper gradient, smaller molecule diffusion, membrane proteins/facilitative diffusion, charge
difference, countercurrent exchange…..
15. Define osmosis, and solve simple problems involving osmosis; for example, predict whether cells will
swell or shrink under various osmotic conditions. Be able to describe the difference in consequences
for a plant cell and animal cell in these different situations
16. Define the terms turgor pressure and plasmolysis. Be able to describe when plant cells will have a
high or low turgor pressure and when plasmolysis will occur.
17. Know the terms hypotonic, hypertonic and isotonic and how to use them when describing the
osmotic situations of different cell types (plant, animal, protozoa).
18. Discuss which types of solutions (hypertonic, hypotonic, or isotonic) are best for animal cells, and plant
cells.
19. State the steps of the Na+/K+ pump and explain why this is an example of active transport
20. Compare exocytotic and endocytotic transport mechanisms. Distinguish between pinocytosis and
phagocytosis, receptor-mediated endocytosis
21. Distinguish between uniports, and co-transport (symports and antiports) and their roles in moving
 materials across cell membranes
22. Discuss the different ways that a cell could move a molecule across the membrane from low to high
concentration. (co-transport, ATP/active transport, membrane proteins role,
endocytosis/receptor mediated endocytosis)
23. Describe receptor-mediated endocytosis (example in notes – bringing cholesterol into cell)
Cell Signaling – How cells communicate:
24. Describe how cells communicate with each other using chemical messengers. How do cells respond to
only certain signaling molecules?
25. State the 3 stages of a signal transduction pathway and briefly describe each (ligand binds to
specific receptor, signal transduction pathway, response)
26. State examples of cell signaling molecules/ligands (hormones, neurotransmitters in the nervous
system, growth factors etc.)
27. Describe the 3 different types of signaling (autocrine, paracrine & endocrine) & give an example of
each (see notes…. T-cells/macrophage White blood cells in immune system- exam of autocrine and
paracrine…… insulin, epinephrine…etc… or any hormone from an endocrine gland as example of
endocrine)
28. State that some signaling pathways can be triggered by environment cues (ex. UV radiation from sun
can cause signaling pathway leading to DNA repair, cell cycle arrest or apoptosis – do not need to know
the details of the pathway.)
29. Explain the second messenger model of cell signaling : only used with hydrophilic signaling
molecules that cant cross the lipid bilayer. Include the specific receptor, G protein, adenylyl cyclase,
basic signaling cascade (not specific enzyme names), final response
30. Explain the example of second messenger signaling: epinephrine and cell signaling in the fight or
flight response. List the steps of the signal transduction pathway with epinephrine as the chemical
signal and the liver cell responding by the release of glucose into the blood. Include all the steps of this
process using the Second Messenger Model with the G protein and Adenylyl cyclase etc.
31. State explain how there is an amplification of signal when using a signal transduction pathway (ex.
One molecule of epinephrine cause a cell to release 10, 00 molecules of glucose)
32. Be able to label a diagram of a signaling pathway: signal molecule (hormone/neurotransmitter),
receptor, G protein, etc….
33. Describe how many chemical signals(hormones) work antagonistically to maintain homeostasis. As
an example describe the antagonistic effect of the signaling pathways of insulin & epinephrine on
blood sugar
34. State that many diseases are caused by problems in signaling cascades. Examples: Type II diabetes
– insulin receptors not responding to insulin)
35. State two examples of how we block cell signaling pathways to our human benefit: (see pesticides
and antihistamine)
36. Explain the different mechanisms of signaling between a polar/hydrophilic signaling molecule (like
a protein hormone – with uses the receptor and second messenger system) and a steroid hormone
which is hydrophobic and can pass directly through the membrane
37. Explain how growth factors signal cells to start cell division via the cell signaling pathways. State that
if there is an overproduction of growth factors or some aspect of this signaling pathway goes wrong and
get “over- signaled” that it leads to tumor/cancer

Metabolism: Catabolism(开膛)broken down into smaller ones , and anabolism(assembled into larger ones).
Enzymes:
38. Describe how enzymes act as catalysts to speed up reactions. Define activation energy and describe
how enzymes alter this
 Activation energy is the energy required to destabilize or break some of the existing chemical bonds in
the substrate to get reaction started.

39. Describe the difference between exergonic and endergonic reactions in terms of energy of reactants
vs. products, delta G as positive or negative, requiring energy or releasing energy, “uphill” or “downhill”.
Be able to identify graphs of each.
Exergonic: spontaneous, energy-releasing, delta g < 0
Endergonic: reaction not spontaneous, delta g > 0

40. Define Gibbs Free Energy (G) and how it is used to quantify energy stored in the molecule bonds of
molecules

Gibbs Free energy is the amount of energy that is available free to do work.

41. State that “delta G” = G of products – G of reactants and that a negative value indicates an exergonic
reaction and a positive value indicates an endergonic reaction
42. State that enzymes do not alter the G or delta G of a reaction and are required to lower the activation
energy of both endergonic and exergonic reactions
43. State that most enzymes are proteins but some have recently been discovered to be RNA molecules
44. Describe how the structure of an enzyme is related to its function. State the enzymes are
proteins with a specific tertiary or quaternary structure (globular), that is 1 amino acid is altered
could affect its shape and functioning.

45. Define the active site of an enzyme and how it is specific for certain substrate(s)/reactions (size,
charge, polarity of side chains)
46. Describe how the following can alter the shape of an enzyme/active site and how this will affect its
functioning: temperature, pH, competitive inhibitor, non-competitive inhibitor, activator, salinity.

47. What is an allosteric modulator/ allosteric change/allosteric site with regards to and enzyme’s
structure and function.
48. State the Lock and Key Theory and how the new Induced-Fit Theory is different.

Induced-fit theory: there is an interaction of amino acid R groups and the enzyme will tightly fold
around the substrate.
49. State that in an enzyme catalyzed reaction the enzyme is not a reactant and is not used in the reaction.
E + S ES complex E+P
50. Explain what is occurring in the ES complex to make the reaction proceed at an exceptionally higher
rate
51. Define activation energy of a reaction. State that enzymes lower this for a reaction so it can proceed
at a much faster/ significant rate.
52. Explain that Enzymes are specific as to which substrate(s) they bond and need a specific temperature
and PH to work properly.
53. Describe what it means when an enzyme denatures and which bonds(ionic, hydrogen bonds, and
vanderwalls) are being broken. State environmental factors that can cause enzymes to denature (High
temps, salt & pH)
 54. Be able to draw a sketch of enzyme activity vs. Temperature and describe why activity increases as
temp increases, what the optimal temperature for the enzyme is and what happens above that optimal
temperature. State that different enzymes can be adapted to have different optimal temperatures
55. Be able to draw a sketch of enzyme activity vs. pH and describe that what is occurring if pH is higher or
lower than the optimum pH. State that different enzymes can be adapted to have different optimal
pH’s.
56. Define V max and label on a graph of substrate concentration vs. enzyme activity. Why is there a v
max? What happens as substrate concentration increases (assuming enzyme amount is constant)
Vmax is the maximum rate of a reaction – when all enzymes are saturated with substrate.
57. Describe how enzymes can be regulated negatively by inhibitors and positively by activators.
Usually in the allosteric site.
58. Define the allosteric site on an enzyme and the definition of an allosteric modulator. State that an
allosteric modulator can be an activator or a non-competitive inhibitor
59. Describe the difference between a competitive inhibitor and a non-competitive inhibitor. Give
examples

Competitive inhibitor: Binds directly in the substrate, blocks substrate, reversible, and more substrate could
out-compete inhibitor.
Non-competitive inhibitor: Binds to the allosteric site, non-reversible, more substrate could not out-compete
the inhibitor.

60. Describe activators of enzymes are called co-factors and co-enzymes and how they affect enzyme
functioning. State that cofactors are often inorganic ions/minerals and co-enzymes are organic
molecules (vitamins)

Co-factors: are inorganic metal ions such as iron, magnesium, zinc  mineral
Co-enzymes: are organic compounds composed of vitamins.

61. Be able to draw/identify graphs of enzyme activity vs. PH, temp, substrate concentration and enzyme
concentration and describe the shape of the graph.
62. Be able to identify on a graph showing the energetics of reactants vs. products, the activation energy
and the new curve that would result if an enzyme is involved

Exergonic reaction. Negative delta G.

63. Explain how chemical reactions are often controlled by feedback inhibition in which a final product in
a series of reactions is often an inhibitor of the first enzyme in the pathway and that this is a way for
these chains of chemical reactions to control themselves. ( like a thermostat controls temperature)
64. Explain how an experiment could be designed to measure the rate of an enzyme-catalyzed reaction
(substrate used, product formed or heat produced if exergonic).
65. Be able to calculate the rate of a reaction from a graph (slope of the line – with proper units)
66. If give graph of an enzyme-catalyzed reaction, be able to predict changes in the graph due to
temperature, pH, increased substrate concentration, increased enzyme concentration, addition of a
competitive or non-competitive inhibitor, addition of an activator (co-enzyme/co-
factors/vitamins/minerals)
AP BIO – ESSAY LIST FOR MID-TERM EXAM 2019
1. Explain why cells have to be so small. Include surface: volume ratio in your answer.

Lack nutrients and toxic waste.

2. Describe the structures of the following organelles in the ENDOMEMBRANE SYSTEM and discuss the functional
relationships between them: Golgi complex, nuclear membrane, ribosomes, Smooth Endoplasmic Reticulum, Rough
Endoplasmic reticulum, lysosomes, secretory vesicles.(I will not list those organelles on the text version of the
question) To do this, Describe the processing of a protein the will be exported from a cell and how this will be
different from a protein that will remain in the cell as an enzyme in the lysosome. Discuss the processing of lipids as
well.

3. Compare and contrast eukaryotic and prokaryotic cells. Included structural similarities & differences as well as the
types of organisms that would have each cell type. (Think about the kingdoms)

4. Discuss the endosymbiotic hypothesis. (state the organelles involved and the evidence to back up the hypothesis.
GO to the website : http://www.sumanasinc.com/webcontent/animations/biology.html for a review of this
Hypothesis/Theory

5. Describe the STRUCTURE of the fluid-mosaic model of a plasma membrane and the FUNCTIONS of all the
components. Include a description of the many functions of membrane proteins and give examples.

6. Discuss the role of the membrane in the movement of materials through it by each of the following
processes. Use examples to describe each.
 Passive Transport
 Active Transport

7. Define passive transport through cell membranes. Discuss/compare & contrast the different types of passive
transport. Back up your explanations with real examples of cells/substances that would be transported in or out of
cells

8. Define active transport through cell membranes. Discuss/compare & contrast the different types of active transport.
Back up your examples with real examples of cells/substances that would be transported in or out of cells

9. Explain the mechanism and importance of the Na+/K+ pump in the membranes of cells.

Maintain the concentration difference for other cell co-transport.

10. Certain molecules that a cell needs are often more highly concentrated inside cells. What problem does this present
for the cell? How could it overcome this problem? Describe several mechanisms that a cell could use to still
maintain in influx of this molecule against its gradient.

11. Explain how the second-messenger model works to signal cells to respond to epinephrine in the fight or flight
Explain the difference between how a protein hormone and a steroid hormone can illicit a cell signaling response
12. Explain how hormones often work antagonistically in endocrine signaling to maintain homeostasis. Describe the
signaling processes of epinephrine hormone and insulin hormone as an example. Include the endocrine glands
involved, a definition of endocrine signaling, the target organs, & how the final response is activated in the target
cells.

13. Describe the 3 different types of cell signaling. Include a real life example of each type