3

Articulators

An articulator is a mechanical device that simulates the movements of the mandible (Fig 3-1). The
principle employed in the use of articulators is the mechanical replication of the paths of movement of
the posterior determinants, the temporomandibular joints (TMJs), and, in some cases, the anterior
guidance. The instrument is then used in the fabrication of fixed and removable dental restorations
that are in harmony with those movements. The articulator is a tool, and, as with all tools, its value to
the dentist is determined by its appropriate use.
The outer limits of all excursive movements made by the mandible are referred to as border
movements. All functional movements of the mandible are confined to the three-dimensional envelope
of movement contained within these borders.1 The border movements are of significance in
discussing articulation because they are limited by ligaments. As such, they are highly repeatable and
useful in setting the various adjustments on the mechanical fossae of an articulator. The more nearly
the articulator duplicates the border movements, the more nearly it will simulate the posterior
determinants of occlusion. As a result, the harmony between the fabricated restoration and the
posterior determinants (ie, the TMJs) will be improved.
Articulators vary widely in the accuracy with which they reproduce the movements of the
mandible. At the lower end of the scale is the nonadjustable articulator. It is usually a small
instrument that is capable of only a hinge opening. The distance between the teeth and the axis of
rotation on the small instrument is considerably shorter than it is in the skull, with a resultant loss of
accuracy.
As the mandible moves up and down in the retruded position, the cusp tip of a mandibular tooth
moves along an arc in a sagittal plane, with the center for that rotation located at the transverse
horizontal axis (THA), which passes through the condyles (Fig 3-2). If the location of the axis of
rotation relative to the cusp tip differs markedly from the patient to the articulator, the radius of the
arc of closure of the cusp tip may be different, producing an error. Drastic differences between the
radius of closure on the articulator and in the patient’s mouth can affect the placement of morphologic
features such as cusps, ridges, and grooves on the occlusal surface.
The casts mounted on a smaller articulator will have a much shorter radius of movement, and a
tooth will travel a steeper arc during closure of the small articulator (Fig 3-3). If the casts are
mounted at an increased dimension of occlusion (ie, with a thick interocclusal record), the teeth will
occlude in a different intercuspal position on the articulator than in the mouth.2 A slight positive error
resulting in a deflective occlusal contact could develop between the mesial incline of the maxillary
teeth and the distal incline of the mandibular teeth.3
The mediolateral location of the centers of rotation (ie, the intercondylar distance) will change the
radius of tooth movement, which in turn will affect the arc traveled by a tooth cusp in the horizontal
plane during a lateral excursion of the mandible. On a small hinge articulator, the discrepancy
between the arcs traveled by a cusp on the instrument and in the mouth can be sizable, particularly on
the nonworking side (Fig 3-4). The result is an increased possibility of incorporating a nonworking
occlusal interference into the restoration.
A semi-adjustable articulator is an instrument whose larger size allows a close approximation of
the anatomical distance between the axis of rotation and the teeth. If casts are mounted with a
facebow transfer using no more than an approximate THA, the radius of movement produced on the
articulator will reproduce the tooth closure arc with relative accuracy, and any resulting error will be
slight (Fig 3-5). Placing the casts a small distance closer to or farther from the condyles through the
use of an approximate THA will produce an error of only a small magnitude during lateral
excursions4 (Fig 3-6).
The semi-adjustable articulator reproduces the direction and endpoint but not the intermediate track
of some condylar movements. As an example, the inclination of the condylar path is reproduced as a
straight line on many articulators, when in fact it usually traverses a curved path. On many
instruments, the lateral translation, or Bennett movement, is reproduced as a gradually deviating
straight line, although several recently introduced semi-adjustable articulators do accommodate the
immediate lateral translation.
Intercondylar distances are not totally adjustable on semi-adjustable articulators. They can be
adjusted to small, medium, and large configurations, if at all. Restorations will require some intraoral
adjustment, but it should be inconsequential if the restoration is fabricated carefully on accurately
mounted casts. This type of articulator can be used for the fabrication of most single units and fixed
partial dentures.

Fig 3-1 The articulator should simulate the movements of the mandible.
Fig 3-2 As the mandible closes around the hinge axis (mha), the cusp tip of each mandibular tooth
moves along an arc. (Reprinted from Hobo et al2 with permission.)

Fig 3-3 The large dissimilarity between the hinge axis of the small articulator (aha) and the hinge
axis of the mandible (mha) will produce a large discrepancy between the arcs of closure of the
articulator (dotted line) and of the mandible (solid line). (Reprinted from Hobo et al2 with
permission.)
Fig 3-4 A major discrepancy exists between the nonworking cusp path on the small articulator (a)
and that in the mouth (m). (Reprinted from Hobo et al2 with permission.)

The most accurate instrument is the fully adjustable articulator. It is designed to reproduce the
entire character of border movements, including immediate and progressive lateral translation, and
the curvature and direction of the condylar inclination. Intercondylar distance is completely
adjustable. When a kinematically located hinge axis and an accurate recording of mandibular
movement are employed, a highly accurate reproduction of the mandibular movement can be
achieved.

Fig 3-5 The dissimilarity between the hinge axis of the full-size semi-adjustable articulator (aha)
and the mandibular hinge axis (mha) will cause a slight discrepancy between the arcs of closure of
the articulator (dotted line) and of the mandible (solid line). (Reprinted from Hobo et al2 with
permission.)

Fig 3-6 There is only a slight difference between cusp paths on a full-size articulator (a) and those
in the mouth (m), even though the cast mounting exhibits a slight discrepancy. (Reprinted from
Hobo et al2 with permission.)

This type of instrument is expensive. The techniques required for its use demand a high degree of
skill and are time-consuming to accomplish. For this reason, fully adjustable articulators are used
primarily for extensive treatment requiring the reconstruction of an entire occlusion.
Fig 3-7 The angle between the condylar inclination and the occlusal plane of the maxillary teeth
remains the same in an open (a) and a closed (b) arcon articulator (a1 = a2). However, the angle
changes in an open (c) and a closed (d) nonarcon instrument (a3 ≠ a4). For the amount of opening
illustrated, there would be a difference of 8 degrees between the condylar inclination at an open
position (where the articulator settings are adjusted) and the closed position at which the
articulator is used.

Arcon and Nonarcon Articulators

There are two basic designs used in the fabrication of articulators: arcon and nonarcon. On an
arcon articulator, the condylar elements are placed on the lower member of the articulator, just as the
condyles are located on the mandible. The mechanical fossae are placed on the upper member of the
articulator, simulating the position of the glenoid fossae in the skull. In the case of the nonarcon
articulator, the condylar paths simulating the glenoid fossae are attached to the lower member of the
instrument, while the condylar elements are placed on the upper portion of the articulator.
To set the condylar inclinations on a semi-adjustable instrument, wax wafers called interocclusal
records are used to transfer the terminal positions of the condyles from the skull to the instrument (see
chapter 4 for the technique). These wafers are 3.0 to 5.0 mm thick so that the teeth on the maxillary
and mandibular casts are separated by that distance when the condylar inclinations are set.
When the wafers are removed from an arcon articulator and the teeth are closed together, the
condylar inclination will remain the same. However, when the teeth are closed on a nonarcon
articulator, the inclination changes, becoming less steep (Fig 3-7). Arcon articulators have become
more widely used because of their accuracy and the ease with which they disassemble to facilitate the
occlusal waxing required for cast gold restorations. However, this very feature makes them unpopular
for arranging denture teeth. The centric position is less easily maintained when the occlusion of all of
the posterior teeth is being manipulated. Therefore, the nonarcon instrument has been more popular
for the fabrication of dentures. Arcon articulators equipped with firm centric latches that prevent
posterior separation will overcome many of these objections.

Fig 3-8 After the THA locator is placed, the patient is assisted in opening and closing on the THA.
An arcing movement of the stylus on the side arm (A) indicates that it is not located over the THA.
The side arm is adjusted so the stylus will rotate without moving during opening and closing (B).
This indicates that it has been positioned over the THA.

Fig 3-9 When a precision facebow transfer is made, both side arms are adjusted so that the stylus
at the end of each arm is located over the THA (arrow). A third reference point, such as the plane
indicator shown here, is used.

Tooth–Transverse Horizontal Axis Relationship

To achieve the highest possible degree of accuracy from an articulator, the casts mounted on it
should be closing around an axis of rotation that is as close as possible to the THA (hinge) of the
patient’s mandible. This axis is an important reference because it is repeatable. It is necessary to
transfer the relationship of the maxillary teeth, the THA, and a third reference point from the patient’s
skull to the articulating device. This is accomplished with a facebow, an instrument that records those
spatial relationships and is then used for the attachment of the maxillary casts to the articulator.
The more precisely located the THA, the more accurate the transfer and the mounting of the casts
will be. The most accurate way to determine the hinge axis is by the “trial and error” method
developed by McCollum and Stuart in 1921.5 A device with horizontal arms extending to the region
of the ears is fixed to the mandibular teeth. A grid is placed under the pin at the end of the arm, just
anterior to the tragus of the ear. The mandible is manipulated so that the condyles are in the optimum
position in the mandibular fossae with the articular discs properly interposed, from which it is guided
to open and close 10 mm. As it does, the pin will trace an arc (Fig 3-8). The arm is adjusted in small
increments to move it up, down, forward, or back, until the pin simply rotates without tracing an arc.
This is the location of the hinge axis, which is marked with ink on the patient’s face.
The facebow is attached to the maxillary teeth, and the side arms are adjusted so that the pin at the
free (posterior) end of each side arm will touch the hinge axis mark on its respective side of the face
(Fig 3-9). A third reference point is selected on the face and recorded by adjusting a pointer on the
facebow. The facebow is removed from the patient and transferred to the articulator. The reference
pins on the facebow are placed over the axis of rotation on the articulator condyles. With the anterior
reference device providing the vertical orientation of the facebow, it can then be used to accurately
mount the maxillary cast on the articulator. This technique is most commonly used for facebow
transfers to fully adjustable articulators.
A facebow that employs an approximate location of the hinge axis based on an anatomical average
can also be used. This technique should provide enough accuracy for the restoration of most mouths,
if the occlusal vertical dimension is not to be altered to any significant extent. An error of 5.0 mm in
the location of the THA will produce a negligible antero-posterior mandibular displacement of
approximately 0.2 mm when a 3.0-mm centric relation record is removed to close the articulator.4

Table 3-1 Accuracy of arbitrary hinge axis points*

Fig 3-10 Three caliper-style facebows among those in use at the present time: (a) QuickMount
(Whip Mix); (b) Denar Slidematic (Whip Mix); (c) Hanau Spring-Bow (Whip Mix).

There are numerous techniques used for arbitrarily locating the hinge axis to serve as the set of
posterior reference points for a facebow.6–14 A comparison of the accuracy of arbitrary and
kinematically located hinge axis points is shown in Table 3-1.
Facebows must have acceptable accuracy and be simple to apply or they will not be used
routinely. Caliper-style ear facebows possess a relatively high degree of accuracy, with 75% of the
axes located by it falling within 6 mm of the true hinge axis.12 There are several caliper-style
facebows (Fig 3-10). They are designed to be self-centering so that little time is wasted in centering
the bite fork and adjusting individual side arms. The technique for their use is described in chapter 4.

Fig 3-11 An air-activated pantograph for recording mandibular movements.

Fig 3-12 Tracings are shown for a pantograph in which all recording tables are attached to the
mandible and all styli are attached to the maxilla. Styli are shown in their initial positions. (a)
Left lateral excursion; (b) right lateral excursion; (c) protrusive excursion.

Registration of Condylar Movements

To faithfully simulate the condylar movement on an articulator, it is necessary to obtain a precise
tracing of the paths followed by the condyle. This can be achieved most accurately by means of a
pantographic recording, which will capture all of the characteristics of the mandibular border
movement from its optimum position to its most forward and most lateral positions.
The pantograph consists of two facebows. One is affixed to the maxilla and the other to the
mandible, using clutches that attach to the teeth in the respective arches. Recording styli are attached
to the one member, and small tables upon which the tracings are made are attached to the other
member of the instrument, opposite the styli. There are both horizontal and vertical posterior tables
attached in the vicinity of the hinge axis on each side of the pantograph. There are also two tables
attached to the anterior member of the bow, one on either side of the midline (Fig 3-11).
The mandible goes through a series of right and left lateral, as well as protrusive, excursions. The
styli on one facebow scribe on the recording tables the paths followed by the condyles in each
movement (Fig 3-12). When the pantograph is attached to the articulator, various adjustments are
made until the movements of the articulator will follow the same paths scribed on the tracings during
mandibular excursions.
The pantographic tracing can only be utilized to full advantage when used with a fully adjustable
articulator. To adjust the settings of a semi-adjustable articulator, wax interocclusal records are used.
The patient closes into a heatsoftened wax wafer in a right lateral protrusive position and maintains
that posture until the wax has hardened. The procedure is repeated with another wax wafer for a left
lateral protrusive position. The wax wafers are then placed, first one and then the other, on the
articulated casts. After the right lateral wafer is used to adjust the condylar inclination for the left
condyle, the left lateral wafer is used to adjust the right condylar inclination. Complete details of the
technique are described in chapter 4.
Advances in electronics and computers have brought about the introduction of new electronic
pantographs that determine the condylar settings of the articulator. One type of electronic pantograph
is similar to a traditional pantograph, with the styli and recording tables replaced by electronic
senders and receivers. Another type utilizes a sender unit located at the end of a bite fork that is
attached to the mandibular teeth. A receiver unit is suspended from a facebow mechanism directly
above it. With both types of instruments, as the patient moves the mandible through the border
movements, information is recorded and displayed on a small computer. This information can then be
used to adjust the condylar settings on a fully adjustable or semi-adjustable articulator.

References
1. Posselt U. Physiology of Occlusion and Rehabilitation, ed 2. Oxford: Blackwell Scientific,
1968:55.
2. Hobo S, Shillingburg HT Jr, Whitsett LD. Articulator selection for restorative dentistry. J Prosthet
Dent 1976;36:35–43.
3. Hodge LC, Mahan PE. A study of mandibular movement from centric occlusion to maximum
intercuspation. J Prosthet Dent 1967;18:19–30.
4. Weinberg LA. An evaluation of the face-bow mounting. J Prosthet Dent 1961;11:32–42.
5. McCollum BB, Stuart CE. Gnathology—A Research Report. South Pasadena, CA: Scientific Press,
1955:39.
6. Kornfeld M. Mouth Rehabilitation: Clinical and Laboratory Procedures, ed 2. St Louis: Mosby,
1974:48,336.
7. Schallhorn RG. A study of the arbitrary center and the kinematic center of rotation for face-bow
mountings. J Prosthet Dent 1957;7:162–169.
8. Beyron H. Orienteringsproblem vid protetiska rekonstruktioner och bettstudier. Sven Tandlak
Tidskr 1942;35:1–55.
9. Beck HO. A clinical evaluation of the arcon concept of articulation. J Prosthet Dent 1959;9:409–
421.
10. Lauritzen AG, Bodner GH. Variations in location of arbitrary and true hinge axis points. J
Prosthet Dent 1961;11:224–229.
11. Gysi A. The problem of articulation. Dent Cosmos 1910;52:1–19.
12. Teteruck WR, Lundeen HC. The accuracy of an ear face-bow. J Prosthet Dent 1966;16:1039–
1046.
13. Bergstrom G. On the reproduction of dental articulation by means of articulators—A kinematic
investigation. Acta Odontol Scand Suppl 1950;9(suppl 4):1–131.
14. Guichet NF. Procedures for Occlusal Treatment—A Teaching Atlas. Anaheim, CA: Denar,
1969:35.
15. Whitsett LD, Shillingburg HT Jr, Keenan MP. Modifications of a new semi-adjustable articulator
for use with a caliper style ear face-bow. J Calif Dent Assoc 1977;5(4):32–38.
Table 3-1 Accuracy of arbitrary hinge axis points*

M e as ure me nt s and Ar bi t r ar y poi nt s wi t hi n

l andmar k s f or ar bi t r ar y 6 mm of k i ne mat i c hi nge I nv e s t i gat or (s )
hi nge ax i s poi nt s ax i s poi nt s (% )

98.0 Schallhorn7
13 mm from posterior margin of
tragus to canthus
92.1 Beyron8
58.3 Beck9

Beck9
13 mm in front of anterior margin 16.7
Lauritzen and
of meatus 40.0
Bodner10

13 mm from foot of tragus to Teteruck and

33.0
canthus Lundeen12

10 mm anterior to center of
external auditory meatus and 7 mm 83.3 Beck9
below Frankfort plane

Teteruck and
Ear axis 75.5
Lundeen12

*Data from Whitsett et al.15