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com
7. Insect Pests of Fruit, Plantation, Medicinal and Aromatic Crops (HPI 104)
3 (2+1)

General – economic classification of insects; ecology and insect-pest

management with reference to fruit, plantation, medicinal and aromatic
crops; pest surveillance. Distribution, host range, bio-ecology, injury,
integrated management of important insect pests affecting tropical, sub-
tropical and temperate fruits, plantation, medicinal and aromatic crops
like coconut, areca nut, oil palm, cashew, cacao, tea, coffee, cinchona,
rubber, betel vine senna, neem, hemp, belladonna, pyrethrum, camphor,
costus, crotalaria, datura, dioscorea, mint, opium, Solanum
khasianum and Tephrosia.. Storage insects – distribution, host range,
bioecology, injury, integrated management of important insect pests
attacking stored fruits, plantation, medicinal and aromatic crops and
their processed products. Toxicology insecticide residue problems in
fruit, plantation, medicinal and aromatic crops and their tolerance
limits.
Practical: Study of symptoms of damage, collection, identification,
preservation, assessment of damage and population of important insect
– pests affecting fruits, plantation, medicinal and aromatic crops in
field and storage

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Course Overview
Introduction
o Annual loss due to insects pests alone causes Rs. 1.50 lakh crores in India.
Indiscriminate usage of pesticides and unscientific approach of insect pest
management and leads to outbreak of newer pests, secondary insect pests
problem, resurgence resistance, residues in food chain etc. hence an
integrated pest management tool are to be taught to the graduates and
farming community regarding environmentally friendly, ecologically
sustainable, socially acceptable, safer pest management strategies is very
very essential.
Overall aim of the course
o To understand the loss caused by various insects, their eco-biology, in
details on different horticultural crops
o To develop the skills on various IPM strategies
o To understand the use of newer molecules of pesticides, various trap,
biocontrol agents, application methods for eco-friendly pest management.
Intended learning outcomes of the course
Knowledge Skills
o To develop knowledge on biology, ecology damage symptom, losses and
caused by various insects on horticultural crops
o To improve the skill on usage of IPM tools for scientific pest management
Intellectual skills
o To develop the ability to know the reasons for outbreak, damage,
transmission of diseases on different crops.
o To develop intellectual skill on timing of pesticide application, dosage,
equipment selection, for effective pest management.
o To understand the consequences of pesticide residues, its impact on
environment, and methods to overcome the problem.
Professional and practical skills
o Professionally skilled for modern scientific pest management.

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 o The candidate will be a suitable person for correct diagnostic service to
solve various pest management issues.

 Syllabus
Theory: General – economic classification of insects; ecology and insect-pest
management with reference to fruit, plantation, medicinal and aromatic crops;
pest surveillance. Distribution, host range, bio-ecology, injury, integrated
management of important insect pests affecting tropical, sub-tropical and
temperate fruits, plantation, medicinal and aromatic crops like coconut, areca
nut, oil palm, cashew, cacao, tea, coffee, cinchona, rubber, betel vine senna,
neem, hemp, belladonna, pyrethrum, camphor, costus, crotalaria, datura,
dioscorea, mint, opium, Solanum khasianum and Tephrosia.. Storage insects –
distribution, host range, bioecology, injury, integrated management of important
insect pests attacking stored fruits, plantation, medicinal and aromatic crops and
their processed products. Toxicology – insecticide residue problems in fruit,
plantation, medicinal and aromatic crops and their tolerance limits.

Practical: Study of symptoms of damage, collection, identification,

preservation, assessment of damage and population of important insect – pests
affecting fruits, plantation, medicinal and aromatic crops in field and storage

Reference

o Athisamy, M. and Venugopal, M. S. 1995 Effect of Azospirillum and

organic amendments on the incidence of major pests of rice. In. : Abstracts

of National symposium on ‗Organic farming‘ held at a Agrl. College & Res.

Instt. Madurai, Tamil Nadu, Oct. 27-28, 1995, p. 110.

o Fouche, C., Gaskell,M., Koike, S.T., Mitchell, J. and Smith, R. 2000. Insect

Pest Management For Organic Crops. Publication 7251 by the Regents of

the University of California, Division of Agriculture and Natural

Resources. Website address: http://anrcatalog.ucdavis.edu/pdf/7251.pdf

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 o Grainge, M and Ahmed, S. 1988. Hand book of plants with pest control

properties. John wiley and sons, New York pp.

o Mohan, S., Balasubramanian, G., Gopalan, M. and Jayaraj, S. 1987. Solar

heat treatment. A novel method to check rice weevil and red flour beetle

infestation in sorghum during storage. Madras Agric. J., 74: 235-236.

o Mohan, S., Devadoss, C .T., Jayaraj, S. and Mohanasundaram, M. 1989.

Biogas fumigation to control pulse beetle, Callosobruchus chinenss. Bull.

Grain Tech., 27 : 196-198.

o Mohankumar, N. Sundara Babu, P. C. and Venugopal, M. S. 1995. Effect of

organic and inorganic forms of nutrition on the occurrence of rice gall

midge, and its parasitoid In. : Abstracts of National Symposium on

‗Organic farming‘ held at Agrl. College & Res. Instt. Madurai, Oct. 27-28,

1995, p. 110.

o Murthy, R. L. N. and Venateswarulu, P., 1998. Introducing ecofriendly

farming techniques and inputs in cotton. In : Proceedings of the workshop

on ‗Eco-friendly cotton, 1998‘ held at Agrl. College and Res. Instt.,

Madurai, Tamil Nadu, Oct. 27-28, 1995 p. 110.

o Rabindra, R. J., 1985. Transfer of Plant Protection Technology in Dry

crops. In : Integrated Pest and Disease Management (Ed) S. Jayaraj. Proc.

Natl. Seminar, Tamil Nadu Agricultural University, Coimbatore pp. 337-

383.

o Rajasekaran. G., Pappiah, C. M. and Logeswaran, G. 1995. Studies on the

effect of FYM, Azospirillum, Phosphobacteria, inorganic and inorganic

sources on leaf hopper and pod borer in bhendi (Abelmoschus esculenus)

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 C. V. Arka Anamika. In. : Abstracts of National Symposium on ‗organic

farming‘ held at Agrl. College and Res. Instt., Madurai, Tamil Nadu, Oct.

27-28, 1995, p. 110.

o Sathiyanandam, V. K. R. and Janarthanan, R. 1995. Influence of organic

sources on groundnut leaf miner incidence. In : Abstracts of National

symposium on ‗Organic farming‘ held at Agrl. College & Res. Instt.,

Madurai, Tamil Nadu, Oct. 27-28, 1995. P. 114.

o Swezey, S.L. 1995. Conversion of cotton production to certified organic

management in the northern San Joaquin Valley: transition phase plant

growth and yield (1992-1994). Proceedings-Beltwide-Cotton-Conferences-

San-Antonio-TX-USA-January-4-7-1995-Volume-1: 125-126.

o Swezey, S.L. and Goldman, P. 1996. Conversion of cotton production to

certified organic management in the northern San Joaquin valley: plant

development, yield, quality, and production costs. Proceedings-Beltwide-

Cotton-Conferences-Nashville-Tennessee-USA-January-9-12-1996-

Volume-1:167-171.

o Uthamasamy, S. 2002. Wide hybridisation and Embryo Rescue

Techniques in the development of pest resistant crop plants. In: Modern

trends in Integrated Pest Management. Eds. R.J.Rabindra, N.Natarajan,

R.Balagurunathan, C.Durairaj, K.Ramaraju and M.R.Srinivasan. TNAU

Publication. pp. 138 - 142

o Wu, G., Chen, Z., Dong, MS, Ji, L. H. and Shi, J. 1991. Influence of

interplanting corn in cotton fields on natural enemy population and its

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 effect on pest control in Southern Shaanxi, Chinies J. Bio Control., 73, 101-

104.

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 Lecture No. 1
 Principles of Applied Entomology
Definition-Applied Entomology

o Economic entomology is the study of insects that are variously related to

the welfare of mankind.

o A study of those insects which are variously related to the welfare of

mankind (Positively or negatively) is referred as Applied Entomology

and is almost need to know about various management methods to curtail

the activity of injurious insects and to encourage the actions of beneficial

insects.

Relationship of insects to man

o Insects form a major category comprising about 2/3 of animal kingdom;

affect variously the wellbeing of man. Man gets benefits from insects in

many ways; without them, human society could not exist in its present

form.e.g.

2. Without pollinating services of bees and other insect, we would have few

vegetables, few fruits, no coffee, no tobacco and few flowers.

3. Insects provide us honey, beeswax, silk and many other useful products.

4. Many insects‘ species are parasites and predators and keep the crop pests

under check.

5. Many of them control weeds.

6. Many of them act as scavengers and make the world little cleaner.

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 7. Insects are the sole or major item of food for many birds, fish and other

animals (including man in some part of the world).

8. Some species have used in the treatment of certain diseases, in heredity,

evolution, sociology etc.,

9. Insects have aesthetic value. Study of insects is a hobby for some people.

o On the other hand, many insects are abnoxious or destructive.

11. They attack various growing plants, feed on them, injure them and kill them

or introduce disease into them.

12. They attack man‘s possessions-home, clothing; foodgrains and destroy

them or contaminate them.

13. They attack man and animals cause annoyance because of their presence,

odours, bites or stings and many are vectors of disease of man and animals.

Economics classification of insects

o Based on their relation to man, insects may be classified into two general

groups, beneficial and injurious.

o Some insects may be considered natural because man does not feel their

effects.

Beneficial Insects: Commercial products derived from insects

A. Honey

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 o Honey is used extensively as food and in the manufacture of many

products.

B. Beeswax

o Bees wax is used extensively by industry in making candles, sealing wax,

polishes and certain type of inks, models, dental impressions, cosmetics

and other products.

C. Silk

o The silk industry is an ancient one. Several types of silkworms are utilized

for production of commercial silk, but the most important is Bombyx mori

(Mulberry silkworm).

D.Shellac

o It is produced from the secretions of the lac insects Laccifer lacca, a type

of scale insect occurring on palas, Ber, kusum banyan, etc. These insects

form encrustations of 6 to 13 mm thick on the twing of the host plant.

These are collected, ground and processed to get shellac.

E. Dyes and other materials

o Several insects have been used in the manufacture of dyes. The cochineal

insect, Dactylopius coccus, a scale insect somewhat similar to mealy bugs,

is used for the production of cochineal dyes. These insects feed on Opuntia

cacti (prickly pear). The dye obtained from these insects is crimson in

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 colour and is produce from the dried bodies of insects. Dyes have also been

made from other types of scale insects and from certain cynipid galls.

F. Insects as medicine

o Certain insects have a real medicinal value. Allantoin is a substance

isolated from secretions of fly maggots and it has properties of healing

deep wounds. Cantharidin is a substance found in the blister beetle, Lytta

vesicatoria and is useful internally treating certain urinary diseases and

externally as a vesieeant and counter – irritant. ‗Specific Medicine Apis‘ is

extracted from honeybees by diagnosing the excited bees in alcohol, and is

used against certain disease like urinary irritation, diphtheria etc. The bee

venom cures rheumatism and arthritis and is available for hypodermic

injection.

G. Use of insect galls

o The galls contain certain valuable products. Some of the galls are of

medicinal value: the Aleppo gall of oak has astringent and tonic properties

and has been used for about 25 centuries in Europe and West Asian

Countries. Other insect galls contain dyes and give inks of permanent

nature. The Aleppo gall is used for dyeing wool and hair and ink from it

had been used for writing important records in Manasteries in Western

Countries.

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 Other useful insects

1. Insects and pollination

o The majority of higher plants are cross-pollinated. They depend on wind

and insects for pollination. While wind pollination may be a chance, insect

aided pollination is somewhat a sure proposition. Wind pollinated crop

produces large quantities of dry pollen while the insect pollinated crop

produces less pollen, which is usually sticky and adheres to the bodies of

insects that visit for the flower. Some species of plants depend solely on a

single of species of insect or type of insect for pollination e.g.a. Smyrnafig

pollination by fig wasp.b. Rosaceous plants (apple, pear, cherry,

strawberry) chiefly depend on honeybees. Many orchard fruits are mainly

insect pollinated. Most important insect pollinator is honeybee. The value

of pollinating insects to man is enormous. Every time the bees collect Rs.

100 worth of honey, they make Rs.2000 worth of seeds and fruits by

pollinating the follows.

2. Entomophagous insects

o The check (control) exerted upon insect pests by entomolophagous (or

insect eating animals) insect is very important factor in keeping down the

population of pest species. A classical example of successful control of an

insect pest by a predator is the cottony cushion scale, Icerya purchase, a

serious pest of orchard in California, by a lady bird beetle (Vedalia beetle)

Rodolia cardinals introduced from Australia. In less than 2 years the scale

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 insect was completely controlled. There are several parasitoids and

predators, which check the pest population.

3. Insect as weed killers

o Many insects feed and destroy noxious weed plant, e.g.1. Prickly pear

(Opuntia spp.) was introduced into Australia and by 1925 had spread over

25mil acres. In 1925, the larvae of moth, Cactobalastis cactorum were

introduced into Australia from Argentina. Now it is almost eradicated with

about just 1% of the area it occupied in 1925.2. Hypericum perforatum L.,

Klamathe weed or goat weed was introduced into California in 1900 and

by 1940 spread over 2 1/2 mil acres. Chrysomelid, Chrysolina

quadringemina proved effective and now it is a minor problem.

4. Insects as scavengers

o Insect scavengers are those that feed on decomposing plants or animals or

dung. They convert these materials into simpler substances, which are

returned to the soil and are available to plants. They also help to remove

the unhealthful materials from man‘s surroundings.

o Wood boring beetles, termites, carpenter ants and other wood feeders

convert fallen trees and logs to soil.

o Dung beetles (Scarabaeidae) and dungflies enhance the decomposition of

dung.

o Carrion-feeding insects (blowflies), skin beetles (Dermestids) are helpful in

removal of carrion from landscape.

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 5. Insects improve soil fertility

a. Soil enriched by the excretions and dead bodies of insects.

b. Soil insects improve the physical properties of soil and add its organic content

eg. Spring tails, ants, mole crickets, cicadas (nymphs), termites, beetles, flies etc.

6. Insects as food of man and animals

o Many animals utilize insects as food. Man himself is sometimes

insectivorous.

o Many fresh water fish feed on mayflies, stoneflies, caddish flies, mosquito

larvae, various aquatic beetles etc.

o Birds that feed largely or entirely upon insects have practical value as

predators of insect pests. Eg. Gulls (aquatic bird) checked a cricket outbreak

in Utah. Other vertebrates‘ are toads, frogs; lizards, bats etc.

o Man in many parts of the world utilizes insects as food. Grasshoppers,

locusts, crickets, cicadas, large ants, eggs of some large water bugs, grubs of

cockochafer beeltes, caterpillars of some Saturnid moths, and larvae and

pupae of bees and wasps are eaten by man in different parts of the world.

Termites are consumed in some parts of out country.

7. The use of insects in scientific research

o The fruit flies, Drosophila spp. Have been extensively used in genetic

studies.

o These insects have 1. Short life cycle. 2. Large chromosomes – salivary

chromosomes. 3. Great number of easily recognizable hereditary

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 variations and 4. Drosophila sp can be easily reared in large numberat low

cost.

o Insect have been used as experimental animal in studies of behavior.

Studies on social insects have provided much interesting and valuable

information on social organization and behavior.

8. The aesthetic value of insects

o For many people, study of insect provides a stimulating hobby as the study

of birds, flowers etc. Artists, jewelers and designers have utilized the

beauty of insects for patterns. Some of the butterflies, moths and beetles

have provided basic patterns in many types of art.

Harmful insects

o Most types of plants are attacked and injured by insects. The injury is

caused by feeding or ovipositing on the plant or serving as vectors of plant

disease resulting in yield loss or complete loss of the plant.

1. Injury by feeding

o Phytophagous insects cause damage resulting in defoliation (eg. Leaf

eating caterpillars), desapping (sucking pests e.g.aphids, thrips, leaf and

planthoppers) etc.

o Injury by oviposition: e.g.Periodical cicadas cause wilting of twings when

the eggs are aid. Cowbug on many plants.

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 o Injury by disease transmission:More than 200 plant diseases are

transmitted by insects. e.g. Bhendi yellow vein clearing transmitted by

whitefly.

2. Insects attacking stored products

o Many insects damage stored produce by feeding, tunneling or

contaminating them.eg. rice moth, potato tuber moth, red flour beetle.

Pests of wood: All sorts of wooden structures, such as buildings, furniture,

fence; insects damage posts etc. e.g. termites, Pests of fabrics: Fabric pests

such as dermestid beetles and clothes moths cause damage to furs,

clothing, blankets, rugs etc.

3. Insects attacking man and animals

o Insects attack man and animals directly in four ways.

o Annoyance: Bot flies and face flies cause great annoyance to man and

cattle.

o Venomous insects: Many insects inject toxins into man and animals that

cause irritation, swelling, pain and sometimes paralysis. e.g. Bees, Wasps

o Parasitic insects: Many parasitic insects live in or on the bodies of man

or animals causing irritation, tissue damage or even death. e.g. Chewing lice

of birds, sucking lice on mammals.

o Disease transmission: Many insects borne disease have a high mortality

rate in man and animals. Insects transmit diseases in two. A) As mechanical

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 vectors (houseflies, blowflies-typhoid, cholera etc). B) As biological vectors

(Anopheles – Malaria).

Symptoms and types of damage caused by insect and mite pests

o Any insect that feeds on any part of a plant is termed as a pest. The types

and symptoms of damage caused to the plants vary according to the

feeding habit and mouthparts of insects. The damages caused by the

insects are grouped into direct and indirect damages.

Direct damages

o Injuries caused by biting and chewing insects, piercing and sucking

insects, internal feeders, subterranean root feeders and storage pests fall

under this category.

Damages caused by insects having biting and chewing type of mouth

parts:

37. Defoliation (eg) Hairy Caterpillars

38. Scrapping and skeleonization (eg)Epilachna in brinjal

39. Feeding on terminal buds (eg) Brinjal shoot borer

40. Not ching the edges of leaves (eg) Ash weevil on brinjal

41. Shot holes on leaves (eg) Flea beele, Tortoise beetle

42. Windowing (eg) Spodoptera in Banana

43. Irregular holes on leaves (eg) Grass hopper

44. Leaf rolling, twisting and webbing (eg) Mangoleaf twisting weevil

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 45. Feeding on flowers and buds (eg) Moringa bud worm

46. Flower webbing (eg) Jasmine webber

47. Partial feeding on grain or seeds (Eg.) lab lab pod borer

Damage caused by insects having piercing and sucking type of mouth

parts:

48. Chlorosis (eg.) aphids on Groundnut

49. Speckling (eg.) Banana tingids

50. Silvering (eg.) Onion thrips

51. Mosaic (eg.) Bhendi aphids

52. Hopper burn (eg.) Bhendi jassid

53. Crinkling and curling of leaves (eg.) chilli thrips

54. Upward and downward curling of leaves (eg.) Chilli aphids

55. Downward cupping of leaves (eg.) Brinjal aphids

56. Elongation of petioles (Eg) Chilli yellow mite

57. Distortion and clustering of leaves (eg.) Mealy bug on coconut

58. Tissue proliferation (Eg.) Mealy bug on Hibicus

59. Shoot drying (eg.) Tea mosquito bug on neem

60. Flower and fruit drop/shedding (eg) Mango hoppers

61. Scab/corky/ outgrowth (eg.) Tea mosquito bug on guava

62. Fruit ratting and discolouration (eg.) Citrus Fruit sucking moth

63. Pod/grain shriveling (eg) Pod bug on lablab

Damage caused by internal feeders

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 64. Stem, shoot, boll, fruit and capsule boring (eg.) Pomegranate fruit borer

65. Leaf mining (eg.) Citrus leaf miner

66. Gall formation (eg.) Mango leaf gall

67. Frothing and gummosis (eg) Spittle bug on jack

68. Oozing out of sap (eg.) Coconut red palm weevil

69. Flower discolouration (eg.) Jasmine bud worm

Damages caused by subterranean pests

70. Removal of sown seeds (eg) Ants on amaranthus

71. Wilting of plants due to feeding on roots (eg) Root grub on cauliflower

72. Tunnelling in vines and tubers (eg) Potato tuber moth

73. Boring, tunneling and emptying of pods (eg) Sweet potato weevil

74. Chlorosis and devitalisation (eg) Root mealy bug

Damage caused by stored product pests

75. Internal feeding of grains (eg) Pulse beetle

76. Surface scrapping of grains (eg) Corcyramoth

77. Caking of flour (eg) Red flour beetle

Indirect damages

78. Oviposition injury (eg) Cicada, Cowbug

79. Making harvest difficult (eg) Red antson mango, lablab Aphids

80. Contamination and loss of quality (eg) Brinjal fruit borer

81. Making nests or cases out of plant parts (eg) Leaf cutter bee

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 82. Insect carriers (eg) Homopterans (Mealy bug) carried by ants

83. Transmission of plant disease by insects Virus – (1) Whitefly (eg) Bhendi

Vein clearing (2) Thrips (eg) Tomato spotted with (3) MLO (Microplasma

like Organisms) Leaf hoppers (eg) Brinjal little leaf.

Introduction-Field of entomology

o The field of entomology may be divided into 2 major aspects.

2. Fundamental Entomology or General Entomology

3. Applied Entomology or Economic Entomology

Fundamental Entomology

o Fundamental Entomology deals with the basic or academic aspects of the

Science of Entomology.

o It includes morphology, anatomy, physiology and taxonomy of the insects.

o In this case we study the subject for gaining knowledge on Entomology

irrespective of whether it is useful or harmful.

Applied Entomology or Economic Entomology

o Applied Entomology or Economic Entomology deals with the usefulness of

the Science of Entomology for the benefit of mankind. Applied entomology

covers the study of insects which are either beneficial or harmful to human

beings.

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 o It deals with the ways in which beneficial insects like predators,

parasitoids, pollinators or productive insects like honey bees, silkworm

and lac insect can be best exploited for our welfare.

o Applied entomology also studies the methods in which harmful insects or

pests can be managed without causing significant damage or loss to us.

o In fundamental entomology insects are classified based on their structure

into families and orders etc. in applied entomology insects can be

classified based on their economic importance i.e., whether they are useful

or harmful.

Assessment of insect population and damages in horticultural

crops
Need

1. To know the extent of pest load and their damage.

2. To workout economic injury level (EIL) and economic threshold level

(ETL). C) To estimate yield loss. d) To decide the timing of control

measures in order to avoid indiscrimate use of insecticide.

o EIL: Cost of control measures = Loss by insect

o ETL: Level at which, control measures to be taken to avoid the insect

population / damage reaching EIL.

1. Mango

o Select five trees (one at the center and four from the corners of the field)

and assess the pest population / damage as follows.

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 2. Citrus:

o Select five trees (one at the centre and four from the corners of the field)

and assess the pest population/damage as follows.

3. Pomegranate

o Select five trees (one at the centre and four from the corners of the field)

and assess the pest damage as follows.

4. Brinjal

o Select 50 plants at random from one acre leaving the borders, and record

the observations on pest population and/or damage at weekly interval

starting from 7 days after planting (DAT) up to last picking of the fruits.

5. Bhendi

o Select 50 plants at random from one acre leaving the borders, and record

the abservations on pest population and / or damage at weekly interval

starting from 7 days after planting (DAT) up to last picking of the fruits.

6.Tomato

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 o Select 50 plants at random from one acre leaving the borders, and record

the observations on pest population and/or damage at weekly interval

starting from 7 days after planting (DAT) up to last picking of the fruits.

7. Rose

o Select 10 plants at random and assess the pest population/damage as

follows.

8. Jasmine

o Select five plants (one at the centre and four from the corners of the field)

and assess the pest population/damage on follows.

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 Lecture - 2 Economic classification
of insects
Economic classification of insects

o Insects can be classified as follows based on their economic importance.

This classification us according to TVR Ayyar.

Insects of no economic importance

o There are many insects found in forests, and agricultural lands which

neither cause harm nor benefit us.

o They are classified under this category.

o Human beings came into existence 1 million years ago.

o Insects which constitute 70-90% of all animals present in this world came

into existence 250- 500 million years ago.

Insects of economic importance

A. Injurious insects

a) Pests of cultivated plants (Crop pests)

o Each cultivated plant harbors many insects pests which feed on them

reduce the yield of the3 crop.

o Field crops and horticultural crops are attacked by many insect species.

(eg) cotton bollworm, Rice stem bores.

b) Storage pests

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 o Insects feed on stored products and cause economic loss. (eg) Rice weevil,

Pulse beetle.

c) Pest attacking cattle and domestic animals

o Cattle are affected by pests like Horse fly, Fleshfly, Flese and Lice. They

suck blood and sometimes eat the flash.

d) House hold and disease carrying insects

o House hold pests include cockroach, ants, etc. Disease carrying insects are

mosquitoes, houseflies, bed bugs, fleas etc.

B. Beneficial insects

a) Productive insects

i) Silk worm

o The silk worm filament secreted from the salivary gland of the larva helps

us in producing silk.

ii) Honey bee

o Provides us with honey and many other byproducts like bees wax and

royal jelly.

iii) Lac insects

o The secretion from the body of these scale insects is called lac. Useful in

making vanishes and polishes.

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 iv) Insects useful as drugs, food, ornaments etc,

(a) As medicine eg. Sting of honey bees- remedy for rhenmatism and arthritis

o Eanthoridin - extracted from blister beetle –useful as hair tonic.

(b) As food - for animals and human being.

o For animals- aquatic insects used as fish food.

o Grass hoppers, termites, pupae of moths.

o They have been used as food by human beings in different parts of the

world.

(c) Ornaments, entertainers

o Artists and designers copy colour of butterflies.

o Beetles worm as necklace.

o Insect collection is a hobby

(d) Scientific research

o Drosophila and mosquitoes are useful in genetic and toxicological studies

respectively.

(II) Helpful insects

(i) Parasitoids

o These are small insects which feed and live on harmful insects by

completing their life cycle in a host and kill the host insect.

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 o Eg.Egg, larval and pupal parasitoids

(ii) Predators

o These are large insects which capture and devour harmful insects.

o Eg.Coccinellids, preying mantids.

(iii)Pollinators

o Many cross pollinated plants depend on insects for pollination and fruit

set.

o Eg. Honey bees, aid in pollination of sunflower crop.

(iv)Weed killers

o Insects which feed on weeds kill them thereby killers.

o Eg. Parthenium beetle eats on parthenium. Cochineal insect feeds in

Opuntia dillenii.

(v) Soil builders

o Soil insects such as ants, beetles, larval of cutworms, crickets, collum bola,

make tunnels in soil and facilitate aeration in soil. They become good

manure after death and enrish soil.

(vi) Scavengers

o Insects which feed on dead and decaying matter are called scavengers.

They important for maintaining hygine in the surroundings.

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 o Eg. Carrion bettles, Rove beetles feed on dead animals and plants.

d) House hold and disease carrying insects

o Pests which cause damage to belongings of human being like furniture,

wool, paper etc. Eg. Cockroaches, furniture beetle, sliver fish etc.

o Pests which cause painful bite, inject venoms. Eg. Wasps, bees sting us.

Hairy caterpillar nettling hairs are poisonous. Mosquitoes, bugs bite, piece

and suck blood from us.

o Disease causing Mosquito- Malaria, Filariasis ,dengue fever. Housefly-

Typhoid, Cholera, Leprosy, Anthrax

Insect ecology and balance of life

Insect ecology
Websters dictionary meaning

o Totality (or) Pattern of relation between organisms and their environment.

A German biologist ‗Ernst Haeckel (1869) proposed the term ‗ecology‘.

This deals with total relationship of an animal to both its organic and

inorganic environment.

Insect ecology

o Science of insect in relation to their environment.

Habitat ecology

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 o Study of habitat and its effects on the organism. Autoecology: Study of an

individual, its behaviour and the influence of environment on its life cycle.

Syn ecology

o Study of a group of organism which are found as a unit. It is also called

Community ecology.

Ecosystem

o A self containing habitat in which living organisms and the physiochemical

environment interact in an exchange of energe and matter to form a

continuing cycle.

Biotic balance

o It is the condition of equilibrium in the population of animals. It is not a

static one but oscillating. The population level is determined by I.

Reproductive potential and II. Environmental Resistance.

I. Reproductive potential

o The ability of an insect to multiply in a given time in the absence of

environmental resistance. Factors that affect the reproductive potential

are a) initial population by fecundity. c) Length of developmental period

and d) sex ratio.

II. Environmental resistance

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 o The sum total of all factors in on environment that tends to reduce the rate

of multiplication. Factors that affect the environmental resistance are a)

Physical b) nutritional, c) host plant and d) biotic.

a) Physical factors

i) Temperature – influence the rate of development and level of distribution

– zone of effective temperature – aestivation – hibernation.

ii) Light – Certain life stages respond to light – photoperiodicity,

iii) Moisture – influence distribution and development,

iv) Climate –average physical conditions in a locality – influence rate and

development.

b) Nutritional factors

i) Availability of food regulate population abundance.

ii) kind and quality of food influence life cycle.

iii) Host selection – monophagous, polyphagous – chemical factors in host

selection.

c) Host Plant associated factors – rapidity of growth, foliage characteristics,

taste factors etc.

d) Biotic factors

i) Competition – within and among different species (Inter and intra

specific).

ii) Parasites and predators parasites like fungi, bacteria, protozoo,

nematodes and various arthropods – predators like birds, mammals,

reptiles, amphibions and insects check the population.

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 iii) Human population trend – Rapidly growing world population – growth

rate projected world population – Indian population – resources.

Biotic factor

o Biotic factors of the environment tend to modify the activities of insects.

Individuals within a population enter into varied interactions with each

other besides interacting with the adjacent population. These interactions

may be positive (or) negative according to whether it produces beneficial

or harmful effects on the interacting individual (or) population. In the

positive interaction, the individuals live adjusting with each other

(Mutusalim, commensalisms). The negative interaction leads to

competition, parasitism and predation.

i. Competition

o The active demand by two or more individuals of the same species of

population. (Intra specific competition) (or) members of two or more

species at the same trophic level (Inter specific competition) for a common

resource (or) requirement that is actually limiting. Both intra specific and

inter specific competition contribute to the density and diversity of a

population.

a) Inter specific competition

o Two competing species can‘t exist in a same place for a long time. Inter

specific competiton leads to competitive displacement. (eg) Mediterranian

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 fruit fly in Hawai in 1940. The accidental introduction of oriental fruit fly

replaces the Mediterranian fruit fly. Competitive displacement between

Nosema apis and mite Acarapis woodi in Honeybee. Tribolium(red flour

beetle) eliminate oryzalphilus (saw toothed beetle) both are grown in same

flour.

b) Intra specific competition

o If the common resource is abundance, no problem in the individual and if

it is limited competition occurs and superior abilities will survive in the

end. (eg) a)Aphid – dispersal. b) Cannibolsim in American bollworm,

Helicoverpa armigera.

ii. Parasites and predator

o Interaction between predator and prey are different from the parasite and

host relationship in that the predator and prey maintain an equilibrium

more dynamic than the parasite and its hosts. The parasites in general,

when the rate of parasitization is high cause death and resultant

elimination of the hosts. But a predator never eliminates the prey

completely. Parasite includes fungi, bacteria, protozoa nematodes and

other arthropods. Predator includes insect predators, birds, mammals,

reptiles, amphibians that check the population.

Abiotic factor (physical factors)

a) Temperature

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 o It has got a profound influence on the life cycle of insects. a) Temperature

influences on the rate of development (or) number of generation (eg)

Temperature is an important factor in the life of the bed bugs. The number

of generations passed through during a year is directly dependent on the

ambient temperature. As many as twelve generations occurs in the tropical

and two in cold climate. For the sugarcane stem borer, Chilo infuscatellus,

the larval period extend over 16-24 days in summer and 141-171 days in

winter. b) Temperature influences the fecundity and rate of egg

production. (eg) Cabbage Diamond backmoth lay more number of eggs at

18° C (larval temperature) than 22°C. c) Temperature influences the rate

of migration and dispersal. (eg) In Desert lowest (Schistioceva gregaria),

migration of swarms occurs at 17°C to 20°C.

o Zone of effective temperature. Normal life activities go on smoothly at a

specific temperature (or) at a specific range of temperature. This is called

the optimum temperature. The rate of chemical reaction within tissues is

modified by temperature. Metabolic processes are influenced by

temperature and increase with it upto a maximum and suddly decline at

the upper lethal temperature. The extreme temperature alters the insect

and the insect entes into diapauses (resting stage). If the resting stage is

due to low temperature, than it is called hibernation. If the resting stage is

due to high temperature, it is called Aestivation.

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 b) Light

o The radiant energy, termed light is one of the most important ecological

factors affecting many aspects of the insect life. Several vital phenomena of

the insect biology (eg) feeding, growth, development, diapuse, survival and

ethology are profoundly influenced by light. Photoperiodism: Daily and

seasonal duration of light has profound effect on the production of sexual

form in Aphids. Short day length is influencing sexual forms, while long

day length is influencing asexual forms (parthenogenetic) viviparous

reproduction. Photoperiods also influence growth, metabolism and daily

rhythm of activity (feeding, flying, mating and oviposition). The light

influences on the inception and completion of diapauses.

o Daily rhythm of activity: It has been observed that many species of insects

are not equally active throughout the 24 hr of the day. Some are primarily

nocturnal (dark active); other are diurnal (day active) and still other which

are referred to as crepuscular (dusk active) are active mainly at dawn and

dusk.

c. Relative humidity

o Termites are a group of insects for which atmospheric humidity is an

important ecological factor. They usually move towards a zone of high

humidity, when subjected to the slightest desiccation. Humidity is high,

rice brown plant hopper multiplication is more. Certain entomogenous

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 fungi requires very high humidity for multiplication and spread (eg) white

halo fungus, Verticillum lecanii attack on coffee green bug.

d. Rainfall

o For normal emergence of adults rainfall is a must (also it is essential for

pupation) for insect like cutworms, Helicoverpa armigiera, Spodoptetra

litura. If it is excess, grubs like white grubs will come out of environment

where they are subject to predation. Excess rainfall control aphids and

Diamond backmoth.

e. Wind

o It helps more in the dispersal of insect species besides interfering with

their normal feeding, mating and multiplication. (eg) with the help of wind

current Helicorerpa adult moth fly upto 90 km. Another examples is the

spreads of eriophyid mite in coconut.

f.Soil type

o Type of soil play a role in multiplication of insects. (eg) wireworms

multiply even in heavy clay soil (poor drainage) with lesser drainage,

Whereas white grub multiply very well in loose sandy soil (light) with

better drainage.

g)Water

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 o Standing (stagnated) water helps in multiplication of insect like

mosquitoes. Running streams are preferred by black flies and caddish

flies.

h) Tropographic factors

o Besides mountain, large areas under water viz., sea etc also act as physical

for the spread of the insect.

Ecology related terminology

i. Habitat is the place where the organism lives.

ii. Population denotes groups of individuals of any kind of organism.

Insect populations are groups of individuals set in a frame that is limited in

time and space.

iii. Community in the ecological sense includes all the populations of a

given area. Community can also be defined as interacting ‗web‘ of

populations where individuals in a population feed upon and in turn are fed

upon by individuals of other populations (Fig. 1)

iv. Ecosystem

o • Ecosystem or ecological system is the functioning together of community

and the nonliving environment where continuous exchange of matter and

energy takes place.

o • In other words ecosystem is the assemblage of elements, communities

and physical environment.

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 o • Ecosystem is the ultimate unit for study in ecology as they are composed

of living organisms and the nonliving environment.

o Examples of natural ecosystem: Ponds, lakes and forests ecosystem (Fig.2)

v. Biosphere is the term used for all of the earth‘s ecosystems functioning

together on the global scale.

Living Genes Cells Organs Organisms Populations Communities

components

Nonliving components Matter Energy Biosphere

= Biosystems

o Gene Cell Organ Organism Population Ecosystem

o Figure 3. Flow of matter and energy in an ecosystem

Agro ecosystem is largely created and maintained to satisfy human wants or

needs. It is not a natural ecosystem but is man made. Agro ecosystem is the basic

unit of pest management - a branch of applied ecology.

A typical agroecosysyetm (Fig. 4) is composed of

i. more or less uniform crop-plant population

ii. Weed communities

iii. Animal communities (including insects)

iv. Microbiotic communities

v. and the physical environment the react with.

Unique features of Agroecosystem

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 o Dominated by plants selected by man

o No species diversity and no intraspecific diversity. Genetically uniform

o Phenological events like germination, flowering occur simultaneously

o Lack of temporal continuity - due to various agricultural operations

carried out by man like ploughing, weeding, pesticide application etc.

o Plants contain imported genetic material

o Nutrients are added

o Outbreak of pests, weeds and diseases occur frequently

Balance of Nature

o Balance of Nature is defined as the natural tendency of plant and animal

population resulting from natural regulative processes in an undisturbed

ecosystem (environment) to neither decline in numbers to extinction nor

increase to indefinite density.

o In unmanaged ecosystems, a state of balance exists or will be reached, that

is species interact with each other and with their physical environment in

such a way that on average, individuals are able only to replace

themselves. Each species in the community achieves a certain status that

becomes fixed for a period of time and is resistant to change which is

termed as the balance of nature.

o When man begins to manage creating new ecosystem (agroecosystem)

where natural ecosystem existed previously, the balance is altered. The

exceptionally strong forces react in opposition to our imposed change

toward a return to the original system (e.g. outbreak of a pest is one of the

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 forces). So insect pests are not ecological aberrations. Their activities

counter wants and needs of human populations.

Factors that determine insect abundance

i) Biotic potential

o It is the innate ability of the population to reproduce and survive. It

depends on the inherited properties of the insect i.e., reproduction and

survival. Potential natality is the reproductive rate of the individuals in

an optimal environment. Survival rate depends on the feeding habits and

protection to young ones (Eg. Viviparity). Generally insects with high

reproductive rate tend to have low survival rate and vice versa.

o Insect pests with high reproductive rate and low survival rate are called r

strategists named after the statistical parameter r, the symbol for growth

rate coefficient. Such pests succeed because of sheer numbers. Eg. Aphids.

o K strategists reproduce slowly but effectively compete for environmental

resources and so their survival rate is high. (K letter denotes flattened

portion of growth curve) Eg. Codling moth of apple.

o Birth rate or natality is measured as the total number of eggs laid per

female per unit time. Factors determining birth rate are fecundity, fertility

and sex ratio.

o Death rate or mortality denotes the number of insects dying over a period.

Example of High reproductive rate

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 o A single moth of Earias vitella (Bhendi fruit borer) lays about 200 eggs per

female. Life cycle is completed in 1 month

After 1 month 200 adults

100 male + 100 female

100 x 200 = 20,000 eggs

After 2nd month 10,000 x 200 = 2,000,000 eggs

After 1 year 2,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000 adults

(i.e., 2 followed by 24 zeroes)

o If a single moth can produce this much, they will cover 24.32 above earth

surface in 1 year. But in reality only a fraction of progeny completes life

cycle due to environmental resistance.

Environmental resistance is the physical and biological restraints that

prevent a species from realizing its Biotic potential. Environmental resistance

may be of 2 types.

1. Biotic factors - includes

a) Competition (interspecific and intraspecific)

b) Natural enemies (predators, parasites and pathogens)

2. Abiotic factors

a) Temperature

b) Light

c) Moisture and water

d) Substratum and medium

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 Bioresources in ecosystem

o Ecosystem comprises of biological communities and non-living

environment. Eg. Agro ecosystem, pond ecosystem, etc.). Bioresources

refers to the biodiversity of various organisms living in that

ecosystem.

o Eg. The different pests of cotton, its natural enemies, hyperparasitoids,

microbes, etc. are referred to the bioresources in cotton ecosystem.

o The ecosystem should have more bioresources. Such ecosystem

will be more stable. Insecticides will deplete the bioresources in ecosystem

and make it less stable and prone to pest outbreak.

o Natural control will be high when bioresources (e.g. Parasitoids

and Predators) are more.

Population dynamics and role of biotic factors

Attributes of a population

i. Density: Population size per unit area

ii. Birth rate (Natality): Rate at which new individuals are added to the

population by reproduction

iii. Death rate (Mortality): The rate at which individuals are lost by

death.

iv. Dispersal: The rate at which individuals immigrate into and emigrate

out of the population.

v. Dispersion: the way in which individuals are distributed in space. It

may be of 3 types.

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 a) Random distribution

b) Uniform distribution

c) Clumped distribution

vi. Age distribution: the population of individuals of different ages in the

group.

vii. Genetic characteristics: adaptive ness, reproductive fitness,

persistence.

viii. Population growth form: the way in which population changes /

grows as a result of natality, mortality, and dispersal.

Population dynamics

o Populations grow in two contrasting ways. They are

i. J- shaped growth form (Fig. 1a)

ii. S- Shaped or sigmoid growth form (Fig. 1b)

NK

Density

Time

o Fig. 1a. J- Shaped growth form Fig. 1b. S - Shaped growth form. In the J -

shaped growth form, the population density increases in exponential or

geometric fashion; for example 2,4,8,16,32 … and so on until the

population runs out of some resource or encounters some limitation (limit

N, Fig. 1a). Growth then comes to a more or less abrupt halt and density

declines rapidly. Populations with this kind of growth form are unstable.

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 Their reproductive rate is high and survival rate is less and so they are r

strategists. A factor other than density regulates the population. (Eg.

Aphids).

o In the S-shaped growth pattern (Fig. 2) the rate of increase of density

decreases as the population increases and levels off at an upper asymptote

level K, called the carrying capacity, or maximum sustainable density.

Their reproductive rate is less and survival rate is more. So they are K

strategists. This pattern has more stability since the population regulates

itself. (Eg. Hymenopterans).

o The population growth rate or change is worked out using the formula,

Nt = N0e(b-d) t - Et + It

Where

Nt = number at the end of a short time period

N0 = number at the beginning of a short time period

e = base of natural logarithm = 2.7183

b= birth rate

d= death rate

t= time period

E= emigration

I = immigration.

Life table: Life tables are tabular statements showing the number of insects

dying over a period of time and accounting for their deaths.

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 Lecture No. 3
Pests-Categories, causes for outbreak of pests
Definition-Pest

o Any organism detrimental to man his property (or) Any form of plant or

animal life or any pathogenic agent injurious or potentially injurious to

plants, plant products, livestock or man.

Definition-Insect pests

o Insects sufficiently numerous to cause economic loss is called insect

pest.

Categories of pests

1. Regular pests: Occurring more frequently on a crop having close

association with the crop. (eg) Brinjal shoot and fruit borer.

2. Occasional pests: Occurring infrequently with no close association with

a particular crop (eg) Snake gourd semilooper.

3. Seasonal pests: Occurring during a particular part of the year. (eg) Red

Hariy Caterpillar (RHC) in groundnut.

4. Pesistent pests: Occurring on a crop almost throughout the year (eg)

thrips on chillies.

5. Sporadic pests: Occurring in a few isolated localities (eg) coconut slug

caterpillar.

6. Epidemic pests: Occurring in severe form in a region or locality at a

particular season (eg) RHC in groundnut in Bhavan Taluk.

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 7. Endemic pests: Occurring regularly and confined to a particular area or

locality (eg) rice gall midge in Madurai dist.

Causes for outbreak of pests

1. Destruction of forest or bringing forest area under cultivation – shift to

cultivated crops. (eg) Hairy caterpillar attack on crop plants near forest

areas.

2. Indiscriminate use of pesticides leads to destruction of natural enemies,

pest resistance,pest resurgence. (eg) Synthetic pyrethroids on sucking

pests.

3. Intensive cultivation (eg) Diamond backmoth on cauliflower in plains and

extensive cultivation (eg) monoculture of rice leads to out break of leaf

folder.

4. Introduction of new crops (eg) gurkin crop leads more fruit fly incidence

and improved strains (eg) many high yielding varieties are more

susceptible to insects.

5. Improved agronomic practices (eg) higher ‗N‘, close spacing, weed control

etc. improved crop growth and reduced competition for food to the insects.

6. Introduction of new pest in a new area (eg) apple woolly aphid.

7. Accidental introduction of foreign pests (eg) potato tuber moth, cyst

nematode of potato, spiraling white fly on guava.

8. Large scale storage of food grains (eg) outbreak of stored product pests, rat

problem.

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Pest management concept
History

o The term pest management comparatively new, although the ideas from

which it is derived have been developed over many decades.

2. In the late 19th century, S.A. Forbes of the University of Illinois suggested

an ecological approach and combinations of control measures for insect

control.

3. The value of monitoring pest population by sampling was realized by the

early 20th century.

4. During the 1940s R.F.Smith developed an outline of Supervised control in

California.

5. B.R. Bartlett in 1956 coined the term integrated control.

6. Shortly after word V.M.Stern R.F.Smith, R.Van den Bosch and K.S.Hagen

published on article on the integrated control concept.

7. In 1961, the Australian entomologists, P.W.Geier and L.R. Clark coined the

pharse Pest Management for programmes in which control methods fit into

the biology of the pest species.

8. Johanson 1978 in his article Principles of insect control has outlined a brief

summary of the concepts on which pest management is based. 8) Brader

(1979) quoted most suitable definition.

o ―Pest management is a system that, in the context of the associated

environment and the population dynamics of the pest species, utilizes all

suitable techniques and methods in on compatible manner as possible and

maintains pest populations of level below those causing economic injury‖.

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 Aims (or) objectives

1. To reduce the crop damage.

2. To prevent the insect to use the crops as breeding and feeding site by

suitable technique.

3. To utilize two or more control techniques together in an integrated

fashion.

4. To make maximum use of natural mortality factors.

5. To apply specific control measures only as and where necessary.

Pest management strategies

o A pest management strategy is the overall plan to eliminate a pest

problem. The particular strategy developed depends on the particular life

system of the pest and crop involved.

2. Do nothing: When pest densities are below the economic threshold, ‗do

nothing‘ is the stratergy to follow. Otherwise a net loss occurs from pest

management.

3. Reduce pest population number: Usually employment in a therapeutic

manner when densities actually reach the economic threshold or in a

preventing manner based on a history of problem.

4. Reduce the crop susceptibility to pest injury. This is most effective and

environmentally desirable strategy. The tactics involved are HPR (hose

plant resistance) and ecological management.

5. Combine reduced population numbers with reduced crop susceptibility –

combination of objectives of all the above strategies to produce a pest

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 management programme with several tacties. The use of multiple strategies

and tacties is a basic principle in developing insect pest management

programmes.

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 Lecture No. 4.
Methods of pest control
1. Natural control
The check in population is due to natural agencies like climatic, Natural enemies,

Topographic, Resistance of plants to insects.

2. Applied control

o Planned and organized by man to eliminate or reduce the number of

insects and the damage. This includes Prophylactic or preventive measures

and Curative or direct measures.

o Prophylacitc: Field sanitation, Crop rotation, resistant varieties,

Preventive treatment. Curative:

3. Cultural methods – tillage, time of planting, pruning, fertilization, water

management sanitation and trap crops.

4. Growing resistant varieties.

5. Mechanical methods – hand destruction, exclusion and trapping

6. Physical methods – heat, cold, humidity, energy and sound

7. Biological methods – parasitoids, predators and pathogens

8. Chemical methods – attractants, repellents, insecticides, sterilants and

growth inhibitors.

9. Genetic methods – male sterile techniques.

10. Regulatory methods – quarantines, legislation

Integrated pest management

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 o Integrated pest management is defined as the Optimization of pest control

in an economically and ecologically sound manner.

o It is a judicious combination of feasible pest management components to

keep insects below economic injury level.

Components of pest management

1. Bio-ecology of pests

o Knowledge on the life cycle of the pest gives not only an idea about the

duration and development of the insect, but also it enables to identify the

weak link in the insect‘s growth to direct the management technology (S.

litura – egg mass and larvae remain together on the under surface of

leaves which facilities the collection and destruction of the larvae (or)

spray chemicals with less quantity.

2. Pest Surveillance and Monitoring

o This can be done through light / pheromone trap / sticky trap, which help

the timely application of pest suppression strategies.

3. Cultural control

o It is concerned with the use of farming or cultural practices associated

with the crop production to make environment less favourable for the

survival, growth and reproduction of pest species. It is used for

suppresioning pest population both by direct effect – killing of the pests or

by indirect effect – by providing condition favourable for the natural

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 enemies of pests. This includes crop rotation, crop refuge destruction,

tillage, time of planting, pruning, fertilization, water management,

sanitation, trap crops.

4. Growing resistant varieties

o The phenomenon of plant resistance is inherited quality that enables a

plant to avoid, tolerate or recover from the effects of oviposition or feeding

that would cause greater damage to other genotypes of the some species

under similar environmental conditions.

5. Mechanical methods

o This involves use of mechanical force or manual labour either for

destruction or exclusion of pests.

6. Physical methods

o This method envisages use of physical factors for eradication of insect

pests. Modification of physical factors in the environment to minimize or

prevent pest problems is making the environment to minimize or prevent

pest problems is making the environment unsuitable for the entry and

survival of insect.

7. Biological methods

o Biological control of pest may be defined as the eradication (or)

suppression of insects by encouragement, artificial introduction or

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 increase of their natural enemies such as parasites, predators and disease

causing organism. De Bach (1964) defined the biological control as the

―the action of parasite, predators or pathogens in maintaining another

organisms population density at a lower average than would occur in their

absence‖.

8. Chemical methods

o Chemical control includes the use of various chemicals that bring about

control of pest either by toxic properties that cause death to the insect or

by other effects like changing the behaviour, imparting sterility, impairing

development (or) causing metabolic disorders to the insects.

9. Genetic method (or) Sterility methods

o This method envisages the use of sterile insects to bring down the

population of pests (eg.male sterile technique-Male pupae are sterilized

with cobalt – 60 and released. Here insects are used against the members

of their own species to reduce population levels and for this reason, the

approach often is called autocidal control.

10. Regulatory methods

i. Preventing entry and establishment of foreign plant and animal pest in a

country.

ii. Eradicating, containing or suppression pests already established in a

limited area.

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 11. Integrated Pest Management (IPM)

o Refers to an ecological approach in Pest Management in which all

available techniques are consolidated in unified programme, so that pest

populations can be managed in such a manner that economic damage is

avoided and side effects are minimized.

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 Lecture No. 5
Integrated pest management
1. Basis for IPM

o It is estimated that losses caused by insects accounts to nearly Rs.50,

000/- crores annually. When the concept of green revolution came, the

areas of assured irrigation were identified and technologies were

developed to increase production in the assured irrigation areas. Another

change was the introduction of high yielding crop varieties. The varieties

had very high potential and with the high inputs of fertilizer, water and

pesticides they could yield substantially very high yields. But with the

introduction of high yielding varieties, there were many problems of pests

and diseases.

o The application of potential synthetic pesticides could control the pests

and diseases in the initial stage. The farmers entice enormous monitory

return. So the farmers still intensified the cultivation, they went in for

higher inputs, they could get higher yield for 2 or 3 years. But, at one stage,

the pest became to react i.e. there is always a competition between plant,

pest and human. The pests overcome the stress and able to produce

biotypes and became resistant. The insecticides that initially controlled the

pest were not able to control the pest subsequently. Then the farmers

increased the dosage and interval is shortened and combination of

pesticides was used.

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 o All these means lead to aggravation of pests. The farmers and Scientists

wanted to evolve new methods and strategies. Now people thought to

evolve new methods which are ecologically sound, safe i.e. input should be

appropriate, pesticide should be proper, also introduced cultural methods,

physical methods, need based methods based in ETL, how resistant

varieties can be introduced, how biological agents can be introduced and

other non conventional methods including botanicals, attractants

repellents, etc. So they wanted to integrate the possible methods either for

a single pest or for all pests of a crop. This is the basis for IPM.

1.1. IPM definition

o Integrated Pest Management (IPM) is a system that, in the context of

associated environment and population dynamics of the pest species,

utilizes all suitable techniques and methods in as compatible a manner as

possible and maintains pest populations at levels below those causing

economic injury. FAO (1967).

 Tools or components of integrated pest management

Inputs/Requirements IPM Components of IPM

Ecology of pest Physical methods of pest control

Mechanical methods
Mechanical methods
Pest surveillance Cultural methods
and monitoring Host plant resistance Biological methods
Parasitoids Virus
Predators Fungi
ETL Microbes Bacteria
Botanicals Protozova
Chemical control method

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 Genetic/Biotechnological approach
Behavioural method
Pheromone
Allelochemical
Legal method
2. Components of organic pest
management
The following components may be included in organic method of pest

management

1. Ecology based pest management and Habitat diversification

2. Use of resistant varieties

3. Wide hybridization

4. Physical methods of pest management

5. Mechanical methods of pest management

6. Use of plant products / botanicals

7. Use of insect pheromones

8. Biological control of pests

9. Use of synthetic organics permissible for use in organic agriculture

10. Using farmers wisdom in organic farming

2. 1. Ecology based pest management

o Various eco-friendly tactics of pest management have to be integrated so

as to avoid the use of chemical pesticides. The knowledge of interaction

among plant, pest, natural enemies and environment is essential for

effective pest management. When the balance of nature is disturbed by

man made interventions, nature strikes back in the form of pest outbreaks.

Some examples of pest outbreaks are as follows

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 2. Whiteflies in brinjal

3. Helicoverpa armigera in bhendi

4. Slug caterpillar in coconut

5. Eriophyid mite on coconut

o Moreover the pest status changes over years due to interaction of various

biotic and abiotic factors. One has to thoroughly understand the reasons

for outbreak of pests and their changing status and plan the management

practices accordingly so as to prevent further outbreaks.

2. 2. Habitat diversification

o Habitat diversification makes the agricultural environment unfavourable

for growth, multiplication and establishment of insect pest populations.

o The following are some approaches by which the pest population can be

brought down.

2. 2. 1. Intercropping system

o Intercropping system has been found favourable in reducing the

population and damage caused by many insect pests due to one or more of

the following reasons.

o Pest outbreak less in mixed stands due to crop diversity than in sole stands

o Availability of alternate prey

o Decreased colonization and reproduction in pests

o Chemical repellency, masking, feeding inhibition by odours from non-host

plants.

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 o Act as physical barrier to plants.

o The following table gives a few examples of intercropping system where

reduction in damage level was noticed

Table 1. Effect of intercropping system on pest levels

Crop
Sl. No. Pest reduced
Sole crop Intercrop
1. Cauliflower onion Diamond back moth
2. Cauliflower Mustard Diamond back moth
3. Onion Agathi Thrips
4. Banana Marigold Nematodes
5. Brinjal Solanum nigrum Whiteflies

o Interplanting maize in cotton fields increased the population of Araneae,

coccinellidae and Chrysopidae by 62.8-115.7% compared with control

fields. Maize also acted as a trap crop for H. armigera reducing the second

generation eggs and damage to bhendi. Hence it is highly important that

appropriate intercropping systems have to be evolved where reduction in

pest level occurs.

2. 2. 2. Trap cropping

o Crops that are grown to attract insects or other organisms like nematodes

to protect target crops from pest attack. This is achieved by

o Either preventing the pests from reaching the crop or

o Concentrating them in a certain part of the field where they can be

economically destroyed

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 Table 2. List of successful examples of trap crop

Sl.
Main Crop Trap crop Pest
No.
1. cauliflower Mustard Diamond back moth
2. Tomato African marigold Helicoverpa
3. Bhendi Castor Spodoptera

o Growing mustard as trap crop 2 rows per 25 cabbage rows for the

management of diamond back moth. First mustard crop is sown 15 days

prior to cabbage planting or 20 days old mustard seedlings are planted.

Growing castor along the border of cotton field and irrigation channels act

as indicator or trap crop for Spodoptera litura. Planting 40 day old

African tall marigold and 25 day old tomato seedlings (1:16 rows)

simultaneously reduces Helicoverpa damage.

o Growing trap crops like marigold which attract pests like American

bollworm to lay eggs, barrier crops like maize/jowar to prevent migration

of sucking pests like aphids and guard crops like castor which attracts

Spodoptera litura in cotton fields was reported by Murthy and

Venkateshwarulu (1998).

2. 2. 3. Fertilizer management

o Plant growth is dependent on the nutritional status of the soil which in

turn has indirect effect on pests. High levels of N fertilizer always favour

insects and makes plants more susceptible to insect infestation (Rathore

and Lal, 1994). On the other hand lower potassium supply favours the

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 development of insects, while optimum and high K has depressant effects

(Dale, 1988).

o The following table (Table 3) shows the role of nutrient management on

pest levels.

Table 3. Effects of host plant nutrition on insect pests

Sl. No. Host plant Insect Response

1. Rice Thrips, GLH, Whorl High K application
maggot, Leaf folder reduces pest incidence
2. Leaf folder, gall midge, High N levels increases
BPH, Yellow stem pest population and
borer, WBPH damage
3. Wheat Cutworm (Mythimna Increased N increases
separata) incidence
4. Sorghum Shootfly High P reduced
incidence
5. Cotton Pink boll worm, High N increased
leafhopper incidence
6. Chickpea Helicoverpa armigera N increased infestation
while P and K reduced

2. 2. 4. Planting dates and crop duration

o Planting dates should be so adjusted that the susceptible stage of crop

synchronizes with the most inactive period or lowest pest population. The

plantings should be also based on information on pest monitoring, as the

data varies with location. Crop maturity also plays an important role in

pest avoidance. The following table (table 4) shows the importance of

planting dates on pest population and damage

Table 4. Role of planting dates on pest population and damage

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 Sl.
Host plant Insect Response Reference
No.
1. Rice Leaf folder Early palnted rice (upto Dhaliwal et al. (1988)
3rd week of June)
suppressed population
2. BPH Planting in end of July Krishnaiah et al. (1986)
in Kharif and Early in
Rabi escapes attack in
AP
3. Gallmidge Lowest incidence iof Uthamasamy and
planted in Aug or Oct Karuppuchamy (1986)
4. Sorghum Shootfly Advancing sowing date Kotikal and Panchbavi
(Sept - Oct) decreased (1991)
incidence
5. Cotton Leafhopper Higher incidence in late Dhawan et al. (1990)
sown crop
6. Chickpea H. armigera For every 10 day delay Devendra Prasad et al.
in sowing 4.02% (1989)
increase in pod damage
7. Tomato Whitefly Incidence less if planted Saikia abd Muniappa
(B.tabaci) within Jul- Nov (1989)
8. Chillies Thrips Late planted crop Bagle (1992)
severely affected by
thrips and leaf curl virus

2. 2. 5. Planting density

o Plant nutrient status, interplant spacing, canopy structure, etc., affect

insect behaviour in searching food, shelter and oviposition site. It also

affects natural enemy population. The effect of plant density on pest

population is shown in Table 5.

Table 5. Effect of plant density on pest population

Sl. Spacing/
Crop Insect Response Reference
No. density
1. Rice Dense Leaf folder, BPH High Kushwaha and
planting incidence Sharma (1981)

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 Kalode and
Krishnaiah (1991)
2. Chickpea Dense plant H.armigera High Yadav (1987)
population incidence
3. Less dense Aphis craccivora High Lal et al (1989)
population incidence
4. Sugarcane Dense seed Topshoot borer Low
rate incidence Singla and Duhra,
Early shoot borer High 1990
incidence

2.2.6. Destruction of alternate host plants

o Many insects use a wide range of cultivated plants especially weeds as

alternate hosts for off season carry-over of population. Matteson et al.

(1984) reported that weeds around the crop can alter the proportion of

harmful and beneficial insects that are present and increase or decrease

crop damage.

Table 6. Alternate hosts to be removed to reduce damage by pests

Alternate host to be
Sl. No. Crop Pest Reference
removed
1. Groundnut Thrips Achyranthus aspera Mohan Daniel et al.
(Caliothrips (1984)
indicus)
2. Rice Gallmidge Wild rice (O.nivara)
3. GLH Leersia hexandra
Echinochloa colonum Kalode and
E.crusgalli Krishnaiah (1991)
C.dactylon
4. WBPH Chleres barbata
5. Sorghum Earhead Grassy weeds Prem Kishore (1987)
midge

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 o Destruction of off types and volunteer plants, thinning and topping,

pruning and defoliation and summer ploughing are other cultural methods

which can reduce pest load in field.

2. 2. 7. Water management

o Availability of water in requisite amount at the appropriate time is crucial

for proper growth of crop. Hence, water affects the associated insects by

many ways such as nutritional quality and quantity, partitioning of

nutrients between vegetative growth and reproduction etc.

o The following table shows the effect of irrigation on pest population /

damage.

Table 7. Effect of irrigation on pest population / damage.

Sl.No Crop Insect Response Reference

1. Rice Mealy bug Continuous ponding of Gopalan et al. (1987)
5cm water reduced
incidence
2. Rice Caseworm Draining of water to Thomas (1986)
and BPH field capacity reduces
incidence
3. Fruit tree Termite Copious irrigation Butani (1987)
nursery reduces incidence
4. Groundnut Aphids Copious irrigation Rao et al. (1991)
increased incidence

2. 2. 8. Crop rotation

o Sustainable systems of agricultural production are seen in areas where

proper mixtures of crops and varieties are adopted in a given agro-

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 ecosystem. Monocultures and overlapping crop seasons are more prone to

severe outbreak of pests and diseases. For example growing rice after

groundnut in garden land in puddled condition eliminates white grub.

2. 2. 9. Organic manure

o Application of press mud in groundnut @ 12.5 t/ha had a better influence

on leaf miner with lower leaflet damage at 38.84 per cent and 2.48 larval

numbers per plant during summer 1991. It was 34.93 per cent and 2.72

numbers during kharif, 1991 (Sathiyanandam and Janarthanan, 1995).

Rajasekar et al. (1995) reported that farm yard manure, Azospirillum and

Phosphobacteria has no significant influence on the control of leaf hopper

and fruit borer in bhendi. The incidence of paddy plant and leafhopper

was low in Azospirillum combined with farmyard manure (Athisamy and

Venugopal 1995). Application of organic manure lowered the rice gall

midge incidence (5.28%) (Mohankumar et al., 1995).

2. 3. Use of resistant varieties.

o Host plant resistance forms an important component of non-chemical

method of pest management. Several resistant varieties of crops have been

evolved against major pests, through intensive breeding programmes.

Development of varieties with multiple resistances to several pests /

diseases is essential.

2. 5. Physical method of pest control

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 o The following are some examples of the use of physical methods of insect

control

o Use of activated clay at one per cent or vegetable oil at one per cent has

been found to effectively control damage by Callosobruchus chinensis in

stored pulses.

o Solar heat treatment of sorghum seeds for 60 seconds using solar drier kills

rice weevil and red flour beetle without affecting germination of seeds.

o Biogas fumigation for 5 days period caused mortality of eggs, grubs, adults

of pulse beetle C.chinensis (Mohan et al., 1987; 1989)

o Drying seeds (below 10% moisture level) prevents insect development.

o Cold storage of fruits and vegetables to kill fruit flies (1-2° C for 12-20 days).

 2. 6. Mechanical method of control

2. 6. 1. Mechanical destruction

a. Hand picking of caterpillars

b. Hooking of rhinoceros beetle adult with iron hook

c. Sieving and winnowing for stored product insect control

d. Shaking plants- to dislodge caseworm in rice -to dislodge June beetles

from neem trees

2. 6. 2. Mechanical exclusion

a. Wrapping of fruits against pomegranate fruit borer.

b. Banding with grease - against mango mealy bug

c. Trenching - for larvae of red hairy caterpillar

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 d. Tin barrier - around coconut tree trunk to prevent rat damage

e. Rat proof structure in storage go downs

2. 6. 3. Appliances based on mechanical control method

a. Light trap

b. Yellow sticky traps - for attracting aphids and jassids

c. Bait trap - fish meal trap for sorghum shootfly

d. methyl eugenol trap - for fruit flies

e. Probe trap - for stored product insects

f. Pheromone trap - for various adult insects

g. TNAU automatic insect removal bin - for stored product insects

2. 7. Use of botanicals in pest management

o Grainge and Ahmed (1988) listed about 2400 plant species with pesticidal

properties (insecticide, acaricide, nematicide, fungicide etc. which are

distributed in 189 plant families).

o Neem oil at 2% and neem seed kernel extract (NSKE) at 5% with liquid

soap 0.05% have been proven affective against major pests of rice, sucking

pests of cotton and vegetable.

o Neem cake applied at 250 kg/ha at last ploughing before sowing has been

found effective against cotton stem weevil and soil insects of many other

crops.

o Neem seeds contain more than 100 compounds among which

azadirachtin has been found to be biologically most active. The biological

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 effects of neem products are insect growth regulation, feeding deterrent

and oviposition deterrent effect.

o Commercial Neem formulations are available in market which contain

varying levels of azadirachtin (from 0.03% to a maximum of 5%). In India

more than 50 firms are manufacturing neem formulations which are

available in different brand names.

o A few examples are given below

Sl. No. Brand name Azadirachtin content

1. Nimbecidine 0.03%
2. Neem guard 0.03%
3. Bioneem 0.03%
4. Jaineem 0.03%
5. Neem gold 0.15%
6. Fortune-aza 0.15%
7. Econeem 0.3%
8. Achook 0.5%
9. Neem azal TS 1.0%
10. Neem azal F 5.0%

o In addition to Neem which belongs to Meliaceae, plants belonging to

Annonaceae, Asteraceae, Fabaceae, Labiatae, Rutaceae and many other

families have been found to possess insecticidal activity. Research in this

field will provide valuable information that will help in managing insect

pests with plant products.

2. 8. Pheromones in Pest Management

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 o Pheromones are chemical substances released by insects which attract

other individuals of the same species.

o Sex pheromones have been used in pest management in the following

ways

a. Monitoring

b. Mating disruption

c. Mass trapping

o These methods can be successfully included in organic method of pest

management. Sex pheromones of the following insects are commercially

available in market.

Table 9. Commercially available sex pheromones for insects

Sl. No. Common Name Scientific name

1. American bollworm Helicoverpa armigera
2. Pink bollworm Pectinophora gossypiella
3. Spotted bollworm Earias vitella
4. Spiny bollworm Earias insulana
5. Tobacco cutworm Spodoptera litura
6. Early shoot borer of sugarcane Chilo infuscatellus
7. Yellow stem borer of rice Scirpophaga incertulas
8. Diamond back moth Plutella xylostella
9. Mango fruit fly Bactrocera dorsalis
10. Melon fruitfly Bactrocera cucurbitae

o Aggregation pheromones of red palm weevil and Rhinoceros beetle of

coconut are also available in market. Different types of pheromone traps

such as sleeve type trap, delta and sticky traps are also manufactured and

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 sold by different firms. In addition to the above many new pheromones of

field and storage pests are being manufactured by commercial firms and

will be available to farmers soon.

2. 9. Biological control

o Management of pests and disease causing agents utilizing, parasitoids,

predators and microbial agents like viruses, bacteria and fungi is termed

as biological control. It is an important component of IPM.

o The three important approaches in biological control are

a. Importation: Importation is also called classical method of biological

control where bio-control agents are imported to control a pests of exotic

origin.

b. Conservation: This is a method of manipulating the environment to

protect the bio-control agents

c. Augmentation: Augmentation aims at mass production of natural

enemies / microbial agents and field release. Genetic improvement of bio-

control agents to have superior traits also comes under this category.

o The ICAR and State Agricultural Universities play an important role in

identifying potential bio-control agents. The commercial bio-control

laboratories mass produce the agents and distribute among the farmers.

There are at least 20 bio-pesticides production laboratories in Tamil Nadu

managed by co-operative and private sectors. The following are the bio-

control agents mass produced in Tamil Nadu.

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 Table 10. Bio-control agents commercially produced in Tamil Nadu

Sl. No. Biocontrol agents Pests managed

I. Parasitoids
Egg parasitoids
1. Trichogramma sp. Borers, bollworms
2 Telenomus remus Spodoptera litura
Egg larval parasitoid
3 Chelonus blackburni Cotton bollworms
Larval parasitoids
4. Bracon brevicornis Coconut black headed caterpillar
5. Goniozus nephantidis Coconut black headed caterpillar
6. Elamus nephantidis Coconut black headed caterpillar
7. Bracon kirkpatrici Cotton bollworms
8. B.hebetor Cotton bollworms
Pupal parasitoids
9 Brachymeria spp. Coconut black headed caterpillar
10 Tetrastychus Israeli Coconut black headed caterpillar
11. Trichospilus pupivora Coconut black headed caterpillar
II. Predators
12. Chrysoperla carnea (Green Soft bodied homopteran insects
lacewing)
Cryptolaemus montrouzieri Mealy bugs
(Australian lady bird beetle)
III Insect Pathogens
13. NPV of Helicoverpa armigera H. armigera
(Virus)
14. NPV of S.litura (Virus) S.litura
15. Bacillus thuringiensis (Bacteria) Lepidopteran insects
16. Beauveria bassiana (Fungus) Many insect pests
IV. Fungal Antagonists
17. Trichoderma viride Root rot and wilt causing fungi
18. Trichoderma harzianum (Rhizoctonia solani,
Macrophomina phaseolina,
Fusarium sp.) in pulses, cotton,
oilseeds, vegetables
19. Pseudomonas fluorescence Root rot causing fungi in various
crops
V. Weed killers
20. Neochetina bruchi and Water hyacinth (Aquatic weed)
Neochetina eichhornae (beetles)
21. Zygogramma bicolorata (beetle) Parthenium weed

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 o Even though many commercial bio-control laboratories are involved in

production of these agents, they are hardly sufficient to cover less than one

percent of the total cultivated area. Hence there is a vast scope for

improvement.

Table 11. Crop wise pest management practices using bio-agents/

botanicals

Sl.
Crop Pest Bio-agent
No.
1. Rice Stem borerTrichogramma japonicum
5 cc/ha/release on 30 and 37 DAT
2. Leaf folder T.chilonis 5 cc/ha/release on 58, 65 and 72
DAT
Neem seed kernel extract 5% spray
3. Gall midge Platygaster oryzae 1 parasitised gall/ 10 m2
Earhead bug Neem seed kernel powder, Notchi leaf
powder, Prosopis leaf powder
4. Sorghum H. armigera HaNPV spray at 1.5 x 1012 POB/ha
5. Pulses H. armigera HaNPV spray at 1.5 x 1012 POB/ha
NSKE 5% spray
Bacillus thuringiensis kurstaki 1.5 l/ha
6. Groundnut S. litura SlNPV spray at 1.5 x 1012 POB/ha
7 Red hairy AaNPV spray at 1.5 x 1012 POB/ha
caterpillar
8. Gingelly Shoot webber NSKE 5% spray
9. Coconut Rhinoceros Metarhizium anisopliae fungus
beetle incorporated in manure pits
Oryctes baculovirus infected adults may be
released
Neem seed kernel powder + sand (1:1) in the
base of three inner most leaves
10. Black headed Release of Goniozus nephantidis 3000
caterpillar adults/ ha under the coconut tree
Release braconid, bethylid, eulophid and
ichneumonid parasitoids from January.
11. Termites Neem oil 5% spray upto 2m height of trunk
12 Mealybugs Neem oil 3% spray on leaves
13. Cotton S. litura SlNPV spray at 1.5 x 1012 POB/ha

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 14. H.armigera HaNPV spray at 3.0 x 1012 POB/ha at 7 and
12th week after sowing
Trichogramma spp. egg parasitoid @ 6.25
cc/ha thrice at 15 days interval from 45 DAS
Chelonus blackburnii (egg larval parasitoid)
and Chrysoperla (predator) @ 1,00,000 /ha
at 6,13 and 14th week after sowing
15. Sugarcane Early shoot Release 125 gravid female of Sturmiopsis
borer inferens
Granulosis virus on 25 and 50 DAP 1.1 x 105
IBS/ml
16. Internode T. chilonis egg parasitoid 2.5 cc/release, 6
borer releases at fortnightly interval from 4th
month
17 Tobacco S. litura SlNPV spray at 1.5 x 1012 POB/ha
NSKE 5% spray
18. Citrus Leafminer NSKE 5% spray
19. Grapes Mealybug Cryptolaemus montrouzieri (beetles) 10 per
vine
Fish oil insecticidal soap 25g/lit
20. Sapota Budworm NSKE 5% spray
21. Tomato S.litura and SlNPV and HaNPV at 1.5 x 1012 POB/ha
H. armigera B.t. 2 g/lit
(Fruit borers) T. chilonis 50000/ha/release
22. Brinjal Shoot and NSKE 5% spray
fruit borer
Aphids Chrysoperla carnea Ist instar larva 10,000
/ha
23 Bhendi Fruitborer Trichogramma 1,00,000 /ha
Chrysoperla carnea Ist instar larva 10,000
/ha
B.t. 2 g/lit
24. Chillies S.litura and SlNPV and HaNPV at 1.5 x 1012 POB/ha
H. armigera B.t. 2 g/lit
(Fruit borers) T. chilonis 50000/ha/release
25. Cabbage, Diamond B.t. 2 g/lit, NSKE 5%
Cauliflower back moth Diadegma semiclausum (parasitoid)
50,000/ha
3. Biotechnological approaches
Biotechnology has provided new avenues for management of insect pets and it

holds great potential to be included in IPM system.

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 o The low toxicity of proteinase inhibitors and Bt alpha-endotoxin as

compared to conventional insecticides would reduce the selection pressure

nd may slow down the development of resistance.

o Since all plant parts including growing points would remain covered with

toxins, dependence on weather for efficacy of the sprays would be

eliminated.

o Since toxins will always be there, so there will be no need of continuous

monitoring of pests.

o Transgenic plant would also provide protection to those plant parts which

are difficult to be treated with pesticides. Thus, transgenics may prove

useful for controlling bollworms and borers which are difficult to control

by means of insecticides.

o The cost of application in the form of equipment and labour will be nil or

negative.

o The development cost is only fraction of the cost of development of

conventional pesticides.

o There would be no problem of contamination in the form of drift and

groundwater contamination.

o Insecticidal activity would be restricted to those insects which actually

attack the plants. Transgenic plants would be safe to non-target species

and human beings.

o Transgenic plants will have inbuilt resistance to various insects replacing

some of the current pesticide usage with protection which is intrinsically

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 biodegradable, thus reducing the use of chemical insecticides and

minimizing the problem of environmental pollution.

4. Insecticide status in pest management

o Insecticides application remains one of the effective, quick methods and

most widely used pest control tactics. When properly used they provide an

efficient, fast, reliable and cost-effective means of pest control. The draw

backs or risks in their use include development of resistance, destruction

of natural enemies, poisoning of man and animals, environmental

pollution and increasing costs. Hence, it is highly needed to switch over to

newer insecticide molecules to provide on efficient, fast and reliable means

of pest management.

4.1. Criteria for newer insecticide molecules

The newer insecticide molecules should have the following criteria for their

environmental safety with effective control.

o Safer to natural enemies

o Low mammalian toxicity

o Effective management with low dose

o Broad spectrum

o No / Low residues

o Phytotonic effect

o Suitable formulation

o Suitable method of application

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 4.2. Groups of new generation insecticides

The new generation insecticides are grouped into

10. Neonicotinoids / Nitroquanidines

11. Synthetic pyrethroids

12. Insect growth regulators

13. Organic insecticides

14. Organophosphates

15. Carbamates

16. Insecticide combinations

1. Neonicotinoids

The neonicotinoids includes

i) Imidacloprid – Confidor 200 SL, Caucho 600 FS, 70 WS

ii) Acetamiprid – Pride 20 SP

iii) Thiamethoxam – Actara 25 WG, Cruiser 70 WS

2. Insect growth regulators

o Diflubenzuron - Dimilin 25 WP '

o Teflubenzuron - Nomolt 15 SC

o Fluenoxuron - Cascade 10 DC

o Navaluron - Rimon 10 EC

o All these insecticides are non-systemic in their action and are coming

Under Benzophenyl urea group of insecticides and when applied, these

insecticides are found to be causing inhibition of chitin formation which

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 causes abnormal endodocuticles and abortive moulting. These insecticides

are effective chewing insects and defoliators.

3. Carbomates

Indoxacarb - Avaunt 14.5 SC

Thiocarb - Larvin 75 WP

Carbosulfan - Marshal 25 EC

These carbamate insecticides are contact and stomach poison in their action and

are targeted against sucking and chewing insects especially in cotton

4. Synthetic pyrethroids

o Lamda cyhalothrin - Karate 5 EC, Kungfoo 2.5 EC

o Beta cyfluthrin - Bulldock 0.25 SC

o These two synthetic pyrethroids are contact and stomach poison in action

and effective against sucking and chewing insects. Lamda cyhalothrin is

also having phytotonic effect.

5. Organic insecticides

i. Spinosad - Tracer 45 SC, Success 2.5 SC

ii. Abamectin - Vertimec 1.9 EC

iii. Cartap hydrochloride - Caldan 50 SP

i. Spinosad

o It is extracted from actinomycetes Saccharopolyspora spmosa. The

insecticide formulation contains two components as spinosyn A+D. It is a

contact and stomach poison targeted against Helicoverpa armigera.

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 ii. Abamectin

o It is extracted from bacteria, Streptomyces avermectilis. This insecticide is

having contact and translaminar action and it is used as an Acaricide in

ornamentals.

iii. Cartap hydrochloride

o It is extracted from a marin annelid, Zumbriconereis heteropoda,. This

insecticide is having systemic contact and stomach poison and causes

paralysis of CNS. It is effective against chewing and sucking pests.

6. Organophosphates

i. Profenofos - Curacron 50 EC

ii. Triazophos - Hostathion 40 EC

i. Profenofos

o It is contact and stomach poison insecticide and also having translaminar

in action. It is mainly targeted against sucking pests, bollworms and mites

in different crops.

ii. Triazophos

o It is an effective acaricide and targeted against sucking and chewing

insects. It is contact and stomach poison

5. Future needs

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 o India's consumption of bio-agents like entomophages, botanical and

microbial pesticides, pheromones etc is less than one per cent of the total

pesticide consumption compared to 12 per cent globally Hence we must

strengthen our usage of bio-agents in the IPM techniques suitable in all

major crops.

o Use of pest avoidance tactics, enhancement of biological pest suppression

and adoption of other non-chemical methods of pest management would

certainly be able to improve our capabilities in solving much of the pest

problems.

o About 70 per cent of our people depend on agriculture for their livelihood

and more than 80 per cent of them are small and marginal category. Hence,

IPM components should be cost effective and environment friendly to suit

the situations of the above category. Such a goal can be reached through

farmer participatory mode in IPM technology development and transfer.

o There is very high demand for some promising bio-control agent and that

practically there is a wide gap between the demand and supply. This is

rather a dicey situation, which may need to unhealthy practices. Hence to

cater the need of farmers, unemployed farm graduates may be encouraged

to start commercial insectaries. Periodical Know-how and do-how training's

have to be organized by the ICAR and State Agricultural Universities.

o Survey and surveillance of insect pests have to be carried out at every village

level on all crops using pest monitoring devices viz., light traps, pheromone

traps baits, fad lures, trap crops, colour and sticky traps etc. forecasting and

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 forewarning of insect pests have to be strengthened with satellites and

computer prediction models.

o More than 500 different crop plant varieties were identified as source of

resistance against insect pests. However their usage in the field level is far

from satisfactory. Hence this lab to land gap has to be bridged. Plant

resistance should be the base of IPM and all other methods have to be

pyramided over it.

o The most recent introduction of B.t transgenic plants conferring resistance

to certain insect pests like cotton boll worms has expanded the scope of

IPM. Such plants where minimum use of insecticides is made help in

conserving biological control agents and serve as important IPM tool.

o Without a strong commitment to interdisciplinary research, it is doubtful

that Integrated Pest Management will become a reality. Hence all allied

fields of Agriculture should join hand in hand to solve pest problems with

more involvement is very essential.

o Unfortunately, today, the decision on the pesticide application lies with the

dealers, who in their interest advise farmers to use a large number of

applications of a variety of chemical pesticides and their mixtures, whether

required or not or whether efficacious or not. Prescriptions from Plant

protection officials or from Entomologists of the manufactures can form a

better base for purchase of plant protection chemical just like a prescription

from a doctor for purchase of medicines. This would also help remove the

social stigma of adherence to past practices of continuing with hazardous

and not so efficacious chemical pesticides. Dealer training and imposition

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 of qualifications for dealers shall definitely create a positive change towards

IPM.

o Each crop/pest and farm level situation is unique and it is not likely that

there could be an "Off the shelf" available IPM solution to each crop/pest

crisis. There fore, fine tuning based on scientific studies and research

becomes imperative. It is definitely a knowledge intensive activity.

o The most important steps to make IPM movement unstoppable and its

benefits self-evident are:

o Validation of appropriate non-chemical methods in farmer fields, based on

dependable ETL.

o Extensive transfer of Knowledge package "through farmer trainings,

o Large scale availability of high quality non-chemical pest/disease

intervention inputs.

o Future needs of IPM greatly depend on research education, training and

marketing improvements, and they can be re-oriented as follows.

Important definitions
Allomone

o A chemical substance, produced or acquired by an organism, which, when

it contacts an individual of another species in the naturl context, evokes in

the receiver a behavioural or physiological reaction adaptively favorable to

the emitter; cf. kairomone.

Antifeedant

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 o A natural or synthetic chemical substance which acts either to inhibit the

stimulation of gustatory receptors which normally recognize suitable food,

or to stimulate receptors which elicit a negative response to deterrent

chemicals.

Biological control

o Biological pests suppression in its narrow, classical sense, usually

restricted to the introduction, by man, of parasitoids, predators, and / or

pathogenic microorganisms to suppress populations of plant or animal

pests; cf. biological insect pest suppression, natural control.

Integrated pest suppression

o An approach to compatible utilization of all available forms of pest

suppression, including mechanical, biological, chemical, and natural

control, in a systematic fashion, with the primary goal of safe, effective,

and economical pest population reduction. It may be directed at a single

important pest species by combining a variety of measures against the

species, or at a complex of pests, integrating the individual protective

measures applied against each, so as not to interfere one with the other.

Microbial pathogen

o Generally, a microorganism which causes disease in its host; more

specifically, a term used in preference to microbial ―insecticide‖ to denote

a microorganism used by man to suppress insect pest populations.

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 Parasite

o An animal species which lives on or in a larger animal, the host, feeding

upon it, and frequently destroying it. A parasite needs only one or part of

one host to reach maturity; cf. parasitoid, predator.

Pheromone

o A pheromone is defined as a chemical or a mixture of chemicals that is

released to the exterior by an organism and causes one or more specific

reactions in a receiving organism of the same species.

Predator

o An animal which feeds upon other animals (prey) that are usually smaller

and weaker than itself, frequently devouring them completely and rapidly.

A predator most often is required to seek out and attack more than one

prey to reach maturity; cf. parasite, parasitoid.

Resistance

o The relative amount of inherited qualities which allow an organism to

influence or reduce the damage done to it by its enemies.

Trap crop

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 o A small planting of a susceptible and highly attractive host, planted early

in the season, or removed in space from the main crop, in order to divert

attack and infestation by pets and allow for their easy destruction.

Methods and adopted for controlling pests

The control of insect pests falls under following heads

a. Legislative

o By which the Government prevents the import of infested with insects,

which if introduced into this country, would become local pests (e.g.

potato tubers with nematodes).

b. Biological method

o The successful control of a pest species by means of another living

organism that is encouraged and disseminated by man is called so. It is

inexpensive and as long-term control, causes no pollution and poses no

risk to human health. Biological agents are available in nature abundantly.

Several pathogens including viruses such as nuclear polyhedrosis virus

(NPV) and granulosis (GV), bacteria like Bacillus thuringiensis, fungi like

Metarhizium, protozoa like Schizogregarine cause diseases in insects to

destroy them. This method has been successfully used to control many

important pests in a number of economic crops.

o The other biological method of control involves the use of parasitoids and

predators. A parasitoid is an organism which completes its life on a single

host and ultimately kills it. A predator on the other hand is a free living-

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 organism and kills the host (prey) immediately and requires more than

one prey individuals to complete its life. If the parasitoid attacks the egg

stage of the host, it is then called egg parasitoid, (e.g.) Trichogramma

chilonis on bhendi borer. When they attack at the larval stage of the host,

it is then called larval parasitoid, (e.g.) Apanteles plutella on diamond

back moth caterpillars in cruciferous vegetables. The predatory group of

insects capture and consume another insects as their food (e.g.) green

lace-wing, Chrysoperla carnea whose grubs and the maggots of Syrphid

flies dramatically exert control over several aphids in many crops. The

adults and grubs of ladybird beetles such as Coccinella septempunctata.

Menochilus sexmaculatus, Brumoicles suturalis and Scymnus nubilus

play important role in the population regulation of several sucking pests

and defoliating insects.

c. Cultural methods

o The control of insects through adoption of ordinary farm practices in

appropriate time in such a way that the insects are either eliminated or

reduced in population is called the cultural method of control. Proper crop

rotation or tillage operations may help to keep down the insect population.

o Some early crops are sown in narrow strips around a major crop to serve

as a trap for the pests that might be common to both. For instance, sowing

of mustard in every twenty fifth row of cabbage crop will help preventing

higher incidence of diamond back moth in cabbage and cauliflower and

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 the preferred mustard plants can be cut and destroyed when the pest

appears. This practice is called trap cropping.

d. Mechanical method

o Mechanical control is one by which the insect population is directly hit by

mechanical devices or manual operations. Mechanical devices include

using fly and maggot traps, setting light and bonfires to attract adult

moths and beetles. Manual methods involve hand picking of egg masses,

larvae and killing them. Mechanical exclusion consists the use of devices

by which insects are physically prevented from reaching the produce (e.g.)

wrapping of individual pomegranate fruits with butter paper envelopes to

save from the attack of Anar butterfly, Virachola isocrates.

e. By use of insecticide

o Insecticide is a substance or mixture of sub¬stances used for killing,

repelling or otherwise preventing insects. The insecticide is referred as a

'repellent' if it prevents the pest species in attacking its host, an 'attractant'

if the pest species is attracted to source, trapped and an 'antifeedant' if it

inhibits feeding on the host. The insecticides are available in any one of the

following formuations:

1. Dusts

o The toxicant is diluted by mixing with or by impregnation a suitable finely

divided carrier. The carrier may be organic flour clay. The toxicant in a

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 dust formulation ranges from 0.5 to 25% (e.g.) endosulfan 4D, malathion

5D.

2. Granular or Pelleted insecticides

o In a granulation the particle is composed of a base such as an inert

material or vegetable carrier impregnated or used with the toxicant which

is released from the formu¬lation in its intact form or as it disintegrates

giving controlled release particles in the formulation generally possess a

size range of 0.25 mm to 2.38 mm diameter. The formulations contain 2 to

10% concentrations of the toxicant (e.g.) carbrofuran 3G, Phorate 10 G.

3. Wettable powders

o It is a powdered formulation which yields a rather stable suspension when

diluted with water. The active ingredients such a formulation ranges from

15 to 95% (e.g) BHC 50 WP, sulfur 25 WP.

4. Emulsifiable concentrate

o The formulation contains the toxicant solvent for the toxicant and an

emulsifying agent (e.g.) endosulfan, EC, dimethoate 30 EC, fenvalerate 20

EC.

5. Concentrated insecticide liquid

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 o The toxicant at highly concentrated level is dissolved in non-volatile

solvent. An emulsifying, agent is not added here (e.g.) monocrotophos 36

WSC, Phosphamidon 85 WSC.

6. Fumigants

o A chemical compound which is volatile at ordinary temperatures and

sufficiently toxic is known as a fumigant (e.g.) Ethylene di bromide,

Methyl bromide, Aluminium Phosphide etc.

7. Fungicide

o Fungicide is any substance that is used to kill fungi and their spores. They

are also available in dust, wettable powder, emulsiable concentrates or

granular formulations.

Plant protection appliances

o The important methods of applying pesticides are dusting and spraying.

The dusting operation allows the dust particles when falling free either

slowly to settle down due to gravity or drift for long distance due to wind.

The appliances that are used for applying dust formulations of pesticides

are called dusters. They are either manual or power operated.

o The spray fluid may be solution, an emulsion, or a suspension toxicant. To

achieve an effective control of pest, the toxicant is well distributed and to

meet this requirement the spray fluid is blown down to fine droplets. The

spraying machines may be either hand operated or power operated ones.

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 Commonly employed manual operated sprayers are (i) knap- sack sprayer

(hydraulic or pneumatic), sprayer and pneumatic hand sprayer. Rocker

sprayers are useful for tall trees and pneumatic hand sprayers are helpful

to spray in gardens. The power operated mist blowers are useful in field

cover more area in a limited time. A spray volume of 150 to 200 water is

necessary to one hectare of land with power spray with low pressure high

volume sprayers but with low press volume sprayers like knapsack

sprayers require about 450-500 water to cover one hectare. Insecticides

should be applied in the morning or evening hours when the weather is

calm or else they will fall on unwanted areas and also may not hit the

target. Before application insecticides, it must be ensured that there are no

pollinators (like-bees) in the area; for the same reason insecticides should

not be applied during blossoms when bees are likely to be at work. After

application of insecticides a time lag (7 – 10 days in case of

organophosphorus compounds and 20-30 days in case of organochlorine

compounds) should be given before consuming the produce. During this

period, the insecticides will get degraded and become non-toxic.

Non-insect pests

o Besides the different kinds of insects which damage crops, mites, rats,

birds and nematodes cause damage to crop plants.

A. Mites

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 o Mites possess four pairs of legs as against insects which do have only three

pairs of legs. In recent years the mites have become major pests. They

cause damage by way of sucking the cellular materials by forming severe

deformities. The, chemicals which are used to control the mites are known

as 'acaricides'. Sulphur, ethion, dicofol, phosalone are commonly used as

acaricides at the rate of 15ml per 10 litres of water.

B. Plant nematodes

o Plant nematodes are small organisms which live soil around the roots of

plants. They are about 0.1 to 1.00 mm in length. They are confined to the

top 20 to 25 cm of soil, sometimes even to a depth of 3 to.4 m. They are

spread from one field to another through percolating water and agronomic

practices like ploughing and weeding which involve transport of soil. Most

of the symptoms of damage by plant parasitic nematodes are non-specific

and often likely be confused with those caused by other pathogens or soil

factors like poor drainage, lack of soil nutrition etc. Some of the commonly

observed symptoms are:

6. Stunting and wilting

7. Leaf curl

8. Browning or bronzing of leaves

9. Distortion of leaves, stems

10. Brown lesions in roots

11. Knot-like galling of roots

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 o Control of plant parasitic nematodes is difficult, but nevertheless,

necessary for obtaining profitable yields. Crop rotation with a non-host

crop or application of large quantities of green leaves or grasses as

mulches or summer fallowing and use of resistant varieties will reduce the

incidence to some extent. Commonly used nematicides are DD mixture,

dibromoethane, dibromo chloropropane, thionazin and aldicarb. In Tamil

Nadu, nematode infection is a devastating problem in banana, citrus,

potato and in vegetable crops like tomato, chillies and brinjal.

Integrated pest management (IPM)

o IPM is a new system approach which has been necessitated primarily out

of the growing concern about the undesirable side effects of large scale use

of organic insecticides and often failure of the same to provide for

suppression of pests at economic level. Attempts to totally suppress the

pests by insecticides may lead to the following problems:

o Development of resistance to chemicals in pest population outbreak of

secondary pests resurgence of treated populations unacceptable residues on

food and forage products and association legal complications destruction of

beneficial insect predators, parasites and pollination hazards to personnel

involved in insecticide application, domestic animals and wild life; and

o Expense of pesticides, involving the cost of materials, labour and

maintenance of equipments.

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 o Thus in any IPM programme, the ecological factors are exploited, the

control methods are so designed that they are compatible with natural

mortality factors in order to optimize control.

Pest Surveillance and Monitoring

o Pest surveillance is the watch kept on a pest for decision-making.

Objectives

o The objectives of the pest and disease surveillance programme in

Agricultural and Horticultural crops are to:

a. Detect species of pest or pathogen present

b. Assess levels of population / damage / infection

c. Study the influence of weather and seasonal parameters on pests

and diseases.

d. Know new species of pests and diseases.

e. Monitor the behaviour of pests under changing cropping pattern /

new varieties.

f. Find out natural enemy population

g. Watch the behaviour of pests under changing cropping pattern/new

varieties

h. Assess resistance/susceptibility/break-down of resistance in crops

to pests and diseases.

i. Monitor build-up of resistance in pests and pathogens to pesticides

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 j. Mark endomic areas/pest calendar

k. Launch timely plant protection measures on need-basis,

l. Reduce cost of cultivation

m. Avoid contamination to eco-system, and

n. To forewarn farmers

Methodology for Surveillance

o The surveillance programme encompasses (i) fixed plot survey and (ii)

roving survey. The fixed plot and roving surveys involve the in-situ

assessment of pests and diseases in the standing crop. The supporting

methodology includes observations on the activity of pests by setting up

light traps, pheromone traps, spore trap, etc. The weather parameters of

the respective areas are also recorded to study their influence on the pests

and diseases.

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 Lecture No.6
Insecticides, classification and their mode of action
Introduction

o Insecticides are agents of chemical or biological origin that control insects

o Despite the availability of several ecofriendly technologies for pest

management, farmers rely mostly on the chemical pesticides because of

their availability, immediate and spectacular effect increased use of these

compounds all over the world as well as in India

Classification of pesticides based on target organisms

1. Insecticides eg. endosulfan, malathion

2. Rodenticides eg. Zinc phosphide, warfarin

3. Acaricides eg. dicofol, azinphos methyl

4. Avicides eg. TMTD, anthraquinone

5. Molluscides eg. metaldehyde, trifenmorph

6. Nematicides eg. DD, ethylene dibromide

7. Fungicides eg. Copper oxychloride, mancozeb

8. Bactericides eg. Streptomycin sulphate, aureomycin

9. Herbicides eg. 2,4-D, butachlor

Classification of insecticides

1. Based on chemical nature

A. Inorganic insecticides

eg. Arsenic & Fluorine compounds

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 B. Organic insecticides

10. Hydrocarbon oils

11. Animal origin eg. Neristoxin

12. Plant origin eg. Nicotine, pyrethrum, rotenone, neem

13. Synthetic organic compounds

i. Dinitro phenols eg. DNOC

ii. Organothiocyanates eg. thanite

iii. Chlorinated hydrocarbons eg. endosulfan

iv. Organophosphorus compounds eg. phosphamidon

v. Carbamates eg. carbofuron, aldicarb

vi. Synthetic pyrethroids eg. cypermethrin

2. Based on mode of entry

o Stomach poison eg. B.t

o Contact poison eg. Chlorinated hydrocarbons

o Fumigant eg. DDVP, Lindane

o Systemic poison eg. Methyl demeton, Dimethoate

3. Based on mode of action

A. General classification

18. Physical poison eg. inert dusts

19. Protoplasmic poison eg. heavy metals like mercury and copper, fluorine

and arsenics

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 20. Respiratory poison eg. hydrogen cyanide, carbon monoxide

21. Nerve poison eg. organophosphates, carbamates

B. Matsumura’s classification

22. Physical poison eg. inert dusts.

o Dissolves wax layer & rearrange them – cracking.

2. Protoplasmic poison eg. heavy metals like mercury and copper, fluorine and

arsenics

o Denatures protoplasm.

3. Metabolic inhibitors

i. Carbohydrate metabolism inhibitors eg. Sodium flouroacetate

o Inhibits TCA cycle.

ii. Respiratory metabolic inhibitors eg. Rotenoids, arsenicals

o Inhibitors of ET chain

o Inhibitors of oxidative phosphorylation

iii. Amine metabolism inhibitors eg. Formamidines

o Induces accumulation of biogenic amines – octopomine

o Blocks Na+ channel and also K+ current

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 iv.Mixed function oxidase inhibitors eg. Synergists

v. Insect hormones eg. Juvenile hormone analogues

o Affects synthesis of natural JH

vi. Chitin synthesis inhibitors eg. Diflubenzuron

o Affects deposition of chitin in endocuticle

o Affects other constituents of endocuticle

4. Non metabolic inhibitors (or) neuroactive agents

i. Effect of permeability eg. HCH, DDT

ii. Anticholine esterases eg. OP‘s, carbamates

iii. Agents for nerve receptors eg. Nicotenoids

5. Hormone mimics eg. methoprene

6. Stomach poison eg. Bt

C. Insecicides mode of action groups

Group Primary target group Chemical subgroups

1A Acetyl choline esterase Carbamates
1B inhibitors Organophosphates
2A GABA-gated chloride Cyclodienes
2B channel antagonists Polychlorocycloalthanes
2C Fiproles
3A Sodium channel Pyrethroids, pyrethrins
modulators
4A Ach receptor Chlornicotinyls
4B agonist/antagonists Nicotine
4C Cartap, bensultap
5A Ach receptor modulators spinosyns
6A Chloride channel Avermectin, emamectin
6B activators Milebemycin
7A Juvenile hormone mimics Methoprene, hydroprene
7B Fenoxycarb
7C pyriproxifen

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 8A Unknown or non specific Methyl bromide
8B action (fumigants) Phosphine generating
comp.
9A (selective feeding blockers) Pymetrozine
9B Cryolite
10A (mite growth inhibitors) Clofentezine, hexythiazox
11A Microbial disrupters of B.t. tenebrionis
11B insect midgut membranes B.t. israelensis
11C (including Bt crops) B.t. kurstaki, B.t. aizawi
11D B.t. sphericus
11E B.t. tolworthi
12A Inhibitors of Organotin miticides
12B oxidativephosphorylation, Diafenthiuron
Disrupters of ATP
formation
13A Uncoupler of oxidative Chlorfenapyr
phosphorylation via
disruption of H proton
gradient
15A Chitin biosynthesis Acyl ureas
inhibitors
16A Ecdysone agonists Tebufenozide and related
17A Homopteran chitin Buprofezin
biosynthesis inhibitors
18A Unknown dipteran specific Cyromazine
mode of action
19A Octopominergic agonist Amitraz
20A Site II electron transport Hydramethylnon
inhibitors
21A Site I electron transport Rotenone, METI acaricides
inhibitors
22A Voltage dependent sodium Indoxacarb
channel blocker

Newer insecticide molecules

1. Avermectin insecticides - abamectin, emamectin, ivermectin

2. Macrocyclic lactone insecticides - spinosad

3. Nicotinoid insecticides - imidacloprid, thiamethoxam, thiacloprid,

acetamiprid, chlothianidine

4. Oxadiazine insecticides - indoxacarb

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 5. Thiourea insecticides - diafenthiuron

6. Urea insecticides - flucofuron, sulcofuron

7. Pyrrole insecticides - chlorfenapyr

8. Pyridazinones - pyridaben

9. Quinazolines - fenazaquin

10. Pyrazole insecticides - ethiprol, chlofenofer, fipronil

11. Benzoylureas - teflubenzuron, flufenozuron, diflubenzuron

Miscellaneous insecticide classes

o Methoxyacrylates – Fluacrypyrin

o Naphthoquinones – acequinocyl

o Nereistoxin analogues – thiocyclam, cartap

o Pyridine azomethine – pymetrozine

o Pyrimidanines – pyrimiifen

o Tetronic acids – spiromesifen, spirodiclofen

o Benzenedicarboxamides – flubendiamide

Insecticide formulations

o Formulation involves processing of the technical grade insecticides for

better storage, handling, measure, application and efficacy together with

safety

o Depending upon the mode of applications, dry and liquid formulations are

common forms

o They may also be classified as solid, liquid and gaseous formulations

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 Classification

1. Solid formulations

o Dust, wettable or water dispersible powder, granules, capsules, baits etc.

2. Liquid formulations

o Solution, emulsifiable concentrate, ultra low volume formulations,

suspension etc.

3. Gaseous formulations

o Fumigant, aerosol, foams, smokes, mists and fog.

EC - Emulsifiable concentrate FS - Flowable concentrate for seed treatment

CG - Encapsulated granule G - Granule
CS - Capsule suspension GC - Macrogranule
DC - Dispersible concentrate GL - Emulsifiable gel
DP - Dispersible powder GP - Flo-dust
EG - Émulsifiable granule GW - Water soluble gel
EO - Emulsion, water in oil OL - Oil miscible liquid
EW - Emulsion, oil in water OP -Oil dispersible powder WDP- Water
ES - Emulsion for seed treatment dispersible powder
FG- Fine granule WG- Water dispersible granules
SC- Suspension concentrate WP- Wettable powder
SE- Suspo- emulsion WS- Water dispersible powder for slurry
SG- Water soluble granule treatment
SL- Soluble concentrate WSC –Water soluble concentrate
SP- Water soluble powder
SS- Water soluble powder for seed
treatment
SU- Ultra-low volume suspension
TB- Tablet
Different formulations

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 Compatibility of insecticides

o Simultaneous or sequential application of insecticides, fungicides,

fertilizers etc in a single cropping season advantageous

o Main reason for combinations of pesticides - saving of time, equipment

wear and tear and cost of application

o problems associated with this practice

i. physical incompatibility (agglomeration, phase separation etc.)

ii. chemical incompatibility (degradation of active ingredient, change in pH)

iii. biological incompatibility (reduction in bioefficacy of one by other,

phytotoxicity)

Consider the following before combination of pesticides is resorted to

o Do not mix two insecticides, as they will hasten the development of

resistance in pests

o Do not mix the incompatible pesticides

o Do not mix the pesticides, as a matter of routine. Apply insecticide-

fungicide combination only when both the target insect and plant

pathogen are above ETL level.

Tests of compatibility

o Combinations may either prove phytotonic or phytotoxic sometimes

o Physical and chemical tests undertaken for testing of insecticide quality

and formulations

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 9. Acidity and alkalinity test

10. Emulsion stability test

11. Wettability test

12. Sieve test

13. Bulk density test

14. Suspensability test

Compatibility of insecticides Vs. Fungicides

Benomyl Carbendazim COC Cuman-L Dithane - Mancozeb Captan

M45
1. Chlorinated
hydrocarbons
Dicofol C C C
Endosulfan C
2. Organo
phosphates
Chlorpyriphos C C C
Dichlorvos C C C C
Dimethoate I I C C C C
Malathion C C C C
Methyl-demeton C C
Monocrotophos C C I C C C
Phosphamidon C C C C C
4. Pyrethroids
cypermethrin C C C I

Compatibility of insecticides Vs. Plant nutrients (Fertilizers) and

Herbicides

Borax Urea Zinc sulphate Atrazin Alachlor Metachlor

Chlorfenvinphos I
Diazinon C I I
Endosulfan C
Fenitrothion C
Methyldemeton C
Monocrotophos C
Phenthoate C

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Phorate C C I
Profenofos C

Compatibility of insecticides Vs. Biopesticides (Insect Pathogens)

Bt Ha NPV Sl NPV
Chlorpyriphos
Dimethoate C
Endosulfan C C C
Fenitrothion C C
Methyldemeton I
Monocrotophos C
Phorate
Phosalone C
Phosphamidon C
Quality control of pesticides
Quality control of pesticides

o The effectiveness of the pesticides in pest control programmes largely

depends on the quality which in turn is the function of physico chemical

properties of the active ingredients and the characteristics of the

formulations

o The establishment, implementation and the monitoring of the standards

of the quality of pesticides are very important facets of improved

agricultural production

o The Insecticides Act , 1968

o The Insecticides Rules, 1971

o The main objective of the Act is to regulate the import, manufacture, sale,

transport, distribution and use of pesticides with a view to prevent risk to

human beings and animals and for matters connected therewith.

o Bureau of Indian Standards (BIS)

o Pesticide Industries

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 o Government (Central and State)

Precautions and directions for drawing samples

o do not take sample in an exposed place.

o See that the tools used for sampling are dry and clean.

o Take necessary precautions regarding toxicity effect of samples being

drawn.

o Avoid contamination during and after sampling.

o Containers receiving samples - clean, dry and air tight.

o See that the size of the container receiving samples is such that it is not

completely filled by the sample.

o Seal the container with the sample air tight and furnish details regarding

sampling, date of manufacture, name of the manufacturer etc.

o Store the sample in a proper place.

Scale of sampling

o All samples of a same batch considered as one lot and samples bearing

different batch numbers considered as separate lots.

o Samples from each lot are to be drawn and tested.

o The number of containers to be chosen for sampling depends on the size of

the lot.

Physical tests

A. Dust and wettable powder formulations

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 20. Sieving Test for particle size requirement

21. Test for bulk density

22. Sieve test after accelerated storage

23. Compensability test

24. Wettability test

B. Emulsion concentrate or emulsifiable concentrate

25. Emulsion stability test

26. Cold test, flash point test and heat stability test

C. Granules

27. Attrition test

28. Water runoff test, wet test for encapsulation and liquid holding capacity

Chemical tests

29. Test for acidity/ alkalinity

30. Active ingredient content

Disposal of pesticides

o All unused pesticides and containers must be disposed off carefully

o Improper disposal of pesticide wastes and pesticides containers can result

in incidents of animal poisoning or environmental contamination

Pesticide wastes may range as follows

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 o Accidental spillage

o Left over from excess spray mixtures

o Unsold pesticide materials

o Damaged containers

o Pesticides which lost their expiry dates

o Wrong application

Disposal techniques

Disposal of spilled pesticides

o Don't wash with much of water

o Sprinkle moist sand or saw dust

o Remove the contaminated soil and burry

o Wash the contaminated floor with lime or 10% sodium bicarbonate

Disposal – Burial under soil

o Burial site must be carefully chosen

o The area should be marked out and identified such that leakage of buried

pesticide will not contaminate water bodies.

o Should be buried 50 cm below

o Lime may be mixed to enhance degradation process

Disposal of containers

o Misuse of containers should be avoided

o Empty and clean the containers before disposal

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 o Drain the pesticide in a vertical position for 30 seconds

o Rinse with water thrice

o Make the container unusable by puncturing and deforming

o Should be buried

o Paper and fibre container should be burnt in open air

o Herbicide containers should not be burnt in the vicinity of crops

o When burning don't respire the smoke

o Glass containers should be broken and buried

Pesticide disposal technology

o The diversity in chemical properties of pesticides and their formulated

products and the quantity and composition of pesticide wastes complicate

the disposal technology

o No single treatment system can be universally applied

I. Chemical detoxification and disposal methods

59. Acid or base hydrolysis, oxidation, reduction or irradiation

60. Other methods such as fixation, wet scrubbing, Chlorinolysis,

neutralisation, precipitation, ion exchange and solvent extraction for

treating industrial pesticide production plant effluents and other

industrial wastes.

II. Physical detoxification and disposal methods

1. Incineration

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 o This is the best method of detoxification and disposal of non-metallic

toxicants.

2. Ocean incineration

o In this the incinerator is taken into the sea in a ship and hazardous

chemicals are combusted.

3. Deep well injection and ground burial and use of chemically modified peat are

other physical disposal methods

III. Biological detoxification and disposal methods

63. Soil incorporation

64. Land fills

65. Activated sludge system

66. Enzymatic treatment.

Biorational insecticide

o Biorational pesticide

o ―Any type of insecticide active against pest populations, but relatively

innocuous to non-target organisms, and, therefore, non-disruptive to

biological control‖ (Stansly et al.1996).

o An insecticide can be ―innocuous‖ by having low or no direct toxicity, or by

having systemic or by moving rapidly into the leaf through the leaf surface,

or by having short field residual, thereby minimizing exposure of natural

enemies to the insecticide.

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 o an insecticide can be innocuous to one natural enemy or even some

life stages of one natural enemy but can be toxic to another natural

enemy or other life stages

o The biorational nature of pesticides depends upon the time, pest and crop

upon which they are used

o It needs good safety on non-target pest

Chemical Action Common Name Target Pest

Systemics (nicotinoids) Imidacloprid Whiteflies, aphids
Thiamethoxam Whiteflies, aphids
Acetamiprid Whiteflies, aphids
Insect Growth Regulators Pyriproxyfen Whiteflies, aphids
Buprofezin Whiteflies
Tebufenozide Leps.
Methoxyfenozide Leps.
Novaluron Whiteflies, Leps.
Miscellaneous Pymetrozine Aphids, whiteflies
Spinosad Leps., leafminers
Indoxacarb Leps.
Emamectin benzoate Leps., leafminers
Chlorantraniliprole Leps., leafminers

Pesticide 2007
Dose
S.No. Chemical name Trade name Crop Pest
(a.i. ha-1)
1. Flubendiamide 480 Fame 24g cabbage Diamond back moth
SC
2. Flubendiamide 480 48g Tomato Helicoverpa armigera
SC
3. Flubendiamide 480 60g Chillies Fruitborer
SC
4. Flubendiamide 480 48g Redgram Maruca testulalis,
SC Excelastis atomosa
Helicoverpa armigera
5. Flubendiamide 480 48g cotton bollworms
SC
6. Flubendiamide 480 24g rice Leaf folder
SC

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 7. Fipronil 80 WG 50g Rice Stem borer and leaf folder
8. Fipronil 5SC Regent 50g Rice Stem borer and leaf folder
9. Fipronil 80 WG 50g Grapes Thrips
10. Fipronil 80 WG 50g Chillies Thrips
11. Imidacloprid 200 SL Confidar 50g Grapes Grapevine flea beetle
12. Imidacloprid 200 SL Tatamida 25g Cucumber Sucking insects
13. Imidacloprid 200 SL 50g Tobacco Sucking pests
14. Imidacloprid 17.8 SL 15g okra Sucking pests
15. Imidacloprid 17.8 SL 25g okra Sucking pests
16. Imidacloprid 17.8 SL 50g Cotton Sucking pests
17. Imidacloprid 70 WG Admire 24.5g Cucumber Aphids, leaf hoppers
18. Triazophos 20EC Hostothion 600g cotton Bollworms
19. Triazophos 40EC 200g Chillies Sucking pests
20. Spirotetramat 150 60g Chillies Sucking pests
OD
21. Spirotetramat 150 75g Cotton Sucking pests
OD
22. Emamectin benzoate Proclaim 11g Cotton & Helicoverpa armigera
5 SG Bhendi
23. Emamectin benzoate - 15g Bhendi Fruit borer
5 EC
24. Emamectin benzoate - 15g cotton Bollworms
5 EC
25. Emamectin benzoate 20g Bhendi Fruit borer
1.9 EC
26. Emamectin benzoate 20g cotton Bollworms
1.9 EC
27. Thiamethoxam 25 WG 25g cotton Sucking pests
28. Thiamethoxam 25 WG Actara 25g rice GLH & BPH
29. Indoxacarb 14.5 SC Isacarb, 75g Cotton Bollworms
Avaunt
30. Indoxacarb 14.5 SC 25g Cabbage Diamond back moth
31. Indoxacarb (KN 128)15 4og cabbage Diamond back moth
EC
32. Indoxacarb (KN 128)15 75g Cotton Bollworms
EC
33. Spinosad 2.5 SC Success 18.75g Cabbage Diamond back moth
34. Spinosad 45 SC Tracer 75g Chillies Fruit borers
35. Bifenthrin 10 EC Talstar 50g Rice Leaf folder
36. Spiromesifen 240 SC Oberon 120g Okra Red spidermite
37. Spiromesifen 240 SC Oberon 96g Tea Tetranychid mite
38. Buprofezin 25 SC 200g cotton Sucking pests
39. Buprofezin 25 SC 200g rice GLH & BPH

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 40. Buprofezin 25 SC Applaud 25 SC 325g Grapes Mealybugs
41. Ethiprole 10 SC 50g Rice BPH, WBPH
42. Thiacloprid 24 SC Alanto 50g Rice BPH, WBPH
43. Propargite 570 EC Omite 570g Okra Red spider mite
44. Fenazaquin 10 EC Magister 100g Okra Red spider mite
45. Fenpyroximate 5 SC Senda, 30g chillies mite
Mitigate
46. Chlorpenapyr 10 SC Intrepid 100g Cabbage Diamond back moth
47. Diafenthiuron 50 WP 0.16g Cardamom Shoot and capsule
borer, thrips
48. Diafenthiuron 50 WP Pegasus 0.1g Cardamom thrips
49. Acetamiprid 20 SP Pride 50g Cotton Sucking pests
50. Abamectin 1.9 EC Abamectin 22.5g Cotton Boll worms
51. Chlorantraniliprole 20 Coragen 40 g chillies Fruit borers
SC
52. Chlorantraniliprole 20 Coragen 40 g tomato Fruit borers
SC
53 Chlorantraniliprole 20 Coragen 40 g Red gram Pod borer complex
SC
54. Chlorantraniliprole 20 Coragen 10 g Cabbage Diamond back moth
SC
55 Lambdacyhalothrin Icon 62.5g/1000sq.ft Household Mosquito
10%WP
56 Lambdacyhalothrin 5 CS Karate Zeon 25 g Brinjal, Borers
okra
,tomato
New molecule of pesticide and their dosage against
key pests
Dose
S.No. Chemical name Trade name CROP PEST
(a.i. ha-1)
1. Flubendiamide 480 SC Fame 24g cabbage Diamond back
moth
2. Flubendiamide 480 SC 48g Tomato Helicoverpa
armigera
3. Flubendiamide 480 SC 60g Chillies Fruitborer
4. Flubendiamide 480 SC 48g Redgram Maruca
testulalis,
Excelastis atomosa
Helicoverpa
armigera
5. Flubendiamide 480 SC 48g cotton bollworms
6. Flubendiamide 480 SC 24g rice Leaf folder
7. Fipronil 80 WG 50g Rice Stem borer and
leaf folder

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8. Fipronil 5SC Regent 50g Rice Stem borer and
leaf folder
9. Fipronil 80 WG 50g Grapes Thrips
10. Fipronil 80 WG 50g Chillies Thrips
11. Imidacloprid 200 SL Confidar 50g Grapes Grapevine flea
Tatamida beetle
12. Imidacloprid 200 SL 25g Cucumber Sucking insects
13. Imidacloprid 200 SL 50g Tobacco Sucking pests
14. Imidacloprid 17.8 SL 15g okra Sucking pests
15. Imidacloprid 17.8 SL 25g okra Sucking pests
16. Imidacloprid 17.8 SL 50g Cotton Sucking pests
17. Imidacloprid 70 WG Admire 24.5g Cucumber Aphids, leaf
hoppers
18. Triazophos 20EC Hostothion 600g cotton Bollworms
19. Triazophos 40EC 200g Chillies Sucking pests
20. Spirotetramat 150 OD 60g Chillies Sucking pests
21. Spirotetramat 150 OD 75g Cotton Sucking pests
22. Emamectin benzoate 5 SG Proclaim 11g Cotton & Helicoverpa
Bhendi armigera
23. Emamectin benzoate 5 EC - 15g Bhendi Fruit borer
24. Emamectin benzoate 5 EC - 15g cotton Bollworms
25. Emamectin benzoate 1.9 EC 20g Bhendi Fruit borer
26. Emamectin benzoate 1.9 EC 20g cotton Bollworms
27. Thiamethoxam 25 WG 25g cotton Sucking pests
28. Thiamethoxam 25 WG Actara 25g rice GLH & BPH
29. Indoxacarb 14.5 SC Isacarb, Avaunt 75g Cotton Bollworms
30. Indoxacarb 14.5 SC 25g Cabbage Diamond back
moth
31. Indoxacarb (KN 128)15 4og cabbage Diamond back
EC moth
32. Indoxacarb (KN 128)15 75g Cotton Bollworms
EC
33. Spinosad 2.5 SC Success 18.75g Cabbage Diamond back
moth
34. Spinosad 45 SC Tracer 75g Chillies Fruit borers
35. Bifenthrin 10 EC Talstar 50g Rice Leaf folder
36. Spiromesifen 240 SC Oberon 120g Okra Red spidermite
37. Spiromesifen 240 SC Oberon 96g Tea Tetranychid mite
38. Buprofezin 25 SC 200g cotton Sucking pests
39. Buprofezin 25 SC 200g rice GLH & BPH
40. Buprofezin 25 SC Applaud 25 SC 325g Grapes Mealybugs
41. Ethiprole 10 SC 50g Rice BPH, WBPH
42. Thiacloprid 24 SC Alanto 50g Rice BPH, WBPH

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43. Propargite 570 EC Omite 570g Okra Red spider mite
44. Fenazaquin 10 EC Magister 100g Okra Red spider mite
45. Fenpyroximate 5 SC Senda, Mitigate 30g chillies mite
46. Chlorpenapyr 10 SC Intrepid 100g Cabbage Diamond back
moth
47. Diafenthiuron 50 WP 0.16g Cardamom Shoot and
capsule borer,
thrips
48. Diafenthiuron 50 WP Pegasus 0.1g Cardamom thrips
49. Acetamiprid 20 SP Pride 50g Cotton Sucking pests
50. Abamectin 1.9 EC Abamectin 22.5g Cotton Boll worms
51. Chlorantraniliprole 20 Coragen 40 g chillies Fruit borers
SC
52. Chlorantraniliprole 20 Coragen 40 g tomato Fruit borers
SC
53 Chlorantraniliprole 20 Coragen 40 g Red gram Pod borer
SC complex
54. Chlorantraniliprole 20 Coragen 10 g Cabbage Diamond back
SC moth
55 Lambdacyhalothrin Icon 62.5g/1000sq.ft Household Mosquito
10%WP
56 Lambdacyhalothrin 5 Karate Zeon 25 g Brinjal, okra Borers
CS ,tomato

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 Lecture No.7
Methodology for Surveillance

Definition-Pest Surveillance

o Pest surveillance is the watch kept on a pest for decision-making.

 Objectives

The objectives of the pest and disease surveillance programme in Agricultural

and Horticultural crops are to:

a. Detect species of pest or pathogen present

b. Assess levels of population / damage / infection

c. Study the influence of weather and seasonal parameters on pests and

diseases.

d. Know new species of pests and diseases.

e. Monitor the behaviour of pests under changing cropping pattern / new

varieties.

f. Find out natural enemy population

g. Watch the behaviour of pests under changing cropping pattern/new

varieties

h. Assess resistance/susceptibility/break-down of resistance in crops to

pests and diseases.

i. Monitor build-up of resistance in pests and pathogens to pesticides

j. Mark endomic areas/pest calendar

k. Launch timely plant protection measures on need-basis,

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 l. Reduce cost of cultivation

m. Avoid contamination to eco-system, and

n. To forewarn farmers

Methodology for Surveillance

o The surveillance programme encompasses (i) fixed plot survey and (ii)

roving survey. The fixed plot and roving surveys involve the in situ

assessment of pests and diseases in the standing crop. The supporting

methodology includes observations on the activity of pests by setting up

light traps, pheromone traps, spore traps, etc. The weather parameters of

the respective areas are also recorded to study their influence on the pests

and diseases. The observations on the pests and diseases cover their

alternate cultivated host crops and weed host plants.

A. Fixed Plot Survey

o Two fields of about 1 acre in size are selected in two different villages in the

jurisdiction of each Agricultural Officers. Five micro plots each of the size

of one square metre area are fixed in each field. These micro plots are laid

one each in four quarters of the field and one in the middle. The micro

plots should be fixed about 10 metres away from the bunds. The

observations for most of the pests are confined to five micro plots in each

field.

B.Roving Survey

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 o The roving survey is conducted every week at the rate of two fields in each

of the four villages in the jurisdiction of each Agricultural Officers (T&V).

In each field, observations are recorded from the south west corner by a

diagonal walk.

Surveillance programme - three kinds

o The reports involved in the surveillance programme are of three kinds.

White card report or Normal report

o This is a weekly report in which the pest and disease situations are

reported regularly.

Yellow card

o This is a special reporting system wherever pest or disease is noticed at

50% of the economic threshold level but still not attained ETL status. The

information is immediately passed on for alerting the Joint Director of

Agriculture (T&V), his subject matter specialists, and the scientists.

Red card

o This reporting system is adopted when a pest or a disease has reached the

critical economic threshold level where immediate action programme has

to be launched for controlling the pest or disease.

Survey

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 o Regular survey activity is necessary for successful surveillance

programmes. Surveys may be qualitative or quantitative.

o Qualitative survey aims at pest detection, employed with newly introduced

pests and often precedes quantitative survey.

o Quantitative survey attempts to define numerically the abundance of an

insect population in time and space; useful for future population detection

and assessment of damage potential.

Sampling

o Sampling requires that we take a representative part of the total

population and base our estimate on that part. Sampling technique is the

method used to collect information for a single sample.

o Sampling programme describes when sampling is to begin, location of

samples, number of samples and how often samples should be taken.

o Common sampling techniques are In situ counts, knock down, netting,

trapping, extraction from soil, indirect technique.

Definitions
Decision making

o Decision making is the key stone in insect pest management programmes;

it indicates the course of action to be taken in any pest situation.

Economic Damage: is the amount of injury, which justifies the cost of artificial

control measures.

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 Gain Threshold: is the tem used to express the beginning point of economic

damage.

Management cost (Rs. /acre)

Gain Threshold = ——————————————————= kg/acre

Market value of the product (Rs. /kg)

Economic Injury Level (EIL): is defined as the lowest number of insects that

will cause economic damage or the minimum number of insect that would reduce

yield equal to gain threshold.

Economic Threshold (ET):

o Indicate the number of insects (density or intensity) / damage when

management action should be taken to prevent population/ damage

reaching EIL.

Market value/crop value: is one of the most variable factors and accounts for

much of the change in EILs. The relationship between EIL and market value is

inverse.

Management Costs: The cost of managing a pest population must be

estimated before profitability of an action can be assessed.

Life table

o Life table is a condensed tabulation of certain vital statistics of insect

population, which provides a format for recording, and accounting for all

population change is the life cycle of a species. So the construction of life

table is an important component in the understanding of the population

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 dynamics of a species. But it takes considerable time and manpower to

obtain realistic results. If carried out correctly life table remain the most

important analytical technique available for identifying key mortality

components in an insect pest‘s life cycle.

o Age specific life tables are more commonly used in entomology than time-

specific life tables. The former are based on the fate of a real cohort

throughout a generation, while the latter are based on the fate of an

imaginary cohort. Age specific life table provides a means of identifying

the potential role of parasitoids and predators in the regulation of pest

population. The data required to construct a life table for key factor

analysis are a series of successive samples taken from each life stage of a

generation. The first step in constructing a life table is to obtain an

estimate of the potential natality (Number of individual entering post-

ovarial stage). This is calculated from an estimate of the mean fecundity

per female, which is multiplied by the number of female of reproductive

age. Mortality refers to the total mortality obtained in a population.

Utility of life tables

1. Calculation of replacement rate: A valid life table can be determining

whether a population is growing, declining, or remaining stable.

2. Simulation: Once a valid life table is constructed for on insect

population, it may be used to stimulate the out come of management

decisions.

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 3. Determination of key factors: Key factor analysis has proved to be a

valuable aid in identifying the environmental factors most closely related

to intergenerational population trend.

Limitation

o Life table analysis is only as valid as the accuracy of the sampling

techniques used to obtain initial data.

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 Lecture No.8
 Biological control in pest management

Introduction

o Use of natural enemies to suppress pest species. The Natural enemies are

Predators, Parasitoids and Pathogens. Classical biological control is cottony cushion

scale Icerya purchase in 1889 with Roaolia cardinalis beetle (Miracle of Entomology).

The steps involved in biological control are

2. Conservation and encouragement of indigenous natural enemies.

3. Importation of exotic natural enemies.

4. Augmentation (mass rearing and release).

o Qualities of an effective natural enemy: 1) Good host searching capacity. 2)

Host specificity. 3) Wider adaptability 4) High dispersal ability 5) Amenability to

culturing. 6) Ability to withstand competition. 7) Ability to outnumber the pest. 8) High

survival capacity.

 Parasitoids
Parasitoids
Parasite

o An animal species, which lives on or in a larger animal, the host, feeding

upon it, and frequently destroying it. A parasite needs only one or part of host to reach

maturity.

Parasitoid

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o An insect parasite of an arthropod; parasitic only in its immature stages,

destroying its host in the process of its development, and free living as an adult.

Types of parasitoids

1. Based on the developmental site in the host

a. Ectoparasitoid

o An insect parasite which develops externally on its arthropod host.

o (eg). Bracon brevicornis on coconut black headed caterpillars.

b. Endoparasitoid

o An insect parasitoid which develops within the body of its arthropod host.

o (eg) Eriborius trochanteratus on coconut black headed caterpillar.

2. Based on host specificity

a. Monophagous parasitoid

o Highly host specific attacking a single host species. E.g. Parasierola

nephantidis (Goniozus) (Bethylidoe) on Opisina arenosella (coconut black headed

caterpillars).

b. Oligophagous parasitoid (Stenophagous): Attacking a group of related host

species.

c. Polyphagous parasitoid: Attack a wide variety of host species. (eg) Trichogramma

Spp. (Trichogrammatidae) on eggs of

many Lepidopteran species.

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3. Based on the host

a. Primary parasitoid: A parasitoid parasitizing a pest. It is beneficial (eg)

Trichogramma sp.

b. Seconday parasitoids: A parasitoid attacking another parasitoid. It is harmful (eg.)

Opisina arenosella (pest) Bracon brevicornis (Primary parasitoid) – Pleurotropis sp.

(secondary parasitoid).

c. Tertiary parasitoid: A parasitoid attacking secondary parasitoid. It is beneficial.

(eg) Trichospilus coerulescens

o All parasitoids whose hosts are parasitoids are called as hyperparasitoids

(Parasitoids of Parasitoids).

4. Based on the number of parasitoids developing from a single host insect

a.Solitary parasitoid:

o One progeny alone is capable of completing its development in or on its

host (eg) Eriborus trochanteratus.

b. Gregarious parasitoid:

o Several progeny are capable of completing its development in or on a

single host. (eg) Bracon breviconis.

o A further extension of gregaiousness is Polyembryony in which several

individuals develop from a single egg. (eg) Platygaster.

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5. Based on the stage of host insect attacked

Order: Hymenoptera (90% of parasitoid coming under this order)

I.Egg parasitoid

a. Trichogramma chilonis: Trichogrammatidae – Eggs of sugarcane internode borer,

cotton bollworm, rice leaf folder.

b. T. japonicum: Trichogrammatidae – Eggs of rice stem borer

c. Telenomus rowani : Scelonidae – Eggs or rice stem borer

d. T.remus : Scelonidae – Eggs of tobacco caterpillar

II. Egg-Larval parasitoid

a. Chelonus blackburni: Braconidae – Eggs of cotton spotted bollworm.

III. Larval parasitoid

a. Bracon hebetor: Braconidae – Larvae of coconut black headed caterpillar

b. B.brevicornis :Braconidae – Larvae of coconut black headed caterpillar

c. Compoletis chloridae: Ichneumonidae – Larvae of H. armigera

d. Cotesia plutella :Braconidae – Larvae of diamondback moth

e. Eriborus trochanteratus: Ichneumonidae – Larvae of coconut black headed caterpillar

f. Goniozus nephantidis : Bethylidae – Larvae of coconut black headed caterpillar

g. Platygaster oryzae: Platygasteridae – Larvae of rice gall midge.

IV. Larval – Pupal parasitoid

a. Isotima javensis: Ichneumonidae – Pre – pupal parasite of top shoot borer of

sugarcane.

V.Pupal parasitoid

a. Brachymeria nephantidis; Chalcidae – Pupae of coconut black headed caterpillar.

b. Tetrastichus israeli: Eulophidae – Pupae of coconut black headed caterpillar.

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c. Trichospilus pupivora: Eulophidae – Pupae of coconut black headed caterpillar.

d. Xanthopimpla punctata : Ichneumonidae

VI. Nymphal and adult parasitoid

a. Aphelinus mali : Aphelinidae – Aphids

b. Encarsia formosa: Aphelinidae – Cotton whitefly

Order: Diptera (10% of parasitoid coming under this order)

I. Larval parasitoid

a. Sturmiospsis inferens: Tachinidae: Larvae of sugarcane early shoot borer.

b. Spaggossia bassiana: Tachinide: Larvae of coconut black headed caterpillar.

II. Larval – pupal parasitoid

a.Eucelatoria bryani: Tachinidae : Larvae of H.armigera

Types of Parasitism

o Parasitism is a relationship between two species in which one, the

parasite, obtains its nutritional requirements from the body material of the other, the

host.

o Simple parasitism: There is a single attack of the parasitoid on the host

irrespective of the number of eggs laid. (eg) Parasierola nephantidis on Opisina

arenosella.

o Super parasitism: Many individuals of the same species of the

parasitoid attack a single host, (eg) Trichospilus pupivora on Opisina arenosella.

o Multiparasitism: Parasitism by different species of parasitoids on the

same host at a time. (eg) Eriborus trochanteratus, Bracon brevicornis and Parasierola

nephantidis attacking Opisina arenosella.

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o Hyperparasitism: Parasitoids attacking another parasitoids. (eg)

Pleurotropis sp. (Hyperparasitoid) on Bracon brevicornis (Primary parasitoid)

o Cleptoparasitism: Attack by a parasitoid on a host previously

parasitized by another parasitoid. (eg) Eurytoma pini on Pine shoot moth

o Autoparasitism (Adelphoparasitims): A special type or parasitism in

which the female develops as a primary parasitoid, but the male is a secondary parasitoid

through females of its own species. (eg) Encarsia formosa a parasitoid of white fly.

Adaptations in parasitioids

o Egg is laid on the host plant of the host by the parasitoid. Egg of the

parasitoid is ingested into the body system of the host. (eg) Tochinid fly.

o Parasitic larva finds its host when it moves in search of food. (eg) Tachinid

maggot.

o Eggs are laid on the outer surface of the host. The parasitic grubs remain

outside and feed on the host. (eg) Bethlid on Opisina.

o Eggs may be laid outside. The hatching grubs bore the body wall of the

host and feed inside the host.

o Eggs are laid and development occurs inside the host.

o Adult parasites are highly efficient in locating the host.

o They posses sense organs to locate the hosts.

o Ovipositor is suitably developed for proper egg placement.

o Polyembryony – several individuals develop from a single egg. Because of

this, the larger host is thoroughly exploited.

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o Phoresy – One organism is utilized by another for transport. (eg) A chalcid

parasitoid attaches itself to ant and gets transported to ants nest for parasitizing the ant

grubs.

Ideal qualities of a parasitoid

o High host searching capacity – This is one of the primary requisite

particularly in a situation of low host density.

o Having a narrowly limited host range – so that when the pest population is

reduced low densities, the parasite is able to maintain itself on alternate hosts. Alternate

hosts may accommodate the parasite population during seasons when pest may

accommodate the parasite population during seasons when pest is not available or when

the pest is controlled by chemical insecticides. However, the available host range should

not be so large that the parasite population host range should not be so large that the

parasite population dissipates itself upon economically harmless species.

o Having a life cycle considerably shorter than that of the pest when the pest

population consists of overlapping generations and having a life cycle synchronized with

that of the pest when the pest population is composed of a single development stage at

any time.

o Potential rate of increase (high fecundity) to keep the pest population

under check.

o Able to survive in all habitats occupied by the pest i.e. the natural enemy

should have adaptability to a board range of climatic variations.

o Able to be cultured easily in the laboratory

o Able to quickly reduce the pest population

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o Absence of superparasitism and multiparasitism.

Parasitoids of agricultural importance

o Trichogramma sp. – egg parasitoid of sugarcane intermode borer.

o Chelonus balckburni – egg larval parasitoid of potato tuber moth

o Bracon brevicornis – Larva parasitoid of coconut blackheaded caterpillar

(BHC)

o Parasierola nephantidis – Larva parasitoid of coconut BHC

o Eriborus trochanteratus – Larva parasitoid of coconut BHC

o Eucelatoria bryani – Larval parasitoid of American bolloworm

Helicoverpa armigera

o Sturmiopsis inference – Larval parasitoid of sugarcane shoot borer

o Eucarcelia illota – Larval pupal parasitoid of H.armigera

o Trichospilus pupivora – Pupal parasitoid of coconut BHC

o Tetrastichus israeli – Pupal parasitoid of coconut BHC

Mass culturing of parasitoids

o It includes the mass culturing of the host insects and the parasitoids. Eggs

and larvae of rice moth, Corcyra cephalonica are widely used on hosts for many

parasitoids. Mass production techniques of importance parasitoids and their host insects

are given below.

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 Lecture No.9
Pesticide Application Methods

Pesticide application methods

o The desired effect of pesticide can be obtained only if it is applied by an

appropriate method in appropriate time. The method of application depends on nature of

pesticide, formulation, pests to be managed, site of application, availability of water etc.

1. Dusting

o Dusting in carried out in the morning hours and during very light air

stream. It can be done manually or by using dusters. Some times dust can be applied in

soil for the control of soil insects. During is cheaper and suited for dry land crop pest

control.

2. Spraying

o Spraying is normally carried out by mixing EC (or) WP formulations in

water. There are three types of spraying.

3. Granular application

o Highly toxic pesticides are handled safely in the form of granules.

Granules can be applied directly on the soil or in the plant parts.

o The methods of application are

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a) Broadcasting: Granules are mixed with equal quantity of sand and broadcasted

directly on the soil or in thin film of standing water. (eg) Carbofuran 3%G applied @

1.45kg/8 cent rice nursery in a thin film of water and impound water for 3 days.

b) In furrow application: Granules are applied at the time of sowing in furrows

applied @ 3 g per meter row for the control of sorghum shootfly.

c) Side dressing: After the establishment of the plants, the granules are applied a little

away from the plant (10-15 cm) in a furrow.

d) Spot application: Granules are applied @ 5 cm away and 5 cm deep on the sides of

plant. This reduces the quantity of insecticide required.

e) Ring application: Granules are applied in a ring form around the trees.

f) Root zone application: Granules are encapsulated and placed in the root zone of

the plant. (eg) by mixing it with equal quantity of sand in the central whorl of crops like

sorghum, maize, sugarcane to control internal borers.

h) Pralinage: The surface of banana sucker intended for planting is trimmed. The

sucker is dipped in wet clay slurry and carbofuran 3G is sprinkled (20-40 g/sucker) to

control burrowing nematode.

4. Seed pelleting/seed dressing

o The insecticide mixed with seed before sowing (eg.) sorghum seeds are

treated with chlorpyriphos 4ml/kg in 20 ml of water and shade dried to control shootfly.

The carbofuran 50 SP and imdacloprid is directly used as dry seed dressing insecticide

against cotton sucking pests.

5. Seedling root dip

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o It is followed to control early stage pests (eg) in rice to control sucking

pests and stem borer in early transplanted crop, a shallow pit lined with polythene sheet

is prepared in the field. To this 0.5 kg urea in 2.5 litre of water and 100 ml chlorpyriphos

in 2.5 litre of water prepared separately are poured. The solution is made upto 50 1 with

water and the roots of seedlings in boundless are dipped for 20 min before transplanting.

6. Sett treatment

o Treat the sugarcane setts in 0.05% malathion for 15 minutes to protect

them from scales. Treat the sugarcane setts in 0.05% Imidacloprid 70 WS @ 175 g/ha or

7 g/l dipped for 15 minutes to protect them from termites.

7. Trunk/stem injection

o This method is used for the control of coconut pests like black headed caterpillar,

mite etc. Drill a downward slanting hole of 1.25 cm diameter to a depth of 5 cm at a light

of about 1.5m above ground level and inject 5 ml of monocrotophos 36 WSC into the

stem and plug the hole with cement (or) clay mixed with a fungicide. Pseudo stem

injection of banana, an injecting gun or hypodermic syringe is used for the control of

banana aphid, vector of bunchy top disease.

8. Padding

o Stem borers of mango, silk cotton and cashew can be controlled by this

method. Bark of infested tree (5x5 cm) is removed on three sides leaving bottom as a

flap. Small quantity of absorbent cotton is placed in the exposed area and 5-10 ml of

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Monocrotophos 36 WSP is added using an ink filler. Close the flap and cover with clay

mixed with fungicide.

9. Swabbing

o Coffee white borer is controlled by swabbing the trunk and branches with

lindane 1 per cent suspension.

10. Root feeding

o Trunk injection in coconut results in wounding of trees and root feeding is

an alternate and safe chemical method to control black headed caterpillar, eriophyid

mite, red palm weevil. Monocrotophos 10 ml and equal quantity of water are taken in a

polythene bag and cut the end (slant cut at 45) of a growing root tip (dull white root) is

placed inside the insecticide solution and the bag is tied with root. The insecticide

absorbed by root, enter the plant system and control the insect.

11. Soil drenching

o Chemical is diluted with water and the solution is used to drench the soil

to control certain subterranean pests. (eg) Chlorpyriphos / dimethoate used against

cutworms, soilmealy bug.

12. Capsul placement

o The systemic poison could be applied in capsules to get toxic effect for a

long period. (eg) In banana to control bunchy top vector (aphid) the insecticide is filled

in gelatin capsules and placed in the crown region.

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13. Baiting

o The toxicant is mixed with a bait material so as to attract the insects

towards the toxicant. A) Spodoptera. A bait prepared with 0.5 kg molasses (jiggery), 0.5

kg carbaryl 50WP and 5 kg of rice bran with required water (3 litres) is made into small

pellets and dropped in the field in the evening hours. B) Rats: Zinc phosphide is mixed of

1:49 ratio with food like popped rice or maize or cholam or coconut pieces (or) warfarin

can be mixed at 1:19 ratio with food. Ready to use cake formulation (Bromodiolone) is

also available. C) Coconut rhinoceros beetle: Castar rotten cake 5 kg is mixed with

insecticide.

14. Fumigation

o Fumigants are available in solid and liquid forms. They can be applied in

the following way. Soil: To control the nematode in soil, the liquid fumigants are injected

by using injecting gun. Storage: Liquid fumigants like Ethylene dibromide (EDB), Methyl

bromide (MB), carbon tetrachloride etc. and solid fumigant like Aluminium phosphide

are recommended in godowns to control stored product pest. Trunk: Aluminium

phosphide ½ to 1 tablet is inserted into the affected portion of coconut tree and plugged

with cement or mud for the control of red palm weevil.

I. Preparation of spray solution

1) Quantity of insecticide required. The requirement of quantity of commercial

formulation of the insecticide can be calculated by the formula.

Volume of spray fluid x Strength of the spray solution desired (%)

= ――――――――――――――――――――――――――――――――

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Strength of commercial formulation (%)

2. Strenth of the finished spray solution: To calculate the strength of a finished spray

solution when a known quantity of chemical is added to known quantity of water, the

following formula may be adopted.

Quantity of the insecticide used x Strength of the insecticide (%)

= ―――――――――――――――――――――――――――――――――

Quantity of finished spray solution required

3. In case of granules

Recommended dose a.i./ha x 100

Quantity of chemical needed = ――――――――――――――――――――― x Area

% a.i.of insecticide

Points to be considered in spray fluid preparation spraying

o Use good quality water to prepare spray fluid

o Prepare spray fluid in clean drum or plastic buckets

o For mixing pesticide, use long handled stir

o Always prepare spray fluid just before use

o Spraying should be done under ideal weather conditions

o The walking speed of the operator should be uniform to ensure even

coverage of spray chemicals in the targt area.

Botanicals

o Among the plant derivatives, neem oil 0.5 to 3 per cent and neem seed

kernel extract 5 per cent with teepol 0.05 per cent are quite effective against major pest

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of fruits crops, vegetables etc. Neem oil (NO): to get a per cent solution first mix 30 ml of

neem oil with 5 ml of sticking agent teepol until white emulsion is formed. Then add one

litre of water and mix thoroughly for use of spray fluid. Neem seed kernel extract

(NSKE): For the preparation of 5 per cent NSKE, take 50 gm of powered seed kernel and

soak it the in small quantity of water, over night. Filter through muslin cloth and make

up the volume to one litre. Add one ml of teepol per litre before spraying high volume

sprayer. Neem leaf powder: Powder shade dried neem leaves and use as such to word off

stored product pests. Neem products are applied as high volume sprays during early

morning or late evening hours for better efficacy with low degradation. The following

neem based pesticide formulations have been registered provisionally under the

Insecticides Act, 1968 for the control of insect pests of okra, red gram, cotton, Bengal

gram, brinjal, cabbage, potato, tomato, tobacco, rice, groundnut, fruit trees, etc.

Formulation Trade name

Neem triterpene emulsion (Kernel extract Margocide CK 20 EC
containing 0.03% azadirachtin)
Neem oil emulsion containing azadirachtin Margocide OK 20 EC Nimbecidine
0.03%
Neem oil based WSP containing azadirachtin Achook
0.03%
Azadirachtin technical concentrate 10% w/w Neemgold
(0.15%)
Neem oil 93% EC containing 0.03% w/w RD-9 Repelin 93 EC
azadirachtin

Other plant products

Chrysanthemum

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o Pyrethrum based formulations are obtained from flowers of

chrysanthemum. Two formulations like Pyrethrum 0.2% D and Pyrethrum 1% EC are

registered for use against the pests of vegetables.

Tobacco

o Waste tobacco extract, nicotine 40% solution and nicotine sulphate 10%

WDP registered for research purpose. Notchi leaf extract 10% mahua oil 3%, pinnai oil

3% pungam oil 3% etc. are used in pest management. Vegetable edible oils are also used

as seed dressing material (1:100) to avoid the egg laying by pulse beetles in black gram,

peas, lab-lab, green gram.

II. Safe handling of pesticides

1. Storage of pesticide

a. Storehouse should be away from populated areas, wells, domestic water storage,

tanks.

b. All pesticides should be stored in their original labeled containers in tightly sealed

condition.

c. Store away from the reach of children, away from flames and keep them under lock

and key.

2. Personal protective equipment: Protective clothing that cover arms, legs,

nose and head to protect the skin.

a. Gloves and boots to protect the skin.

b. Helmets, goggles and facemask to protect hair, eyes and nose.

c. Respiration to avoid breathing dusts, mists and vapour.

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3. Safety in application of pesticides

o Safe handling of pesticides (Fig.) involves proper selection and careful

handling during mixing and application.

a) Pesticide selection

o Selection of a pesticide depend on the type of pest, damage, losses caused,

cost etc.

Safety before application: i) Read the label and leaflet carefully. ii) Calculate the

required quantity of pesticide. iii) Wear protective clothing and equipment before

handling. iv) Avoid spillage and prepare spray fluid in well ventilated area. v) Stand in

the direction of the wind on back when mixing pesticides. vi) Don‘t eat, drink or smoke

during mixing. vii) Dispose off the containers immediately after use.

b) Safety during application

i) Wear protective clothing and equipment. ii) Spray should be done in windward

direction. iii) Apply correct coverage. iv) Do not blow, suck or apply mouth to any spray

nozzle. v) Check the spray equipment before use for any leakage.

c) Safety after application: i) Empty the spray tank completely after spraying. ii)

Avoid the draining the contaminated solution in ponds, well or on the grass where cattle

graze. iii) Clean the spray equipment immediately after use. iv) Decontaminate protective

clothing and foot wear. v) Wash the hands thoroughly with soap water, preferably have a

bath. vi) Dispose off the containers by putting into a pit. vii) Sprayed field must be

marked and unauthorized entry should be prevented. First aid: In case of suspected

poisoning, call on the physician immediately. Before calling on a doctor, first aid

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treatments can be done by any person. Swallowed poison: 1) during vomiting, head

should be faced downwards. 2) Stomach content should be removed within 4h of

poisoning. 3) To give a soothing effect, give either egg mixed with water, gelatin, butter,

cream, milk, smashed potato. 4) In case of nicotine poisoning, give coffee or strong tea.

Skin contamination: 1) contaminated clothes should be removed. 2) Thoroughly wash

with soap and water.

Inhaled poison: 1) Person should be moved to a ventilated place after loosing the tight

cloths. 2) Avoid applying frequent pressure on the chest.

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 Lecture No.10
Distribution, host range, bio-ecology, damage and integrated management
of important insect and mite pests of Mango and Sapota
 MANGO
 I.Inflorescence feeders
1.Mango hoppers- Idioscopus niveosparsus Leth, I.clypealis Leth
and Amritodes atkinsoni Leth.

( Cicadellidae : Hemiptera )
Damage

o Both nymphs and adults suck the sap from tender shoots and

inflorescence resulting in withering and shedding of flower buds and

flowers leads to wilting and drying of shoots and leaves.

o The flower stalks and leaves of infested trees become sticky due to the

deposition of honey-dew secreted by the hoppers that encourages the

growth of black sooty mould on foliage and other plant parts.

o The peak activity is confined during blossom and the loss ranges from 25

to 60 %. During the off - season, the hoppers congregate on newly

developed shoots and suck the sap, results in malformation the leaves

feeding on them.

o As a consequence, leaves become malformed and undersized.

o The hoppers take shelter in cracks and crevices on the barks during non-

flowering season.

Bionomics

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 o Of these three species, A. atkinsoni is the largest one occurring right

through the year and other two species have been observed to be mostly

present during the blooming of the tree.

o The largest A. atkinsoni has two spots on scutellum while the smalll.

clypealis has two spots on scutellum and dark spot on the vertex, while the

least sized 1 . niveosparsus has three spots on scutellum.

o The adult hopper is light greenish-brown with black and yellow markings,

wedge shaped with broad head measures 3-4 mm in length.

o It inserts the eggs singly into the plant tissues of young leaves, shoots,

flower stalks and unopened flowers.

o A female lays about 200 eggs.

o The eggs hatch in 4-7 days.

o The nymph with red eyes appeared while yellowish green to greenish

brown during the 5 instar occupying 8-13 days.

o The total life cycle from egg to adult takes 2-3 weeks for completion.

Management

o Grow less susceptible varieties viz., Banganapalli, Chinnarasam and

Alphonsa.

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 o Avoid close planting, as the incidence is very severe in overcrowded and

neglected orchards.

o Spray two rounds, of acephate 75 SP at 1 g /litre or phoasalone 35 EC at 1.5

ml / litre or carbaryl 50 WP at 42 g / litre of water, first round at the time

of new flesh panicle emergence and 2nd at two weeks after the first spray.

o Spray wettable sulphur at 2 g / litre of water after spraying carbaryl to

avoid mite resurgence

o Collect and destroy affected inflorescence or sticky inflorescence to

minimize population build-up.

2. Aphid-Toxopetra odinae Vdg.

(Aphididae: Hemiptera)
Damage

o Both nymphs and adults suck the sap from tender shoots and

inflorescence resulting drying up of the same plant parts and development

of sooty mould.

Management

o Spray dimethoate 30 EC 1.77ml or methyldemeton 25 EC 1 ml / litre water

3. Flower webber-Eublemma versicolor (Noctuidae: Lepidoptera)

Damage

o The caterpillar webs together the flower buds and inflorescence.

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 o It remains inside the web and feeds on the floral parts and also tunnels

into the flower stalks.

Bionomics

o The moth is purplish grey with an oblique line on the wings.

o It lays eggs singly on the pedicels and sepals of flower buds.

o The incubation period is 3-4 days.

o The full grown larva is smooth, greenish yellow with light brown head and

a pro - thoracic shield measuring 20 mm in length.

o The larval period is 18-20 days.

o It pupates inside the inflorescence and emerges as adult in 8-9 days.

o The life cycle is completed in 29-33 days.

Management

o Remove and destroy affected flowers and tender shoots.

o Spray dimethoate 30 EC 0.06% or methyl demeton 25 EC 0.05% or

Dimethoate 0.03 % .

4.Hairy caterpillar Eurproctis fraterna M. Porthesia scintillans

Wlk.
(Lymantridae: Lepidoptera)
Damage

o The caterpillar webs the inflorescence and feed on them causing shedding

of flower buds and flowers.

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 Bionomics

o The adult moth of E. fraterna is yellowish with pale transverse lines on the

fore wings.

o The larva is reddish brown with reddish head surrounded by white hairs

and long tufts of hair all over the body and a long preanal tuft.

o The adult of P. scintillans is yellowish with spots on the edges offore

wings.

o The larva is yellow colored with brown head, a yellow stripe with a central

red line on the body and tufts of black hairs dorsally on the first three

abdominal segments.

5. Loopers Thalassodes quadraria Guen. (Geometridae :

Lepidoptera)
Damage

o The larvae web together the inflorescence and tunnel into the flower stalk.

Bionomics

o The adult moth is greenish in colour.

o The larva possessing the colour of new shoot and assuming a typical pose

on•twing in often mistaken for a leaf petiole.

6. Looper- Chloroclystis sp. (Geometridae: Lepidoptera)

Damage

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 o The larva enters in the flower buds and damages the ovaries of newly

opened flowers

Bionomics

o The adult moth is small and delicate with greyish wings bearing wavy

lines.

7. Flower gall midge-Procystiphora mangiferaae Felt.

(Cecidomyiidae: Diptera)
Damage

o The maggot feeds on the internal content of the buds which become

conical in shape, turn brown and drop.

o The infestation results in flower dropping and malformation of flowers.

Bionomics

o The adult fly is light orange in colour.

o It lays eggs inside the flower buds.

o The maggot feeds on stalks of stamen, anthers, and ovary.

o It pupates inside the bud itself.

o The life cycle is completed in 12-24 days.

8. Flower gall midge-Erosomyia indica Felt. (Cecidomyiidae:

Diptera )
Damage

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 o The maggot infests the flower buds, inflorescence stalk and developing

fruits.

o The inflorescence becomes stunted and malformed.

o The infested bud does not open.

Bionomics

o The adult is yellowish in colour.

o It lays the eggs on inflorescence peduncle or at the base of developing

fruit.

o The maggot is yellowish and it pupates in the soil.

9.Flower gall midge-Dasyneura amaramanjarae

Grov.(Cecidomyiidae :Diptera)
Damage

o The maggot feeds on the ovary and the nectaries of growing bud which fail

to produce fruits.

o Several larvae are found in single flower.

Bionomics

o The adult flies insert the eggs into un opened flower buds.

o A female fly lays about 40-50 eggs.

o The incubation period is 30-36 hours.

o The larva becomes full fed after three moults and drop down to the soil to

undergo diapause.

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 o The maggot hibernate in soil thus the carry over of the pest to the next

year is accomplished.

o When the favourable condition set in they pupate and emerge as adults.

II. Borers
1.Stemborer-Batocera rufomaculata Dejean. (Cerambycidae:
Lepidoptera)
Damage

o The grubs feed by tunneling through the bark of branches and main stem.

o The damage may also show itself by the shedding of leaves and drying of

terminal shoots in early stage of attack.

o When the damage occurs at the main stem, the whole tree succumbs.

Bionomics

o The adult is a large longicorn beetle about 5 cm long and 1.6 cm broad and

yellowish brown in colour.

o It has two pink dots and lateral spines on thorax.

o It lays eggs singly on the bark, or cracks and crevices on the tree trunk or

branches hatch in about 1-2 weeks.

o The grub is stout with well-defined segmentation and yellow in colour.

o The grub makes zig - zag burrow beneath the bark.

o The grub feeds on the internal tissues and become full fed in about six

months.

o It pupates inside the tunnel itself. The pupal period is. 19-36 days.

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 Management

o Remove and destroy the dead trees and affected branches from the garden.

o Swab trunk with carbaryl 20 g/1.

o Use light trap 1 / ha to attract adult moths or beetles.

o Locate bore holes, spike out grubs using a needle or iron wire.

o Exclude the alternative host, silk cotton from mango orchards.

o Grow less susceptible varieties viz., Neelam, Humayudin, and

Panchavarnam.

o Swab coal tar + Kerosene (1 :2) on the basal part of the trunk up to 3 feet

high after scraping the loose bark to prevent the female from egg laying.

o Spike out the grub if the bore holes are located, and add insecticide

emulsion (monocrotophos 0.1 % at 20 ml / hole) a fumigant tablets (3 g

Aluminium phosphide) or petrol and seal the holes with the mud.

o Follow padding with monocrotophos 36 WSC 10 ml per tree soaked in

absorbent cotton when the trees are not in bearing stage.

o Apply carbofurean 3 - 5 g per hole and plug with mud after removing the

grub by using needle.

o Apply carbofuran granules in the soil at 75 g / tree basin.

2.Bark caterpillar-Indarbela tetraonis Moore and L.quadrinotata

Wlk. (Metarbelidae : Lepidoptera )

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 Damage

o The larva chews out the bark resulting zig-zag galleries and silken webbed

masses comprising of chewed materials and excreta.

Bionomics

o Adult moth is pale brown with fore wings having brown spots and streaks

and white hind wings.

o The larva is 40-45 mm long, stout and dirty brown in colour.

3. Shoot borer Clumetia transversa Walk. (Noctuidae:

Lepidoptera)
Damage

o The caterpillar bores into the tender shoots from top to downwards make a

characteristic tunnel to a depth of 5-6 inches.

o The damage resulted in stunting of whole seedling with individual twigs

showing a peculiar terminal bunchy appearance.

Bionomics

o The adult moth is greyish with dark grey wing having wavy designs.

o The eggs are laid singly and they hatch in 2-3 days.

o The larva is dark pink with dark brown pro - thoracic shield.

o It pupates in soil on the damaged shoot.

4. Fruit borer-Hyalospila leuconeurella Rogonot. (Phycitidae:

Lepidoptera)

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 Damage

o The larva borers into the developing fruits and tunnel into the pulp.

6. Fruit fly - Bactrocera (= Dacus) dorsalis Hend. ( Tephritidae :

Diptera )
Damage

o The maggot destroy and convert the pulp into a bad smelling, discoloured

semi liquid mass unfit for human consumption.

o The infestation results in fruit drop and start rotting from inside.

o On complete rotting of the fruits, the damaged fruit develop yellow spots

with black centers through which liquid oozes out on pressing.

Bionomics

 The adult fly is brown or dark brown with hyaline wings and yellow legs.
 The female fly lays eggs in clusters of 2-15 just beneath the skin of the ripening
fruits. A single female lays up to 200 eggs during oviposition period of one
month.
 The egg period is 22-23 days.
 The maggot feeds on pulp and become full grown in about 7 days.
 It pupates 3-7 inches below the soil.

Management

1. Plough the interspaces to expose the pupae during the off - season.
2. Collect and destroy the fallen fruits.
3. Set up fly trap using methyl eugenol. Prepare methyl eugenol 1 ml/ 1 litre of water
+ 1 ml of Malathion solution.
4. Take 10 ml of this mixture per trap and keep them at 25 different places in one ha
between 6 and 8 am. Collect and destroy the adult flies.
5. Conserve parasitoids like Optius compensates and Spalangia philippinensis.
6. Use bait spray combining molasses or jaggery 10g/1 and one of the insecticides,
fenthion 100 EC 1 ml/1, malathion 50 EC 2 ml/1, dimethoate 30 EC 1 ml/1,

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 carbaryl 50 WP 4g/1, two rounds at fortnightly intervals before ripening of the
fruits.

6. Mango nut weevil - Sternochetus mangiferae Fab.

(Curculionidae: Coleoptera)
Damage

o The grub tunnel in a zig - zag manner through the pulp endocarp and the

seed coat and they finally reach the cotyledons.

o As the fruit develops the tunnel get closed.

o The grub feeds on the cotyledons and destroy them.

o The adults who emerge from the pupae also feed on the developing seed

and this may hasten the maturity of infested fruits.

Bionomics

 The adult weevil is stoutly built, 6 mm long, dark brown in colour.

 It lays eggs singly on the marble sized fruits by scooping out the surface tissue
and cover over with a transparent secretion.
 The ovipositon puncture heals leaving minute spot. On a single fruit up to 15 eggs
may be laid in a day.
 The egg period is 7 days.
 The newly hatched out grub is creamy, yellow apodous tunnel the fruit pulp and
enter into cotyledons.
 The larval period is 20-30 days. It undergoes five larval instars and pupate inside
the nut along the concave side.
 The pupal period is 7 days. The total life cycle occupies 40-50 days.
 The adult often remain inside the nut until they are thrown away after
consumption of the pulp.
 The weevil hides in crevices of the tree trunk as they have longevity of 10 months.

Management

 Follow prophylactic measures in Neelum and Bangalora varieties as these

varieties are susceptible.
 Collect and destroy the fallen fruits, which contain 85 % of the weevil

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  Spray emamectin benzoate 1 ml / litre during marble stage and second spray at 15
days after the first spray.
 Take up insecticides spray directing towards the base of the trunks during the
non-flowering season.
 Tieing red ant colonies in mango orchards help to reduce the damage of nut
weevil remarkably.

III. Leaf feeders

1. Shoot webber- Orthaga exvinacea Hmps. (Pyraustidae:
Lepidoptera)
Damage

o The larva webs together the leaves and feed on them.

o The infested leaves wither and dry up. In case of severe attack, a tree

shows many webbed nests of leaves presenting on the whole a sickly

appearance.

2. Leaf caterpillar-Bombotelia jocosatrix Guen. (Noctuidae:

Lepidoptera)
Damage

o The larva feeds on tender leaves causing defoliation.

Bionomics

o The adult moth has dark brown fore wing.

3. Leaf caterpillar-Euthalia garuda M. (Nymphalidae:

Lepidoptera)
Damage

o The caterpillar feeds on leaves.

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 Bionomics

o The adult butterfly is brownish black with white spots on wings. The

caterpillar has the colour of lead and is not easily detected on it

4. Slug caterpillar-Parasa lepida Cramer. (Cochlididae:

Lepidoptera)
Damage

o The caterpillar feeds on the leaves gregariously in the beginning,

subsequently they disperse.

o It causes severe defoliation.

Bionomics

o The adult moth is stout with wing expanse of 4.0 cm and having green

wings fringed with brown patches.

o The eggs are laid in batches of 10-15 on the under surface of leaves.

o The eggs are ovals flat scale- like in shape.

o The fecundity is on an average 167 eggs / female.

o The egg period is 7 days.

o The caterpillar is fleshy, slug-like with yellowish green body bearing a

greenish blue stripe dorsally and yellowish green stripes laterally.

o The larval period is 5-6 weeks undergoes seven instars.

o It pupates in a hard shield - like greyish cocoon on the tree trunks for 4-5

weeks.

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 Management

o Set up light traps to monitor and kill the adult moths.

o Spray the crown with carbaryl 0.1 % (or) dichlorovos 0.02 % or malathion

0.05 % solution.

o In severe cases, root feeding of monocrotophos as explained earlier under

leaf eating caterpillar may be taken up with safety precautions.

o Collect all the stages of pests viz., eggs on tree trunks, leaves, larvae during

migration stage, pupae in soil and leaf sheath and adult moth during

emergence and destruction.

o Organise mass collection campaign involving farmers, school children and

college students.

o Spray dichlorovos @ 2 ml / litre using specially designed tractor mounted

tall tree sprayer.

o Dust methyl parathion or Dimethoate 0.03 % / tree using power operated

bellowed crane duster to reach tall trees.

o Encourage the predatory birds to pick up the larval stages.

5. Leaf miner- Acrocercops syngramma Meyr. ( Gracillaridae :

Lepidoptera)
Damage

o The caterpillar mines into the leaves producing blister like patches on

them.

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 Bionomics

o The adult moth is silvery grey moth with fringes of hairs on the wing

margin.

o The larva is reddish brown in colour.

6.Shoot borer - Platypeplus (= Argyroploce) aprobola Meyr. (

Eucosmidae: Lepidoptera)
Damage

o The larva webs together the leaves, buds and flowers and bore into shoots.

7. Leaf midges - Amradiplosis amraemyia Grover., A.

brunneigallicola Rao and
A.echinogalliperda Mani. (Cecidomyiidae: Diptera)
Damage

o The maggot forms different shapes and sizes of galls on leaves.

Bionomics

o The adult is tiny mosquito like fly and the maggot is yellowish in colour.

Management

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 o Spray diniethoate1.7ml or methyl demeton 2 ml / litre of water.

8. Leaf mining weevil Rhychaenus mangiferae

Marshl.(Curculionidae : Coleoptera)
Damage

o The grub mines into the tender leaves while the adult weevil scrapes the

leaf surface. In severe cases leaves crumble and dry up.

Bionomics

o The adult weevil is brown with enlarged hind femur. It lays eggs singly

within minute holes bitten on the lower side of tender leaves.

o The egg period is 2-3 days.

o The grub mines the leaves and pupates in an oval chamber within the

mine.

o The larval and pupal periods are 5.5 and 3.33 days respectively.

o The total life cycle takes about 12 days for oviposition.

9. Leaf twisting weevil- Apoderus tranquebaricus F.

(Curculionidae: Coleoptera)
Damage

o The adult weevil has the habit of cutting and twisting the mango leaves

into shapely thimble like rolls which remain attached to the parent leaves.

o The grub feeds on the leaf tissue within the leaf roll.

Bionomics

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 o The adult weevil is medium sized, reddish brown with a long snout. Eggs

are laid in each leaf roll.

o The grub pupates within the leaf roll.

Management

o Spray insecticides like monocrotophos at 1.25 ml or Dimethoate 0.03 % /

litre of water to check the spread of infestation.

10. Leaf cutting weevil - Deporaus (= Eugnamptus) marginatus

Pasc. (Curculionidae: Coleoptera)
Damage

o The adult beetles cut down the leaf at the base and cause holes on the

tender leaves.

Bionomics

o The adult weevil is small, black and brown with a long snout.

o The female excavate the cavities by the snout and lays eggs singly on the

under surface of tender leaves.

o The grub mines the fallen leaf feeding on the mesophyll.

o It pupates in small oval chamber.

11. Red ant-Oecophylla smaragdina Fab. ( Formicidae : Isoptera)

Damage

o The worker ants stitch together the terminal leaves with silk thread in the

form of nests which remain green.

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 o The ant distributes the aphids, mealy bug and scales on different parts of

the tree thus helping to spread their infestation.

o It gives annoyance to person who climbs up the trees.

Bionomics

 A colony of red ant has one queen, a number of soldiers, and two kinds of workers.
 Egg, larva, pupae are housed separately.
 The eggs are covered with mucilage.
 The egg period is 4-8 days. There are three larval instars.
 The pupa is stored in any where and has duration of 5-7 days.
 The ant is carnivorus feeding on flies, moths, beetles, and caterpillars.

Management

 Manage red ants if harvesting is found very difficult by using neem oil 30 ml /liter. Do
not eradicate or control red ants.

IV. Sap feeders

1. Whitefly- Aleurocanthus mangiferae Q & B. (Aleyrodidae:

Hemiplera)
Damage

o Both nymphs and adults suck the sap from the under surface of leaves

causing yellowing of leaves in patches.

Management

o Remove the weeds like Clerodendron infortunatum and grass by

ploughing during June-July.

2. Scale - Chionaspis vitis Green. (Diaspididae: Hemiptera)

Damage

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 o Both nymphs and adults desap the leaves causing yellowing

3. Mealy bug-Drosicha mangiferae Green. (Pseudococcidae:

Hemiptera)
Damage

o It infests the leaves and inflorescence.

Management

o Remove alternative weed hosts like clerodendran by ploughing during

June - July.

o Spray chloropyriphos 20 EC 2.5 ml / litre or monocrotophos 36 WSC 1.5

ml / litre of water.

o Rake up soil to destroy ovisacs and dust carbaryl 15 D or lindane 1.3 D

around tree basin.

4. Leaf psyllid - Microceropsylla brevicornis D.L. Crawford.

(Psyllidae : Hemiptera)
Damage

o The nymph feeds on tender stems, leaf stalks and leaf veins.

o The infested leaves drop and dry up.

o The sooty mould growth is occurred on leaves due to honey dew secretion

of the bug.

Bionomics

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 o The adult bug is greenish yellow in colour.

o It inserts egg singly on leaf tissues.

o The incubation period is 8-9 days.

o It has five nymphal instars completed in 19-24 days.

V. Non - insect pests

1.Red spider mite- Oligonychus mangiferae Rash & Sap.

(Tetranychidae : Acarina)
Damage

o It infests the lower leaf surface.

2. Eriophyid mite -Aceria mangiferae Sayed. (Eriophyidae :

Acarina)
Damage

o It infests the internal and axillary buds resulting in stoppage of their

growth and development of close lateral buds.

o The infestation results in the crowded bud formation becoming and

malformed.

SAPOTA

I. Borers

1. Leaf webber or chickoo moth - Nephopteryx eugrapllylla Rag.

(Pyraustidae: Lepidoptera)
Damage

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 o The caterpillar webs together the leaves scrape the chlorophyll and

reduced to net work of veins.

o It also bores inside the buds, flowers and some time tender fruits become

withered and shed.

o Presence of clusters of dried leaves hanging from webbed shoots and

appearance of dark brown patches on leaves and cluster of dead leaves are

the typical symptoms of attack.

Bionomics

 The adult moth is greyish with fore wings having brown or black spots and hind wing
semi hyaline.
 The female lays pale yellow, oval shaped eggs in-groups of 2 or 3 or singly on leaves and
buds of young shoots.
 The fecundity is 374 eggs per female.
 The egg period is 2-11 days.
 The larva is pinkish in colour with three dorso lateral brown stripes on each side.
 It pupates in leaf web itself for 8-9 days.
 The total life cycle is completed in 26 - 92 days.
 There are 7-9 overlapping generation per year.

 The maximum activity of pest is seen during June-July.

Management

 Plant less susceptible PKM 1 sapota variety.

 Collect and destroy webbed leaves, shoots and buds along with larvae.
 Use light trap @ 1/ha to monitor activity.
 Spray two rounds of carbary 10.1% or Bacillus thuringiensis 0.1% or NSKE 5% along
with sticking agent or phosalone 0.05% or malathion 0.1% in alternation at 20 days
interval from new shoot formation to harvest of fruits.

2. Bud worm - Anarsia epotias Meyr. (Gelechiidae: Lepidoptera)

Damage

o The caterpillar bores into the flower buds by webbing the: floral buds and

flowers together. The infested floral parts shed.

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 Bionomics

o The adult moth is grey coloured with black patch on wings.

o The Larva is small, slender, pinkish brown in colour with black head and

yellowish brown thoracic shield.

Management

o Spray phosalone 35 BC 2 ml / litre or Dimethoate 0.03 % / litre

3. Fruit fly - Bactrocera dorsalis Bend. B. zonatus Saund.,B. tau

and B. correctus Beezzi. ( Tephritidae : Diptera )
Damage

o The maggot destroy and convert the pulp into a bad smelling, discoloured

semi liquid mass unfit for human consumption.

o The infestation results in fruit drop and start rotting from inside.

o On complete rotting of the fruits, the damaged fruit develop yellow spots

with black centers through which liquid oozes out on pressing.

Bionomics

o The adult fly is brown or dark brown with hyaline wings and yellow legs.

o The female fly lays eggs in clusters of 2-15 just beneath the skin of the

ripening fruits.

o A single female lays up to 200 eggs during oviposition period of one

month.

o The egg period is 22-23 days.

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 o The maggot feeds on pulp and become full grown in about 7 days.

o It pupates 3-7 inches below the soil.

Management

o Plough the interspaces to expose the pupae during the off - season.

o Collect and destroy the fallen fruits.

o Set up fly trap using methyl eugenol. Prepare methyl eugenol 1 ml/ 1 litre

of water + 1 ml of Malathion solution. Take 10 ml of this mixture per trap

and keep them at 25 different places in one ha between 6 and 8 am. Collect

and destroy the adult flies.

o Conserve parasitoids like Optius compensates and Spalangia

philippinensis.

o Use bait spray combining molasses or jaggery 10g/1 and one of the

insecticides, fenthion 100 EC 1 ml/1, malathion 50 EC 2 ml/1, dimethoate

30 EC 1 ml/1, carbaryl 50 WP 4g/1, two rounds at fortnightly intervals

before ripening of the fruits.

4. Sapota Seed borer - Trymalitis margaritas

Biology

o The mating of male and female moths was observed during evening hours

between 7.00 to 11.00 p.m. and the period of coitus lasted for 8 to 13

minutes.

o The pre-oviposition, oviposition and post-oviposition period lasted for

1.50 to 2.1, 1.0 to 2.0 and 1.0 to 2.2 days, respectively.

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 o The fecundity was ranged from 29 to 255 with an average 161.8±77.236

eggs per female.

o The incubation period varied from 10.35 to 12.25 days with an average of

11.16 ± 0.715.

o The average percentage of eggs hatched was found to be 92.

o The total period required for completion of larval development ranged

from 10.75 to 13.75 days with an average of 12.33 ± 0.832 days.

o The first instar larvae were very minute, white in colour with pinkish tinge,

without distinctly segmented and hairless body.

o The average length and breadth of first instar larva was 1.761 ± 0.038 and

0.692 ± 0.012 mm, respectively.

o Fully developed larvae was pinkish in colour and it measured about 12.467

±0.022 mm in length and 2.673 ± 0.013 mm in breadth.

o The full grown larva stopped feeding come out of the seed and started

folding the leaf with the help of series of silken threads to form a cocoon.

o The pre-pupal period varied from 17 to 33 minutes.

 The pupa was small, dark brown in colour and obtect.

 The pupal period ranged from 10.0 to 15.0 days with an average of 13.15 ± 1.663 days.
 The pupa measured from 7.61 to 10.10 mm in length and 2.6 to 3.6 mm in breadth.
 The adult moths were small in size, having whitish forewings with grayish spots on it and
fringed with hairs at the margins of the wings.
 The hind wings were cream coloured with thick hairs at the margins.
 The adult measured 7.1 to 12.0 mm in length, 2.1 to 2.6 mm in breadth.
 The adult male lived for 3.25 to 6.0 days, while female moths lived for 4.0 to 7.0 days.
 Total life cycle from egg laying to emergence of adults varied from 34.10 to 45.0 days
with an average of 38.5 ± 3.117 days.

Management

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  Sapota seed borer is an invasive pest that might have been accidentally introduced in
India from Sri Lanka a decade back.
 The seed borer attacks immature fruits and it is difficult to distinguish between infested
and uninfested fruits prior to the emergence of larvae.
 Tiny holes
 Fruits with tiny exit holes are the only indication of seed borer infestation. During the
tunnelling process, the larva drags out the excreta from the seed to the pulp.
 Majority of the larvae emerge from the seeds after feeding on the cotyledons completely
and prior to ripening of the fruit.
 Small black ants inhabit such damaged fruits. The larva on exiting from the fruit cuts a
leaf and folds it over to make a fine shell-like structure within which it pupates.
 The adult is a small delicate greyish white moth with bell shaped wings and resembles
bird droppings.
 The seed borer incidence depends on the variety and availability of susceptible stage of
fruits (marble-lime size fruits).
 There is no variety that is completely resistant to the seed borer infestation.
 After main fruiting season, the pre-seasonal stray fruits serve as source of survival during
off season.
 Thus, Sanitation is to be maintained for eliminating the sources of seed borer infestation.
 Collection and destruction of the off season stray mature fruits after main harvest till
November will bring down the pest incidence.
 Erecting light traps in the field during cropping season will attract adult moths and will
minimize the incidence.
 Effective management of seed borer relies primarily on the stage of spray intervention.
 The time of application is crucial in the management of seed borer.

Spraying

 First spray intervention should be made when the fruits are of small lime size and
thereafter the sprayings should be repeated at fortnightly intervals during main fruiting
season.
 Alternating the sprays of Deltamethrin 2.8 EC at 1 ml/l and Bt at 1 ml/ at fortnightly
interval will bring down the seed borer infestation.

II. Leaf feeders

1.Hairy caterpillar Metanastria hyrtaca Cram. ( Lasiocampidae :

Lepidoptera )
Damage

o The hairy caterpillar feeds on leaves causing defoliation.

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 Bionomics

o The adult is stout grayish brown moth exhibiting sexual dimorphism.

o Male moth has pectinate antenna and chocolate brown patch in the middle

of fore wings.

o Female moth is bigger in size with longer and broader wings having wavy

transverse bands.

o The larva is nocturnal, cylindrical grayish brown, stout and hairy.

Management

o Kill the aggregating larvae on the bark using a torch of fire or with a

bucketful of cowdung slurry during the day time in households.

o Spray fish oil rosin soap to kill the larva because of asphyxiation.

o Expose burning torches against hairy caterpillars which are on trunks.

o Spray chlorpyriphos 20 EC 0.04% or Dimethoate 0.03 % or malathion 50

EC 0.1% or phosalone 35 EC 0.07% or carbaryl 50 WP 0.1%.

2. Leaf twisting weevil - Apoderus tranquebaricus Fa b.

(Curculionidae : Coleoptera)
Damage

o The adult weevil has the habit of cutting and twisting the mango leaves

into shapely thimble like rolls which remain attached to the parent leaves.

o The grub feeds on the leaf tissue within the leaf roll.

Bionomics

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 o The adult weevil is medium sized, reddish brown with a long snout.

o Eggs are laid in each leaf roll.

o The grub pupates within the leaf roll.

Management

o Spray insecticides like monocrotophos at 1.25 ml or endosulfan 2.0 ml /

litre of water to check the spread of infestation.

3. Leaf miner - Acrocercops syngramma Meyr.(Gracillaridae:

Lepidoptera)
Damage

o The caterpillar mines into the leaves producing blister like patches on

them.

Bionomics

o The adult moth is silvery grey moth with fringes of hairs on the wing

margin.

o The larva is reddish brown in colour.

III. Sap feeders

1.Whitefly - Trialeurodes ricini Misra. ( Aleyrodidae : Hemiptera)

Damage

o Water soaked spots on the leaves which become yellow and dried.

o Colonies of whitefly on the under surface of leaves.

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 Bionomics

o The adults are pale yellow with white wings covered with waxy powder.

o It lays eggs in clusters on the under surface of leaves. Nymphal stage

undergoes four instars.

o The life cycle is completed in 19-20 days during July-September.

2. Striped mealy bug - Ferrisia virgata Ckll. (Psedococcidae:

Hemiptera)
Damage

o Yellowing of leaves in older plants.

o Under surface of leaves and terminal shoots covered with white mealy

mass.

Bionomics

o The female mealy bug lays 185-409 eggs during an oviposition period of

20-29 days.

o The egg period is 3-4 hours.

o The nymph undergoes 4 instars.

o The nymphal period is 26-47 days.

o Adult female lives for 36-53 days and male for 1 - 3 days.

3. Green Scale - Coccus viridis

Introduction

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 o The green scale, Coccus viridis (Green), an insect pest of citrus and other

plants, is found out-of-doors and in greenhouses in Florida.

o This pest was first found in Florida near Davie.

o This insect is also referred to as the coffee green scale.

Adults

o The adult female is shiny pale green with a conspicuous black, irregular U-

shaped internal marking that is dorsally visible to the naked eye.

o Two sub-marginal black eye spots are also present and can be seen with a

hand lens.

o The outline shape may be described as elongate-oval and moderately

convex.

o Adult scales are 2.5 to 3.25 mm. Dead scales are light brown or buff color

and the black internal marking is lost.

Nymphs

o Nymphs, or immature green scales are oval, flat and yellowish green in

color, and have six short legs.

o There are three nymphal stages before becoming an adult, each stage

being larger and more convex than the previous stage.

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 Eggs

o Eggs are whitish green and elongate-oval and are laid singly and hatch

beneath the female where they are protected.

o Eggs hatch from a few minutes to several hours after being laid.

Life History and Habits

o Green scale is parthenogenetic and oviparous.

o Some adults were observed by Fredrick to complete egg deposition in eight

days, and others deposited eggs over a 42-day period.

o In south Florida, the length of time that passed from the egg to egg-

depositing maturity during the late summer months was from 50 to 70

days. Eggs hatch into crawlers that wander around the plant or disperse to

other hosts.

o Once a suitable leaf or green shoot is found the nymphs settle and begin to

feed.

o They usually remain in this same spot unless their position becomes

unfavorable.

o The mature female does not move.

o Green scale appears in a rather definite pattern on citrus leaves.

o The undersurface of the leaf is preferred, and adult scales may be found in

a line along both sides of the midrib and lateral leaf veins.

o Often they attack the young shoots, then one can usually see only a mass of

scales.

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 Host Plants

o The green scale has a wide host range consisting of vegetable, fruit and

ornamental crops.

o The preferred host for green scale in Florida is groundsel bush, Baccharis

halimifolia L., a non-cultivated plant. Preferred cultivated hosts are

gardenia and ixora.

o The Division of Plant Industry has recorded green scale on 174 hosts in

Florida since 1942.

Economic Importance

o This tropical soft scale may occur on cultivated hosts in commercial

nurseries, resulting in a quarantine of the infested plants until the scale is

under control.

o Usually infestations are accompanied by sooty mold, a black fungus

growth, which develops on honeydew excreted by the scale.

o Accumulations of sooty mold cause the infested plant to be unsightly.

o When large populations are present yellowing, defoliation, reduction in

fruit set and loss in plant vigor are caused.

o This pest is especially damaging to young trees in the first two years after

transplanting.

Management

Chemical control

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 o Direct insecticidal sprays to lower leaf surfaces and new growth to give

thorough coverage.

Biological control

o Several entomogenous fungi were observed associated with green scale on

citrus, and some apparently played an important role in the natural

limitations of the scale on citrus during certain seasons of the year.

o In Florida, these fungi include: the white-fringed fungus, Verticilium

(Cephalosporium ) lecanii (Zimmerman); Aschersonia cubensis (Cuban

aschersonia); the pink scale fungus, Nectria diploa; and a grayish blue

fungus

o The white-fringed fungus is the most common and apparently causes the

highest percentage of mortality.

o All attempts to artificially spread or inoculate the fungus to healthy green

scale were unsuccessful.

o The green scale is often associated with ants. Controlling ant populations

help to reduce levels of this pest.

o Ants protect the green scales from lady beetles and other predators.

o In turn, the ants feed on the sweet honeydew excreted by the scales.

o Without the ants the green scale is more vulnerable to predation by

beetles.

Cultural Control

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  Scales are usually brought into greenhouse situations with the introduction of
infested plant material.
 All plant material going into the greenhouse should be thoroughly inspected for
scales and other insects before being introduced.

4. Mealy bugs - Planococcus citri (Pseudococcidae:

Homoptera)

5. Aphids -Toxoptera aurantii (Aphididae : Homoptera)

Hosts

o This aphid has over 120 hosts that include camellia, cocoa, coffee, Ficus,

Hibiscus, Ixora, kamani, lime, macadamia, mango, mock orange,

Pittosporum, pomelo and Vanda orchid.

Damage

o Aphids feed by sucking sap from their hosts. This often causes the plants

to become deformed, the leaves curled and shriveled and, in some cases,

galls are formed on the leaves.

o In most cases the black citrus aphid is a minor pest of coffee wherever it is

found.

o This pest congregates on the tender young shoots, flower buds and the

undersides of young leaves.

o They are not known to feed on the older and tougher plant tissues On

coffee it causes some leaf distortion and malformation of growth of leaves

and tips of shoots.

o It is often more a serious pest in nurseries.

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 o Like other soft bodied insects such as leafhoppers, mealybugs and

scales, aphids produce honeydew.

o This sweet and watery excrement is fed on by bees, wasps, ants and other

insects.

o The honeydew serves as a medium on which a sooty fungus, called sooty

mold, grows.

o Sooty mold blackens the leaf, decreases photosynthesis activity, decreases

vigor and causes disfigurement of the host.

o When the sooty mold occurs on fruit, it often becomes unmarketable or of

a lower grade as the fungus is difficult to wash off.

o Aphids vector many plant diseases which cause substantially greater losses

than caused by direct feeding injury.

o This is often the most damaging feature of an aphid infestation.

o The black citrus aphid is a vector of virus diseases of Coffea liberica,

Coffea arabica var. bullata (blister spot) and Coffea excelsa (ringspot).

Fortunately, aphid vectored viruses of coffee have not been reported in

Hawaii.

o On Citrus it is a vector of Citrus tristeza virus, citrus infectious mottling

virus and little leaf and lemon-ribbing virus of lemon.

o Presently, Citrus tritesa virus is the only known citrus virus that occurs in

Hawaii.

Biology

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 o The development of this aphid is temperature dependent. At 77°F a

generation (nymph to adult) may take as little as 6 days.

o In cooler temperatures (below 59°F), a generation may take as long as 20

days.

o Higher temperatures also reduce development rate, at 86û F populations

of this aphid will sharply decline.

o Generations are continuous throughout the year in Hawaii.

Eggs

o Eggs are not produced by this species.

o Females give birth to living young.

o Infested young shoots

Nymphs

o There are four nymphal stages of this aphid.

o The first stage is approximately 1/36 inch in length and the last about 1/17

inch.

o They are without wings and brownish in color.

Adults

o Only females are found.

o They are oval, shiny black, brownish-black or reddish brown in color,

either with or without wings, measuring 1/25 to 1/12 inch in body length

and having short black-and-white banded antennae.

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 o Winged individuals tend to have darker abdomens and be slightly thinner.

o The incidence of winged individuals is dependent on the population

density and leaf age.

o Reproduction is partheneogenic or non sexual.

o Females start reproducing soon after becoming adults.

o They produce 5 to 7 live young per day, up to a total of about 50 young per

female.

Behavior

o Newly born nymphs are found grouped together since mothers do not

move about while birthing.

o This is the only aphid with an audible stridulation or high piercing sound

caused by the aphid rubbing two parts of it body together much like

crickets.

o Large colonies will produce this scrapping sound when they are disturbed.

Management

Non-Chemical Control

o Several natural enemies of the black citrus aphid keep this pest under

control.

o Sometimes to the extent that insecticides are usually unnecessary.

o Predators in Hawaii include Allograpta obliqua Say, Chrysopa basalis,

Chrysopa microphya McLachlan, Coccinella inaequalis Fabricius,

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 Coelophora inaequalis, Platyomus lividigaster Mulsant and Scymnodes

lividgaster.

o The parasites in Hawaii include Aphelinus semiflavus Howard and

Lysiphlebus testaceipes (Cresson).

o There are many other predators and parasites to this pest throughout the

world.

o This pest is also controlled by the entomogenous fungus Acrostalagmus

albus.

Chemical control

o If chemical control becomes necessary either insecticidal oil, or a synthetic

aphidicide (insecticide) may be used.

o Chemical control should only be applied at the first signs of damage

during periods of flush growth.

o Flush growth (young red leaves) on coffee should be completely moistened

after application of chemicals.

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 Lecture No.11
 Distribution, host range, bio-ecology, damage and integrated

management of important insect and mite pests of Citrus

I. Borers

1. Lime or Orange tree borer - Cheledonium cinctum Guer and

C.alcamene Thoms. (Cerambycidae: Coleoptera)
Damage

o The grub bores into stem and feeds on the internal tissues, which resulted

in drying of terminal shoots in early stages, followed by wilting of thicker

branches and main stem.

Bionomics

 The adult is dull metallic green to dark violet with a yellow band across the middle of the
elytra and in 2.5-3cm long.
 It lays eggs at an angle of twigs or thorns and covers by a resinous fluid secretion.
 A single female can lay up to 30-50 eggs.
 The incubation period is 11-72 days.
 The grub is creamy white with flat head.
 It pupates in the tunnel for about three weeks.
 The life cycle is completed in one year.
 The adult beetle emerges during April and May and remains within the pupal chamber for
a long time.

Management

 Prune the infested branches containing grubs.

 Plug the fresh holes with cotton soaked in monocrotophos solution mixed at 5 ml / 20 ml
of water.
 Follow the padding with monocrotophos 2.5 ml +2.5 inl of water.
 Check multiplication of borers by keeping orchard clean and drench soil around tree with
chlorpyriphos 20 EC 5 ml /1.
 Prune and destroy damaged branches containing grubs before they enter trunk.
 Swab trunks with carbaryl 50 WP at 20 g/1 to avoid egg laying.
 Collect and kill eggs and grubs from barks and bore holes.
 Inject 10 ml of monocrotophos 36 WSC or kerosene, petrol, carbon disulphide or
chloroform plus creosote (2:10) in live bore holes and plug with wet clay.

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  Spray monocrotophos or dimethoate 0.03 % /1 in case on infestation on leaves by adult
beetles.
 Alternate hosts in the nearby vicinity like jamun, guava, litchi, pomegranate, neem, or
kapok should also be treated.
 Encourage activity of natural enemies, Syrphus spp. and Coccinella septumpunctata

2. Orange trunk borer - Anoplophora versteegi Ritsema.

(Lamiidae: Coleoptera)
Damage

o The grub tunnels into the trunk and feeds on the internal content of the

trunk resulting the death of the tree.

o The adult beetle feeds on the leaf tissue along the mid rib, keeping the

margins intact.

Bionomics

o The female beetle lays eggs singly in cracks on bark up to 2 feet height

from the ground.

o A single female lays about 33-85 eggs.

o The grub feeds on sap wood making horizontal galleries before it enter

into centre of the trunk.

o The larval period is 267-290 days. It pupates inside the gallery for 33-43

days.

Management

o Hand picks the adults by shaking the trees and kills them.

o Paint the base of the tree trunk with persistent insecticides.

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 3. Bark caterpillar - Indarbela tetraonis Moore. (Metarbelidae:
Lepideptera)
Damage

o The grub bores into the bark and sap wood making zig-zag galleries filled

with silken webbed masses comprising chewed up materials and excreta.

o In severe infestation the flow of sap is interfered.

o The growth of the plant is arrested and fruit formation capacity is

drastically reduced.

Bionomics

o The adult moth is pale brown with rufous head and thorax.

o The female lays eggs in masses of 15-25 under loose bark of the trees.

o A single female lays about 2000 eggs in her life span.

o The egg period is 8-10 days.

o The newly hatched larva is dirty brown while the full grown caterpillars

have pale brown bodies with dark brown head measuring 50-60 mm in

length.

o The larval period is 9-11 months.

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 o It pupates inside the tunnel for 3-4 weeks.

o The adult moth emerges during summer.

II. Leaf feeders

1.Citrus leaf miner - Phyllocnistis citrella Stainton. Lepidoptera)

Damage

o The larva mines into the tender leaves and form zig - zag galleries which

feeds on the epidermal cells leaving behind the remaining leaf tissues quite

intact.

o The infested leaves turn pale, gets distorted, and dry.

o The mining of larval may lead to secondary infection by fungi and bacteria

causing citrus canker.

Bionomics

o The adult moth is tiny, silvery white with 4.2 mm wing expanse with

fringed wings.

o It lays eggs singly on the leaves and twigs.

o The fecundity is 36-76 eggs per female.

o The egg period is 2-10 days.

o The larva enters the leaf tissues and feed inside the galleries.

o The larval period last for 5-10 days.

o It pupates in a leaf curl at the leaf margin within a silken cocoon.

o The pupal period is 6-12 days.

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 Management

o Grow less susceptible variety like PKM 1.

o Collect and destroy damaged leaves along with larvae.

o Spray dichlorvos 76 WSC 1 ml/1 or dimethoate 30 EC 1 ml/ 1 or fenthion

100 EC 1 ml / 1 or monocrotophos 36 WSC 1.5 ml/1 or imidacloprid 200

SL 0.5 ml/ 1 or NSKE 5% or neem oil 3% after new flush formation.

o Encourage activity of parasitoids, Tetrastichus phyllocnistoides, Elasmus

sp, and Bracon phyllocnistoides.

2. Citrus butterfly -Papilio demoleus Linn and P. polytes (

Papilionidae : Lepidoptera)
Damage

o The young larvae found on the upper surface of leaves and feed on the leaf

lamina from margin to mid rib.

o The grown up caterpillar feeds even on matured leaves and cause severe

defoliation to the entire plant.

3. Leaf roller- Psorostichia ( = Tonica ) zizyphi Staint.

(Oecophoridae: Lepidoptera)
Damage

o The larva webs together and folds the leaves.

o It feeds from within the leaf roll on the epidermis of leaves.

o The infestation resulted in rolling and crinkling of leaves.

Bionomics

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 o The adult moth is small brown.

o The female moth lays eggs singly or in group along the mid ribs of leaves.

o A female can lays up to 404 eggs in her life span.

o The egg, larval and pupal period are 3-5, 9-11 and 5-10 days respectively.

o It pupates in leaf folds.

o The total life cycle of the pest is completed in 20-31 days.

Management

o Collect and destroy damaged leaf folds along with larvae and pupae.

o Encourage activity of Brachymeria euploeae and Apanteles sp.

o Spray carbaryl 10.1% or dimethoate 0.03 % or NSKE 5%.

4. Blue butterfly- Tarucus indica Fab and Chilades laius Cramer.

(Lycaenidae Lepidoptera)
Damage

o The larva feeds on leaves and causes defoliation.

III. Sap feeders

1. Fruit sucking moths - Eudocima (= Othreis) conjuncta Cramer.

E. fullonica Cramer., E. materna Linn and E. ancilla Cramer.
(Noctuidae: Lepidoptera)
Damage

o The adult moth pierces the fruits for sucking the juice and make

characteristic pin-hole damage in citrus and other fruits.

o The feeding site is easily infected with fungi and bacteria causing rotting

and dropping of fruits.

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Bionomics

 The adult moth of E. conjuncta is faint orange brown having marginal dark bands
mixed with white spots on hind wings. E. materna has three black spots on the
fore wings. O. ancilla has white bands in the middle fore wing. E. fullonica has
tripod black mark in the forewing and curved marking in hind wing.
 The moth is nocturnal in habit.
 It lays eggs on wild plants and weeds in and around the citrus orchard.
 The egg period is about 2 weeks.
 The larvae is stout, typical semi looper, has a dorsal hump on the last segment of
the body.
 The larva passes five instars and completes its larval stage in 4 weeks.
 It pupates for 2 weeks in the dried leaves or in the soil.

Management

 Remove and destroy the alternative weed host plants especially Tinospora
cardifolia, Cocculus pendulus in the vicinity of the orchard.
 Bait with fermented molasses at 100 g + malathion 50 EC @ 10 ml / litre of
water.
 Bag the fruit with polythene bags punctured at the bottom individually fruits in
small-scale area.
 Create smoke on one side of the field and allow it individual fruits in small¬ scale
area.
 Set up light traps or food lures to attract and kill the moths.
 Cover the entire field / orchard with nylon net and spray with contact insecticide.
 Collect and dispose off damaged fallen fruits to prevent further attraction of
adults.
 Cover fruits with polythene bags (300 gauge) punctured at the bottom.
 Apply smoke to prevent moth attck.
 Use light traps or food lure (pieces of fruits) to attract moths.

2. Aphids -Toxoptera citricidus Kirkaldy and T. aurantii Boyen.

(Aphididae Hemipetera)
Damage

o Both nymphs and adults suck the sap from the leaves resulting stunting,

curling of leaves and falling of flower buds and developing fruits.

o The infested leaf attracts sooty mould due to honeydew secretion of the

insect.

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 Bionomics

o The adult fly is dark orange with smoky wings and fore wings having four

whitish areas of the irregular shape.

o The female fly lays yellowish brown, oval eggs arranged in spiral on broad

leaves.

o The egg period is 7-14 days.

o The nymphal period is 38-60 days with four nymphal instars.

o It pupates on leaf surface.

o The pupal period last for 100-131 days. There are two generations in a

year.

Management

o Spray monocrotophos 36 WSC at 1.5 ml/litre of water.

3. Whitefly - Dialeurodes citri Ashmead. ( Aleyrodidae :

Hemiptera ) Black fly Aleurocanthus woglami
Damage

o The nymphs and adults desap the leaves and young shoots.

o The nymphs excrete honey dew in large quantities which attracts the black

fungus causing sooty mould development on the leaf surface.

o The infested plants are stunned, and produce few blossoms.

Bionomics

o The adult is small measuring 1.02 -1.52 mm in length.

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 o The female lays oval, pale yellowish eggs singly on the lower surface of the

young leaves.

o It lays up to 200 eggs in her life span. The eggs hatch in 10-20 days.

o The larva crawls about for a few hours and then inserts its proboscis into

the succulent portion of the twigs.

o It pupates on the surface of leaves.

o The nymphal period is 25-71 days.

o The pupal period last for 114-159 days.

o There are two generations in a year.

Management

o Collect and destroy damaged leaves, flowers and fruits along with life

stages.

o Spray methyl demeton 25 EC 2 ml/1 or monocrotophos 36 WSC 1ml/1.

o Use yellow sticky traps at 15/ha.

o Spray quinolphos 25 EC at 2 mil litre of water or monocrotophos 36 WSC

2.5 mil litre of water.

4. Citrus mealy bug - Pseudococcus filamentosus Cockerell.

(Pseudococcidae : Hemiptera)
Damage

o Both nymphs and adults suck the cell sap causing wilting and drying of

young seedlings.

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 o The infested plants develop sooty moulds on the surface of leaves due to

honeydew excreted by the insect.

Bionomics

o The female lays eggs in masses of 300 on the plant

surface.

o The eggs are hatched in 10-20 days.

o The nymphs crawl out and feed on under surface of

leaves.

o A white waxy covering develops on their bodies.

o The nymphs become full grown in 6-8 weeks.

o The male nymphs spin cotton like cocoons and

pupate within it.

o All the stages of development occur at the same time.

Management

o Debark the branches and- apply methyl parathion paste.

o Use sticky trap on the shoot bearing the fruits at a length of 5 cm.

o Use dichlorovos (0.2 %) in combination with fish oil rosin soap (25 g I

litre) as spray or dipping fruits for two minutes.

o Apply aldicarb lOG 50 g I tree around the base at the time of pruning.

o Release the coccinellid predator Cryptolaemus montrouzieri @ 10

beetles/tree.

o Release an exotic parasitoid Leptomastrix dactylopii 5000-7000 I ha.

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 o Put a band of diazinon 5 g around the tree trunk leaving 30 cm from the

main stem.

o Follow ant control methods such as destruction of ant holes, red ant nests

and skirting of citrus trees after harvest.

o Use sticky traps on fruit-bearing shoots at a length of cm

o Collect damaged leaves, twigs and stems along with mealy bug colonies

and destroy.

o Single soil application of aldicarb 10 G at 50 g/ tree around base during

pruning.

o Spray methyl parathion 0.1% emulsion, dimethoate 150 ml plus kerosene

oil 250ml in 100 1 of water or carbaryl 0.05% plus oil 1% or malathion

0.1% or monocrotophos 0.1%.

5. Citrus red scale - Aonidiella aurantii Maskell. (Diaspididae:

Hemiptera)
Damage

o It settles in large numbers on stem, branches, leaves and fruits and suck

the cell sap.

o The infested plants become stunted, loose the vigour and gradually dry up.

Bionomics

o The female scale produces young one (crawlers) which moves for a short

period, settle and cover with a white waxy secretion.

o It reaches sexual maturity in 10-15 weeks.

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 o There are several generations in a year.

6.Cottony cushion scale - Icerya purchasi Maskell. (

Margarodidae : Hemiptera)
Damage

o Both nymphs and adults infest the twigs and leaves.

o The infested twigs are killed and leaves turned pale and dropped

prematurely.

o The development of sooty mould on the infested leaves is typical symptom.

Bionomics

o It reproduces parthenogenetically as the males are rare.

o The female scale lays up to 700 eggs in the ovisac held behind the body.

o The newly hatched out nymphs feeds on leaves and twigs.

o It becomes adult after moulting for three times.

o The life cycle is completed in 46-240 days.

Management

o Collect damaged twigs and stems along with soft and hard scales and

destroy.

o Spray methyl parathion 0.03% emulsion or dimethoate + kerosene oil at

150 ml + 250 ml respectively in 100 1 of water or carbaryl 0.05% + oil 1%

or malathion 0.1% or monocrotophos 1 ml/ 1 or fenthion 100 EC 1 ml/l.

o Spray fish oil rosin soap 25 g/1 or neem oil 3% or dimethoate 0.03 % /1.

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 o Encourage natural enemies, Aphelinus sp., and predators, Chilocorus

nigritus, Scymnus sp. and Rodolia cardinalis.

o Enforce ban by law, transport of wattle from the Nilgiris and kodaikanal to

elsewhere.

7. Citrus psylla - Diaphorina citri Kuwayama. ( Psyllidae :

Hemiptera)
Damage

o The nymphs are found congregated on young half open leaves and desap

the same.

o The infestation resulted in arresting the growth of the plants.

o Since the insect inject the toxins along with saliva, the leaves and flower

buds wilt and die gradually.

o It also acts as vector of citrus virus causing citrus decline disease.

Bionomics

o The adult is brown with its head lighter brown and pointed measuring 3

mm in length.

o A female lays 500 almond shaped orange coloured and stalked eggs on

tender leaves and shoots.

o The incubation period is 10-20 days in winter, 4-6 days in summer.

o The nymphs are flat orange yellow in colour and louse like creature.

o The nymphal period is 10-11 days. The females live longer than males.

o There are 8-9 over lapping generation in a year.

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 Management

o Prune the affected trees and dried shoots periodically prevent the

multiplications of psyllids.

o Conserve the natural enemies by avoiding broad-spectrum insecticides.

o Spray neem seed kernel extract 5 % or neem oil 1 % or monocrotophos 36

WSC at 1 ml or quinalphos at 1 ml with 0.5ml teepol / litre of water.

o Spray dimethoate 1675 ml or malathion 1250 ml / ha during February

¬March, May-June and July-August.

o Encourage activities of natural enemies such as Syrphids and Chrysopids.

IV. Non - insect pests

1. Citrus mite - Panonychus citri Mc Gregor. (Tetranychidae:

Acarina)
Damage

o Both nymphs and adult suck the sap from leaves, tender fruits and green

bark.

o In case of severe infestation there is complete defoliation of plants.

o The infested fruits turn yellow and remain undeveloped.

Bionomics

o It lays about 50 eggs each arranged singly along large veins on the lower

surface of leaves.

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 o The eggs are round, minute and orange in colour which are embedded in

the leaf tissues.

o The egg period is 7 days.

o The freshly hatched out nymphs desap the leaves for 304 days. It is full

grown in 4-5 days, moult and transform into adult mite.

o The total life cycle is completed in 17-20 days.

2. Mite - Phyllocoptes oleivorus Ashmead. (Eriophyiidae:

Acarina)
Damage

o Both nymphs and adults desap the leaves from the under surface of leaves

and fruit surface.

o The infestation causes bronzing of leaves and silvery, scaly discoloration

on lemon fruits and rusty to black discolorations on the other citrus fruits.

Management

o Spray fenazaquinone 2 ml / litre or wettable sulphur 50 WP 2 g / litre of

water.

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 Lecture No.12
 Distribution, host range, bio-ecology, damage and integrated
management of important insect and mite pests of Banana
I. Borers
1. Rhizome weevil - Cosmopolites sordidus Germ. (Curculionidae:
Coleoptera)
Damage

o The grub bore into the sucker and tunnel into the rhizome resulting death

of the unopened leaves at the heart of the plant is called "pipe" and

withering of outer leaves. A result of severe attack, the plants show pre -

mature withering.

o Scarcity of leaves and production of under sized fruits.

o The corm of infested plants has extensive tunnels plugged with excreta.

o High incidence of pest occurs during April - October.

Management

 Trap adult weevil with pseudo stem chopped into pieces

 Uproot and destroy the infested rhizome from the field.
 Use pest free suckers for planting.
 Apply carbofuran 3 G 10 gram per plant at the time of planting.
 Trap adult weevils with corm chopped into small pieces and kept near infested clump at
65/ha (Banana corm split trap) or use cosmolure traps at 5/ha.
 By paring and pralinage method, apply carbofuran 3 G 40g or phorate 10 G 20g; or apply
lindane 1.3 D 20 g or carbaryl 10-20 g/ sucker before planting.
 Dip suckers in monocrotophos 0.05% and plant 24 h later.

2. Pseudostem borer - Odoiporus longicollis (Curculionidae:

Coleoptera)
Damage

o The first instar larvae feed on the tissues around the air chamber of the

leaf sheath.

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 o The second instar larva bores into the inner sheaths of the pseudostem

and moves across in a horizontal or slight oblique direction.

o The third and fourth instar larvae feed voraciously and riddle the pseudo

stem cutting a thin hole on the out surface of the pseudostem for better

aeration.

o The infested part of pseudostem decomposes as a result of which plants

become very weak and break easily in wind.

o Exudation of plant sap from leaf sheath, yellowing and withering of leaves,

immature ripening of fruits, destroying of flower primordia, decaying of

leaf sheath and corm and finally falling of whole plant are the symptoms of

damage.

o The severity of pest notices in ratoon crop compre to first year crop

Bionomics

o The adult weevil is reddish brown and black measuring 1.3 cm long. It

thrusts the eggs within the air chamber of leaf sheath through oviposition

slit made by rostrum at the rate of one egg per air chamber.

o Eggs are laid in the area of the pseudostem about 1 - 1.5 metres above the

ground level.

o The incubation period is 3-5 days in summer and 5-8 days winter.

o The grubs are apodous and have duration of 26.2 days in summer and 68.1

days in winter with five larval instars.

o It pupates in the tunnel towards the periphery.

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 o The pupal period last for 20-24 days in summer and 37- 44 days in winter.

Adult feeds on tissue of leaf sheath from its inner surface and also on

decaying tissues.

o Infective for up to 13 days after feeding on infected material.

Management

o Adopt good husbandry practices such as weeding, manuring and mulching

which improve weevil tolerance.

o Remove dried leaves periodically and keep the field clean.

o Prune the side suckers every month.

o Use healthy and pest free suckers to check the pest incidence.

o Spray monocrotophos 36WSC at 1 ml / litre of water.

o Do not dump infested materials into manure pit.

o Uproot infested trees, chop into pieces and burn.

o Spray methyl parathion 50 EC 2 ml/1 or monocrotophos 36 WSC 1 ml/1 on

trunk. Alternatively, dilute 50 ml of monocrotophos 36 WSC with 350 ml

of water and inject 4 ml (2ml at 45 cm from ground level, another 2 ml 150

cm from ground level) using banana injector‘ or long needle in the

pseudostem at monthly intervals from 5th to 8th month. Do not follow

stem injection after 8 months of growth.

3. Fruit fly - Bactrocera dorsalis Hendel. (Tephritidae : Diptera )

Damage

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 o The maggot destroy and convert the pulp into a bad smelling, discoloured

semi liquid mass unfit for human consumption.

o The infestation results in fruit drop and start rotting from inside.

o On complete rotting of the fruits, the damaged fruit develop yellow spots

with black centers through which liquid oozes out on pressing.

Bionomics

o The adult fly is brown or dark brown with hyaline wings and yellow legs.

o The female fly lays eggs in clusters of 2-15 just beneath the skin of the

ripening fruits.

o A single female lays up to 200 eggs during oviposition period of one

month.

o The egg period is 22-23 days.

o The maggot feeds on pulp and become full grown in about 7 days.

o It pupates 3-7 inches below the soil.

Management

1. Plough the interspaces to expose the pupae during the off - season.
2. Collect and destroy the fallen fruits.
3. Set up fly trap using methyl eugenol. Prepare methyl eugenol 1 ml/ 1 litre of water
+ 1 ml of Malathion solution. Take 10 ml of this mixture per trap and keep them
at 25 different places in one ha between 6 and 8 am. Collect and destroy the adult
flies.
4. Conserve parasitoids like Optius compensates and Spalangia philippinensis.
5. Use bait spray combining molasses or jiggery 10g/1 and one of the insecticides,
fenthion 100 EC 1 ml/1, malathion 50 EC 2 ml/1, dimethoate 30 EC 1 ml/1,
carbaryl 50 WP 4g/1, two rounds at fortnightly intervals before ripening of the
fruits.

II. Sap feeders

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 1.Banana aphid - Pentalonia nigronervosa Coq. (Aphididae:
Hemiptera)
Damage

o There is no direct damage caused by this pest but it acts as a vector for the

notorious virus disease bunchy top disease of banana.

o The disease is characterised by the initial appearance of green streaks on

the secondary veins on the ventral side of lamina.

o The affected leaves become brittle and petioles completely elongated.

o The leaves become small and eventually the crown of plants becomes

composed of stunted leaves, which present bunchy top appearance.

Bionomics

o The adult viviparous insects are of two forms, winged and wingless.

o The alate viviparous female has reddish to dark- brown body measuring on

an average of 1.45 mm in length. In the apterous viviparous female the

body is reddish to dark brown measuring on an average 1.55 mm in length.

o The male insects are not observed. The female reproduces

parthenogenetically.

o The female gives birth to young ones from the second day, of its

emergence.

o A female brings forth 32-50 young ones. The nymph has 4 instars

conferring a period of 8-9 days.

o The aphids occur on banana plant in colonies.

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 o They shelter at the base of the pseudostem, top region of the pseudostem

and leaf axils.

o The population is high from early September to late January with two

peaks in between one during September-October and the other during

December-January.

o Moderate temperature and high humidity favours the increase in aphid

population.

o Infective aphid can transmit the virus to healthy plant in 1.5-2 hours of

feeding.

o The minimum acquisition feeding time for nymph is 16 hours.

o The aphid remains infective for up to 13 days after feeding on infected

material.

Management

o Spray methyl demeton 2 ml / litre or monocrotophos 1 ml / litre or

dimethoate 1.70 ml / litre of water,

o Direct the spray towards the crown and pseudostem base up to ground

level at 21 days interval at least thrice.

o Avoid injection of monocrotophos after flowering.

o Destroy diseased plants with rhizome.

o Inject 5 ml of 2, 4-D herbicide (125 mg/1) into pseudostem using injecting

gun for effective killing of diseased plants.

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 o Spray methyl demeton 25 EC 500 ml or monocrotophos 36 WSC 250

ml/ha or dimethoate 30 EC 500 ml/ha to control aphids. Direct spray

towards crown and pseudostem base at 21 days interval at least thrice.

o Follow pseudostem injection with monocrotophos 36 WSC after diluting 1

ml in 4 ml of water at 45 days interval. Use banana injector devised by

TNAU or lumbar puncture needle. Avoid injecting monocrotophos after

flowering.

o Encourage activity of predators, Scymnus, Chilomenes sexmaculata,

Chrysoperla carnea and other coccinellids; and entomopathogen,

Beauveria bassiana.

2. Tingid bug - Stephanits typicus Dist. (Tingidae: Hemiptera )

Damage

o The lacewing feeds in the sap of leaves causing the discoloration of the

leaves.

Management

o Collect and destroy damaged leaves, flowers and fruits along with life

stages.

o Spray methyl demeton 25 EC 2 ml/1 or monocrotophos 36 WSC 1ml/1.

o Use yellow sticky traps at 15/ha.

3. Scale - Aspidiotus destructor Sign. (Diaspididae: Hemiptera)

Damage

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 o Both nymphs and adults desap the leaves causing yellowing of leaves in

patches

4. Spittle bug - Phymatostetha deschampsi Linn. (Cercopidae:

Hemiptera)
Damage

o The nymphs and adults suck the juice from the leaves causing yellowing of

leaves.

5. Leaf thrips - Helionothrips kadaliphilus Ram & Marg.

(Thripidae : Thysanoptera )
Damage

o It infests the lower surface of the leaves causing blighted appearance and

yellowing.

o In severe cases of infestation the leaf dries.

Management of lacewing bug and thrips

o Spray methyl demeton 20 EC 2 ml / litre or monocrotophos 36 WSC

1.25ml ml/ litre of water

6. Flower thrips - Thrips florum Schmutz. (Thripidae:

Thysanoptera )
Damage

o Both nymphs and adults desap the fruits and flowers resulting corky scab

on fruits and flowers.

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 7. Fruit rust thrips - Chaetanaphothrips signipennis Bag.
(Thripidae: Thysanoptera)
Damage

o Both nymphs and adults lacerate and suck the sap from the leaves and

fruits.

o The infestation resulted in yellowing of leaves and rusty growth over the

fruit.

Management

o Collect and destroy damaged leaves, fruits and flowers.

o Spray methyl demeton 25 EC 2 ml/1 or dimethoate 30 EC 2 ml/1 or

monocrotophos 36 WSC 1.25 ml/1.

II. Leaf feeders

1. Woolly bear - Pericallia ricini Fab. (Arctiidae: Lepidoptera)
Damage

o The caterpillars feed on the leaves voraciously and cause severe defoliation

2. Tobacco caterpillar - Spodoptera litura Fab. (Noctuidae:

Lepidoptera)
Damage

o The larva feeds on the leaves causing defoliation during night hours.

3. Bag worm - Kophenae cuprea Moore. (Psychidae: Lepidoptera)

Damage

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 o The larva scrapes the chlorophyll and later it riddles with irregular holes

on the leaves.

Bionomics

o The adult moth is brownish in colour.

o The larva is also brownish covered with conical bag.

4. Leaf beetle - Nodostoma subcastatum Jacoby. (Eumolpidae :

Coleoptera)
Damage

o The adult beetle bite small holes on leaves.

III. Non - insect pest

1. Burrowing nematode - Radapholus similis
Damage

o The nematode in banana cause black-head toppling disease.

o At the bearing stage toppling of trees is an obvious symptom of attack due

to root rot.

o The feeding of nematodes causes discoluration of cortex.

o The wounding cause‘s discolouration as a result reddish brown cortical

lesions develop.

o Both roots and corm of the plants are attacked and the necrosis decrease

the root system to a few short stubs, reduction in the leaf size, yellowing of

leaves and reduction in bunch weight.

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 o The trees succumb to winds and yield loss up to 39 per cent has been

recorded due to nematodes.

Management

o Remove the nematode affected plants along with corm from the field and

burn it.

o Pre -treat the suckers (Paring and pralinage) with carbofuran 3 G after

removing the discoloured portions.

o The suckers and dipped in the clay slurry and 40 g of carbofuran granules

are sprinkled over the surface and planted.

o Dip the suckers in 0.05 % solution (1.5 ml / litre of water) of

monocrotophos 36 WSC at the time of planting.

o Apply carbofuran granules @ 10-20 gm/ plant around the pseudostem two

months after planting.

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 Lecture No.13
Distribution, host range, bio-ecology, damage and integrated management of
important insect and mite pests of Guava
I. Sap feeders

1. Tea mosquito bug - Helopeltis antonii Sign. (Miridae:

Hemiptea)
Damage

o The nymphs and adults feed on the young leaves, buds and tender shoots

the tissues around the feeding punctures die and dry up due to toxic action

of saliva injected.

o It results the water soaked lesions followed by brownish spots at the

feeding site.

o Resin exudes from the feeding puncture. Blossom or inflorescence blight

and die back symptoms appear.

o The terminal shoots are also dried. Shedding of flowers and nut also takes

place.

Bionomics

o The adult is a reddish brown bug with red thorax and black and white

abdomen.

o The eggs are inserted into the epidermis of tender shoots, axis of

inflorescence, the buds and midribs.

o The eggs are sausage shaped, 2 mm long, slightly covered with a pair of

breathing filaments which project out its operculum.

o The egg period is 5 to 7 days.

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 o Nymphal period is 15 days.

o The reddish brown and ant like nymphs undergoes five instars.

o The life cycle is completed in 22 days.

o This pest attacks guava, cocoa, pepper, cinchona, tamarind, mango, neem,

cotton and avocado.

Management

o Remove dead wood and criss cross branches in cashew plantations atleast

once in two to three years will help in effective spraying of insecticides

against the pest.

o Collect and destroy damaged fruits.

o Use light trap at 1/ha to monitor the activity of moths.

o Ensure clean cultivation as weed plants serve as alternate hosts.

o Spray hostothioan at 2 ml / litre or carbaryl 50 WP 2 g /litre or malathion

50 EC at 1ml/litre or neem oil 3 % spraying should be done in early

morning or late evenings, at least four times at 21 days interval during

fruiting season.

2. Aphids -Aphis gossypii Glover. (Aphididae: Hemiptera)

Damage

o It is a potential pest on cotton infesting tender shoots and under surface of

the leaves.

o They occur in large numbers suck the sap and cause stunted growth,

gradual drying and result in death of the plants.

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 o Development of black sooty mould due to the excretion of honey dew

giving the plant a dark appearance. Being a polyphagous pest, it is

recoreded in brinjal, bhendi, chillies,guava and gingelly. Curling and

crinkling of leaves are typical symptoms.

Bionomics

o Yellowish or greenish brown nymphs found on the under surface of leaves.

o They are often attended by ants for the sweet honey dew secretion.

o Winged forms may be seen under crowded conditions.

Management

o Spray monocrotophos 36 WSC at 1.5ml / litre or dimethoate 30 EC at 1.7

ml / litre of water.

3. Guava scale -Chloropulvinaria psidii Mask. (Coccidae:

Hemiptera)
Damage

o Both nymphs and adults of scales are found in large numbers of the under

surface of leaves, tender twigs and shoots causing yellowing and distortion

of leaves.

Bionomics

o The adult is shield shaped, oval, yellowish green measuring 3 mm in

length.

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 o The female lays eggs in a ovisac beneath the body.

o The first instar crawlers move and start feeding on the tender portion of

the plants

4. Whitefly - Aleurotuberculatus psidii Singh. (Aleyrodidae:

Hemiptera)
Damage

o Both nymphs and adults infest the under surface of the leaves causing

yellowing symptoms.

Damage

o Both nymphs and adults infest the under surface of the leaves causing

yellowing symptoms.

5.Spiraling whitefly - Aleurodicus dispersus Russell. (

Aleyrodidae : Hemiptera )

o The spiralling whitefly Aleurodicus dispersus Russell poses threat to many

agricultural and horticultural crops both in the glasshouse and field

conditions in India.

o Aleurodicus dispersus, native to Caribbean islands and Central America, is

reported to occur in North America, South America, Asia, Africa, Australia

and several Pacific islands.

o In India, it was first recorded in 1993 at Thiruvananthapuram, Kerala on

tapioca.

Biology

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 o Eggs are laid in a typical spiral pattern from which the whitefly derives its

common name. Female whitefly lays yellowish white eggs, which hatch in

7 days and 4-6 days and 5-8 days. Fecundity ranges from 51.8 to 64.06

eggs/ female. There are four nymphal instars, which are greenish, white

and oval. The duration of first, second, third fourth instar lasts for 2.15-

6.50, 2.7-5.00, 2.9- 5.96 days and 6.5- 8.1 days. Fourth instar nymphs are

covered with heavy wax material. The total nymphal period normally lasts

for 12 to 14 days and pupal period lasts for 2 to 3 days. Development from

egg to adult occupies 18 to 23 days and 22.5-29.66 days. Adults are larger

with dark reddish brown eyes and fore wings with characteristic dark

spots. Adults live for 13 to 22 days.

6. Mealybug - Maconellicoccus hirsutus Green. ( Pseudococcidae :

Hemiptera )
Damage

o Mealy bugs found on leaves, shoots, nodes, bunch and loose bark of

grapevine.

o Infestations of the growing point with mealy bug results in malformation

of leaves and shoot tips.

o The greatest damage is done to the fruit bunches.

o Honey dew secreted by mealy bug nymphs and adults, support the growth

of sooty mould on leaves, shoots and branches, sooty and sticky bunches

harbouring mealy bugs and their white cottony wax masses tend to be

inferior in the market value as table grapes.

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 o Raisin cannot be prepared from such bunches.

o The quality of the wine is affected. In case of severe infestation in the

nursery, young vines are often killed.

o The yield loss by mealy bug alone is ranging from 50-100 % in the field.

Bionomics

o The adult females are pinkish and sparsely covered with white wax.

o Each female deposits from 350-500 eggs in a loose cottony terminal ovisac

during a week's time.

o The eggs are orange in colour. The egg period is 5-10 days.

o The crawlers are also orange in colour.

o The females have three, while males have four nymphal instars. A

generation is usually completed in a month but extended in winter

months.

Management

o Debark the vines and swab with methyl parathion to minimize the

population.

o Apply sticky substances viz., tack-trap or bird tangle foot on the shoot

bearing the fruit bunch at a length of 5 cm to keep the bunches free from

infestation.

o Release exotic predator Cryptolaemus montrouzieri Muls. in grape vine

garden @ 1000-1500 beetles per acre (a single predator consumes 900-

1500 mealy bug eggs or 300 nymphs in its development)

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 o Combine the release of predator and spraying of insecticides dichlorovos

(0.20 %) or chlorpyriphos (0.05 %) since they are non toxic to

Cryptolaemus.

o Apply granular insecticide aldicarb @ 50 g per vine or phorate 10G @20

gm per vine around the base of the plant.

o Avoid the spraying of insecticides viz., malathion, carbaryl, diazinon,

dimethoate, monocrotophos, methyl demeton, phasalone, quinolphos,

fenitrothion, methyl parathion since they are highly toxic to the predator.

7. Mealybug - Ferrisia virgata ( Pseudococcidae : Hemiptera)

o See under tomato

8. Thrips - Selenothrips rubrocinctus Giard. (Thripidae:

Thysanoptera)
Damage

o It infests the leaves causing yellowing.

II. Leaf feeders

1. Hairy caterpillar - Euproctis subnotata Walker. ( Lymantriidae
: Lepidoptera )
Damage

o The caterpillar feeds on leaves and floral parts.

2.Leaf roller - Eucosma rhothia Meyr. ( Eucosmidae : Lepidoptera

)
Damage

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 o The caterpillar rolls the leaves and feeds within the roll.

III. Borers
1. Bark eating caterpillar - Indarbela tetraollis Moore.
(Metarbelidae: Lepidoptera)
Damage

o The larva feeds on the bark under silken galleries which serve as shelter

and it also bores into the stem and branches and killing them eventually.

2. Castor capsule borer - Dichocrocis (=Conogethes) punctiferalis

Guen.
(Pyraustidae: Lepidoptera)
Damage

o The larva borers into the central core of the pseudostems resulting in the

death of the central spindle causing charactersic ―dead heart‖ symptom.

o In the case of capsules, the caterpillars bore into the immature capsules

and feed on the seeds rendering them empty. The caterpillars occasionally

tunnel into the panicle also.

o A characteristic indication for the presence of the larvae is the oozing out

of excreted frass materials at the mouth of the bore hole, which are very

conspicuous on the stem or pods.

Bionomics

o The adult is a medium sized brownish yellow coloured moth with a

number of dark spots on the wings.

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 o It lays eggs on the top leaf axils of young pseudostem.

o The larva bore into the tender parts of the panicle, flower buds and

immature capsules only, the later stage larva bore into the stem.

o The full grown larva is measuring 15-25 mm long and it pupates within the

larval tunnel inside the pseudostems.

o The life cycle is completed within 25-40 days.

Management

o Collect and destroy the affected plant parts.

o Destroy the alternate host plants from the vicinity of the plantation

o Spray phosalone 3 ml/litre or Dimethoate 0.03 % /lit or quinolphos 4

ml/litre or fenthion 1.25ml / litre of water

3. Fruit borer -Duedorix isocrates Fab. ( Lycaenidae :

Lepidoptera)
Damage

o The larva bores inside the developing fruits and feeds on the pulp and

seeds.

o The infested fruits are infected by fungi and bacteria causing fruit rot

disease.

o The damaged fruits ultimately fall off and give an offensive odour.

o It causes 40-90 per cent damage to the fruits.

4. Fruit fly - Bactrocera (= Dacus) diversus Coq. ( Tephritidae :

Diptera)
Damage

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 o The maggot bores into the fruits and feeds on soft pulp.

o The infested fruits show small cavities with dark greenish punctures and

when cut open, the wriggling maggots are seen inside.

o It infestation causes rotting and dropping of fruits.

Bionomics

 The adult fly is smoky brown with greenish black thorax having yellow marking.
 It is active throughout the year except severe cooler months.
 It lays the eggs on the soft skin offruits. The egg period is 1-4 days during July.
 The maggot is pale cream in colour, cylindrical in shape measuring 5-8 mm in length.
 The larval stage lasts for 4-5 days. It pupates in soil.
 The pupal period extends from 7 days in August to 13 days in November.
 The adult stage over winters in cooler months.

Management

 Collect and destroy fallen and infested fruits by dumping in a pit and cover with a thick
layer of soil or apply lindane 1.3 D over them.
 Plough interspace to expose pupae.
 Encourage parasitoids Opius compensates and Spalangia philippinensis.
 Use methyl eugenol lure trap (25/ha) to monitor and kill adults or prepare methyl eugenol
and malathion 50 EC mixture at 1:1 ratio and use 10 ml mixture / trap.
 Use polythene bag fish meal trap with 5 g of wet fish meal + 1 ml dichlorvos soaked in
cotton at 50 traps/ha. Renew fish meal and dichlorvos soaked cotton once in 20 and 7
days respectively.
 Use bait spray combining molasses or jaggery 10g/ 1 and one of the insecticides, fenthion
100 EC 1 ml/, malathion 50 EC 2 ml/1, dimethoate 30 EC 1 ml/1, carbaryl 50 WP 4 g /1,
two rounds at fortnight interval before ripening of the fruits.
 Spray hostothion 2ml /litre or malathion at 1 ml/1 four times at 15 days interval.
 Rake the soil around the tree during the pest incidence and apply lindane dust 1.3 % at 25
kg /ha.

IV. Non - insect pests

1. Scarlet mite -Brevipalpus phoenicis Geijskes. (Tenuipalpidae :
Acarina )
Damage

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 o Both nymphs and adults suck the cell sap from fruits which resulted in

browning of nodal regions, appearance of brown patches on calyx and

surface of fruits.

o In severe infestation, it covers the entire surface of fruits leading to

splitting of fruits.

Management

o Collect and destroy damaged plant parts.

o Spray wettable sulphur 2 g/ 1 or proporgite 1 ml/litre

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 Lecture No.14
 Distribution, host range, bio-ecology, damage and integrated
management of important insect and mite pests of Aonla and Jack
AONLA
I. Leaf feeders
1. Leaf roller - Caloptilia acidula (Meyr.) (Gracillaridae:
Lepidoptera)
Damage

o Slender greenish caterpillar rolls up apical extremity of leaves and lives

within the fold.

o Folded portion is skeletonized and dried up.

Bionomics

o Larvae pupate within leaf fold and pupal period is for 8 to 10 days.

o Larva is cylindrical and yellow with thin scattered hairs.

o Adult is a small brownish moth.

II. Sap feeders

1. Whitefly - Trialeurodes rara Singh (Aleyrodidae:Hemiptera)

o Nymphs and adults suck sap by remaining from undersurface of leaves,

affected leaves,which show yellowing and turns to brown incolour.

o Whitefly colonies are present on ventral side and they are yellowish in

colour.

2. Aphid - Setaphis bougainvillea T. (Aphididae: Hemiptera)

Damage

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 o Both adults and young ones congregate on under surface of leaves and

continuously suck the sap and results in yellowing.

o Yellowing of leaves is the symptom of damage caused by colonies of

nymphs and adults found on under surface of the leaves.

3. Bug- Scutelleria nobilis Fab. (Scutelleridae: Hemiptera)

o Adult is a blue metallic green bug.

o It sucks sap from the leaves and twigs and causes yellowing of leaves.

4. Fruit piercing moth -Othreis fullonia and O.maternal

(Noctuidae; Lepidoptera)
Damage

o Adult moth sucks sap from fruits by making puncture and there is

secondary infection and affected fruits rotting and falls down.

Management

o Remove and destroy the weed plants like Tinospora and Cocculus.

o Remove and destroy damaged fruits.

o Smoke orchards during evening hours to get rid off adults.

o Use light traps at 1 / ha.

o Use poison bait (malathion 0.05% plus fermented molasses or crude sugar

and fruit juice to attract and kill adults).

III. Borers

1. Fruit borers - Deudorix isocrates (Lycaenidae: Lepidoptera),

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 Achace janata (Noctuidae: Lepidoptera)
Damage

o Larvae feed on leaves and bore into developing fruits.

o They feed on hard green seeds and damage whole fruit.

IPM

o Collect and destroy damaged fruits.

o Spray monocrotophos 1.25 ml/l.

2. Bark caterpillar - Indarbela tetraonis (Metarbelidae;

Lepidoptera)
Damage

o It makes tunnels in main trunk and branches. Larvae construct loose

irregular webbing of silken thread along with excretory pellets, pieces of

bark and frass.

o Infestation results in deterioration of vitality of tree and reduction of yield.

Management

 Keep the orchards clean

 Collect loose and damaged barks and destroy them.
 Kill larvae by inserting thin iron spike or wire into the hole.
 Spot application of 10 ml of monocrotophos or fenthion or methyl parathion / 1
of water.

1. Apical twig gall maker - Betousa stylophora

o The pest causes gall formation on stem and shoot.

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 o The larva of this moth tunnels in the apical portion of the shoot and

infested portion bulges into a gall. When the larva is active, reddish gum-

like secretion extrudes through a hole at one end.

o Fresh galls are generally formed during the season between June and

August. The full size galls measure from 2.3 to 2.5 cm in length and 1 to 1.5

cm in width.

o This pest attack may result in stunted growth of the trees, affecting

flowering and fruiting pattern.

o In the initial stage of the infestation, terminal shoots swell in size very

soon and full size galls can be seen in the month of September - October.y

discouraging the overcrowding of branches, pruning the galls and

destroying it along with the pest after harvest is one of the ways of

managing the pest attack.

o In the regular case of occurrence, any systemic pesticide may be sprayed in

the beginning of the season and will be repeated for every 15 days, if

needed.

2. Aphid - C. emblica
Damege

o Aphid, C. emblica in colonies was found sucking the cell sap from leaflets,

tender shoots and green fruits.

o It also secreted large quantity of honey dew which favoured the

development of shooty mold affecting vitality of the trees and also quality

of the fruits.

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Control measure

 The lady bird beetles (Coccinellids) were observed predating on this aphid.

5. Mealy bug
Damage twig

o The nymphs were found sucking the cell sap from tender shoots or twigs,

o The infestation was at a very low level.

Control measure

 Generalized predators viz., spiders and mantid were observed feeding on this pest on
aonla trees.

4. Leaf eating hairy caterpillar - S. celtis

Damage

o The pest was found defoliating the leaflets and young twigs.

Biological control

 It was also parasitized by two hymenopterans viz., Cotesia (Apanteles) sp. and Charops
sp.

6. Foliage defoliating weevil - M. discolor

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 JACK
I. Borers
1. Shoot and fruit borer - Margaronia caesalis Wlk.(Pyraustidae :
Lepidoptera)
Damage

o The larva bore into tender shoots, flower buds and developing fruits.

o As a result of attack, wilting of affected shoot, buds dries up and drop

down while the fruit start rotting.

o The fallen fruits due to borer damage also serve as a source of the

pathogen entry

Bionomics

o The adult moth is brown with grey elliptical patterns on the wings.

o It lays eggs on tender shoot and flower buds.

o The caterpillar is pink with black wart and bright hairs.

o It pupates inside the tunnel.

o The pupae are reddish brown.

o The total life cycle is about 4-5 weeks

Management

o Remove and destroy the affected shoots, flower buds and fruits in the

initial stage of the attack.

o Cover the fruits with perforated alkathene bags of convenient size.

o Spray monocrotophos 36 WSC 2ml/ litre or carbaryl 50 WP 0.1 %,4gms

o Spray copper oxychloride at 0.25 % to check if there is fruit rot incidence

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 2. Bark borer - lndarbela tetroanis Moore. (Metarbelidae:
Lepidoptera)
Damage

o The larva nibble the trunk or main stem and bore into the same making a

short tunnel downwards.

o The excreta and fine chewed wooden particles are thrown out over the

holes on trunk and main branches in web masses

3. Stem borer Bark borer - Batocera rufomaculata Dejean.

(Cerambycidae: Coleoptera)
Damage

o The grubs feed by tunneling through the bark of branches and main stem.

o The damage may also show itself by the shedding of leaves and drying of

terminal shoots in early stage of attack.

o When the damage occurs at the main stem, the whole tree succumbs.

Bionomics

o The adult is a large longicorn beetle about 5 cm long and 1.6 cm broad and

yellowish brown in colour.

o It has two pink dots and lateral spines on thorax. It lays eggs singly on the

bark, or cracks and crevices on the tree trunk or branches hatch in about 1-

2 weeks.

o The grub is stout with well-defined segmentation and yellow in colour.

o The grub makes zig - zag burrow beneath the bark.

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 o The grub feeds on the internal tissues and become full fed in about six

months.

o It pupates inside the tunnel itself.

o The pupal period is. 19-36 days.

Management

o Remove and destroy the dead trees and affected branches from the garden.

o Swab trunk with carbaryl 20 g/1.

o Use light trap 1 / ha to attract adult moths or beetles.

o Locate bore holes, spike out grubs using a needle or iron wire.

o Exclude the alternative host, silk cotton from mango orchards.

o Grow less susceptible varieties viz., Neelam, Humayudin, and

Panchavarnam.

o Swab coal tar + Kerosene (1 :2) on the basal part of the trunk up to 3 feet

high after scraping the loose bark to prevent the female from egg laying.

o Spike out the grub if the bore holes are located, and add insecticide

emulsion (monocrotophos 0.1 % at 20 ml / hole) a fumigant tablets (3 g

aluminium phosphide) or petrol and seal the holes with the mud.

o Follow padding with monocrotophos 36 WSC 10 ml per tree soaked in

absorbent cotton when the trees are not in bearing stage.

o Apply carbofurean 3 - 5 g per hole and plug with mud after removing the

grub by using needle.

o Apply carbofuran granules in the soil at 75 g / tree basin.

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 4. Bud weevil - Ochyromera atrocarpi M. ( Curculionidae :
Coleoptera )
Damage

o The grubs bore into tender buds and fruits.

o The infested buds and flowers fall to ground.

o The adult weevil feeds on leaves causing defoliation.

II. Leaf feeders

1. Leaf caterpillar - Glyphodes bivitralis Sign. (Pyraustidae :
Lepidoptera)
Damage

o The caterpillar feeds on leaves cause defoliation.

2. Leaf webber - Perina nuda Fab. (Lymantriidae: Lepidoptera)

Damage

o The caterpillars infest the leaves cause defoliation.

Bionomics

o The adult moth is dimorphic; female with brownish white wings; male

with half brownish and half wings.

o The female lays eggs in clusters or rows on the leaves.

o The eggs are pink in colour, cylindrical, round and 0.7 mm long.

o The larval period is 16-20 days. The pupal period last for 5-9 days.

o The total life cycle is completed in 27-39 days.

Management

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 o Hand pick and destruct the larva in the initial stage of attack.

o Spray monocrotophos 36 WSC 1.5 1.25mllitre or chloropyriphos 20 EC 2.5

ml / litre of water.

III. Sap feeders

1. Lace wing bug - Stephanitis chariesis D&M. ( Tingidae :

Hemiptera)
Damage

o Both nymphs and adults suck the sap from under surface leaves causing

yellowing symptom.

2. Spittle bug - Cosmoscarta relata D. and Clovia lineaticollis

M.(Cercopidae :
Hemiptera)
Damage

o The nymphs cover the branches with its frothy secretion causing yellowing

and drying of terminal shoots.

Management

o Spray methyl parathion 50 EC 2 ml/1ml / litre.

o Dust methyl parathion 2 % or quinalphos 1.5 % at 5 kg per medium sized

tree.

3. Aphid - Greenidia atrocarpi Westw. (Aphididae: Hemiptera)

Damage

o Both nymphs and adults desap the leaves causing yellowing symptom.

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 4. Citrus aphid - Toxoptera aurantii Boyen. ( Aphididae :
Hemiptera)
Damage

o Both nymphs and adults suck the sap from leaves causing yellowing of the

leaves.

5. Thrips - Pseudodendrotllrips divivasana R.K and M.

(Thripidae: Thysanoptera)
Damage

o It infests the leaves causing whitish patch on leaves and these patches

coalise and turns to yellowing.

6. Mealy bug - Nipaecoccus viridis mask Mask. (Pseudococcidae:

Hemiptera)
Damage

o Both nymphs and adults desap the tender leaves and shoots.

Bionomics

o The adult female is dark casteneous covered with sticky cretaceous white

ovi-sac.

o It lay eggs in ovisacs; which are rounded, cylindrical, and chestnut in

colour.

o A single female lays about 200-400 eggs.

o The egg period is 7-10 days.

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 7. Pink waxy scale - Ceroplastes rubens Mask. (Coccidae:
Hemiptera)
Damage

o It covers the shoot and fruit in stalk suck sap and excretes honeydew,

which develop the sooty mould later.

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 Lecture No.15
 Distribution, host range, bio-ecology, damage and integrated
management of important insect and mite pests of Grapevine
I. Sap feeders
1. Leafhopper - Erythroneura sp (Cicadellidae: Hemiptera)
Damage

o Both nymphs and adults suck the sap resulting in tiny white spots on the

foliage.

o In case of severe infestation, leaves turn yellow, brown and in severe case

fall from the vines.

Bionomics

o The leafhopper deposited the eggs on the leaf tissues.

o The eggs are hatched in 14 days. The nymphs are pale in colour and

wingless.

o It feeds on the lower surface of leaves and become adults after molting five

times.

o The nymphal period is 3-5 weeks. This pest completes 2-3 generations in

the season.

2. Grapevine thrips - Rhipiphorothrips cruentatus Hood.

(Heliothripidae: Thysanotptera)
Damage

o Both nymphs and adults lacerate/scrape the epidermis of leaves and suck

the sap due to laceration silvery patches.

o Infest the under surface of leaves and suck the cell sap.

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 o The infestation resulted in development of silvery white scorchy patches

on the leaves.

o The attacked vine either does not bear fruits or the fruit drop off

prematurely.

o It lays bean shaped eggs on the under surface of leaves.

o The fecundity of the hopper is 50 eggs per female.

o The eggs period is 3-8 days.

o The nymphs are small yellowish brown in colour.

o The nymphal period last for 9-20 days.

o The pupal period is 2-5 days.

o On emergence of adults both sexual and parthenogenetic reproduction

takes place simultaneously.

3. Thrips - Scirtothrips dorsalis Hood. (Thripidae: Thysanotptera)

Damage

 Both nymphs and adults infest the tender leaves causing curling and crinkling of
leaves. The crop growth stunted and bronzed, the infested buds and flowers
become brittle and drops.

Bionomics

 The insect reproduces asexually as well as parthenogenetically. The female thrips

inserts the eggs into the veins of leaves. It lays about 40-50 eggs. The nymphs on
hatching crawl on to the tender shoot for feeding. It pupates in sheltered places
such as leaf axils, leaf curls and base of flowers and fruits. Egg period is 5 days
and larval period is 7-8 days. Pre-pupal period is 18-24 hours and pupal period is
48-56 hours. The total life cycle is completed within 10-15 days.

Management

 Inter-crop with agathi Sesbania grandiflora to provide shade which regulates the
thrips population.
 Apply carbofuran granules at 200 g /cent area in the nursery.

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  Root dip the chilli seedlings in monocrotophos 0.05 % solution for 20 minutes
before transplanting gives protection up to 28 days.
 Apply dust formulation of insecticides early in the morning at 25 kg/ha.
 Spray dimethoate 30 EC 2 ml/ litre or formothion 2 ml/ litre thrice at fortnightly
intervals.

4. Whitefly - Aleurocanthus spiniferus Singh. (Aleyrodidae:

Hemiptera)
Damage

o Both nymphs and adults suck the sap from the under surface of leaves

causing yellowing symptom.

5. Mealy bug - Ferrisia virgata Ckll. (Pseudococcidae: Hemiptera)

o This is the striped mealybug, Ferrisia virgata (Cockerell). Notice the very

long waxy filaments around the body, the long tails and the presence of

two stripes on the body. This species does produce an egg mass or ovisac.

o Fringe heavy & wedge-shaped

o 2 dark stripes on the back

o Body fluid light color

o No ovisac produced

o Anal filaments present and about one-half the length of the body

6. Mealy bug - Maconellicoccus hirsutus Green. (Pseudococcidae:

Hemiptera )
Damage

o Mealy bugs found on leaves, shoots, nodes, bunch and loose bark of

grapevine.

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 o Infestations of the growing point with mealy bug results in malformation

of leaves and shoot tips.

o The greatest damage is done to the fruit bunches. Honey dew secreted by

mealy bug nymphs and adults, support the growth of sooty mould on

leaves, shoots and branches, sooty and sticky bunches harbouring mealy

bugs and their white cottony wax masses tend to be inferior in the market

value as table grapes.

o Raisin cannot be prepared from such bunches.

o The quality of the wine is affected.

o In case of severe infestation in the nursery, young vines are often killed.

o The yield loss by mealy bug alone is ranging from 50-100 % in the field.

Bionomics

 The adult females are pinkish and sparsely covered with white wax.
 Each female deposits from 350-500 eggs in a loose cottony terminal ovisac during a
week's time.
 The eggs are orange in colour. The egg period is 5-10 days.
 The crawlers are also orange in colour.
 The females have three, while males have four nymphal instars.
 A generation is usually completed in a month but extended in winter months.

Management

 Debark the vines and swab with methyl parathion to minimize the population.
 Apply sticky substances viz., tack-trap or bird tangle foot on the shoot bearing the fruit
bunch at a length of 5 cm to keep the bunches free from infestation.
 Release exotic predator Cryptolaemus montrouzieri Muls. in grape vine garden @ 1000-
1500 beetles per acre (a single predator consumes 900-1500 mealy bug eggs or 300
nymphs in its development)
 Combine the release of predator and spraying of insecticides dichlorovos (0.20 %) or
chlorpyriphos (0.05 %) since they are non toxic to Cryptolaemus.
 Apply granular insecticide aldicarb @ 50 g per vine or phorate 10G @20 gm per vine
around the base of the plant.

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  Avoid the spraying of insecticides viz., malathion, carbaryl, diazinon, dimethoate,
monocrotophos, methyl demeton, phasalone, quinolphos, fenitrothion, methyl parathion
since they are highly toxic to the predator.

7. Hard scale - Aspidiotus cycloniae Comst. (Diaspididae:

Hemiptera)
Damage

o It infests the grapevine.

8. Coreid bug - Anoplocnemis phasiana F. (Coreidae: Hemiptera)

Damage

o Both nymphs and adults feed on tender shoots results in withering and

drying up of leaves.

9. Fruit sucking moth - Othreis fulloniea Cramer., O. materna

Linn., and O. aneilla Cramer. (Noctuidae: Lepidoptera)
Damage

o The adult moth pierces the fruits for sucking the juice and make

characteristic pin-hole damage in fruits.

o The feeding site is easily infected with fungi and bacteria causing rotting

and dropping of fruits.

Bionomics

o The adult moth of E. conjuncta is faint orange brown having marginal

dark bands mixed with white spots on hind wings. E. materna has three

black spots on the fore wings. O. ancilla has white bands in the middle fore

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 wing. E. fullonica has tripod black mark in the forewing and curved

marking in hind wing.

o The moth is nocturnal in habit.

o It lays eggs on wild plants and weeds in and around the orchard.

o The egg period is about 2 weeks. The larvae is stout, typical semi looper,

has a dorsal hump on the last segment of the body.

o The larva passes five instars and completes its larval stage in 4 weeks.

o It pupates for 2 weeks in the dried leaves or in the soil.

Management

o Remove and destroy the alternative weed host plants especially Tinospora

cardifolia, Cocculus pendulus in the vicinity of the orchard.

o Bait with fermented molasses at 100 g + malathion 50 EC @ 10 ml / litre

of water.

o Bag the fruit with polythene bags punctured at the bottom individually

fruits in small-scale area.

o Create smoke on one side of the field and allow it individual fruits in

small¬ scale area.

o Set up light traps or food lures to attract and kill the moths.

o Cover the entire field / orchard with nylon net and spray with contact

insecticide.

o Collect and dispose off damaged fallen fruits to prevent further attraction

of adults.

o Cover fruits with polythene bags (300 gauge) punctured at the bottom.

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 o Apply smoke to prevent moth attack.

o Use light traps or food lure (pieces of fruits) to attract moths.

10. Castor semilooper - Achaea janata Linn. ( Noctuidae :

Lepidoptera)
Damage

o The adult moths suck the juice from the fruits causing rotting and

dropping of fruits.

II. Leaf feeders

1. Flea beetle - Scleodonta strigicollis Mots. (Eumolpidae:
Coleoptera)
Damage

o The adult flea beetles bite small holes on tender leaves.

o The grub feeds on roots.

Bionomics

 The adult is shining beetle with a metalic bronze colour and black patches on elytra
measuring 4.5mm long.
 The female lays eggs beneath the bark in groups of20-40.
 The fecundity is 220 -569 eggs per female.
 The eggs are hatched in 4-8 days.
 The larval period lasts 34-45 days.
 It pupates in an earthern cell.
 The pupal period is 7-11 days.
 The total life cycle is completed in 52 days.
 The adult hibernates in March and from May onwards they start feeding on tender shoot
and leaves.

Management

 Remove the loose bark at the time of pruning and spray phosalone 35 EC 2 ml I litre of
water after pruning.

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 2. Leaf roller - Sylepta lunalis Gn. (Pyraustidae: Lepidoptera)
Damage

o The caterpillar rolls up the leaves causing defoliation.

3. Sphinx moth - Hippotion celerio L. (Sphingidae: Lepidoptera)

Damage

o The caterpillar feeds on the leaves voraciously and causes severe

defoliation

4. Leaf miner - Phyllocnistis toparcha Meyr. (Gracillariidae:

Lepidoptera)
Damage

o The caterpillar mines into the leaves.

5. Leaf eating caterpillar - Spodoptera litura Fab. (Noctuidae:

Lepidoptera)
Damage

o Young caterpillars of both the insects bore into the tomato fruits while

they mature. The Helicoverpa larva remains partly out on the fruit hole

while eating, where as the Spodoptera caterpillar can be seen remaining

wholly inside the fruit. The bore holes are generally plugged with excreta.

Bionomics

o H.armigera – The adult moths are marked with characteristic ‗V‘ shaped

speck on the light brownish fore wing and a smoky dark border on the

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 hind wing. It lays spherical yellow colour eggs singly on tender parts of

plants. It has very high fecundity which may go up to 3000 eggs/female.

They hatch 4-8 days and the caterpillars may start feeding on young

foliage and later move to the young tomato fruits. There is a remarkable

change of colour as the caterpillar passes from one instar to another. It

pupates in an earthern cocoon in soil. Pupal period is 10-25 days.

o S.litura – The adult moths are stout with grayish brown alternated with

white markings on the fore wing while the hind wings are radiantly white

with a brown border. The eggs are laid in masses and covered with brown

hairs on the surface of the affected leaves. The young caterpillars are

voracious and may start feeding on young foliage and finally they migrate

to young fruits. Laval period is 2-3 weeks. Pupation takes place in an

earthern cocoon in soil.

Management

o Collect and destroy the infested fruits from the field.

o Collect the egg masses of S.litura and destroy them.

o Collect and destroy the larvae of the H.armigera and S.litura.

o Set up light traps to attract and kill the moths of both pests.

o Set up pheromone traps @ 12 / hectare to attract the male moths

H.armigera and S.litura.

o Release an egg parasitoid Trichogramma chilonis for 6 times @ 50,000 /

hectare / week, first release coinciding with flowering time and based on

ETL of 4-6 moths / six pheromone traps.

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 o Spray NPV of H.armigera at 450 LE per hectare + cotton seed kernel

powder 300 g/hectare thrice. Each application should be followed by

Trichogramma releases.

o Spray NPV of S.litura at 250 LE per hectare in the evening hours.

o Prepare poison bait (Rice bran 12 kg/Jaggery 2.5 kg + carbaryl 50 WP 1.25

kg and water 7.5 litres / hectare) and keep the bait in the evening hours to

attract the cater pillars of S.litura.

o Grow simultaneously 40 days old America tall marigold and 25 days old

tomato seedlings at 1.16 rows.

o Spray endosulfan 35 EC 2 ml / litre or carbaryl 50 WP 2 g/litre or Bacillus

thuringiensis @ 2 g. / litre or quinolphos 2.5 ml / litre of water.

III. Borers
1. Stem girdler - Sthenias grisator Fab. (Cerambycidae:
Coleoptera)
Damage

o The grub bores into the bark and tunnels into the dry wood.

o The infestation resulted in wilting of branches and then the entire vine.

o The beetles have the habit of ringing the vines resulting in drying up of the

regions beyond the cut.

Bionomics

o The adult beetle is greyish brown with white and brown irregular marking

resembling the bark colour, elytra have an elliptical greyish median spot

and an eye shaped patch measuring 24 mm long.

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 o The eggs are thrust in between barks and sapwood in clusters of 2-4 eggs

by female beetle, which cuts branches slits under the bark of girdled

branch.

o The egg period is 8 days.

o The hatched out grub feed inside the stem and completes its larval stage by

7-8 months.

o The total life cycle occupies more than a year.

Management

o Cut and burn the infested branches below the girdling point.

o Hand picks the beetles and destroys them which may help in migrating

this longing horn beetle.

o Swab the trunk with carbaryl 50 WP 4 g / litre of water.

2. Grape vine beetle - Sinoxylon anale Lesne. (Bostrychidae:

Coleoptera)
Damage

o The grubs and adults cause damage to the grape vine.

o The adult beetle makes circular hole and extending to the center of the

stem.

o It constructs longitudinal galleries and forms a number of exist.

o The attacked plant gradually dry and dies away.

Bionomics

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 o The adult beetle is sturdy, walks slowly and flies rarely.

o The female lays eggs in the tunnels.

o The grub is thickly slightly curved and yellowish white in colour.

o The chewed out materials are thrown out of the holes.

Management

o Remove loose bark, prune and destroy the infested parts to prevent the

infestation by the beetle.

o Spray carbaryl 50 WP at 2 kg / ha to the dormant woody portion of the

vines.

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 Lecture No.16
 Distribution, host range, bio-ecology, damage and integrated
management of important insect and mite pests of Ber &
Pomegranate

BER

I. Borers

1. Fruit borer - Meridarchis scyrodes Meyr. (Carposinidae:

Lepidoptera)
Damage

o The caterpillar borers into the fruits feeding on the pulp and accumulating

fecal frass within.

Bionomics

o The adult moth is small, dark brown, in colour while the larva is reddish

brown in colour.

Management

3. Collect and destroy damaged fruits.

4. Spray malathion 2 ml/1 or dimethoate 1.5 ml /1 at the time of fruit set, two

rounds at 15 days interval.

2. Fruit fly - Carpomyia vesuviana Costa. (Tephritidae: Diptera)

Damage

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 o The maggots bore into the pulp forming reddish brown galleries.

o The infested fruits rot and turn dark brown and smell offensively.

Bionomics

o The adult fly is small, black spotted with banded wings.

o It lays creamy white and spindle shaped eggs in cavities made on the fruits

by ovipositor.

o Fecundity of the insect is 22 eggs / female.

o The incubation period is 2-3 days.

o The maggots feed on the flesh of the fruit and fully grown in 7-10 days.

o The maggot comes out of fruit by making 1-2 holes in the skin.

o It pupates in soil for 14-30 days.

Management

o Remove and destruct the infested fruits from the ber orchard.

o Incorporate lindane 1.3 % or chlorphyriphos 0.4 % dust 40 kg / hectare to

the soil under the tree or near the trees to reduce the fruit fly incidence.

o Cultivate fruit fly resistant varieties such as Safeda Illaichi, Chinese,

Sanaur-1, Tikadi and Umran.

o Collect and destroy fallen and infested fruits by dumping in a pit and

covering with a thick layer of soil or incorporate lindane 1.3 D 30 g/tree.

o Plough interspaces to expose pupae.

o Encourage parasitoids Opius compensates and Spalangia philippinensis.

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 o Use methyl eugenol lure trap (25/ha) to monitor and kill adults of fruit

flies or prepare methyl engenol and malathion 50 EC mixture at 1:1 ratio

and take 10 ml mixture/trap.

o Use polythene bags fish meal trap with 5 g of wet fish meal + one ml

dichlorvos soaked in cotton at 50 traps / ha. Fish meal and dichlorvos

soaked cotton should be renewed once in 20 and 7 d respectively.

o Use bait spray combining molasses or jaggery 10 g/ 1 and one of the

insecticides, fenthion 100 EC 1 ml/1, malathion 50 EC 2 ml/1, dimethoate

30 EC 1 ml/1, carbaryl 50 WP 4g/1, two rounds at fortnight interval before

ripening of the fruits.

o Spray malathion 50 EC 2 ml/1 or dimethoate 30 EC 2 ml/1 or dichlorvos

0.1% at the time of flower formation and fruit set.

II. Leaf feeders

1. Hairy caterpillar - Thiacidas postica Walker. (Noctuidae:

Lepidoptera)
Damage

o The hairy caterpillar feeds on leaves causing defoliation.

Bionomics

o The adult moth is greyish brown with black double lines on wings. The

female moth lays eggs on the lower surface of leaves in batches. A single

female can lay up to 318-708 eggs. The incubation period is 5-13 days. The

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 larva is grey brown hairy caterpillar. The larval period is 16-55 days. It

pupates in a cocoon for 7-39 days.

Management

o Hand pick egg masses and caterpillars and destroy.

o Use light trap at 1/ha to attract adults.

o Spray lambda cyhalothrin 5 % EC 0.5 ml/1 or malathion 50 EC 2 ml/1 or

carbaryl 50WP 2 g/1.

2. Leaf webber - Psorosticha zizyphi S. (Oecophoridae:

Lepidoptera)
Damage

o The larva webs together leaves causing defoliation.

3. Leaf butterfly - Tarucus theophrastus Fab. (Lycaenidae: Lepidoptera)

Damage

o The caterpillar feeds on the leaves.

Bionomics

o The adult butterfly is blue in colour.

o The caterpillar is small, fleshy green, EP: 3-5; LP; 15 and PP: 5-7 days.

4. Tussoc caterpillar - Dasychira mendosa Hb. (Lymantriidae :

Lepidoptera)
Damage

o The caterpillar feeds leaves causing defoliation.

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 5. Grey weevil - Myllocerus transmarinus Hbst. (Curculionidae :
Coleoptera)
Damage

o The adult weevil scrapes and feed on the leaves.

III. Sap feeders

1. Spittle bug - Machaerota plantiae (Cercopidae : Hemiptera)

Damage

o The nymphs infest the leaves and feed on them.

2. Mealy bug - Drosicha mangiferae Green and Drosichiella

tamarindus Green.(Margarodidae: Hemiptera)
Damage

o Both nymphs and adults feeds on foliage causing yellowing symptom.

3. Lac insect - Kerria (=Laccifer ) lacca Kerr. (Tachardidae :

Hemiptera)
Damage

o Both nymphs and adults desap the twigs.

Management

o Collect and burn affected branches after pruning

o Spray methyl demeton 25 EC 1 ml/1.

4. Scale insect - Aspidiotus orientalis (Diaspididae : Hemiptera)

Management

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 o Prune all the infested materials, collect and burn them.

o Spray methyl demeton 25 EC at 2 ml / litre of water.

IV. Non - insect pest

1. Mite - Phytoptipalpus transitans (Tenuipalpidae : Acarina)

Damage

o It infests the foliage.

2. Red spider mite - Eutetranychus banksi Me Greg.

(Tetranychidae : Acarina)
Damage

o It infests the leaves causing scarification of leaves.

POMEGRANATE

I. Sap feeders

1. Thrips - Rhipiphorothrips cruentatus Hood. (Thripidae:

Thysanoptera)
Damage

o Both nymphs and adults lacerate the tender leaves in the margins and suck

the sap from the exuding lacerated material.

o The infestation resulted in silvery white patches on leaves with black

excreta leading to yellowing and withering.

Bionomics

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 o The adult female is dark brown with yellow legs and antennae.

o The male has yellowish abdomen.

o The nymph is reddish in colour.

Management

o Spraying profenophos @ 1ml/lit

2. Mealy bug - Planococcus lilacinus Ckll. (Pseudococcidae:

Hemiptera)

o Mealybugs are important sucking pests of pomegranate.

Life history

o Adult females are small oval, elongate, soft bodied and wingless, covered

with mealywax.

o Of the two common species, Planococcus citri is oval, elongate and lays

eggs in a fluffy ovisac, while P.lilacinus is globose and the eggs are not laid

in ovisac.

o The mealy bug lays 100-1000 eggs.

o The females attains maturity in about a month.

Damage

o Mealy bug attack nodes, spikes, berries, tender branches, leaves and roots

leading to debilitation of the plant and crop loss. In some cases, the mealy

bugs infest the roots.

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 Influence of weather

o Mealy bug population increases if warm and humid conditions prevail.

Continuous monsoon, high humidity and low temperatures are

detrimental to mealy bug development. The migration of mealybugs starts

in September/October from the ground to the aerial parts of the coffee

plant through the main stem. The attack of mealybugs becomes severe

during summer and with intermittent showers/irrigation.

Ant association

o Mealybugs produce honeydew and ants are attracted to it. Ants provide

sanitation and protection from natural enemies. In the absence of ants the

nymphs get trapped in honeydew and the natural enemies activity also

increases.

Control measures

o Maintain optimum shade.

o Control ants by dusting Quinalphos 1.5% or methyl parathion 2% or

Malathion 5% dust around the base of the bush and shade trees and

destroy ant nests.

o Remove and destroy weeds, as many of them harbor the pests.

o Spray the affected patches with Quinalphos 25 EC or Fenitrothion 50 EC

@ 300 ml or Fenthion 1000 @ 150 ml or 4 liters of kerosene in 200 litres

of water along with 200 ml of an agricultural wetting agent. While

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 spraying kerosene. The spray solution should be stirred frequently to avoid

setting of kerosene. If the root zone is affected, drench it with any one of

the above insecticide solutions, except kerosene emulsion.

o Release the parasitoid, Leptomastix dactylopii against P. citri or the

preadtor, Cryptolaemus montrouzieri irrespective of the species of

mealybugs.

3. Whitefly - Siphoninus phillyreae Halidy. (Aleyrodidae :

Hemiptera )
Damage

o It infests the lower surface of leaves causing yellowing.

4. Spiralling whitefly - Aleurodicus dispersus Russell.

(Aleyrodidae : Hemiptera )

o The spiralling whitefly Aleurodicus dispersus Russell poses threat to many

agricultural and horticultural crops both in the glasshouse and field

conditions in India.

o Aleurodicus dispersus, native to Caribbean islands and Central America, is

reported to occur in North America, South America, Asia, Africa, Australia

and several Pacific islands. In India, it was first recorded in 1993 at

Thiruvananthapuram, Kerala on tapioca.

Biology

o Eggs are laid in a typical spiral pattern from which the whitefly derives its

common name. Female whitefly lays yellowish white eggs, which hatch in

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 7 days and 4-6 days and 5-8 days. Fecundity ranges from 51.8 to 64.06

eggs/ female. There are four nymphal instars, which are greenish, white

and oval.

o The duration of first, second, third fourth instar lasts for 2.15-6.50, 2.7-

5.00, 2.9- 5.96 days and 6.5- 8.1 days. Fourth instar nymphs are covered

with heavy wax material.

o The total nymphal period normally lasts for 12 to 14 days and pupal period

lasts for 2 to 3 days. Development from egg to adult occupies 18 to 23 days

and 22.5-29.66 days. Adults are larger with dark reddish brown eyes and

fore wings with characteristic dark spots. Adults live for 13 to 22 days.

Host plants

 Aleurodicus dispersus is highly polyphagous and is known to attack about 500

plants in different countries and 280 in India alone. The host plants highly
preferred by A. dispersus in India are tuber crop viz., Manihot esculenta,
vegetables viz., Capsicum annum, Solanum melongena, Lycopersicon
esculantum, Abelmoschus esculentus, Cucurbita maxima, oil seeds viz., Arachis
hypogaea and Ricinis communis, fibre crop Gossypium spp, fruit trees viz.,
Psidium guajava, Carica papaya, Musa spp., Punica granatum and Terminalia
catappa, ornamentals viz., Rosa indica, Hibiscus spp., Acalypha indica,
Poinsettia pulcherrima, Michelia champaca and shade trees viz., Ficus religiosa,
Baunia purpurea, Cassia fistula, Thespesia populnea, Manihot glaziovii etc.

Damage

 Nymphs and adults congregate generally on the lower surface, but sometimes on
the upper surface of leaves of the host plants, stem (cassia) and fruits (papaya)
and suck the sap. premature leaf fall and yellowing of leaves in groundnut in
Tamilnadu. Yellow speckling, crinkling and curling of the leaves was noted when
the infestation was severe on tapioca. The injury caused by heavy infestations was
usually insufficient to kill the plants. The copious white, waxy flocculant material
secreted by nymphs is readily spread elsewhere by wind and creates a very
unsightly nuisance. Furthermore, honeydew is produced which serves as
substrate for dense growth of sooty mould, which interfere with photosynthesis.

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  The sticky honeydew carried by wind on the flocculant wax adheres to windows
and cars and causes considerable annoyances. Complaints were received for
allergies and dermatitis.

Management

 Management of polyphagous invasive pests like spiralling whitefly becomes all

the more difficult because of the multitude of host plants that grow wild in nature
and support the build-up of the pests.

Cultural control

 Use of clean planting material delays the appearance of the whitefly population.
Pruning the heavily infested trees and shrubs was recommended to minimise the
spiralling whitefly incidence. Subsequent to the pruning the population rapidly
increased with in 4-5 months on guava.

Physical control

 Light trap was more appropriate tool for monitoring. A simple method for
trapping large number of A. dispersus with light traps coated with Vaseline.
Fluorescent light smeared with castor oil attracted and trapped large number of
adults. Maximum adults were attracted and caught in yellow color sticky trap.

Chemical control

 Application of chemicals to the lower surface of infested leaves thoroughly

reduces the whitefly abundance but temporarily. Tobacco extract (4%,) was found
effective in minimising the spiralling whitefly. Spraying of neem oil (2%), fish oil
rosin soap (4%) and detergent soap solution (5%) reduces the whitefly
population. Contact insecticides like malathion and carbaryl at 0.10% were also
found effective against young nymphs. Dichlorvos 0.08% was found toxic to
various stages of spiralling whitefly.
 Triazophos 0.08% and phosalone 0.07% were equally effective against spiraling
whitefly. Application of neem oil 2% and neem seed kernal extract 3% were found
to be effective in suppressing the nymphal and adult whitefly population.
Troazophos at 0.03% was found to be highly effective against spiralling whitefly
Chorpyriphos at 0.04% was found to effective against A.dispersus.

Biological control

 Pruning the infested plants is only a temporary measure since the reinfestation
starts after some time. Though certain chemicals were recommended, there are
certain difficulties in managing pest by chemical means. Synthetic insecticides do
not adequately control this whitefly since the nymphs are covered with heavy
waxy flocculent materials. Only the adults are susceptible to the insecticidal
applications.

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  Application of insecticides would temporarily reduce the whitefly abundance.
Even if the whitefly is controlled on some plants, there is heavy migration from
roadside trees to the cultivated crops. Chemical control is impracticable because
of abundance of host plants including extremely large size trees and wide spread
distribution. Therefore, alternate methods such as biological control could help in
the suppression of A. dispersus. As A. dispersus is an exotic pest in most
countries, classical biological control is considered to be the best option for a
sustainable management.
 The aphelinid parasitoids Encarsia haitiensis and Encarsia guadeloupae have
given excellent control of spiralling whitefly in several countries Malaysia,
Philippines, Benin, Togo, Ghana, Nigeria Guam, Taiwan, Australia, Hawaii and
some other Pacific islands.

5. Aphid - Aphis punicae Pass. ( Aphididae: Hemiptera)

Damage

o Both nymphs and adults infest the leaves causing curling yellowing of

leaves and wilting of terminal shoots and premature fruit drop.

Bionomics

o The aphids are greenish brown in colour.

o The winged as well as wingless form reproduces partheneogenetically and

is viviparous.

Management

 Prune and burn the infested as well as water shoots to check the further
multiplication.
 Spray dimethoate 30 EC at 1.75 ml or monocrotophos 36 SL at 1 ml or oxymteyl
demeton 25 EC at 1 ml or imidachloprid 200 SL at 0.4 ml flitre of water 2 - 3
times at an interval of 10-12 days.
 Apply carbofuron 3 G at 130 g fplant to control this pest effectively.
 Releases of first instar larvae of green lace wing bug. Chrysoperla carnea at 15
larvae f flowering branch four times at 10 days interval starting from flower
initiation during April.

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 6.Thrips - Anaphotrhips oligochaetus Kerny (Thripidae:
Thysanoptera)
Damage

o Nymphs and adults of the species were seen on the under surface of the

leaves, on fruits and flowers.

o The lacerating and sucking by the thrips resulted in shriveling of leaves

and fruits.

o Scarring of rind was also observed on fruits due to desapping, resulting in

decreased marketability of fruits.

II. Leaf feeders

1. Bagworm - Clania cramari Westw. (Psychidae: Lepidoptera)

Damage

o The caterpillar scrapes the tissues of leaves causing circular holes on the

leaf surface.

o It causes severe defoliation.

Bionomics

o The female moth is apterous, maggot like and the male moth is winged.

o The eggs are laid within the pupal case.

o The larva constructs its case and remaining within it feed on the leaves.

o It becomes full-grown in about five weeks.

2. Hairy caterpillar - Euproctis fraterna M.(Lymantriidae :

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 Lepidoptera)
Damage

o The larva feeds on leaves causes defoliation.

3. Slug caterpillar - Parasa lepida Cramer. (Cochlididae:

Lepidoptera)
Damage

o The caterpillar feeds on the leaves gregariously in the beginning,

subsequently they disperse.

o It causes severe defoliation.

Bionomics

o The adult moth is stout with wing expanse of 4.0 cm and having green

wings fringed with brown patches.

o The eggs are laid in batches of 10-15 on the under surface of leaves.

o The eggs are ovals flat scale- like in shape. The fecundity is on an average

167 eggs / female.

o The egg period is 7 days.

o The caterpillar is fleshy, slug-like with yellowish green body bearing a

greenish blue stripe dorsally and yellowish green stripes laterally.

o The larval period is 5-6 weeks undergoes seven instars.

o It pupates in a hard shield - like greyish cocoon on the tree trunks for 4-5

weeks.

Management

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 o Set up light traps to monitor and kill the adult moths.

o Spray the crown with carbaryl 0.1 % (or) dichlorovos 0.02 % or malathion

0.05 % solution.

o In severe cases, root feeding of monocrotophos as explained earlier under

leaf eating caterpillar may be taken up with safety precautions.

o Collect all the stages of pests viz., eggs on tree trunks, leaves, larvae during

migration stage, pupae in soil and leaf sheath and adult moth during

emergence and destruction.

o Organise mass collection campaign involving farmers, school children and

college students.

o Spray dichlorovos @ 2 ml / litre using specially designed tractor mounted

tall tree sprayer.

o Dust methyl parathion or endosulfan dust @ 1 kg / tree using power

operated bellowed crane duster to reach tall trees.

o Encourage the predatory birds to pick up the larval stages.

4. Semilooper - Achaea janata Linn. (Noctuidae: Lepidoptera)

Damage

o The semilooper caterpillar feeds on leaves while the adult moth pierces the

5. Ash weevil - Myllocerus maculosus Desb. (Curculionidae :

Coleoptera)
Damage

o The adult weevil scrapes the chlorophyll content of the leaves causing

defoliation.

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 o fruits with its proboscis for feeding causing injury on the surface of fruits.

III. Borers

1. Anarbutterfly - Virachola isocrates Fab. (Lycaenidae:

Lepidoptera)
Damage

o The larva bores inside the developing fruits and feeds on the pulp and

seeds.

o The infested fruits are infected by fungi and bacteria causing fruit rot

disease.

o The damaged fruits ultimately fall off and give an offensive odour.

o It causes 40-90 per cent damage to the fruits.

Bionomics

 The adult butterfly is medium sized with wing expanse of 40-50 mm.
 The female moth is glossy brownish violet while the male is bluish violet in
colour.
 The female lays eggs singly on the calyx of flowers and on small fruits.
 The egg period is 7-10 days.
 The young larvae bore into the developing fruits.
 The larval period is completed in 18-47 days. It pupates inside the fruits.
 The pupal period last for 7-34 days.
 It completes four generations per year.

Management

 Grow less susceptible varieties.

 Remove calyx from the fruits to prevent the hatching of eggs and subsequent
damage.
 Collect and destroy the infested fruits.
 Cover the fruits with polythene or muslin bags during flowering period to prevent
egg laying when fruits are up to 5 cm diametre
 Spray NSKE 5% or neem oil 2% as oviposition deterrent, 2 to 3 times at 15 days
interval commencing from flowering and during butterfly activity.

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  Adopt ETL (5 eggs / plant with bearing capacity of 60 fruits).
 Release egg parasitoid, Trichogramma chilonis at 1 lakh / acre.
 Spray thiochlopril 2 ml/ litre of water.
 Ensure minimum waiting period of 10 days between the day of insecticide
application and harvesting of fruits in the field.

2. Fruit borer - Dichocrocis (= Conogethes) punctiferalis Guen.

(Pyraustidae: Lepidoptera)
Damage

o The caterpillar occasionally causes the damage by boring into the fruits

and feeding on the pulp.

Bionomics

3. Fruit fly - Bactrocera zonatus Saund. (Tephritidae: Diptera)

Damage

o The maggot destroy and convert the pulp into a bad smelling, discoloured

semi liquid mass unfit for human consumption.

o The infestation results in fruit drop and start rotting from inside.

o On complete rotting of the fruits, the damaged fruit develop yellow spots

with black centers through which liquid oozes out on pressing.

Bionomics

o The adult fly is brown or dark brown with hyaline wings and yellow legs.

o The female fly lays eggs in clusters of 2-15 just beneath the skin of the

ripening fruits.

o A single female lays up to 200 eggs during oviposition period of one

month.

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 o The egg period is 22-23 days.

o The maggot feeds on pulp and become full grown in about 7 days.

o It pupates 3-7 inches below the soil.

Management

o Plough the interspaces to expose the pupae during the off - season.

o Collect and destroy the fallen fruits.

o Set up fly trap using methyl eugenol. Prepare methyl eugenol 1 ml/ 1 litre

of water + 1 ml of Malathion solution. Take 10 ml of this mixture per trap

and keep them at 25 different places in one ha between 6 and 8 am. Collect

and destroy the adult flies.

o Conserve parasitoids like Optius compensates and Spalangia

philippinensis.

o Use bait spray combining molasses or jiggery 10g/1 and one of the

insecticides, fenthion 100 EC 1 ml/1, malathion 50 EC 2 ml/1, dimethoate

30 EC 1 ml/1, carbaryl 50 WP 4g/1, two rounds at fortnightly intervals

before ripening of the fruits.

o Spray fenthion 2 ml / litre or Malathion 2 ml / litre of water.

IV. Non - insect pests

1. Eriophyid mite - Aceria granati Can and Massal. (Eriophyidae:

Acarina)
Damage

o Both nymphs and adults live inside the rolls at the edges of leaves.

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 o The infested leaves become linear and deformed.

2. Red spider mite - Tetranychus punicae Hirst. (Tetranychidae:

Acarina)
Damage

o It infests the leaves from the under surface of leaves causing yellowing and

dropping of leaves.

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 Lecture No.18
Distribution, host range, bio-ecology, damage and integrated management
of important insect and mite pests of Fig and Star gooseberry

FIG

I. Leaf feeders

1. Wild silk worm - Opcinara varians Wlk. (Bombycidae:

Lepidoptera)
Damage

o The caterpillar defoliates the trees.

Bionomics

o The adult moth is pale whitish.

o The full-grown larvae are smooth, pale grey in colour measuring 30 mm

long.

2. Leaf caterpillar - Glyphodes phyloalis W. (Pyraustidae:

Lepidoptera)
Damage

o The larva infests the leaves causing defoliation.

3. Hairy caterpillar - Hypsa ficus F. (Hypsidae: Lepidoptera)

Damage

o The larva defoliates the trees.

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 Bionomics

o The adult moth is yellow with black dots on the wings.

o The caterpillar is about 25 mm long, black in colour with yellowish brown

warts bearing white hairs.

o It pupates in soil.

Management

o Collect and destroy damaged leaves along with larvae.

o Use light trap @ 1 / ha to attract and kill adults.

o Spray monocrotophos 36 WSC 2 ml /litre or malathion 50 EC 0.1%.

4. Leaf roller - Phycodes radiata Ochs and P. minor Moore.

(Glyphipterygidae : Lepidoptera)
Damage

o The caterpillar rolls the leaf and feeds within.

Bionomics

o The adult moth is greyish brown in colour.

o The eggs are laid singly or in batches of 2-15 on either side of leaves.

o The egg period is 4-6 days. The caterpillar of F. radiata is yellowish-white

with a dark stripe on each side, while the caterpillar F. minor is light green

with yellow shiny head.

o The larval period is 30-35 days.

o It pupates within the leaf fold for 8 - 10 days.

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 4. Leaf roller - Phycodes radiata Ochs and P. minor Moore.
(Glyphipterygidae : Lepidoptera)
Damage

o The caterpillar rolls the leaf and feeds within.

Bionomics

o The adult moth is greyish brown in colour.

o The eggs are laid singly or in batches of 2-15 on either side of leaves.

o The egg period is 4-6 days. The caterpillar of F. radiata is yellowish-white

with a dark stripe on each side, while the caterpillar F. minor is light green

with yellow shiny head.

o The larval period is 30-35 days.

o It pupates within the leaf fold for 8 - 10 days.

II. Sap feeders

1. Spittle bug - Cosmoscarta niteara D. (Cercopidae : Hemiptera)

Damage

o The nymphs infest the leaves of fig.

2. Psyllid bug - Pauropsylla depressa C. (Psyllidae : Hemiptera)

Damage

o The nymphs and adults desap the leaves producing galls on the leaves.

3. Mealy bug - Drosicha mangiferae Green. (Margarodidae :

Hemiptera)

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 Damage

o Both nymphs and adults desap the leaves.

4. Mealy bug - Planococcus lilacinus Ckll. (Pseudococcidae :

Hemiptera)
Damage

o It infests foliage causing yellowing symptom.

5. Hard scale - Aspidiotus cycloniae C. (Diaspididae: Hemiptera)

Damage

o Both nymphs and adults suck the sap from leaves and tender twigs.

6. Thrips - Gigantothrips elegans Z. ( Phloeothripidae :

Thysanoptera )
Damage

o Both nymphs and adults desap the tender leaves and results in curling and

drying up of the same.

III. Borers

1. Mango stem borer - Batocera rufomaculata Dejean.

(Cerambycidae : Coleoptera)
Damage

o The larva tunnel into the main stem or branches and makes zig - zag

tunnels in the wood.

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 o The tunnels interfere the sap flow affecting the foliage and fruit

production.

o In severe cases, the infested trees ultimately dry and dies.

Management

o Keep orchards clean.

o Collect loose and damaged barks and destroy them.

o Kill grubs by inserting a thin iron spike or wire into the hole.

o Spot application of 10 ml of monocrotophos or fenthion or methyl

parathion diluted in 1 1 of water.

2. Fruit fly - Dacus (= Strumeta) dorsalis Hend. ( Tephritidae :

Diptera)
Damage

o The maggot destroy and convert the pulp into a bad smelling, discoloured

semi liquid mass unfit for human consumption.

o The infestation results in fruit drop and start rotting from inside.

o On complete rotting of the fruits, the damaged fruit develop yellow spots

with black centers through which liquid oozes out on pressing.

Bionomics

o The adult fly is brown or dark brown with hyaline wings and yellow legs.

o The female fly lays eggs in clusters of 2-15 just beneath the skin of the

ripening fruits.

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 o A single female lays up to 200 eggs during oviposition period of one

month.

o The egg period is 22-23 days. The maggot feeds on pulp and become full

grown in about 7 days.

o It pupates 3-7 inches below the soil.

Management

o Plough the interspaces to expose the pupae during the off - season.

o Collect and destroy the fallen fruits.

o Set up fly trap using methyl eugenol. Prepare methyl eugenol 1 ml/ 1 litre

of water + 1 ml of Malathion solution. Take 10 ml of this mixture per trap

and keep them at 25 different places in one ha between 6 and 8 am. Collect

and destroy the adult flies.

o Conserve parasitoids like Optius compensates and Spalangia

philippinensis.

o Use bait spray combining molasses or jiggery 10g/1 and one of the

insecticides, fenthion 100 EC 1 ml/1, malathion 50 EC 2 ml/1, dimethoate

30 EC 1 ml/1, carbaryl 50 WP 4g/1, two rounds at fortnightly intervals

before ripening of the fruits.

3. Fig midge - Anjeerodiplosis peshawaransis

Mani.(Cecidomyiidae : Diptera)
Damage

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 o The maggot bores inside the fruit and feeds on the pulp within.

o The infested fruits become hard, and deformed.

o The damaged fig ultimately shrivels, withers and dropped down

prematurely.

Bionomics

o The adult fly is small, light brown in colour with small head and bear two

jointed antennae.

o The female fly lays minute, oval, pedicellate eggs on one week old fruit.

o The eggs are laid in cluster of 10 eggs.

o The egg period is 3 days.

o The maggot is creamy white in colour.

o The larval period is 3-4 weeks.

o The maggot drop down to the soil for pupation.

o The pupal period lasts 10-26 days.

Management

o Collect damaged fruits along with maggots and destroy.

o Rake up soil to expose pupae and apply lindane 1.3 D at 25kg/ha.

o Spray dimethoate 30 EC 2 ml/ litre or malathion 50 EC 0.1%.

STAR GOOSE BERRY

I. Sap feeders

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 1. Aphid - Setaphis bongainis (Aphididae: Hemiptera)
Damage

o Both nymphs and adults suck the sap from the leaves causing yellowing

symptom.

2. Whitefly - Trialeurodes rara Singh. (Aleyrodidae: Hemiptera)

Damage

o The colonies of whitefly desap the leaves from the ventral surface causing

yellowing of leaves in patches on the corresponding upper surface.

3. Bug - Scutellera nobilis Fab. (Scutelleridae : Hemiptera)

Damage

o Both nymphs and adults nymphs and adults suck the sap from leaves and

cause yellowing symptoms.

4. Mealy bug - Ferrisia virgata Ckll. (Pseudococcidae :

Hemiptera)
Damage

o Both nymphs and adults desap the leaves causing yellowing.

II. Leaf feeders

1. Leaf roller - Caloptilia (=Gracillaria) acidula (Gracillaridae:

Lepidoptera)
Damage

o The caterpillar rolls the leaves and feed on them causing defoliation.

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 Bionomics

o The adult moth is small brownish in colour.

o The larva is cylindrical yellow with thin scattered hairs.

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 Lecture No.19

Distribution, host range, bio-ecology, damage and integrated

management of important insect and mite pests of Custard Apple and

Wood Apple

CUSTARD APPLE

I. Borers

1. Fruit borer - Heterographis (= Anonaepestis) bengalella

Rogonot. (Phycitidae: Lepidoptera)
Damage

o The larva bores into the fruits making irregular tunnels.

o The development of fruits is arrested and fruits fall down.

o The bore holes on fruits are plugged with excreta.

Bionomics

o The female moth lays eggs singly in the sutures or on the peduncle of

immature fruits.

o The egg period is 4-5 days.

o The larva bores inside the fruits.

o The larval period is 12-19 days.

o It pupates in the tunnels within the fruits.

o The pupal period lasts in 12 days.

Management

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 o Collect and destroy damaged fruits.

o Spray thiodicarb 2 ml/ litre or malathion 0.1% two times once at flower

formation and second at fruit set.

2. Fruit fly - Dacus zonatus. Saund. (Tephritidae: Diptera)

Damage

o The maggot destroy and convert the pulp into a bad smelling, discoloured

semi liquid mass unfit for human consumption.

o The infestation results in fruit drop and start rotting from inside.

o On complete rotting of the fruits, the damaged fruit develop yellow spots

with black centers through which liquid oozes out on pressing.

Bionomics

o The adult fly is brown or dark brown with hyaline wings and yellow legs.

o The female fly lays eggs in clusters of 2-15 just beneath the skin of the

ripening fruits.

o A single female lays up to 200 eggs during oviposition period of one

month.

o The egg period is 22-23 days.

o The maggot feeds on pulp and become full grown in about 7 days.

o It pupates 3-7 inches below the soil.

Management

o Plough the interspaces to expose the pupae during the off - season.

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 o Collect and destroy the fallen fruits.

o Set up fly trap using methyl eugenol. Prepare methyl eugenol 1 ml/ 1 litre

of water + 1 ml of Malathion solution. Take 10 ml of this mixture per trap

and keep them at 25 different places in one ha between 6 and 8 am. Collect

and destroy the adult flies.

o Conserve parasitoids like Optius compensates and Spalangia

philippinensis.

o Use bait spray combining molasses or jiggery 10g/1 and one of the

insecticides, fenthion 100 EC 1 ml/1, malathion 50 EC 2 ml/1, dimethoate

30 EC 1 ml/1, carbaryl 50 WP 4g/1, two rounds at fortnightly intervals

before ripening of the fruits.

II. Sap feeders

1. Striped mealy bug - Ferrisia virgata Cockerell.

(Pseudococcidae: Hemiptera)
Damage

o Both nymphs and adults cover on the fruits and suck the sap causing

shriveling and dropping of fruits.

Management

2. Collect and destroy mealy bug infested leaves, shoots and fruits.

3. Spray dichlorovos 0.05%, two times first at new flush and shoot formation

and second at fruit set by using fish oil rosin soap 25 ml/litre.

4. Release Cryptolaemas montrouzieri @ 10 beetles per tree.

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 2. Mealy bug - Maconellicoccus hirsutus Green (Pseudococcidae:
Hemiptera)
Damage

o Pinkish nymphs and adults desap the fruits causing the shriveling and

dropping of fruits.

WOOD APPLE

I. Borer

1. Wood apple borer - Euzophera plumberijascilla (Phycitidae:

Lepidoptera)
Damage

o The caterpillar bores into the fruits and feeds on the pulp causing fruit

drop.

2. Fruit borer - Argyroploce illipida Meyr. (Eucosmidae :

Lepidoptera)
Damage

o The larva bores into the fruits causing fruit drop.

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 Lecture No. 20

Distribution, host range, bio-ecology, damage and integrated management

of important insect and mite pests of Jamun, Pineapple, Papaya and

Tamarind

JAMUN

1. Psyllid - Trioza jambolanae C. (Psyllidae: Hemiptera)

Damage

o Both nymphs and adults suck the sap from the leaves causing yellowing

and malformation.

2. Whitefly - Dialeurodes eugeniae M. (Aleyrodidae: Hemiptera)

Damage

o It infests the leaves in seedlings causing yellowing and malformation

3. Thrips - Leeuwenia ramakrihmae (=karyani)R. (Thripidae

:Thysanoptera)
Damage

o Both nymphs and adults lacerate the leaves and suck the sap causing

yellowing with silvery patches on leaves.

1. Leaf miner - Acrocercops telestis Meyr. (Gracillaridae :

Lepidoptera)
Damage

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 o The caterpillar mines into the leaves causing blister like swelling on upper

surface of leaves.

2. Leaf webber - Argyroploce aprobola Meyr. (Eucosmidae :

Lepidoptera)
Damage

o The larva webs together the leaves at the shoot tips and feeds within the

web causing defoliation.

3. Purple winged moth - Bombotelia delatrix Gr. (Noctuidae :

Lepidoptera)
Damage

o The caterpillar infests the leaves and causes defoliation.

Bionomics

o The adult moth is brownish black in colour.

o The female lays eggs singly on leaves.

o The incubation period is 3-4 days.

o The larva is green and takes 12-14 days to become full grown.

o It pupates in a cocoon for 13 days.

4. Looper - Thalassodes flavifusata Wlk. (Geometridae :

Lepidoptera)
Damage

o The caterpillar feeds on tender foliage causing defoliation.

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 Bionomics

o The female moth lays eggs in small groups on the edges of tender leaves.

o A single female lays 20-30 eggs.

o The egg period is 2-3 days.

o The larva is greenish in colour measuring 3.8 cm long.

o The larval period is 17¬18 days.

o It pupates within rolled up leaves for 7-8 days.

Management

o Collect and destroy damaged leaves.

o Use light trap at 1/ha to attract and kill adults.

o Spray phaslone 2 ml/1 or malathion 50 EC 2 ml/1.

1. Fruit fly - Dacus correctus Bezzi. (Tephritidae: Diptera)

Damage

o The maggot feeds on pulp of fruit and cause rotting and dropping of fruits.

2. Bark caterpillar - Indarbela tetraonis Moore. (Metarbelidae :

Lepidoptera)
Damage

o The caterpillar bores inside the stem making irregular galleries which

interfere the translocation of cell sap.

o The growth of the plant remains stunted and the fruiting capacity is

drastically reduced.

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 Bionomics

o The adult moth is stout, pale brown moth with wavy marking on the wings.

o The female lays eggs in groups in cracks and crevices on the bark.

o The egg period is 8-10 days.

o The larva is brownish in colour measuring 3.8 mm long.

o Pupation takes place in the galleries for 3-4 weeks.

o It has only generation per year.

1. Red spider mite - Oligonychuszus mangiferae Rah and Sap.

(Tetranychidae: Acarina)
Damage

o It infests the leaves of Jamun trees.

PINEAPPLE

1. Rhinoceros beetle - Oryctes rhinoceros Linn. (Scarabaeidae:

Coleoptera)
Damage

o The adult beetles bores into the stem causing wilting of plants.

Management

o Remove and destroy damaged plants.

o Collect and destroy various bio-stages from manure pits.

o Mix entomogenous fungal culture of Metarhizium anisopliae in the

manure pits during cooler months to attack grubs.

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 o Encourage Reduviid bugs, Platymeris laevicollis to attack adults.

o Hook out and kill adults from the base of stems.

o Set up light traps following first rains in summer and monsoon period to

attract adults.

o Soak castor cake at 1 kg in 5 1 of water in small mud pots and keep them in

the pineapple garden to attract the adults.

o Use Rhinolure vane trap for attracting adults.

1. Thrips - Thrips tabaci Lind. (Thripidae : Thysanoptera)

Damage

o The nymphs and adults which shelter between the leaf sheaths and stems

lacerate the epidermis and suck the exuding sap.

o The affected leaves exhibit silvery which blotches leading to distortion,

wilting and drying from tip down wards.

o The seedlings show retarded growth.

o The bulbs remain undersized and appear distorted in shape.

Bionomics

o It reproduces parthenogenetically.

o The adult female inserts the eggs into the tender leaves.

o The egg period is 10-15 days.

o The nymphs and adults are yellow in colour.

o The nymphal period is 4-6 days.

o It pupates in soil. The pupal period is 3 days.

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 o The pest undergoes 10 generation per year.

Management

o Grow resistant varieties viz., White Persian, Grano, Sweet Spanish, and

Crystal wax.

o Use neem coated urea which reduce the infestation of pest.

o Set up sky-blue colour sticky traps which attract more adults than yellow

colour traps.

o Spray methyl demeton or dimethoate at 1 ml/litre or monocrotophos 1

ml/litre with teepol 0.5 ml/litre of water.

2. Mealybug -Dysmicoccus brevipes Cockerell. (Pseudococcidae :

Hemiptera)
Damage

o Both nymphs and adults desap the leaves and fruits result yellowing of

leaves and shriveling of fruits.

Management

o Cultivate resistant varieties like Red Spanish and Queen.

o Collect planning material from unaffected plantations.

o Remove basal brownish leaves of cured planting materials at the time of

planting

o Dip basal portion of planting material in methyl parathion 0.2% solution

as a prophylactic measure.

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 o Apply phorate 10 G at 17.5 kg/ha at 100-125 days interval in the affected

plantations.

PAPAYA

1. Milk weed grasshopper - Poecilocerus pictus F. (Acrididae:

Orthoptera)
Damage

o Both nymphs and adults feed on leaf voraciously and cause severe

defoliation.

o In the case of severe infestation, it feeds on the bark of the plant.

Bionomics

o The female thrusts its abdomen deep into the soil and lay eggs to a depth

of 18-20 cm.

o A single female lays about 145-170 eggs.

o The eggs are elongate and orange in colour.

o The eggs are covered by frothy secretion, which hardens later on.

o The egg period is 30 days. The nymphal period is 60 days.

o It becomes adult in another 75 days.

2. Grey weevil - Myllocerus subfasciatus G.M., M.discolor Fab

and M.viruidu Fab. (Curulionidae: Coleoptera.)
Damage

o Adult weevil cause notching of leaf margins. Grub feeds on roots resulting

wilting of plants.

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 Bionomics

o M.Subfasciatus – Brownish weevil;

o M.discolor – Brown with white spot on elytra; .

o M.viridanus – Small light green weevil.

Management

o Collect & destruct the adult weevils

o Apply carbofuran 3 G at 15 kg/hectare at 15 days after planting.

o Dust lindane 1.3D at 25kg/ha to kill grubs.

o Spray carbaryl 50WP at 2g/1 on plants.

1.Whitefly Bemesia tabaci Genu. (Aleyrodidae: Hemiptera)

Damage

o Both nymphs and adults feed on cell sap from leaves causing chlorotic

sopts and yellowing and drying of leaves.

o Pre-mature defoliation, yellowing and sooty mould are typical symptoms.

Bionomics

o Adults are minute with yellow body covered with white waxy bloom.

o Stalked eggs are laid on the undersurface of leaves.

o EP: 3-5 days; NP: 9-14 days during summer, EP:5-33 days ; NP:17-33 days

during winter. PP: 2-8 days. LC: 14-107 days.

Management

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 o Avoid growing of brinjal in summer if the whitefly is a serious problem in

that area.

o Adopt crop rotation using non-host like cereals which helps to reduce

whitefly population.

o Remove alternative hosts and weed hosts.

o Use nitrogenous fertilizers judiciously to avoid excessive growth.

o Set up yellow sticky traps @ 12 per hectare to manage whitefly

o Avoid the usage of resurgence causing insecticides viz., pyrethriods,

dimethoate, endosulfan, phosalone and monocrotophos.

o Use entomophopathogenic fungus, Paecilomyces farinosus.

o Spray fish oil rosin soap @ 1 kg in 40 litre of water + teepol.

o Spray dimethoate @ 1 0:1 or malathion 2 ml or methyl demeton 1 ml or

triazophos 1.5 ml / litre of water.

2. Green peach aphid - Myzus persicae Sulz. (Aphididae:

Hemiptera)
Damage

o Both nymphs and adults desap the leaves.

o As a result of infestation, leaves get curled and crinkled, coated with

honeydew and sooty mould.

o It acts as a vector for the disease "Papaya mosaic virus".

Management

o Remove and destroy damaged plant parts along with nymphs and adults.

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 o Encourage parasitoid, Aphelinus mali and predators, Coccinella

septumpunctata and Ballia eucharis.

o Spray dimethoate 0.03% or methyl demeton 0.025%.

3. Aphid - Aphis gossypii Glover. (Aphididae: Hemiptera)

Damage

o It is a potential pest on cotton infesting tender shoots and under surface of

the leaves.

o They occur in large numbers suck the sap and cause stunted growth,

gradual drying and result in death of the plants.

o Development of black sooty mould due to the excretion of honey dew

giving the plant a dark appearance.

o Being a polyphagous pest, it is recoreded in brinjal, bhendi, chillies,guava

and gingelly.

o Curling and crinkling of leaves are typical symptoms.

Bionomics

o Yellowish or greenish brown nymphs found on the under surface of leaves.

o They are often attended by ants for the sweet honey dew secretion.

o Winged forms may be seen under crowded conditions.

4. Coconut scale - Aspidiotus destructor Sign. (Diaspididae:

Hemiptera)
Damage

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 o The nymphs and adult desap the leaflets resulting yellowing, withering

and drying up of leaflets.

Bionomics

o It is circular hard scale occurs as persistent pest of coconut.

o A female lays up to 90 eggs under its shield like scale.

o The crawlers move out and distribute themselves to health leaf lets.

o The life cycles 3.2 days for male and 35 days of female.

1. Fruit fly - Dacus diversus Coq and D.cucurbitae (Tephritidae:

Diptera)
Damage

o The maggot tunnel into the fruits and cause rotting and pre-mature fall of

the developing fruits. The fly seems to prefer green and tender fruits of

pumpkin as it is not able to pierce the hard rind of some other fruits.

o The infested fruits can easily be recognized by the distortion or rotting

area around the site of oviposition.

o Sometimes the young maggot can also be seen eating on the flowers and

rarely they may feed on the curcurbit veins with consequent formation of

galls.

o It attacks all fruits of cucurbitaceous besides attacking tomato, chillies,

brinjal, papaya, guava, peach, dates, citrus etc.

Bionomics

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 o The adult of B.cucurbitae a reddish brown fly with lemon yellow curved

vertical markings on the thorax and fuscous shading on outer margins of

wings B. ciliates smaller than B.cucurbitae.

o It thrusts 5 to 15 cylindrical white eggs singly or in groups into flowers or

tender fruits.

o The fly makes a number of punctures with her ovipositor before the eggs

are laid. A resinous secretion ooze out from the injured fruit to repair the

punctures.

o The eggs hatch out in 1 to 9 days liberating small, dirty white apodous

maggots and become full grown in 3-21 days.

o Pupation takes place in soil.

o Some time it may pupate in the fruit itself.

o Pupal period is 3-9 days in summer and 30 days in winter.

o The adults are free living on flower vector and can very often be seen

congregating on the undersurface of the leaves during morning hours.

Management

o Remove and dispose ripe fruits from trees and ground to suppress fruit fly

population.

o Use methyl eugenol traps to attract and kill adult flies.

o Cover fruits with a semi-permeable shrink-wrap film.

o Spray fenthion 1 ml/1 or malathion 2 ml/1 on semi-ripe fruits.

1. Red spider mite - Tetranychus telarius L. (Tetranychidae:

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 Acarina)
Damage

o It infests the under surface of leaves and occasionally on fruits. Both

nymphs and adults remain the protected web and suck the sap resulting

yellowing of leaves.

2. Papaya Mealybug -Paracoccus marginatus

o The papaya mealybug, Paracoccus marginatus is a small hemipteran that

attacks several genera of host plants, including economically important

tropical fruits and ornamentals.

o The papaya mealybug was discovered in Manatee and Palm Beach

counties in Florida in 1998 and subsequently spread rapidly to several

other Florida countries.

o It potentially poses a multi-million dollar threat to numerous agricultural

products in Florida, as well as other states, if not controlled.

o Biological control was identified as a key component in a management

strategy for the papaya mealybug, and a classical biological control

program was initiated as a joint effort between the US Department of

Agriculture, Puerto Rico Department of Agriculture, and Ministry of

Agriculture in the Dominican Republic in 1999.

Distribution

o The papaya mealybug is believed to be native to Mexico and/or Central

America.

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 o It has never gained status as a serious pest there, probably due to the

presence of an endemic natural enemy complex.

o The first specimens were collected in Mexico in 1955.

o The papaya mealybug was described in 1992 from the Neotropical Region

in Belize, Costa Rica, Guatemala, and Mexico.

o When the papaya mealybug invaded the Caribbean region, it became a

pest there; since 1994 it has been recorded in the following 14 Caribbean

countries: St.Martin, Guadeloupe, St. Martin, Guadeloupe, St.Batthelemy,

Antigua, Bahamas, British Virgin Islands, Cuba, Dominican Republic,

Haiti, Puerto rico, Montserrat, Nevis, St. Kitts, and the U.S. Virgin Islands.

More recently, specimens have turned up in the Pacific regions of Guam

and the Republic of Palau.

o The papaya mealybug was discovered in Bradenton, Florida in 1998 on

hibiscus. By January 2002, it had been collected 80 times on 18 different

plant species in 30 cities throughout Alachua, Brevard, Broward, Collier,

Dade, Hillsborough, Manatee, Martin, Monroe, Palm Beach, Pinellas,

Polk, Sarasota, and Volusia counties.

o Specimens also have been intercepted in Texas and California, and it is

expected that papaya mealybug could rapidly establish throughout Florida

and through the Gulf states to California.

o It is possible that certain greenhouse crops could be at risk in areas as far

north as Delaward, New Jersey and Maryland.

o It has already been identified on papaya plants in the Garfield

Conservatory in Chicago, Illinois in late August of 2001.

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 o A biological control program was implemented in December of 2001 with

very successful results.

Description

o Papaya mealybug infestations are typically observed as clusters of cotton-

like masses on the above-ground portion of plants.

o The adult female is yellow and is covered with a white waxy coating. Adult

females are approximately 2.2 mm long (1/16 inch) and 1.4 mm wide.

o A series of short waxy caudal filaments less than ¼ the length of the body

exist around the margin.

o Eggs are greenish yellow and are laid in an egg sac that is three to four

times the body length and entirely covered with white wax.

o The ovisac is developed ventrally on the adult female.

o Adult males tend to be colored pink, especially during the pre-pupal and

pupal stages, but appear yellow in the first and second instar.

o Adult males are approximately 1.0 mm long, with an elongate oval body

that is widest at the thorax (0.3 mm), Adult males have ten-segmented

antennae, a distinct aedeagus, lateral pore clusters, a heavily sclerotized

thorax and head, and well-developed wings.

o Two characteristics that are important in distinguishing P.marginatus

adult females from all other species of Paracoccus are: the presence of

oral-rim tubular ducts dorsally restricted to marginal areas of the body,

and the absence of pores on the hind tibiae.

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 o Adult males may be distinguished from other related species by the

presence of stout fleshy setae on the antennae and the absence of fleshy

setae on the legs.

o The papaya mealybug can easily be distinguished from Maconellicoccus

marginatus (Green), the pink hibiscus mealybug, because papaya

mealybug females have eight antennal segments, in contrast to nine in the

latter species.

o Specimens of papaya mealybug turn bluish-black when placed in alcohol,

as is characteristic of other members of this genus.

Biology

o Details on the biology and life cycle of the papaya mealybug are lacking.

o In general, mealybugs have piercing-sucking mouthparts and feed by

inserting their mouthparts into plant tissue and sucking out sap.

Mealybugs are most active in warm, dry weather.

o Females have no wings, and move by crawling short distances or by being

blown in air currents.

o Females usually lay 100 to 600 eggs in an ovisac, although some species of

mealybugs give birth to live young.

o Egg-laying usually occurs in about 10 days, and nymphs, or crawlers, begin

to actively search for feeding sites.

o Female crawlers have four instars, with a generation taking approximately

one month to complete, depending on the temperature.

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 o Males have five instars, the fourth of which is produced in a cocoon and

referred to as the pupa.

o The fifth instar of the male is the only winged form of the species capable

of flight.

o Adult females attract the males with sex pheromones. Under greenhouse

conditions, reproduction occurs throughout the year, and in certain

species may occur without fertilization.

Host Plants

o The papaya mealybug is polyphagous and has been recorded on > 55 host

plants in more than 25 genera. Economically important host plants of the

papaya mealybug include papaya, hibiscus, avocado, citrus, cotton,

tomato, eggplant, peppers, beans and peas, sweet potato, mango, cherry,

and pomegranate.

Damage

o The papaya mealybug feeds on the sap of plants by inserting its stylets into

the epidermis of the leaf, as well as into the fruit and stem.

o In doing so, it injects a toxic substance into the leaves.

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 o The result is chlorosis, plant stunting, leaf deformation, early leaf and fruit

drop, a heavy build up of honeydew, and death.

o Heavy infestations are capable of rendering fruit inedible due to the

buildup of thick white wax.

o Papaya mealybug has only been recorded feeding on areas of the host

plant that are above ground, namely the leaves and fruit.

Management

Chemical control

o A number of chemical controls are available to control mealybug, although

none are currently registered specifically for control of papaya mealybug.

Active ingredients in registered pesticide formulations include acephate,

carbaryl, clorpyrifos, diazinon, dimethoate, malathion, and white mineral

oils.

o Typically, twice the normal dose is applied when treating for mealybugs

because mealybugs are protected by thick waxy, cottony sacs, and often are

concealed inside damaged leaves and buds.

o Thus, chemical controls are only partially effective and require multiple

applications. Furthermore, problems with insecticide resistance and non-

target effects on natural enemies make chemical control a less desirable

control option to combat the papaya mealybug.

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 Biological control

o Natural enemies of the papaya mealybug include the commercially

available mealybug destroyer (Cryptolaemus montrouzieri), lady beetles,

lacewings, and hover flies, all which are generalist predators that have a

potential impact on mealybug populations. In addition to predators,

several parasitoids may attack papaya mealybug.

o In 1999, the USDA Animal and Plant Health Inspection Service (APHIS)

and USDA Agricultural Research Station (ARS) initiated a classical

biological control program for the papaya mealybug.

o Four genera of encyrtid endoparasitoid wasps specific to mealybugs were

collected in Mexico by USDA and ARS researchers and Mexican

cooperators as potential biological control agents:

o Acerophagus papaya @ 100 numbers / small village as inculative release,

Anagyrus californicus Compere, and Pseudaphycus sp. A fifth collected

species was later reared and identified as Pseudleptomastix Mexicana.

o All four species were screened in USDA/ARS quarantine facilities in

Newark, Delaware and environmental assessments were completed.

Specimens were then shipped to Puerto Rico where they were cultured and

mass-reared for experimental release in Puerto Rico and the Dominican

Republic.

o The first releases of these four parasitoids were made in Florida in October

2000.

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 o To date, APHIS has found that the release of the four genera of parasitoid

wasps has brought a 99.7% reduction in the density of mealybug

populations at research sites in the Dominican Republic, and a 97%

reduction at research sites in Puerto Rico, with parasitism levels between

35.5% and 58.3%.

o All four species of parasitoids have been observed attacking second and

third instars of P.marginatus. However, Acerophagus sp. emerged as the

dominant paraditoid species in both Puerto Rico and the Dominican

Republic.

o The outcome of releases of the four parasitoids in Florida is yet to be

determined as of March 2003.

TAMARIND

1. Tamarind fruit borer - Phycita orthoclina Meyr. (Phycitidae :

Lepidoptera)
Damage

o The larva bore into the tender fruits and feeds on the pulp. The infestation

makes the fruit unfit for consumption.

Bionomics

o A female moth lays up to 190 eggs in about 3 days on the pulp inside the

hard shelled pods through cracks and crevices found on them.

o The incubation period is 4 - 5 days.

o The larvae bore into the pulp and remain in a silken web.

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 o The larval period is 27 - 40 days.

o It pupates in a silken cocoon inside the infested pod.

o The adult emerges in about 6-8 days.

2. Anar butterfly - Virachola isocrates F. (Lycaenidae :

Lepidoptera)
Damage

o The caterpillar bore into the developing fruits and feed on the pulp below

the rind of infested fruits ultimately fall off and infested fruit which gives

an offensive smell.

Bionoinics

o The adult moth is brown butterfly.

o The female moth has' V ' shaped patch on fore wings.

o It lays shiny white, oval shaped eggs singly on developing fruits.

o The egg period is 7 -10 days.

o The larva is dirty dark brown, short and stoutly build covered with short

hairs.

o The larval period is 18 - 47 days. It pupates insides the fruit.

o The pupal period ranges from 7-34 days.

Management

o Collect and destroy the infested fruits.

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 o Spray NSKE 5% or neem oil 2% as oviposition deterrent, 2 to 3 times at 15

days interval commencing from flowering and during butterfly activity.

o Adopt ETL (5 eggs / plant with bearing capacity of 60 fruits).

o Release egg parasitoid, Trichogramma chilonis at 1 lakh / acre.

o Spray thiochloprit 2 ml/ litre of water.

o Ensure minimum waiting period of 10 days between the day of insecticide

application and harvesting of fruits in the field.

3. Fruit borer - Argyroploce illipida Meyr. (Eucosmidae :

Lepidoptera)
Damage

o The larva bores into the fruits causing fruit drop

4. Castor capsule borer - Dichocrosis (= Conogethes)

punctiferalis Guen. (Pyraustidae : Lepidoptera)
Damage

o The larva borers into the central core of the pseudostems resulting in the

death of the central spindle causing charactersic ―dead heart‖ symptom.

o In the case of capsules, the caterpillars bore into the immature capsules

and feed on the seeds rendering them empty.

o The caterpillars occasionally tunnel into the panicle also. A characteristic

indication for the presence of the larvae is the oozing out of excreted frass

materials at the mouth of the bore hole, which are very conspicuous on the

stem or pods.

Bionomics

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 o The adult is a medium sized brownish yellow coloured moth with a

number of dark spots on the wings.

o It lays eggs on the top leaf axils of young pseudostem.

o The larva bore into the tender parts of the panicle, flower buds and

immature capsules only, the later stage larva bore into the stem.

o The full grown larva is measuring 15-25 mm long and it pupates within the

larval tunnel inside the pseudostems.

o The life cycle is completed within 25-40 days.

Management

o Collect and destroy the affected plant parts.

o Destroy the alternate host plants from the vicinity of the plantation

o Spray phosalone 3 ml/litre or Dimethoate 0.03 % /litre or quinolphos 4

ml/litre or fenthion 1.25ml / litre of water.

1. Inflorescence caterpillar - Laspeyresia palamedes M.

(Eucosmidae : Lepidoptera)
Damage

o The larva webs the inflorescence and bores into the stalks causing

shedding of floral parts.

2. Flower webber - Eublemma angulifera Moore. (Noctuidae :

Lepidoptera)
Damage

o The caterpillar webs the inflorescence and tunnel into the stalks.

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 3. Looper - Thalassodes quadraria Guen. (Geometridae :
Lepidoptera )
Damage

o The caterpillar webs the inflorescence and base into the stalk

1. Hard Scale - Aspidiotus tamarindus Green. (Diaspididae :

Hemiptera)
Damage

o It covers the leaves, fruits, and the twigs and sucks the sap.

2. Soft scale - Saisettia oleae Ber. (Coccidae: Hemiptera)

Damage

o Both nymphs and adults desap the developing fruits result the yellowish

encrustation over the infested fruit, ill filled and hard fruits.

3. Mealy bug - Planococcus lilacillus Ckll. (Pseudococcidae:

Hemiptera)
Damage

o Both nymphs and adults cover on the developing fruits and suck the sap

causing shriveling of fruits.

1. White grub - Holotrichia insularis Brensk. (Melolonthidae:

Coleoptera)
Damage

o The grub feeds on rootlets causing withering and drying of young plants.

o In case of severe, attack the entire seedling is killed.

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 o The adult beetles feed on leaves causing severe defoliation.

Bionomics

o The adult beetles are brownish black in colour.

o The beetles emerge from the soil with the onset of monsoon during June-

July.

o It lays shiny white, oval shaped eggs in the soil. The egg period is 8-12

days.

o The young grub feeds on roots of host plants the grown up grub is white,

fleshy, 'C' shaped. The grub period is 55-80 days.

o It pupates in earthern for 8-12 days.

o It hibernates in pupal stage from November-June and later on emerges as

adult.

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 Lecture No.21

Distribution, host range, bio-ecology, damage and integrated management

of important insect and mite pests of Apple, Pear, Peach, Plum

 TEMPERATE FRUITS
APPLE I. Borers

 1. Stem borer Resource

 2. Shot hole borer Resource

 3. Fruit borer Resource

 4. Bark borer Resource

 5. Fruit fly Resource

 II. Sap feeders

 1. Apple woolly aphid Resource

 2. San Jose scale Resource

 3. Cottony cushion scale Resource

 4. Thrips Resource

 5. Pentatomid bug Resource

 III. Leaf feeders

 1. Tent Caterpillar Resource

 2. Apple codling moth Resource

 3. Indian gypsy moth Resource

 IV. Root feeders

 1. Apple root borer Resource

 2. White grub Resource

 V. Non - insect pest

 1. European mite

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 1. Stem borer - Apriona cinerea Chaverlot. (Lamidae: Coleoptera)
Damage

o The grub bores into twigs causing circuitous galleries.

o The infested branches have small circular hole and mass of excreta and

chewed up wood particles protruding out.

o The barks of branches are gnawed and leaves defoliated.

Bionomics

o The adult beetle is ashy grey with numerous black tubercles at the base of

elytra.

o The female lays eggs inside the cavity, which is excavated on shoots.

o The incubation period is 7-8 days.

o The grub is creamy yellow with the dark brownish head.

o The grub undergoes hibernation during winter and resumes feeding in

March, reaching the tree trunk by autumn (September-October) again go

in hibernation during winter.

o It pupates inside the tunnel. The pupal period is 30-35 days.

2. Shot hole borer - Scolytoplatypul raja Bland. (Scolytidae:

Coleoptera)
Damage

o The grub burrows in the trunks of apple.

3. Fruit borer - Xylotrupes gideon Linn. (Dynastidac: Coleoptera)

Damage

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 o It bores into the fruits

4. Bark borer - Aeolesthes holosericea Fab. (Cerambycidae:

Coleoptera)
Damage

o The grub feeds inner layers of bark and outer layer of sapwood.

o The larval tunnel is plugged with excreta.

Bionomics

o A female beetle lays about 92 eggs in the injured parts of the incubation

period is 7-12 days.

o The grubs feed on the barks and sap the larval development is completed

in 27-32 months.

o It pupates inside wood for 3-25 days.

o The pupal period lasts for 40-100 days.

o The total cycle is completed in 31-36 months.

5. Fruit fly - Bactrocera zonatus Saund. ( Tephritidae : Diptera )

Damage

o The maggot feeds on the fruits causing rotting and dropping of fruits.

Bionomics

o The adult fly is small, reddish brown with yellowish cross band on the

abdomen.

o It inserts white cylindrical eggs on the fruits in group of 2-9.

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 o The fecundity of the fly is 137 eggs / female.

o The eggs are covered by resinous secretion.

o The egg period is 2-4 days.

o The maggot is dirty white, acephalic and apodous measuring 1 cm in

length.

o The larval period is 4-16 days.

o The maggot crawls out of fruits and pupates in the soil.

o The pupal stage over winters in cold months.

o The pupal period last for 7 days.

1. Apple woolly aphid - Eriosoma lanigarum Hausmn.

(Pemphigidae : Hemiptera)
Damage

o Both nymphs and adults suck the sap from the bark fruit stalk, calyx and

roots.

o The affected plants become weak and cause death of the plants in the

nursery.

o It causes gall like swellings on the stem and roots.

o It crowds together covered with woolly white patches on the trunk.

Bionomics

o The aphid is purplish aphid covered with white cottony mats.

o It reproduces both sexually and asexually.

o Generally it develops parthenogenetically.

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 o Apterous forms are present throughout the year.

o Each female may produce up to 116 young ones in her life time.

o The nymph undergoes four instars.

o The nymphal period is 35 - 42 days.

o Alate form disperses by flight and gives rise to apterous forms by sexual

reproduction.

Management

o Use tolerant or resistant root stocks; M778, M779, MM 14, MM 110, MM

112, MM 114 and MM 115.

o Release specific eulophid parasitoid Aphelinus mali during December and

o June to obtain maximum parasitization and predators, Chilomenes

bijugus and Coccinella septumpunctata.

o Spray nicotin sulphate 40EC 500 ml or malathion 50 EC 750 ml in 500

litres of water.

o Apply the fumigant paradichlorobenzene at 30-110 gram / tree in a 15 cm

deep trench around the tree about two metres away from the base of the

affected tree.

o Remove the aphids mechanically by rubbing with clothes without causing

o any damage to the developing buds.

o Follow nursery bed treatment of carbofuran 3 G 0.5 g a.i./plant or spray

dimethoate 0.03% or methyl demeton 0.025% in March to April and June

to control aerial forms.

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 2. San Jose scale - Quadraspidiotus perniciosus
Comst.(Diaspididae: Hemiptera)
Damage

o Both nymphs and adults infest the bark and desap the same.

o The infested region of the bark becomes reddish pink and purple

colouration in fruits.

Bionomics

o The female scale is round slightly convex with a black pustule and the male

is linear.

o The hibernating nymphs become active in March and the males emerge in

April.

o The females reproduce in mid May producing 200-400 nymphs within a

month.

o The nymphal period is 20 days. The total life cycle is completed in 35-40

days.

Management

o Spray diazinon 20 EC 1250 ml or methyl demeton 5 EC 625 ml /hectare.

o Select nursery stock free from scale infestation.

o Encourage activity of parasitoids, Prospaltella perniciosi and

Aspidiotophagus sp. and / or coccinellid Chilocorus circumdatus

predator.

o Fumigate nursery stocks with HCN gas or methyl bromide.

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 o Summer spray with contact or systemic insecticides like phosalone 0.05%,

fenitrothion 0.05% and methyl demeton 0.025%.

o Winter spray with diesel oil emulsion at 8 to 12 1/tree (diesel oil 4.5 1, soap

1 kg, water 54-72 1).

3. Cottony cushion scale - Icerya purchasi Maskell.

(Margarodidae: Hemiptera)
Damage

o Both nymphs and adults suck the sap from the leaves causing yellowing.

Bionomics

o The female has a cottony ovisac and the pinkish nymph has long antenna

with group of hairs.

4. Thrips - Taeniothrips rhapalantennalis Shum. (Thripidae :

Thysanoptera)
Damage

o The nymphs and adults infest the flowers and causes distortion of the

flowers and reduction of fruit-setting.

5. Pentatomid bug - Tessaratoma quadrata Dist. ( Pentatomidae :

Hemiptera )
Damage

o The nymphs and adults desap the fruits causing the dropping of the fruits.

1. Tent Caterpillar - Malacosoma indica Wlk. (Lasiocarapidae:

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 Lepidoptera)
Damage

o The caterpillar constructs a tent like shelters at the forking twigs and hide

within during the day time.

o The caterpillar feeds on the leaves gregariously during the night hours

causing severe defoliation.

Bionomics

o It is active only from March to May and passes the remaining

o months of the year during eggs stage.

o The adult female moth is light brown with a wing expanse of 29-32 mm.

o It lays eggs in masses of 300-400 on branches of the tree during May-

June.

o The eggs are hatched in the following month.

o The larva has black head and abdomen.

o The larval period is 40-70 days.

o It pupates on stem and on ground in cocoon during May for 7-21 days.

Management

o Destroy all the egg bands on the branches during pruning.

o Spray carbaryl 50 WP 4 g / lit of water.

2. Apple codling moth - Carpocapsa pomonella Linn.

(Tortricidae: Lepidoptera)
Damage

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 o The caterpillar feeds on the leaves first, then it borer in to fruits, feeds on

the pulp of fruits.

o The female lays white coloured, flattened eggs singly on developing fruits,

leaves and the twigs.

o The egg period is 4-12 days. The larva is pinkish to creamy white in colour

with a brown head.

o The larval period last for 21-30 days.

o The grown up larvae comes out of the fruit and falls on the ground and

then it reach the bark of the tree for shelter in cracks and crevices to

construct a silken cocoon for pupation. The pupal period is 8-14 days.

Management

o Collection and destruction of cocoons and fallen fruits.

o Mass trap males with codling moth lure traps.

o Spray DDVP 0.04%.

o Release egg parasitoids, Trichogramma embryophagum at 2000/tree.

3. Indian gypsy moth - Lymantria obfuscata Wlk. ( Lymantriidae

: Lepidoptera )
Damage

o The larva feeds on the leaves gregariously which results in failure of fruit

formation.

Bionomics

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 o The adult female is dark grey in colour. It settles down on the bark of the

tree and days eggs in masses of 200-400 under the bark which are covered

with yellowish brown hairs.

o The egg stage overwinters during cold months and hatch in March - April.

o The larvae complete the development in 66-100 days.

o It pupates in the soil among the debris. The pupal period is 9-21 days.

1. Apple root borer - Dorysthenus hiigelii Redt.(Cerambycidae:

Coleoptera)
Damage

o The grub borers into the roots or girdles around the roots and feed on the

internal tissues.

o It resulted in shaking of plants, withering and drying of branches.

Bionomics

o The adult beetle is chestnut -red in colour with head and thorax darker

than elytra.

o It lays oval shaped yellow white eggs below the soil.

o A female can lay up to 200 eggs. The egg period is 30-40 days.

o The newly hatched out grub goes down to the soil, 100-250 mm deep and

feed on the roots of the tree.

o The full grown grub is creamy-white with black head and mandibles

measuring 75-100 mm in length.

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 o The larval duration extends up to 3 % years and it can live without food for

24 - 90 days.

o It pupates in earthern cocoon inside the soil. Its pupal period is about 3

months.

Management

o Avoid dry sandy soils for planting apple orchards

2. White grub - Lachnosterna longipennis Blan.(Melolonthidae:

Coleoptera)
Damage

o The grub feeds on the roots while the adult feeds on leaves.

Bionomics

o The adult female beetle lays the eggs in soil, 2.5-5.0 cm a deep near the

host roots.

o The incubation period is 13-18days. Grubs remain in soil, feeding on the

organic matter and roots of apple tree.

o The larval period is 243-277 days. It pupates in soil for 22-27 days.

1. European mite - Panonychus ulmi. (Tetranychidae: Acarina)

Damage

o The nymphs and adults infest the leaves, which resulted in leaves with

white streaks on the upper surface, the infested leaves become rolled.

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PEAR

1. Stemborer - Sahydrassus (= Phassus) malabaricus M.

(Hepialidae: Lepidoptera)
Damage

o The caterpillar bores in the stem at the base of the tree resulting bore hole

with circular particle mat covering on the stem and wilting of the tree.

Bionomics

o The adult moth is big brownish white in colour. The larva is stout

caterpillar.

Management

o Remove and destroy damaged branches and trees along with larvae.

o Use light trap at 1/ha attract and kill adults.

o Locate live hole and kill caterpillar by spiking with an iron hook.

o Inject or pour monocrotophos 10 ml+water 10 ml mixture and cover with

mud. Follow stem injection after harvest of fruits and subsequent harvest

should be done 40 days later from first stem injection.

2. Fruit fly - Bactrocera (= Dacus) zonatus Saund. (Tephritidae:

Diptera)
Damage

o The maggot feeds on the pulp of fruits causing rotting and dropping of

fruits.

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 Bionomics

o The adult fly is small, reddish brown in the yellow cross bands on the

abdomen.

o The female lays white cylindrical eggs on the skin of a fruit in masses of 2-

9.

o The fecundity is about 137 eggs per female.

o The egg period is 2-4 days.

o The maggot is dirty white, apodous and elongated measuring 1 cm in

length.

o The larval period is 4-16 days.

o The maggot come out from the rotting fruit and pupates in the soil at a

depth of 25.4 -76.2 mm.

o The pupal period last for 7 days. The life cycle is completed in 13-27 days.

3. Fruit borer - Virachola isocrates F. (Lycaenidae: Lepidoptera)

Damage

o The larva bores inside the developing fruits and feeds on the pulp and

seeds.

o The infested fruits are infected by fungi and bacteria causing fruit rot

disease.

o The damaged fruits ultimately fall off and give an offensive odour.

o It causes 40-90 per cent damage to the fruits.

Bionomics

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 o The adult butterfly is medium sized with wing expanse of 40-50 mm.

o The female moth is glossy brownish violet while the male is bluish violet in

colour.

o The female lays eggs singly on the calyx of flowers and on small fruits.

o The egg period is 7-10 days.

o The young larvae bore into the developing fruits.

o The larval period is completed in 18-47 days.

o It pupates inside the fruits.

o The pupal period last for 7-34 days.

o It completes four generations per year.

Management

o Grow less susceptible varieties.

o Remove calyx from the fruits to prevent the hatching of eggs and

subsequent damage.

o Collect and destroy the infested fruits.

o Cover the fruits with polythene or muslin bags during flowering period to

prevent egg laying when fruits are up to 5 cm diametre

o Spray NSKE 5% or neem oil 2% as oviposition deterrent, 2 to 3 times at 15

days interval commencing from flowering and during butterfly activity.

o Adopt ETL (5 eggs / plant with bearing capacity of 60 fruits).

o Release egg parasitoid, Trichogramma chilonis at 1 lakh / acre.

o Spray thiochlopril 2 ml/ litre of water.

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 o Ensure minimum waiting period of 10 days between the day of insecticide

application and harvesting of fruits in the field.

1. Eye spotted bud moth - Eucosma (= Spilonota) ocellana Schiff.

(Eucosmidae: Lepidoptera)
Damage

o The larva bores into shoots, flowers, and fruit buds and feeds on them.

Bionomics

o The adult moth emerges during May and June.

o It lays eggs on the floral parts.

o The incubation period is 8-11 days.

o The caterpillar bores in to the floral parts, feeds till September and

overwinters from October - March.

o It pupates in April for 9-13 days.

2. Codling moth - Carpocapsa potnonella Linn. (Tortricidae:

Lepidoptera)
Damage

o The caterpillar feeds on the leaves first, then it borer in to fruits, feeds on

the pulp of fruits. The female lays white coloured, flattened eggs singly on

developing fruits, leaves and the twigs. The egg period is 4-12 days. The

larva is pinkish to creamy white in colour with a brown head. The larval

period last for 21-30 days. The grown up larvae comes out of the fruit and

falls on the ground and then it reach the bark of the tree for shelter in

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 cracks and crevices to construct a silken cocoon for pupation. The pupal

period is 8-14 days.

Management

o Collection and destruction of cocoons and fallen fruits.

o Mass trap males with codling moth lure traps.

o Spray DDVP 0.04%.

o Release egg parasitoids, Trichogramma embryophagum at 2000/tree.

3. Wild silk worm moth - Actias selene Hb. (Saturnidae:

Lepidoptera)
Damage

o It causes defoliation.

4. Sphinx moth - Langia zeuzerrides Moore. ( Sphingidae :

Lepidoptera )
Damage

o It causes defoliation.

5. Hairy caterpillar - Euproctis fraterna Moore. (Lymantriidae:

Lepidoptera)

Damage

o The caterpillar feeds on the leaf voraciously causing severe defoliation.

6. Grey weevil - Myllocerus spp (Curculionidae: Coleoptera)

Damage

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 o Adult weevil cause notching of leaf margins. Grub feeds on roots resulting

wilting of plants.

Bionomics

o M.Subfasciatus – Brownish weevil;

o M.discolor – Brown with white spot on elytra;

o M.viridanus – Small light green weevil.

Management

o • Collect & destruct the adult weevils

o • Apply carbofuran 3 G at 15 kg/hectare at 15 days after planting.

1. San Jose scale - Quadraspidiotus perniciosus Comst

(Diaspididae: Hemiptera)
Damage

o Both nymphs and adults infest the bark and desap the same.

o The infested region of the bark becomes reddish pink and purple

colouration in fruits.

Bionomics

o The female scale is round slightly convex with a black pustule and the male

is linear.

o The hibernating nymphs become active in March and the males emerge in

April.

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 o The females reproduce in mid May producing 200-400 nymphs within a

month.

o The nymphal period is 20 days. The total life cycle is completed in 35-40

days.

Management

o Spray diazinon 20 EC 1250 ml or methyl demeton 5 EC 625 ml /hectare.

o Select nursery stock free from scale infestation.

o Encourage activity of parasitoids, Prospaltella perniciosi and

Aspidiotophagus sp. and / or coccinellid Chilocorus circumdatus

predator.

o Fumigate nursery stocks with HCN gas or methyl bromide.

o Summer spray with contact or systemic insecticides like phosalone 0.05%,

fenitrothion 0.05% and methyl demeton 0.025%.

o Winter spray with diesel oil emulsion at 8 to 12 1/tree (diesel oil 4.5 1, soap

1 kg, water 54-72 1).

2. Aphid - Dilachnus krishnii George and Aphis gossypii Glover.

(Aphididae: Hemiptera)
Damage

o Both nymphs and adults feed on leaves and tender shoots causing yellowing symptom.

3. Psyllid bug - Cacopsylla mali (Psyllidae: Hemiptera)

Damage

o It causes yellowing of shoots

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PEACH

1. Peach leaf curl aphid - Brachycaudus helichrysi Kalt

(Aphididae: Hemiptera)
Damage

o Both nymphs and adults desap the leaves, petioles, blossom and fruits.

o The infested leaf turn pale and curl up, blossom wither and fruits do not

develop and drops prematurely.

Bionomics

o It appears in cooler regions after the middle of March and from June to

October it feeds on golden rod a alternative host.

o The egg stage over winters from October-December.

o During spring the egg hatch and nymphs moves out on to the primordial

leaves and suck the sap.

o The eggs are produced parthenogenetically which hatch inside the body of

mother.

o Each viviparous female produces about 50 nymphs in 13 days of life span.

o After completing 3-4 asexual generations, the aphid migrates to its

alternative host to pass summer.

o They again reproduce asexually and complete 4-5 generation from June-

October.

o The winged females are again produced in November.

2. Green peach aphid Myzus persicae Sulz. (Aphididae:

Hemiptera)

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 Damage

o Both nymphs and adults suck the sap from the leaves curling and crinkling

and sooty mould development of leaves are the typical symptoms of

damage.

Bionomics

o Adults are both wingless and winged forms.

o Nymphs are in different colour forms mostly yellow, green and red. Yellow

forms are more dominant.

3. Soft scale - Eulecanium tiliae L. (Coccidae: Hemiptera)

Damage

o Both nymphs and adult scale insects infest leaves and twigs.

Bionomics

o It is a soft, hemispherical dark brown scale.

o It lays the eggs during March-April and they hatch in 12-15 days.

o The crawlers settle on leaves and nymphs migrate to twigs during July-

December.

o The adult female emerge in February and males in March or April.

4. San jose Scale - Quadraspidiotus pernicious Comst.

(Diaspididae: Hemiptera)
Damage

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 o Both nymphs and adults infest the bark and desap the same.

o The infested region of the bark becomes reddish pink and purple

colouration in fruits.

Bionomics

o The female scale is round slightly convex with a black pustule and the male

is linear.

o The hibernating nymphs become active in March and the males emerge in

April.

o The females reproduce in mid May producing 200-400 nymphs within a

month.

o The nymphal period is 20 days. The total life cycle is completed in 35-40

days.

Management

o Spray diazinon 20 EC 1250 ml or methyl demeton 5 EC 625 ml /hectare.

o Select nursery stock free from scale infestation.

o Encourage activity of parasitoids, Prospaltella perniciosi and

Aspidiotophagus sp. and / or coccinellid Chilocorus circumdatus

predator.

o Fumigate nursery stocks with HCN gas or methyl bromide.

o Summer spray with contact or systemic insecticides like phosalone 0.05%,

fenitrothion 0.05% and methyl demeton 0.025%.

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 o Winter spray with diesel oil emulsion at 8 to 12 1/tree (diesel oil 4.5 1, soap

1 kg, water 54-72 1).

1. Codling moth - Carpocapsa pomonella Linn. (Tortricidae:

Lepidoptera)
Damage

o The caterpillar feeds on the leaves first, then it borer in to fruits, feeds on

the pulp of fruits.

o The female lays white coloured, flattened eggs singly on developing fruits,

leaves and the twigs.

o The egg period is 4-12 days.

o The larva is pinkish to creamy white in colour with a brown head.

o The larval period last for 21-30 days.

o The grown up larvae comes out of the fruit and falls on the ground and

then it reach the bark of the tree for shelter in cracks and crevices to

construct a silken cocoon for pupation. The pupal period is 8-14 days.

Management

o Collection and destruction of cocoons and fallen fruits.

o Mass trap males with codling moth lure traps.

o Spray DDVP 0.04%.

o Release egg parasitoids, Trichogramma embryophagum at 2000/tree.

2. Peach butterfly - Kallima inachus Boisd. ( Nymphalidae :

Lepidoptera)
Damage

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 o The adult butterfly, which mimics the dry leaf in suspended, which desap

the peach fruits.

3. Hairy caterpillar - Dasychira mendosa Hb. (Lymantriidae:

Lepidoptera)
Damage

o The caterpillar feeds on leaves and cause defoliation.

1. Peach Stem borer - Sphenoptera lafertei

Thomson.(Buprestidae: Coleoptera)
Damage

o The grubs feed below the bark making minute irregular galleries causing

loosening and splitting of barks.

o The beetle feeds on leaves, which turn pale and dry up.

Bionomics

o The adult beetle is blackish bronze in colour measuring 10-13 mm long.

o The female lays small, spherical white eggs singly on the tree trunk and the

main branches.

o The egg period is 20 days.

o The grub stage is completed in 2 months in summer and 6 months in

winter.

o It pupates in a small chamber in woody tissues.

o The pupal period lasts for 8-12 days in summer.

Management

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 o Collect and destroy damaged shoots and branches.

o Swab trunk with carbaryl 50 WP at 0.2%.

o Spray malathion 0.1% or acephate 75 SP 2 g/litre

2. Peach fruit fly - Bactrocera (= Dacus) zonatus Saund

(Tephritidae: Diptera)
Damage

o The maggot feeds on the pulp of fruits causing rotting and dropping of

fruits.

Bionomics

o The adult fly is small, reddish brown in the yellow cross bands on the

abdomen.

o The female lays white cylindrical eggs on the skin of a fruit in masses of 2-

9.

o The fecundity is about 137 eggs per female.

o The egg period is 2-4 days. The maggot is dirty white, apodous and

elongated measuring 1 cm in length.

o The larval period is 4-16 days. The maggot come out from the rotting fruit

and pupates in the soil at a depth of 25.4 -76.2 mm.

o The pupal period last for 7 days.

o The life cycle is completed in 13-27 days.

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 PLUM

1. San Jose scale Quadraspidiotus perniciosus Comst.

(Diaspididae: Hemiptera)
Damage

o Both nymphs and adults infest the bark and desap the same. The infested

region of the bark becomes reddish pink and purple colouration in fruits.

Bionomics

o The female scale is round slightly convex with a black pustule and the male

is linear. The hibernating nymphs become active in March and the males

emerge in April. The females reproduce in mid May producing 200-400

nymphs within a month. The nymphal period is 20 days. The total life

cycle is completed in 35-40 days.

Management

o Spray diazinon 20 EC 1250 ml or methyl demeton 5 EC 625 ml /hectare.

o Select nursery stock free from scale infestation.

o Encourage activity of parasitoids, Prospaltella perniciosi and

Aspidiotophagus sp. and / or coccinellid Chilocorus circumdatus

predator.

o Fumigate nursery stocks with HCN gas or methyl bromide.

o Summer spray with contact or systemic insecticides like phosalone 0.05%,

fenitrothion 0.05% and methyl demeton 0.025%.

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 o Winter spray with diesel oil emulsion at 8 to 12 1/tree (diesel oil 4.5 1, soap

1 kg, water 54-72 1).

2. Peach leaf curl aphid - Brachycaudus helichrysi Kalt.

(Aphididae: Hemiptera)
Damage

o Both nymphs and adults desap the leaves, petioles, blossom and fruits.

The infested leaf turn pale and curl up, blossom wither and fruits do not

develop and drops prematurely.

Bionomics

o It appears in cooler regions after the middle of March and from June to

October it feeds on golden rod a alternative host. The egg stage over

winters from October-December. During spring the egg hatch and nymphs

moves out on to the primordial leaves and suck the sap.

o The eggs are produced parthenogenetically which hatch inside the body of

mother. Each viviparous female produces about 50 nymphs in 13 days of

life span. After completing 3-4 asexual generations, the aphid migrates to

its alternative host to pass summer. They again reproduce asexually and

complete 4-5 generation from June-October. The winged females are again

produced in November.

1. Cherry stem borer - Aeolesthes holosericca F. (Cerambycidae:

Coleoptera)
Damage

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 o The newly hatched out grub tunnels the bark and makes zig - zag galleries.

o The grown up grub bores in to the stem deeply and damages the woody

tissues.

o The infested plant withers and gradually dies. The bore hole is plugged

with excreta.

Bionomics

o The adult beetle is dark brown measuring 38-45 mm in length.

o It lays eggs on the dry wood portion or increases of out on the bark.

o The egg period is 7-12 days.

o The grubs is yellowish in colour and are covered with fine bristles,

measuring 70-80 mm long the larval period is completed in 27-32 months.

o It pupates either in October-November or in March -April.

o The pupal period ranges from 40-100 days.

o The total life cycle is completed in 31% - 36 months.

2. Peach stemborer - Spheroptera lafertei Thomson. (Buprestidae

- Coleoptera)
Damage

o The grubs feed below the bark making minute irregular galleries causing

loosening and splitting of barks.

o The beetle feeds on leaves, which turn pale and dry up.

Bionomics

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 o The adult beetle is blackish bronze in colour measuring 10-13 mm long.

o The female lays small, spherical white eggs singly on the tree trunk and the

main branches.

o The egg period is 20 days.

o The grub stage is completed in 2 months in summer and 6 months in

winter.

o It pupates in a small chamber in woody tissues.

o The pupal period lasts for 8-12 days in summer.

Management

o Collect and destroy damaged shoots and branches.

o Swab trunk with carbaryl 50 WP at 0.2%.

o Spray malathion 0.1% or acephate 75 SP 2 g/litre

1. Almond weevil Myllocerus lactivirens Marshl. (Curculionidae:

Coleoptera)
Damage

o The adult weevil cut the irregular holes and gradually eat away the entire

leaf lamina from the ventral all surface of leaves resulting severe

defoliation.

Bionomics

o The adult weevil is small pale metallic green in colour measuring 3-4 mm

long.

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 o It lays eggs in soil in batches of 40-50 each.

o The eggs are broadly oval, creamy yellow, smooth, transparent and shiny.

o The egg period is 4-5 days.

o The grub is creamy white, stout, without legs but short erect setae which

help in locomotion.

o The full grown grubs come up to the soil surface to pupate in the upper 25

mm of the soil.

o The larval and pupal periods last for 300 days and 5 days respectively.

o The pupal stage over winters in cooler months.

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 Lecture No. 22
 Distribution, host range, bio-ecology, damage and integrated
management of important insect and mite pests of Coconut, Oilpalm
and Arecanut

COCONUT
1. Rhinoceros beetle - Oryctes rhinoceros Linn. (Scarabaeidae:
Coleoptera)
Damage

o The adult beetles cause severe damage to young as well as old trees.

o The beetles live in crevices between the leaf sheaths near the crown and

burrow in to the softer portion feeding on the un opened fronds and

inflorescence.

o The beetles chews the internal tissues and after injecting the juicy part

throws out the fibrous part which comes out of holes is the indication for

the presence of beetle in the crown.

o The infested fully opened fronds showing the characteristic 'v' shaped cuts

on leaf lets.

o The young seedlings are often killed when the growing points are

damaged.

o The repeated attack in old trees causes stunting of growth and present

sickly appearance to the trees.

o Bore holes with chewed fibre sticking out at the base of central spindle is

the typical symptom of attack.

Bionomics

 The adult beetle is black, stout measures 5 cm long and has a long horn
projecting dorsally from the head.

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  The horn is longer in male and shorter in female beetle.
 The female lays globular eggs singly in decaying organic matter such as manure
pits, dead tree trunks compost heaps. T
 he fecundity of the insect is 140-150 eggs per female.
 The egg period is 8-18 days.
 The newly hatched grub feeds on decaying organic matter.
 The grown up grub is stout, white, 'C shaped, sluggish and has a pale brown head.
 The larval period is 100-180 days.
 It pupates in earthern cells at a depth of 30-90 cm or more.
 The pupal stage last for 10-25 days.
 The adults make their way out and fly to the trees.
 The adult beetles lives for more than 200 days.

Management

 Remove and burn all dead coconut trees in the garden to maintain good
sanitation.
 Collect and destroy the various bio-stages of beetles from the manure pit
whenever the manure is lifted from pits.
 Incorporate entomopathogenic fungus, Metarrhizium anisopliae in manure pits.
 Keep the mud pots having soaked castor cake 1 kg in 5 litres of water to attack
and kill the adults.
 Keep the toddy treated longitudinally split tender coconut stem and green
petioles of fronds in the garden to attack and trap the adult beetles.
 Hook out the beetles using a long iron rod and kill them at the time of harvest.
 Apply three naphthalene balls /palm (weighing 35 g each) at base of interspace in
leaf sheath in the 3 inner most leaves of the crown once in 45 days for the
seedlings.
 Set up light traps following the first rain in summer and monsoon period to
attract and kill the adult beetles.
 Set up aggregation pheromone (ethyl 4-methyl octonate) trap (bucket type trap).
 Release Baculovirus inoculated beetles in the garden to reduce the leaf and
crown damage.
 Apply the mixture of neem seed kernel powder + sand (1:2) @ 150 kg per palm in
the base of the 3 inner most leaves in the crown effectively control the beetle.

2. Red palm weevil - Rhynchophorus ferrugineus Oliver.

(Curculionidae: Coleoptera )
Damage

o The grub enters in to the stem and feeds on the internal tissue of the trunk

causing a small hole on the stem with protruding chewed fibrous materials

and oozing out of a brown liquid from such holes and eventually resulting

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 in the toppling of the crown portion. In the advanced stage of attack, the

central shoot shows sign of wilting and large mass of grubs, pupae and

adults in fibrous cocoon could be seen inside the trunk at the damaged

portion. In the grown up trees, the beetle causes damage by laying the eggs

on the crown region. In such cases the grub easily enter into the growing

point or cabbage of crown and causing yellowing of inner leaves and

gradual drying of central shoot in the crown.

Bionomics

 The weevil is reddish brown with 6 dark spots on the thorax a conspicuous snout
with tuft of hairs. The female weevil lays eggs in small holes scooped out by her
on the soft regions of young palms up to 7 years of age. In the grown up trees the
eggs are laid in the cuts or wounds present on the trunk or leaf stalk. The plant
sap oozing out of wounds and cut attract the weevil for ovipositon. The eggs are
creamy white in colour. The eggs hatch out in 2-3 days time into soft white grub.
The grub is apodous which tunnel into the trunk and feeds on the internal
succulent tissues. The larval period ranges between 45 and 75 days. The full-
grown grub is stout, fleshy, and apodous with a conical body bulged in middle
and tapering towards the ends. It pupates in a fibrous cocoon made out of fibrous
strands.

 The pupal period last for 2-3 weeks. The total life cycle is completed in about 4
months. The adult weevils are reddish brown with long curved, pointed snout.
The male weevil can be distinguished from the female by the presence of tuft of
hairs along the dorsal aspect of snout.

Management

 Remove and burn all wilting or damaged palms in the garden.

 Avoid injuries or wound on stems as they serve as oviposition site for weevil.
 Fill all the holes with cement on the stem or trunk of coconut.
 Avoid the cutting of green leaves. If needed they should be cut about 120 cm away
from the stem.
 Set up attractant traps (mud pots) containing sugarcane molasses 2.5 kg + toddy
2.5 litres + acetic acid 5 ml + yeast 5 g + longitudinally split tender coconut
stem/logs of green petioles of leaves of 30 numbers in one acre to trap weevil.
 Set up male aggregation pheromone, ferruginol (4 methyl 5 nonanol) trap -
ferrolure to attract the weevil.

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  Follow the root feeding of monocrotophos 36 WSC 10 ml + 10 ml of water per
tree.
 Insert one or two tablets of aluminum phosphide inside the tunneled trunk and
plug all the holes with clay and cement mixed with copper oxy chloride to kill the
insect by the fumigant action.

3. Shot hole or bark borer - Xyleborus parvulus E and X.

perforans (Scolytidae : Coleoptera)
Damage

o Both grubs and adults attack the base of the palm and extend to the upper

regions. Deposits of white powdery materials on the ground, around the

base of the palm and numerous small strings of frass and white powdery

material hang downwards from the pin size holes are the symptoms of

attack. Damaged palms loose their vigour and are prone to attack by ants.

The infested palms die in six months.

Management

 Follow the root feeding of monocrotophos 10 ml + water 10 ml per palm.

 Clean the frass and other materials on the trunk base and brush with carbaryl 50% WP
emulsion (10 gm. in 1 litre of water) on the trunk base from the ground level up to the
infested region.
 Give stem injection through a stove wick soaked in 0.2% fenthion or 2% dichlorovos
plugging the hole and repeating the treatment using the same wick and hole a month
after.

1. Black headed caterpillar - Opisina arenosella Walker.

(Cryptophagidae: Lepidoptera)
Damage

o The larva infests the under surface of leaves and it construct small galleries

with silk frass and excreta and remain inside throughout. It feeds on the

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 green parenchymatous tissues of leaflets from under surface leaving a thin

parchment like upper epidermis undamaged. The infested leaflets slowly

turn grey to brown and dry up in patches along the area where the each

larva has been feeding. When a large number of leaves are affected the

crown presents a scorched appearance from a distance. The damage by the

caterpillar is severe during summer month

Bionomics

 The adult moth is small and greyish white. It lays eggs near the tip of the leaflets
of the older leaves. The eggs are very small and hatch out in five days. The
fecundity of the insect is 60-250 eggs /female. The newly hatched out larva
construct silken tunnel or galleries. On the under surface of leaves where they live
and feed. The larva is light green with a dark brown head measures 15 mm in
length. The larval period is about 45 days. It pupates inside the galleries for 12
days. The total life cycle is completed in about two months.

Management

 Remove and burn all the affected leaves and leaf lets.
 Release larval parasitoids (Bethylids, Braconids and Ichneumonids) and pupal
parasitoids (Eulopid) and predators periodically from January to check the build
up of pest during summer.
 Release bethylid, Gbniozus nephantitis @ 3,000 per ha under the coconut trees
when the pest is in the 2nd or 3rd instar larval stage. The optimum level of
release is 1:8 host parasite ratio. Do not release the parasite in the crown region
since they will be killed by spiders and reduvid bugs.
 Spray malathion 50EC 0.05% to cover the under surface of leaves thoroughly in
case of severe epidemic out break of the pest in young plants.
 Harvest all mature nuts, and drill a downward slanting hole and inject 5.0 ml of
monocrotophos 36 WSC into the stem at about 1.5 M above the ground level and
plug with clay mixed copper oxy chloride.
 Inject monocrotophos based on age less than 10 years 5ml and above 10 years
10ml with equal quantity of water (5 ml) mixed in 20 ml of water into the stem.
Plucking tender coconuts or harvesting the nuts should be strictly avoided for 45
days after treatment.
 Adopt the root feeding of monocrotophos for the control of black headed
caterpillar.
 Select a fresh and live root, cut sharply at an angle and insert the root in the
insecticidal solution containing monocrotophos 36 WSC 10 ml + water 10 ml in a
7x10 cm polythene bag. Secure the bag tightly to the root with a cotton thread.

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 Twenty-four hours later check whether there is any absorption. If there is no
absorption selects another root and redoes the procedure. Follow the precaution
for the insecticidal treatment.

2. Coconut skipper - Gangara thyrsis Moore. (Hesperidia:

Lepideptera)
Damage

o The caterpillar constructed tubes out of the leaves and feed from within on

the leaf blade leaving behind only the ribs.

Bionomics

o The adult butterfly is brownish, 80 mm in wing expanse with brownish

wings bearing 6 yellow spots on fore wings.

o It lays eggs in irregular masses.

o The incubation period is 7 days.

o The caterpillar is pale green with reddish markings but the body is

concealed in a covering of white waxy filaments.

o The larval period is 35 days.

o It pupates in the leaf tube for a period of about 10 days.

3. Slug caterpillar - Parasa lepida Cram. (Coehlididae:

Lepidoptera)
Damage

o The caterpillar feeds on the leaves gregariously in the beginning,

subsequently they disperse.

o It causes severe defoliation.

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 Bionomics

o The adult moth is stout with wing expanse of 4.0 cm and having green

wings fringed with brown patches.

o The eggs are laid in batches of 10-15 on the under surface of leaves.

o The eggs are ovals flat scale- like in shape.

o The fecundity is on an average 167 eggs / female. The egg period is 7 days.

o The caterpillar is fleshy, slug-like with yellowish green body bearing a

greenish blue stripe dorsally and yellowish green stripes laterally.

o The larval period is 5-6 weeks undergoes seven instars.

o It pupates in a hard shield - like greyish cocoon on the tree trunks for 4-5

weeks.

4. Slug caterpillar - Conthyla rotunda H. (Cochlididae:

Lepidoptera)
Damage

o The caterpillar feeds on leaves causing severe defoliation.

o Besides it also feeds and damages spathes, flowering shoots and rind of

young fruits.

Bionomics

o The moth is greyish brown to dark grey in colour.

o It lays the eggs on the under surface of leaves.

o Fecundity is about 215 eggs / female.

o The egg period last for 3-6 days.

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 o The slug like caterpillar is spiny with two grey stripes dorsally.

o The larval period is 27-48 days.

o It pupates in shell like cocoon of brown silk for 10-14 days

5. Bagworm - Manatha albipes Moore. ( Psychidae : Lepidoptera )

Damage

o The larva feeds on leaves causing small irregular holes on the leaves.

6. Leaf caterpillar - Turnaca acuta W. (Notodontidae :

Lepideptera)
Damage

o The larva feeds on the leaflets leaving the stick alone.

1. Lace wing bug - Stephanitis typicus Dist. (Tingidae: Hemiptera)

Damage

o Both nymphs and adults suck the sap from the under surface leaves

causing white spots on the upper surface of leaves.

Bionomics

o The adult is white coloured with netted venation on the wings.

o The female lays on an average of 30 eggs, which hatch in 12 days.

o The nymphal period is 13 days.

o The nymphs are gregarious in nature.

2. Scale insect - Aspidiotus destructor Sign. (Biaspididae:

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 Hemiptera)
Damage

o The nymphs and adult desap the leaflets resulting yellowing, withering

and drying up of leaflets.

Bionomics

o It is circular hard scale occurs as persistent pest of coconut.

o A female lays up to 90 eggs under its shield like scale.

o The crawlers move out and distribute themselves to healthy leaflets.

o The life cycle is 32 days for male and 35 days for female.

3. Mealy bug - Pseudococcus longispinus Targ. (Pseudococcidae:

Hemiptera)
Damage

o It infests the tender unopened fronds, which fail to grow resulting stunted,

deformed and suppressed.

o It also infests the inflorescence and nuts causing button shedding.

o The mealy bug colonies remain inside the perianth and suck the sap

leading to the drying of nuts.

o When the nuts are completely dried the bugs are distributed by ants to the

newly formed inflorescence.

o In bearing trees the damage is caused both to the spindle leaf and to the

buttons.

Bionomics

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 o It is a tiny insect covered with white mealy coating.

o The mealy bug is attended by several species of ants, which feeds on the

honey dew secretions of the bugs.

Management

o Spread open two or three leaf axils surrounding the spindle leaf.

o Clean the crown of all the dried bunches to prevent the spread of the-bugs

to the newly formed bunches.

o Spray quinalphos or dimethoate or Dimethoate at 0.03 % covering the

spindle leaf, leaf axis and young bunches.

1. Termites - Odontotermes obesus Ramb. (Termitidae: Isoptera)

Damage

o The termite damages the seedlings in the nursery and also transplanted

seedlings.

o The infested seedlings wilt and die.

o The base of the trunk is plastered with runways made of soil and fibers.

Bionomics

o Green coloured tiny insects resembling ants with dark coloured head.

Management

o Apply soil insecticides on transplantation of the seedlings.

o Locate the termite mount in the coconut gardens and destroy it.

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 o Locate and kill the queen termite to provide good solution.

o Give adequate irrigation to the seedlings to minimize the problem.

o Soil drench with 0.1 % carbaryl in the standing crop.

2. White grub - Leucophollis coneophora Burm. (Mesolonthidae:

Coleoptera )
Damage

o The grub feeds on roots causing yellowing of leaves, shedding of immature

nuts and delayed flowering.

Bionomics

o The adult is cheshut coloured beetle.

o It lays eggs in soil a depths of 7.5-15 cm and they hatch in 20 days. The

younger stage of grub feeds on grass roots and organic matter, the later

stages feeding on coconut roots. The grub is white, fleshy, stout and 'C

shaped. It pupates in the soil for about 25 days. The insect has an annual

life cycle.

Management

 Collect and destroy the adults beetles attracted to trees like neem, Ailanthus and
Acacia near coconut field on receipt of monsoon showers.
 Plant neem twigs with leaves in coconut gardens after first rain to attract and kill
adults.
 Set up light trap or bonfire to attract the adults.
 Apply malathion 5% D 25 kg or endosulfan 4D 25 kg / hectare to the soil at the
time of sowing.

3. Red ant - Oecophylla smaragdina F. (Formicidae:

Hymenoptera)
Damage

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 o The worker ants stitch together the terminal leaves with silk threads in the

form of nests which remain green.

o They move about in long train all over the trunks and they are attracted to

mealy bugs.

o They also cause annoyance to the climbers.

1. Mite - Raoiella indica Hirst. (Tenuipalpidae: Acarina)

Damage

o It sucks the sap from the leaves causing yellowing of the same.

2. Rats - Rattus rattus wroughtoni (Muridae: Rodentia)

Damage

o They rest on leaves on the crown of trees, cut holes in tender nuts, drink

the sweet liquid and eat away the pulp, resulting the dropping of nuts.

3. Flying fox - Pteropus edwardsii (Chiropterae: Mammalia)

Damage

o They feed on tender nuts during night times and affected nuts drop off

Management of Vertebrates

o Cover the trunk with tin.

o Use poison baits and trap for rats.

o Provide bird nests to encourage predation.

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 o Remove dry leaves, spathes and matrix regularly from the crown to expose

to the nesting places of rat to predators.

o Place 10 gram of bromodialone 0.005 % cake on the crown of one palm

out of every five palms twice on an interval of 12 days.

4. Eriophyid mite - Aceria gurreronis Keifer. (Eriophyidae:

Acarina)
Damage

o The mite infests and develops on the meristematic tissues of the growing

nuts under the perianth by desapping the soft tissues of the buttons.

o In the damaged buttons / nuts, an initial symptom will be exhibited in the

form of triangular pale white or yellow patches close to each perianth.

o Different stages of mite live in white, tender portion covered by the inner

tracts of the perianth and suck the sap continuously when the feeding

activity is enhanced due to the increased population build up it results in

physical damage to newly formed tissues which become necrotic.

o Intensive damage leads to the formation of brown coloured patches later

on.

o In addition as the nut grows in size, longitudinal fissures and splits occur

on the outer surface of the husk.

o Occasionally brownish gummy exudates are seen oozing out from the

affected surface.

o Severe infestation results in poor growth reduced size and copra content

and malformed nuts with cracks and hardened husk.

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 Bionomics

 It is found under the tracts of fertilized female flowers.

 It is very minute in size measuring 200-250 micron in length and 36-52 micron
in width with two pairs of legs.
 It is pale in colour with elongate body and worm like in appearance.
 The life cycle of this mite consist of egg, two larval instars and one adult stage is
completed in 10-12 days.

Management

 Apply urea 1.3 kg, super phosphate 2.0 and muriate of potash 3.5 kg/palm/year
(Increased quantity of potash is recommended to increase the plan! resistant to
the mite).
 Apply neem cake @ 5 kg and organic manure @ 50 kg / palm / year.
 Apply borax 50 g + gypsum 1.0 kg + manganese sulphate 0.5 kg / palm.

 Distribution, hosts and natural enemies of pests of Coconut

and Cashew

Common Natural
Scientific name Distribution Hosts
name enemies
Rhinoceros Oryotes rhinoceros Linn. India, Pakistan, Coconut, talipot Parasitoids
beetle South East Asia, palm, date palm, Sarcophaga
Hainam, Taiwan, African oil fuscicauda Bolt
Philippines, Southern palm, palmyrah, Pheropsophus
China, Australia sugarcane, hilaris var
Indonesia, fiji and pine apple, sobrinus Daj.

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 Somoa. banana and Predators
papaya Agryphus sp
Ctivina
memnonia Dej.
Omphra atrata
Klug
Oxyiobus spp.
Pathogens
Metarrhizium
anisopliae
Metzch
Beauveria
hassiana Bals.
Red palm weevil Rhynchophorus India, Srilanka, Coconut, Egg larval
ferrugineus F. Pakistan, Bangladesh oil palm, parasitoid
Malaysia, date palm, Chelisoches
Philippines, sago and other moris F,
New Guinea, China species of predatory mite
and Taiwan. palmae. Pyemotes
ventricosus
Newp.
Black-headed Opisina arenosella Walker India (South India) Coconut, Larval
caterpillar Orissa & Bengal) pal my rah, parasitoids
Burma, Srilanka talipot palm, Apanteles
fish tail palm and taragamaeWm
Phoenix sylvestris Bracon
hrevicornis
Wesm.
Perisierola
nephantidis
Meus
Elasmus
nephantidis
Gahan
Pupal
parasitoid
Trichospilus
pupivora Ferr.
Stomatocera
sulcatisscvtelluer
Gir.
Brachymeria
nephantidis Gah
Xanthopimpla
punctata F
Pathogens
Fungus

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 Aspergillus
flavus
Bacteria Serratia
marcescens Bizio
Cashew
Cashew tree Plocoderus ferrugineus South India Cashewnut
borer Linn.
Shoot & blossom Macalla monocusalis Wlk. India Cashewnut
Leaf miner Acrocercops syngramma India Cashewnut
M.
Re&banded Selenothrips rubrocinctits India, Philippines Cashewnut
thpps G.

OILPALM

1. Spindle bug - Carvalhoia areacae Mill & China. ( Miridae :

Hemiptera)
Damage

o Both nymphs and adults feed on the spindle and unfolding leaves causing

spindle necrosis.

Bionomics

o Eggs are laid within tender spindle.

o Egg and nymphal periods last for 9 to 10 and 15 to 20 days respectively.

o Nymphs are deep greenish to violet brown in colour with thorax and

border of abdomen light violet brown and head is light yellow with red

eyes.

o Adult bug is hairy dark violet brown with black tipped abdomen.

Management

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 o • Place one or two phorate sachets (0.2g a.i) in the axils of the new leaves

when infestation is very high.

o • Spray the spindles with lindane 20 EC 2 ml / 1 or carbaryl 50% wP 2.5

g/l.

2. Scale - Pinnapsis aspidistrae S. (Diaspididae: Hemiptera)

Damage

o Both nymphs and adults infest the unripe fruits.

3. Mealy bug - Palmiculator sp (Pseudococcidae: Hemiptera)

Damage

o Both nymphs and adults desap the spear and unfolding leaves.

1. Hairy caterpillar - Dasychira mendosa Hb. (Lymantriidae:

Lepidoptera)
Damage

o The caterpillar feeds on the leaf voraciously and cause defoliation.

2. Leaf eating caterpillar - Spodoptera litura Fab. (Noctuidae:

Lepidoptera)

1. Hairy caterpillar - Dasychira mendosa Hb. (Lymantriidae:

Lepidoptera)
Damage

o The caterpillar feeds on the leaf voraciously and cause defoliation.

2. Leaf eating caterpillar - Spodoptera litura Fab. (Noctuidae:

Lepidoptera)

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 Damage

o The caterpillar causes defoliation.

3. Bagworm -Manatha albipes Moore., Metisa plana Wlk. and (

Psychidae : Lepidoptera )
Damage

o The bag worm feeds on the leaf cause defoliation in nursery.

o The damage is noticed in outer whorl of fronds and occasionally in the

middle whorl of fronds.

4. Smug caterpillar - Darna jasea and Thosea andamanica

(Limacodidae: Lepidoptera)
Damage

o The slug caterpillar feeds on the leaf voraciously and causes defoliation in

the nursery.

1. Rhinoceros beetle - Oryctes rhinoceros Linn. (Scarabaeidae:

Coleoptera)
Damage

o The adult beetles cause severe damage to young as well as old trees. The

beetles live in crevices between the leaf sheaths near the crown and

burrow in to the softer portion feeding on the un opened fronds and

inflorescence. The beetles chews the internal tissues and after injecting the

juicy part throws out the fibrous part which comes out of holes is the

indication for the presence of beetle in the crown. The infested fully

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 opened fronds showing the characteristic 'v' shaped cuts on leaf lets. The

young seedlings are often killed when the growing points are damaged.

The repeated attack in old trees causes stunting of growth and present

sickly appearance to the trees. Bore holes with chewed fibre sticking out at

the base of central spindle is the typical symptom of attack.

Bionomics

o The adult beetle is black, stout measures 5 cm long and has a long horn

projecting dorsally from the head. The horn is longer in male and shorter

in female beetle. The female lays globular eggs singly in decaying organic

matter such as manure pits, dead tree trunks compost heaps. The

fecundity of the insect is 140-150 eggs per female. The egg period is 8-18

days. The newly hatched grub feeds on decaying organic matter. The

grown up grub is stout, white, 'C shaped, sluggish and has a pale brown

head. The larval period is 100-180 days. It pupates in earthern cells at a

depth of 30-90 cm or more. The pupal stage last for 10-25 days. The adults

make their way out and fly to the trees. The adult beetles lives for more

than 200 days.

2. Red palm weevil - Rhyhchophorus ferrugineus Oliver.

(Curculionideae: Coleoptera)
Damage

o The grub enters in to the stem and feeds on the internal tissue of the trunk

causing a small hole on the stem with protruding chewed fibrous materials

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 and oozing out of a brown liquid from such holes and eventually resulting

in the toppling of the crown portion. In the advanced stage of attack, the

central shoot shows sign of wilting and large mass of grubs, pupae and

adults in fibrous cocoon could be seen inside the trunk at the damaged

portion. In the grown up trees, the beetle causes damage by laying the eggs

on the crown region. In such cases the grub easily enter into the growing

point or cabbage of crown and causing yellowing of inner leaves and

gradual drying of central shoot in the crown.

Bionomics

o The weevil is reddish brown with 6 dark spots on the thorax a conspicuous

snout with tuft of hairs. The female weevil lays eggs in small holes scooped

out by her on the soft regions of young palms up to 7 years of age. In the

grown up trees the eggs are laid in the cuts or wounds present on the trunk

or leaf stalk. The plant sap oozing out of wounds and cut attract the weevil

for ovipositon. The eggs are creamy white in colour. The eggs hatch out in

2-3 days time into soft white grub. The grub is apodous which tunnel into

the trunk and feeds on the internal succulent tissues. The larval period

ranges between 45 and 75 days. The full-grown grub is stout, fleshy, and

apodous with a conical body bulged in middle and tapering towards the

ends. It pupates in a fibrous cocoon made out of fibrous strands.

o The pupal period last for 2-3 weeks. The total life cycle is completed in

about 4 months. The adult weevils are reddish brown with long curved,

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 pointed snout. The male weevil can be distinguished from the female by

the presence of tuft of hairs along the dorsal aspect of snout.

Management

o Remove and burn all wilting or damaged palms in the garden.

o Avoid injuries or wound on stems as they serve as oviposition site for

weevil.

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 o Fill all the holes with cement on the stem or trunk of coconut.

o Avoid the cutting of green leaves. If needed they should be cut about 120

cm away from the stem.

o Set up attractant traps (mud pots) containing sugarcane molasses 2.5 kg +

toddy 2.5 litres + acetic acid 5 ml + yeast 5 g + longitudinally split tender

coconut stem/logs of green petioles of leaves of 30 numbers in one acre to

trap weevil.

o Set up male aggregation pheromone, ferruginol (4 methyl 5 nonanol) trap

-ferrolure to attract the weevil.

o Follow the root feeding of monocrotophos 36 WSC 10 ml + 10 ml of water

per tree.

o Insert one or two tablets of aluminum phosphide inside the tunneled trunk

and plug all the holes with clay and cement mixed with copper oxy

chloride to kill the insect by the fumigant action.

1. Termite - Odontotermes obesus Ramb. (Termitidae: Isoptera)

Damage

o The termite damages the seedlings in the nursery and also transplanted

seedlings.

o The infested seedlings wilt and die.

o The base of the trunk is plastered with runways made of soil and fibers.

o It feeds on roots, inflorescence and fruit bunches.

Bionomics

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 o Green coloured tiny insects resembling ants with dark coloured head.

Management

o Apply soil insecticides on transplantation of the seedlings.

o Locate the termite mount in the coconut gardens and destroy it.

o Locate and kill the queen termite to provide good solution.

o Give adequate irrigation to the seedlings to minimize the problem.

o Soil drench with 0.1 % carbaryl in the standing crop.

2. White grub - Apogonia sp and Adoretus sp (Melolonthidae:

Coleoptera)
Damage

o The grub feeds on the roots of seedlings causing death of the plants.

Management of oil palm pests

Cultural Methods

o Remove dead palm trunks and empty bunch heaps from the field and

maintain good field sanitation.

o Hand picks the adults of rhinoceros beetle using iron hook.

o Collect and destroy all the various bio stages of the rhinoceros beetle from

the manure pits.

o Set up light trap following the first rains in summer and monsoon period

to attract the rhinoceros beetle and red palm weevil.

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 o Soak castor cake at 1 kg in 5 litres of water in small mud pots and keep

them in the oil palm garden to attract and kill the adults of rhinoceros

beetle.

o Keep the mud pots containing toddy, acetic acid, oil palm petioles and

yeast to attract and kill the adult red palm weevil.

o Do not cut the green leaves of oil palm and cut them at 120 cm away from

the base if it is needed.

o Avoid cuts and injuries on oil palm.

Biological Methods

o Release exotic predator reduvid bug, Platymeris laevicollis at 6 bugs per

palm at regular intervals to reduce the population of rhinoceros beetle.

o Apply entomopathogenic fungus Metarrhiziwn anisopliae @ 5 x 10 spores

3 / m at the breeding site of the rhinocerous beetle.

o Release Oryctes baculovirus inoculated beetles in the oil palm plantation

to minimize the pest incidence.

Chemical Methods

o Place 3-4 naphthalene balls in the youngest spear axils at weekly intervals

to deter the rhinoceros beetle.

o Fill the crown and top most three-leaf axils with a mixture of carbaryl 10 D

and fine sand (1:2 by volume) once in 3 months.

o Drench the manure pit with carbaryl 0.1 % solution once in three months.

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 o Follow root feeding of monocrotophos at 10ml + 10 ml water for 3 times at

3 weeks interval of time to control red palm weevil.

o Place 1 -2 phorate sachets (0.2g ai) in the axils of the new leaves to

minimize the infestation of spindle bug.

ARECANUT

Introduction

o Arecanut is an integral part of pan-chewing in India.

o It is also a commodity of export earning sizable foreign exchange.

o Follwing are the details on important pests of arecanut.

4. Inflorescence caterpillar

5. Spindle bug

6. Inflorescence aphid

7. Scale

8. Scarlet mite

9. White grub

10. Black headed caterpillar

11. Leaf caterpillar

1. Inflorescence caterpillar-Tirathaba mundella Wlk.

(Pyraustidae: Lpidoptera)
Damage

o Tender branches of inflorescence are webbed together with silken threads

of caterpillar.

o Wet mass of excreta protrudes out of the web.

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 o Bore holes are seen at the base of unopened spathes and buttons, which

are plugged with excreta.

Bionomics

o Larva is dirty yellow or white with brown head.

o Adult moth is small with ashy wings.

o Eggs are laid on tender spathes.

o Egg, larval and pupal periods last for 5, 25 and 10 days respectively.

o Pupation occurs within galleries.

2. Spindle bug- Carvalhoia arecae (Miridae: Hemiptera)

Damage

o Nymphs and adult suck sap, which results in linear black necrotic streaks

on the central shoot, stunted and twisted growth.

o Affected central shoots do not open fully and leaves become dry and shed

off.

Bionomics

o Eggs are laid within tender spindle.

o Egg and nymphal periods last for 9 to 10 and 15 to 20 days respectively.

o Nymphs are deep greenish to violet brown in colour with thorax and

border of abdomen light violet brown and head is light yellow with red

eyes.

o Adult bug is hairy dark violet brown with black tipped abdomen.

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 Management

o Spray the spindles with lindane 20 EC 2 ml / 1 or carbaryl 50% wP 2.5 g/l.

3. Inflorescence aphid - Cerataphis lataniae Boisd. (Aphididae:

Hemiptera)
Damage

o Nymphs and adults suck sap from the inflorescence and young nuts, which

results in sooty mould development and premature shedding of nuts.

4. Scale- Icerya aegyptica Dough (Margarodidae:Hemiptera)

Damage

o White mealy scale insects cover the stalks and base of ripe nuts and suck

sap.

o Affected region becomes soft with black necrotic patches and watery

exudation.

5. Scarlet mite - Raoiella indica Hirst. (Phytoaptipallidae:

Acarina)
Damage

o White nymphs and light brownish yellow adults suck sap from the leaves,

which result in yellow patches on the lower surface of leaves.

6. White grub - Leucopholis coneophora (Melolonthidae:

Coleoptera)
Damage

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 o White, flesy and ‗C‘ shaped grubs feed on the roots, which results in

yellowing of leaves, tapering stem, stunted growth and shedding of nuts.

7. Black headed caterpillar - Opisina arenosella (Cryptophasidae:

Lepidoptera)
Damage

o Caterpillars feed on under surface of leaves and form galleries with silken

thread and frass.

8. Leaf caterpillar - Elymnias caudate Butl. (Satyridae:

Lepidoptera)
Damage

o Irregularly clipped leaf blades are observed.

Bionomics

o Larva is green with deep grey head having a pair of black horns, rough

body with dorsal yellow stripe.

o Adult is a medium sized butterfly with deep brown wings mingled with

white and violet colour.

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 Lecture No. 23

Distribution, host range, bio-ecology, damage and integrated management of important

insect and mite pests of Coffee and Tea

COFFEE

Introduction

o Though over a hundred species of insects, a few invertebrates and

mammals have been recorded as pests on coffee in India, only a few of

them are economically important. Among coffee pests, insects form the

major group. Coffee is a perennial plant and is subjected to attack by

passing as well as sedentary insects. Almost all portions of coffee plants

are susceptible to one pest or the other.

o In India, coffee is cultivated under shade trees, which greatly influences

the microclimate in the coffee ecosystem. Coffee pests could be kept below

economic injury level by adopting integrated management strategies such

as anticipation and continuous monitoring of pest outbreaks, maintenance

of optimum over-head shade for judicious management of ecological

factors, handling and pruning of coffee bush, conservation and

augmentation of indigenous natural enemies, introduction of exotic

natural enemies and timely use of need based biopesticides / insecticides.

Bioecology and management of the important coffee pests are briefed

below.

o Major pests of coffee are the white stem borer (Xylotrechus quadripes),

Coffee berry borer (Hypothenemus hampei), Short-hole borer

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 (Xylosndrus compactus), Mealybugs (Planococcus citir & P.lilacinus),

Green scale (Coccus viridis) and root lesion nematode (Pratylencbus

coffeae).

o Apart from the above mentioned manor pests a few other pests are also

considered as minor pests occasionally found on coffee. They are brown

scale (Saissitia coffeae), cockchafers or white grubs (Holotricbia spp.),

coffee bean beetle (Araecerus fasciculaturs), hairy caterpillars (Eupterote

spp.), read borer (Zeuzera coffeae), snail (Ariophanta solata), Tailed

mealybug (Ferrisia virgata),Termites or white ants and Thrips (Heliobtips

baemorrboidalis, Retithrips syriacus, Scirtothrips bispinosus, Thrips

nilgiriensis)

1. White stem borer - Xylotrechus quadripes (Coleoptera:

Cerambycidae)

o White stem borer is a very serious pest of Arabica coffee in India.

Life history and damage

o Adult is a slender beetle, 1 to 2 cm long.

o The forewings are black with white bands.

o Adults are active in bright day light.

o Female beetles deposit eggs in the cracks and crevices and under the loose

clay bark of the main stem and thick primaries preferring plants exposed

to sun light.

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 o Young grubs feed in the corky portion just under the bark for about two

months.

o Consequentially, the bark splits and appears as a ridge on the stem.

o Later the larvae enter the hardwood and make the tunnels in all directions.

o In some cases the tunnels may extend even into the roots.

o The tunnels are tightly packed with excreta of the grubs.

o The grub stage lasts for about 9 to 10 months.

o Larva pupates in a chamber close to the periphery of the stem.

o The pupal stage lasts for 3 to 4 weeks after which it transforms into an

adult.

o The adult remains in the tunnel for 3 to 7 days and emerges out by cutting

an exit hole in the bark.

o The borer completes its life cycle in about a year.

Symptoms of attacks

o Infested plants show external ridges around the stem.

o Such plants may also exhibit signs like yellowing and wilting of leaves

which will be distinct after the onset of monsoon when the healthy plants

starts putting new growth.

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 o The young plants (7 to 8 year old) attacked by the borer may die in a year

white older plants withstand the attack for a few seasons, yielding more of

floats.

Borer infested farm

Nature of damage

Flight periods

o There are two flight (emergence) periods from April to May and October to

December.

Control measures

o Maintain optimum shade

o Trace the infested plants prior to flight periods (i.e.,in March and

September) every year by looking for ridges on the main stem and thick

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 primaries. Collar prune the infested plants, uproot if the borer has entered

the root and burn the affected parts. Storing of infested stems on the estate

will result in continuous infestation.

o Proper agronomic practices to retain plant vigour

o Remove loose scaly bark to discourage egg laying

o 10% lime application on main stem and thick primaries during flight

periods

o Repeated application of neem oil on the stem

o Use of pheromone traps to monitor incidence

o Judicious and timely application of pesticides on the stem during flight

period

2. Red borer-Zeuzera coffeae Nietn. (Cossidae: Lepidoptera)

Damage

o The red caterpillar bores into the stem and branches causing wilting of

branches.

o Presence of bore, holes plugged with excreta at the base of the plant is the

typical symptom of attack.

Bionomics

o The adult is white moth with black or steel blue spots in the wings. The

larva is orange red and smooth

3. Coffee bean beetle Araecerus fasciculatus D. (Anthribidae :

Coleoptera )

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 Damage

o The grub bores in to the ripening berries.

o The infested berries have small holes on them and become blackened and

shrunk.

o The berries in store are more seriously attacked than those in field.

Bionomics

o Adult is pale grey, elongate, oval and slightly flattened tapering anteriorly

entire body clothed with hairs.

o Grub is white, soft and apodous.

4. Coffee berry borer - Hypothenemus hampei

(Coleoptera:Scolytidae)

o The coffee berry borer is the most serious pest of all coffee cultivars the

world over.

o The pest was first noticed in India on a few plantations in Nilgiris in early

1990.

Life history

o The adult berry borer is a small black beetle with a sub-cylindrical body

covered with thick hairs.

o Females are approximately 2.5 mm long. Males are smaller.

o The female beetle bores into the berry through the navel region.

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 o Though berries in various stages of development are attacked, tunneling

an ovipositon occur only in hard beans.

o The mother beetle lays about 15 eggs in the tunnel.

o Eggs hatch in about 10 days.

o The larvae feed on the beans making small tunnels.

o Larval period lasts for about 20 days and the pupal period for a week.

 Development from egg to adult takes just over a month.

 The ratio of male to male is approximately 10:1.
 Mating takes place inside the berries.
 The short life cycle enables the pest to complete several generations in a year, in quick
succession, under favorable conditions.
 The beetle in the berries either on the plant or on the ground can survive for more than
five months.
 This enables the pest to carry over from one seasons crop to the next.
 The pest usually comes out and infests fresh berries in the evening hours.
 The pest usually comes out and infests fresh berries in the evening hours.
 The borer incidence could be pronounced at an altitude range of 500 m to 1000 m above
sea level.

Damage

 A typical pin hole at the tip of the berries indicates the presence of the pest.
 In case of a severe infestation, two or more holes may be seen, either in the navel or on
the sides.
 A powdery substance pushed out through the holes reveals the active tunneling and
feeding within the beans.
 The pest damages young as well as ripe berries.

 Infested tender berries may fall due to injury or secondary infection by fungi.
 Breeding occurs in developed berries from the time the bean becomes hard and continues
in the ripe and over-ripe berries either on the plant or on the ground.
 Generally only one of the beans in a berry is affected.
 Damage to both the beans could be noticed occasionally, especially during the fag end of
the cropping season.
 In case of severe infestation 30 to 80% of the berries may be attacked, resulting in heavy
crop loss.

Control measures

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  Timely harvest – Reduces carry over inoculums and thorough harvest – breaks the life
cycle.
 Removal of off-season berries to break the continuity of the breeding
 Spread gunny/plastic sheets (picking mats) below the plants minimizes the gleaning.
 If gleanings could not be collected they may be swept along with the mulch and buried
below a depth of 0.75 m in the soil.
 Avoid excess shade. Train bushes properly.
 Avoid planting tree coffee
 Dry coffee to the prescribed specification:
o Arabica/robusta parchment – 10.0% (15.5 kg/for lit)
o Arabica cherry - 10.5% (16.0 kg/for lit)
o Robusta cherry - 11.0% (18.0 kg/for lit)
 Do not transport infested crop to other areas.
 Dipping infested berries in boiling water for 2-3 minutes kills all the stages inside.
 Use only fumigated gunny bags to avoid cross infestation.
 Spray a suspension of the fungus Beauveris bassiana when the beetles are in the pulp.
 Use of parasitoids – Cephalanomia stephanoderis

5. Shot-hole borer: Xylosandrus compactus (Coleoptera :

Scolytidae)

o The short hole borer is a major pest of robusta coffee.

Life history

o The adult beetle is brown to black with a short, sub-cylindrical body.

o The pest usually infests the green succulent branches of old plants.

o In young plants, the main stem also may be attacked.

o After entering into the twig through the shot hole made on the underside,

normally between the nodes, the female makes a longitudinal tunnel.

o The beetle then lines the wall of the gallery with an ‗ambrosia‘ fungus.

o After growing the fungus, the female lays about 50 eggs in batches.

o The eggs hatch in 2 to 3 days, the milky white larvae feed on the ambrosia.

o The larval stage lasts for 13 to 21 days, and the pupal stage for about 11

days. Egg to adult emergence takes four to five weeks.

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 o Matting occurs inside the gallery.

o Unmated females give birth to male progeny. Males have no functional

wings.

o The short life cycle enables the pest to complete several generations, in

quick succession, under favourable conditions.

o The incidence is generally low before the onset of the southwest monsoon,

reaches a peak from September to January, and gradually declines during

the dry period.

Damage

o Withered or dried branches with shot holes indicate the presence of the

pest.

o The attacked branches dry up fast. Leaves distal to the point of attack fall

prematurely.

o The terminal leaves wilt, droop and dry up.

Control measures

o Prune the affected twigs 5 cm to 7.5 cm beyond the shot hole and burn.

o This operation should be commenced from September onwards and

continued as a routine measure at regular intervals.

o Remove and destroy all the unwanted/infested suckers during summer.

o Maintain thin shade and good drainage.

5. Shot-hole borer: Xylosandrus compactus (Coleoptera :

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 Scolytidae)

o The short hole borer is a major pest of robusta coffee.

Life history

o The adult beetle is brown to black with a short, sub-cylindrical body.

o The pest usually infests the green succulent branches of old plants.

o In young plants, the main stem also may be attacked.

o After entering into the twig through the shot hole made on the underside,

normally between the nodes, the female makes a longitudinal tunnel.

o The beetle then lines the wall of the gallery with an ‗ambrosia‘ fungus.

o After growing the fungus, the female lays about 50 eggs in batches.

o The eggs hatch in 2 to 3 days, the milky white larvae feed on the ambrosia.

o The larval stage lasts for 13 to 21 days, and the pupal stage for about 11

days. Egg to adult emergence takes four to five weeks.

o Matting occurs inside the gallery.

o Unmated females give birth to male progeny. Males have no functional

wings.

o The short life cycle enables the pest to complete several generations, in

quick succession, under favourable conditions.

o The incidence is generally low before the onset of the southwest monsoon,

reaches a peak from September to January, and gradually declines during

the dry period.

Damage

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 o Withered or dried branches with shot holes indicate the presence of the

pest.

o The attacked branches dry up fast. Leaves distal to the point of attack fall

prematurely.

o The terminal leaves wilt, droop and dry up.

Control measures

o Prune the affected twigs 5 cm to 7.5 cm beyond the shot hole and burn.

o This operation should be commenced from September onwards and

continued as a routine measure at regular intervals.

o Remove and destroy all the unwanted/infested suckers during summer.

o Maintain thin shade and good drainage.

1. Leaf miner Melanagromyza coffeae H. (Agromyzidae: Diptera)

Damage

o The maggot mines into leaves.

2. Hairy caterpillar Eupterote canaraica M-, E.fabia Cram.

(Bombycidae: Lepidoptera)
Damage

o It causes defoliation

Bionomics

o See under cardamom.

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 Management

o Collect and destroy the caterpillars and pupae from January - March. Set

up

o light traps in June - July to attract and kill the moths.

o Spray Dimethoate 0.03 % or fenitrothion 50 EC 240 ml along with one

litre of emulsified oil of 1 kg of fish oil rosin soap in 200 litres of water.

3. Leaf caterpillar Agrotis segetum Dams. (Noctuidae:

Lepidoptera)
Damage

o The caterpillar feeds on the seedlings of coffee plant and destroys

nurseries.

4. Coffee grasshopper Autarches miliaris D. (Acrididae:

Orthoptera)
Damage

o It causes severe defoliation.

 5. Wooly bears Pericallia ricini Fab. (Arctiidae:

Lepidoptera)

See under potato.

1. Green Scale - Coccus viridis (Coccidae: Homoptera)

o Green scale is an important sucking pest of Arabica, but attacks robusta

also.

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 Life history

o The adult scale is flat, oval, light green with an irregular dark distinct loop

on the middle of the dorsum.

o The adult is sedentary and spends its whole life in one place, it lays 50-60

eggs.

o The duration of the life cycle is 4-6 weeks.

o Adult lives up to 2-5 months.

Damage

o The scale attacks tender parts, setting down on the underside of the leaves

close to midrib, veins, and tips of green shoots.

o The continuous sucking results in excess loss of sap from the plant which

leads to debilitation of the older plants and death of nursery plants.

o The honey dew secreted by the scale forms a film on the leaves and a black

fungus (sooty mould) grows on it, which hinders photosynthesis.

Ant association

 Association of ants with green scale is similar to that explained for mealybugs.

Control measures

 Maintain optimum shade

 Control ants by dusting quinalphos 1.5% or methyl parathion 2% or malathion
5% dust around the base of the bush and shade trees. Destroy ant nests.
 Remove and destroy weeds, as many of them harbor the pest.
 Use recommended dose of insecticide when the attack is above ETL.

2. Root lesion nematode

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 o Plant parasitic nematodes are microscopic ‗round worms‘ attacking almost

every crop.

o The root lesion nematode is highly distractive to Arabica coffee.

o Robusta is tolerant to Arabica coffee. Robusta is tolerant to nematodes.

Life History

o The nematode lays eggs in the root-lesions. Development from egg to adult

takes about a month.

o All stages of the nematodes are attracted to the young and vigorously

growing roots but only the second stage juveniles enter the roots at the

piliferous zone.

o Robusta exhibits tolerance to the nematodes at all stages, and the

nematode takes more time to complete its life cycle in robusta than in

Arabica.

o The nematode spreads to other areas through estate implements, rain

water, plants taken from the infested nurseries and soils taken from

infested blocks.

o The pest is persistent in the soil and roots all round the year. Higher

population is noticed during the months of July, August and September

when there is heavy rainfall and increased root activity.

o The population declines from December to March.

o Damage and symptoms of attack

o Nematodes feed and destroy the tap root, secondary roots and feeder

roots.

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 o Affected plants put forth adventitious roots at the collar region during

rainy season.

o Such plants have loose anchorage and could be easily dislodged.

o Affected old plants lack secondary and tertiary roots.

o Affected young plants become unhealthy with lean and lanky stem.

o Older leaves become yellow and drop, leaving very few undersized, chlorite

and crinkled leaves at the tip of the main stem giving a ‗tufted‘ appearance.

o Affected bearing plants show thinner main stem and have inadequate

foliage to support the crop.

o Fresh leaves produced during pre-monsoon period are smaller, crinkled,

chlorotic and leathery, but the leaves produced during monsoon are

normal and healthy.

o Death of leaves will continue till December, leaving one or two pairs of

leaves at the tip during next summer or producing a ‗goose-neck‘ after the

receipt of rains.

Control Measures

o In The Nursery

o Dig up the nursery site and expose the soil to the sun during summer.

o Sieve and dry jungle soil and farmyard manure thoroughly before use.

o Avoid obtaining nursery plants from infested areas.

o In The Filed

o Uproot and burn the affected plants.

o Dig up pits and expose the soil to the sun for at least one summer

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 o Take care to keep the pits free from weeds.

o Plant the area with Robusta (if suitable) or Arabica – Robusta grafted

plants (Arabica scion grafted on to Robusta root stock at ‗topee‘ stage)

3. Brown scale - Saisettia coffeae Wlk. (Coccidae Hemiptera)

Damage

o Both nymphs and adults infest the leaves and tender shoots causing

yellowing and drying of leaves.

Bionomics

 Adult is hemispherical and the body covered by a snuff coloured hard shield.
 Nymph is yellow or greenish brown in colour.

4. Aphid Toxoptera aurantii Boyen. (Aphididae: Hemiptera)

Damage

o Both nymphs and adults suck the sap from the leaves resulting stunting,

curling of leaves and falling of flower buds and developing fruits.

o The infested leaf attracts sooty mould due to honeydew secretion of the

insect.

Bionomics

o The adult fly is dark orange with smoky wings and fore wings having four

whitish areas of the irregular shape.

o The female fly lays yellowish brown, oval eggs arranged in spiral on broad

leaves.

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 o The egg period is 7-14 days. The nymphal period is 38-60 days with four

nymphal instars.

o It pupates on leaf surface. The pupal period last for 100-131 days.

o There are two generations in a year.

Management

o Spray monocrotophos 36 WSC at 1.5 ml/litre of water.

5. Thrips Scirtothrips bispinosus Bagn. (Thripidae:

Thysanoptera)
Damage

o Both nymphs and adults lacerate and suck the tender leaves.

o Due to the punctures caused by stylets the feeding site appear as brown

spots or as continuos lines called "sand paper lines" In severe cases of

infestation leaf growth is arrested, leaves become brittle, crinckled and

corky and fall prematurely.

Bionomics

o S. dorsalis - This is known as Assam thrips, causes severe damage to tea

bushes in North India.

o Its life cycle is completed in 13-17 days but the duration may vary in the

different seasons. S. bispinosus -

o This is yellowish brown in colour which is found in large numbers in most

tea growing areas of south India.

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 o The peak period for the population build up is between May and

December.

o This life cycle is completed in 19 days.

1. White grub Holotrichia conferta S. (Melolonthidae :

Coleoptera)
Damage

o The grub feeds on roots of the young seedlings.

 Distribution, hosts and natural enemies of pests of Coffee

Common Scientific name Distribution Hosts Natural

name enemies
White stem Xylotrechits South India, Coffee, Ixora Parasitoid
borer quadripes Assam, Burma, Olea dioica Metapdma sp.
Chevrolat Srilanka,
Thailand,
Philippines and
Indonesia.
Red borer Zeuzera cqffeae India, Malaysia Cocoa, coffee
Nietn
Shot-hole Xylosandms India, Papua, coffee, tea,
borer compactus Madagascar, citrus,
Eichhoff South-East Asia avocado,
and New Guinea castor,
rubber,
cinchona etc.
Coffee berry Hypothenemus Tropical Africa Coffee, Predators
borer hampei Ferr. India, Srilanka, hibiscus, Uganda Wasp -
South East Asia Rubiaceae Prorps nasuta
Indonesia, Brazil Leguminous Waterston
New Guinea, plants
Colombia,
Surinam.
Coffee green Coccus viridis India, Ceylon, Coffee, citrus
scale Green. Burma, guava, mango
Bangladesh, and tea.
Thailand,
Malayia.

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 Brown scale Saisettia coffeae Cosmopolitan Coffee, citrus, Parasitoids
Wlk. ea, guava and Aneristrus
mango ceroplastae
How.
Coccophagus
flavescens How.
Coccophagus
cowperi Gir.
Striped Ferrisia Virgata Pan tropical, Coffee, cocoa,
mealy bug Ckll. India, cotton, jute,
Srilanka, citrus, beans,
Pakistan, groundnut,
Burma, cassava,
Bangladesh sugarcane,
and Malaysia. sweet potato,
guava, cashew
and tomato

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TEA

1. Tea mosquito bug - Helopeltis theivora Waterhouse. H .antonii

(Miridae: Hemiptera)
Damage

o Both nymphs and adults suck the sap from young leaves, buds and tender

shoots resulting dry spots on leaves and brownish patches in the tender

shoots, buds and stem.

o In severe cases, the leaves curl up and shoot dry up.

o The attacked shoot may present die - back symptoms.

Bionomics

o The adult is a small, active elongated bug with black or olive green head.

o It has yellow and black thorax and yellow and greenish black abdomen.

o It thrusts the eggs in to the surface tissues of tender shoots, buds, mid ribs

and petioles Eggs are elongated sausage shaped with two minute hairs on

its operculum which project out of the eggs.

o The egg period is 5-7 days.

o The nymph is dirty yellow with long legs and antennae which resemble

ants.

o They become full grown in 3 weeks under going five instars.

o Both nymphs and adults are active moving about on the bushes, flying

swiftly in the early hours of the day.

Management

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 o Collect nymphs and adults with hand nets early in the morning or in the

evening and destroy them.

o Spray the bushes with malathion 50 EC at 2 ml / litre of water.

2. Leaf hopper - Empoasca flavescens Fab. (Cicadellidae:

Hemiptera)
Damage

o Both nymphs and adults desap the leaves resulting curling and crinkling of

leaves.

o The margins of the leaves turn brownish and dry up causing the symptom

"rim blight."

Bionomics

o It is a small yellowish green jassid.

o It lays eggs singly on the veins and midribs of leaves and on young stems.

o The egg period is 6-13 days.

o The nymphal period ranges from 8-12 days with five instars.

o The insect is found on the plants throughout the year.

3. Tea Aphid -Toxoptera aurantii Boyen. (Aphididae: Hemiptera)

Damage

o Colonies of dark brown to black aphid desap the tender stem, underside of

young leaves and buds.

o The infested leaves curl and crinckle.

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 o Sooty mould develops on the leaves due to honeydew secretion of the

aphid

4. Tea thrips -Scirtothrips bispinosus Bagn., S.dorsalis Hood and

Taeniothrips setiventris Bagn. (Thripidae: Thysanoptera)
Damage

o Both nymphs and adults lacerate and suck the tender leaves.

o Due to the punctures caused by stylets the feeding site appear as brown

spots or as continuos lines called "sand paper lines" In severe cases of

infestation leaf growth is arrested, leaves become brittle, crinckled and

corky and fall prematurely.

Bionomics

o S. dorsalis - This is known as Assam thrips, causes severe damage to tea

bushes in North India. Its life cycle is completed in 13-17 days but the

duration may vary in the different seasons.

o S. bispinosus -This is yellowish brown in colour which is found in large

numbers in most tea growing areas of south India. The peak period for the

population build up is between May and December. This life cycle is

completed in 19 days.

5. Brown scale - Saisettia coffeae Wlk. (Coccidae: Hemiptera)

Damage

o Both nymphs and adults infest the leaves and tender shoots causing

yellowing and drying of leaves.

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 Bionomics

o Adult is hemispherical and the body covered by a snuff coloured hard

shield.

o Nymph is yellow or greenish brown in colour.

1. Looper - Biston suppressaria Guen. (Geometridae:

Lepidoptera)
Damage

o The looper caterpillar causes severe defoliation

Bionomics

o The adult moth is greyish finely specked with black and yellow bands and

spots along the other margins of wings.

o It lays eggs in groups of 200-600 on the trunk of shade trees and covered

with buff coloured hairs.

o The egg period is 8-9 days.

o The larva is greyish brown resembling closely as that of tea twigs which

become full grown in 24-36 days.

o It pupates in soil for 20-22 days.

2. Leaf roller - Gracillaria theivora Wism. (Gracillaridae:

Lepidoptera)
Damage

o The second instar larva mines the tender leaf making serpentine tunnels

for few days after which it reaches leaf margin.

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 o The fourth instar larva rolls the leaves from tip downwards.

Bionomics

o The purplish brown tiny moth lays eggs singly on the underside of leaves.

o The egg period is 2-3 days.

o The larva is yellowish.

o It pupates in a silken cocoon on the underside of the leaf for 9-13 days.

3. Bunch caterpillar - Andraca bipunctata Wlk. (Bombycidae:

Lepidoptera)
Damage

o The caterpillar feeds on the surface tissues and later on leaf blades causing

defoliation.

o It remain clustered in characteristic bunches on branches hence the name

bunch caterpillar.

Bionomics

o The adult moth is brownish with dark wavy lines on the wings and two

white spots distally on fore wings.

o It lays eggs in clusters of up to 120 eggs on the undersurface of leaves.

o Fecundity is about 500 eggs/female. The egg period is 10-11 days.

o The larva is smooth, greyish in colour with brown patches.

o It pupates on the ground among dried up leaves. The pupal period is about

16-29 days.

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 Management

o Collect and kill the caterpillar

o Spray malathion 50 EC at 2ml/lit of water.

4. Lobster caterpillar - Neostauropus (= Stauropus) alternus

Wlk. (Notodontidae: Lepidoptera)
Damage

o The adult is brownish grey moth.

o The female moth lays eggs in small clusters on the undersurface of the

leaves and hatch in 4-20 days.

o The grown up larva is about 40-45 mm, long with varying coloration of

brown to black and is speckled, mottled or pubescent.

o The thoracic leg and abdominal claspers are elongated giving the larva the

appearance of lobster when disturbed.

o It pupates between webbed up leaves in a cocoon.

o The pupal period is 10-23 days.

5. Flush worm - Cydia (= Laspeyresia) leucostoma Meyr.

(Eucosmidae: Lepidoptera)
Damage

o The larva webs together the bud and feeds from inside on the surface

tissues resulting the leaves become rough and discoloured.

Bionomics

o The adult moth is brownish with yellow and white streaks in fore wings.

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 o It lays eggs singly on under surface of leaves.

o The larva is green or brown in colour.

o The pupation takes place inside the leaf fold.

6. Tea tortrix - Homona coffearia Nietn. (Tortricidae:

Lepidoptera)
Damage

o The caterpillar makes leaf nests by webbing the leaves.

Bionomics

o The adult moth is brownish yellow in colour.

o The fore wing has an oblique band and a few transverse wavy lines.

o It lays scale like eggs in clusters of 100-150 on the upper surface of leaves.

o The egg period is 6-8 days. The larva is greenish with black pro-thorax.

o The larval period is 3-4 weeks. It pupates within the leaf fold for 6-8 days.

1. Shot-hole borer - Euvallacea forhicatus Eichh. (Scolytidae:

Lepidoptera)
Damage

o The grub tunnel in to the stem which interferes the flow of sap, weakening

the stems.

o Presence of round shot holes in primary branches, mortality of buds,

dieback in branches and circular or longitudinal tunnels inside the stem

are the symptoms of attack.

Bionomics

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 o The adult xyleborus beetle is minute measuring 3-4 mm in length.

o It lays eggs at junction and opening of side branch and covers with a wad

of damp saw dust.

2. Red borer - Zeuzera coffeae Nietn. (Cossidae: Lepidoptera)

Damage

o The red caterpillar bores into the stem and branches causing wilting of

branches.

o Presence of bore, holes plugged with excreta at the base of the plant is the

typical symptom of attack.

Bionomics

o The adult is white moth with black or steel blue spots in the wings.

o The larva is orange red and smooth.

1. White grub- Holotrichia impressa Burm. (Melolonthidae:

Coleoptera)
Damage

o The grub feeds on roots causing drying of young plants.

o It also eats away the bark of stem below the soil surface.

Bionomics

o The adult beetle is redddish brown in colour.

o It lays eggs in soil. The grub is white, fleshy, 'C shaped. It pupates in an

earthern cell.

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 o The life cycle occupies a year in the plains while at higher altitudes it may

takes up to two years.

1. Red spider mite - Oligonychus coffeae Nietn. (Tetranyehidae:

Acarina)
Damage

o It infests the upper surface of the older leaves making webbing on the leaf

surface for shelter.

o When the infestation is higher the young leaves may also get attacked

which turn brownish, dry up and fall.

Bionomics

o The adult mite is rounded and brick red in colour.

o It lays eggs singly on the surface of leaves mostly along the midrib and

veins.

o Fecundity is about 137 eggs / female.

o The egg period is 4-6 days.

o The larval stage is followed by two nymphal stages.

o The larval nymphal period occupies 6-8 days.

2. Scarlet mite - Brevipalpus californicus Geij. (Tenuipalpidae :

Acarina)

Damage

o The mite infest on the lower surface of the leaves causing yellowing of

leaves.

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 o The bark on the leaf petiole of the affected shoot split, turn brown and dry

up.

Bionomics

o The mite is flat, elongated and oval and scarlet in colour with black marks

dorsally.

o It lays bright red eggs on the under surface of leaves.

o Female lays about 47 eggs during ovipositon period of 40 days.

o The egg period is 6-13 days.

o The life cycle is completed in 21-28 days.

3. Purple mite - Calacarus carinatus Green. (Eriophyidae:

Acarina)
Damage

o The mite infests both sides of the leaves causing coppery brown or smoky

discoloration of the leaves.

Bionomics

o The mite has a spindle shaped purple body with 5 longitudinal white waxy

ridges dorsally.

o The life cycle is completed in 7-15 days.

4. Pink mite or orange mite - Acaphytta theae Keifer.

(Eriophyidae: Acarina)
Damage

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 o It infests the both sides of leaves, petioles and tender stems.

o The affected leaf becomes discoloured and leathery, the veins showing a

pink discoloration the bushes in general present a sickly appearance.

Management

o Spray methyl demeton 25 EC @ 1250 ml or dimethoate 30 EC @ 1500ml. /

hectare.

 Distribution, hosts and natural enemies of pests of Tea

Common Scientific name Distribution Hosts Natural

name enemies
Tea Helopeltis iheivora India, Srilanka, Tea, guava,
mosquito Water house Vietnam, grapevine,
bug Indonesia cashew,
mahogany
neem5 cacao,
cinchona,
pepper,
tamarind and
cinnamon apple
Tea mite Brevipalpus phoenicis India, Srilanka, Tea, citrus, Predatory mite
Geij Malaysia. coffee, rubber, Typhlodromus
Phoenix spp pyri
Parthenium
Yellow tea Polyphagotarsonemus Cosmopolitan, Tea, cotton, jute,
mite latus Banks Europe, U.S.A. coffee, tomato,
Central potato, chillies,
America, rubber, mango,
Bangladesh, sesame, caster,
India, bean, peppers,
Malaysia, avacado and
Srilanka, citrus
Philippines

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 Lecture No.24
Distribution, host range, bio-ecology, damage and integrated management
of important insect and mite pests of Cocoa

1. Red borer - Zeuzera caffeae Nietn. (Cossidae: Lepidoptera)

Damage

o The caterpillar bores in to the stem of 3-4 year old plants resulting in

wilting and drying of entire plants.

o The affected plants show bore holes on the stem and accumulating chewed

fiber at the base of the plant.

Bionomics

o Adult moth has dirty white bands and black or steel blue spots on the

wings.

o The larva is orange red in colour.

o The full-grown larva is about 42 mm long.

Management

o Prune and destroy the affected branches.

o Spray carbaryl 50 WP 2 g / litre of water.

2. Fruit borer - Dichocrocis (=Conogethus) punctiferalis Guen.

(Pyraustidae: Lepidoptera)
Damage

o The larva borers into the central core of the pseudostems resulting in the

death of the central spindle causing charactersic ―dead heart‖ symptom.

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 o In the case of capsules, the caterpillars bore into the immature capsules

and feed on the seeds rendering them empty.

o The caterpillars occasionally tunnel into the panicle also.

o A characteristic indication for the presence of the larvae is the oozing out

of excreted frass materials at the mouth of the bore hole, which are very

conspicuous on the stem or pods.

Bionomics

o The adult is a medium sized brownish yellow coloured moth with a

number of dark spots on the wings.

o It lays eggs on the top leaf axils of young pseudostem.

o The larva bore into the tender parts of the panicle, flower buds and

immature capsules only, the later stage larva bore into the stem.

o The full grown larva is measuring 15-25 mm long and it pupates within the

larval tunnel inside the pseudostems.

o The life cycle is completed within 25-40 days.

Management

o Collect and destroy the affected plant parts.

o Destroy the alternate host plants from the vicinity of the plantation

o Spray phosalone 3 ml/litre or Dimethoate 0.03 % /litre or quinolphos 4

ml/litre or fenthion 1.25ml / litre of water.

3. Stem girdler - Sthenias grisator Fab. (Cerambycidae:

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 Coleoptera)
Damage

o The grub bores into the bark and tunnels into the dry wood.

o The infestation resulted in wilting of branches and then the entire vine.

o The beetles have the habit of ringing the vines resulting in drying up of the

regions beyond the cut.

Bionomics

o The adult beetle is greyish brown with white and brown irregular marking

resembling the bark colour, elytra have an elliptical greyish median spot

and an eye shaped patch measuring 24 mm long.

o The eggs are thrust in between barks and sapwood in clusters of 2-4 eggs

by female beetle, which cuts branches slits under the bark of girdled

branch.

o The egg period is 8 days. The hatched out grub feed inside the stem and

completes its larval stage by 7-8 months.

o The total life cycle occupies more than a year.

Management

o Cut and burn the infested branches below the girdling point.

o Hand picks the beetles and destroys them which may help in migrating

this longing horn beetle.

o Swab the trunk with carbaryl 50 WP 4 g / litre of water.

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 1. Brown looper - Hyposidra talaca Walk. (Geometridae:
Lepidoptera)
Damage

o It is a looper caterpillar causing extensive defoliation.

Bionomics

o Adult moth is pink in colour.

o The eggs are laid in the leaves.

o Fecundity is about 250 eggs / female. EP: 4 days and LP: 19-24 days.

o The full grown larva is brown with orange coloured dots laterally.

o It pupates in fallen leaves.

o The life cycle is completed in 30-35 days.

2. Hairy caterpillar - Argina syringa Cl and A. cribraria

(Hypsidae: Lepidoptera)
Damage

o They cause defoliation in early stages and bore in to capsules in the later

stages

Bionomics

o A. cribraria - Adult is yellowish brown with black spots.

o Larva is hairy caterpillar with black transverse markings and white spots.

o A. syringa - Adult has reddish brown forewings with black spots.

o Larva is similar to that of A. cribraria but has reddish markings laterally.

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 3. Wooly bear - Pericallia ricini Fab. (Arctiidae: Lepidoptera)
Damage

o It causes defoliation

Bionomics

o See under brinjal and sweet potato.

4. Hairy caterpillar - Diacrisa obliqua Wlk. (Arctiidae:

Lepidoptera)
Damage

o It causes defoliation

Bionomics

o See under brinjal and sweet potato.

5. Hairy caterpillar - Metanastria hyrtaca Cram. (Lasiocampidae:

Lepidoptera)
Damage

o The hairy caterpillar feeds on leaves causing defoliation.

Bionomics

o The adult is stout grayish brown moth exhibiting sexual dimorphism.

o Male moth has pectinate antenna and chocolate brown patch in the middle

of fore wings.

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 o Female moth is bigger in size with longer and broader wings having wavy

transverse bands.

o The larva is nocturnal, cylindrical grayish brown, stout and hairy.

Management

o Kill the aggregating larvae on the bark using a torch of fire or with a

bucketful of cowdung slurry during the day time in households.

o Spray fish oil rosin soap to kill the larva because of asphyxiation.

o Spray Dimethoate 0.03 % or carbaryl 0.1 % or malathion 0.1%.

6. Grey weevil - Myllocerus subfasciatus G.M., M.discolor Fab

and M.viruidu Fab. (Curulionidae: Coleoptera.)
Damage

o Adult weevil cause notching of leaf margins.

o Grub feeds on roots resulting wilting of plants.

Bionomics

o M. Subfasciatus – Brownish weevil;

o M. discolor – Brown with white spot on elytra;

o M.viridanus – Small light green weevil.

Management

o Collect & destruct the adult weevils

o Apply carbofuran 3 G at 15 kg/hectare at 15 days after planting.

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 1. Mango hopper - Idioscopus clypealis (Cicadellidae: Hemiptera)
Damage

o Both nymphs and adults suck the sap from tender shoots and

inflorescence resulting in withering and shedding of flower buds and

flowers leads to wilting and drying of shoots and leaves. The flower stalks

and leaves of infested trees become sticky due to the deposition of honey-

dew secreted by the hoppers that encourages the growth of black sooty

mould on foliage and other plant parts.

o The peak activity is confined during blossom and the loss ranges from 25

to 60 %. During the off - season, the hoppers congregate on newly

developed shoots and suck the sap, results in malformation the leaves

feeding on them. As a consequence, leaves become malformed and

undersized. The hoppers take shelter in cracks and crevices on the barks

during non-flowering season.

Bionomics

o Of these three species, A. atkinsoni is the largest one occurring right

through the year and other two species have been observed to be mostly

present during the blooming of the tree. The largest A. atkinsoni has two

spots on scutellum while the smalll. clypealis has two spots on scutellum

and dark spot on the vertex, while the least sized 1 . niveosparsus has three

spots on scutellum.

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  The adult hopper is light greenish-brown with black and yellow markings, wedge
shaped with broad head measures 3-4 mm in length. It inserts the eggs singly
into the plant tissues of young leaves, shoots, flower stalks and unopened flowers.
A female lays about 200 eggs. The eggs hatch in 4-7 days. The nymph with red
eyes appeared while yellowish green to greenish brown during the 5 instar
occupying 8-13 days. The total life cycle from egg to adult takes 2-3 weeks for
completion.

Management

 Grow less susceptible varieties viz., Banganapalli, Chinnarasam and Alphonsa.

 Avoid close planting, as the incidence is very severe in overcrowded and
neglected orchards.
 Spray two rounds, of acephate 75 SP at 1 g /litre or phoasalone 35 EC at 1.5 ml /
litre or carbaryl 50 WP at 42 g / litre of water, first round at the time of new flesh
panicle emergence and 2nd at two weeks after the first spray.
 Spray wettable sulphur at 2 g / litre of water after spraying carbaryl to avoid mite
resurgence
 Collect and destroy affected inflorescence or sticky inflorescence to minimize
population build-up.

2. Scale - Drosicha mangiferae Gr. (Margarodidae: Hemiptera)

Damage

o Both nymphs and adults are found in clusters on tender shoots and desap

the tissues resulting in drying of the shoots.

3. Aphid - Toxoptera aurantii Boyen. (Aphididae: Hemiptera)

Damage

o Both nymphs and adults infest flower stalks, tender leaves, buds and

tender pods the infested flowers wilt and the leaves crinckle and fall.

4. Tea mosquito bug - Helopeltis theivora Sign. (Miridae:

Hemiptera)
Damage

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 o The nymphs and adults feed on the young leaves, buds and tender shoots

the tissues around the feeding punctures die and dry up due to toxic action

of saliva injected.

o It results the water soaked lesions followed by brownish spots at the

feeding site. Resin exudes from the feeding puncture. Blossom or

inflorescence blight and die back symptoms appear.

o The terminal shoots are also dried.

o Shedding of flowers and nut also takes place.

Bionomics

o The adult is a reddish brown bug with red thorax and black and white

abdomen.

o The eggs are inserted into the epidermis of tender shoots, axis of

inflorescence, the buds and midribs.

o The eggs are sausage shaped, 2 mm long, slightly covered with a pair of

breathing filaments which project out its operculum.

o The egg period is 5 to 7 days. Nymphal period is 15 days.

o The reddish brown and ant like nymphs undergoes five instars.

o The life cycle is completed in 22 days.

o This pest attacks guava, cocoa, pepper, cinchona, tamarind, mango, neem,

cotton and avocado.

Management

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 o Spray Dimethoate 0.03 % /litre + urea 3% thrice. The first at the time of

emergence of new flushes the second at floral formation and the third at

fruit set.

o Remove dead wood and criss cross branches in cashew plantations atleast

once in two to three years will help in effective spraying of insecticides

against the pest.

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 Lecture No.25
Distribution, host range, bio-ecology, damage and integrated management of important
insect and mite pests of Rubber and Cinchona
1. Bark caterpillar-Aehterastic circulata Meyr.(Hyponomeutidae:
Lepidoptera)
Damage

o The caterpillar usually feeds on the dead bark.

o It becomes troublesome when it happens to feed on the renewing bark.

Bionomics

o The adult moth is small white and black spotted.

o It lays the eggs on the barks.

o The larva is small, bright red and flat.

o The larva feeds under a web on the bark.

o The larval duration is about 3 weeks.

o It pupates under a piece of bark in web for about 10 days.

2. Bark caterpillar- Comocritis plena Meyr. (Hyponomeutidae:

Lepidoptera)
Damage

o The caterpillar constructs galleries on the bark and feeds on the bark

surface.

3. Stem borer- Batocera rufomaculata Dejean.

(Cerambycidae:Coleoptera )
Damage

o The grubs bore in to the branches causing drying of the branches.

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 Damage

o The grubs feed by tunneling through the bark of branches and main stem.

o The damage may also show itself by the shedding of leaves and drying of

terminal shoots in early stage of attack.

o When the damage occurs at the main stem, the whole tree succumbs.

Bionomics

o The adult is a large longicorn beetle about 5 cm long and 1.6 cm broad and

yellowish brown in colour.

o It has two pink dots and lateral spines on thorax.

o It lays eggs singly on the bark, or cracks and crevices on the tree trunk or

branches hatch in about 1-2 weeks.

o The grub is stout with well-defined segmentation and yellow in colour.

o The grub makes zig - zag burrow beneath the bark.

o The grub feeds on the internal tissues and become full fed in about six

months.

o It pupates inside the tunnel itself.

o The pupal period is. 19-36 days.

Management

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 13. Remove and destroy the dead trees and affected branches from the garden.

14. Swab trunk with carbaryl 20 g/1.

15. Use light trap 1 / ha to attract adult moths or beetles.

16. Locate bore holes, spike out grubs using a needle or iron wire.

17. Exclude the alternative host, silk cotton from mango orchards.

18. Grow less susceptible varieties viz., Neelam, Humayudin, and

Panchavarnam.

19. Swab coal tar + Kerosene (1 :2) on the basal part of the trunk up to 3 feet

high after scraping the loose bark to prevent the female from egg laying.

20. Spike out the grub if the bore holes are located, and add insecticide

emulsion (monocrotophos 0.1 % at 20 ml / hole) a fumigant tablets (3 g

aluminium phosphide) or petrol and seal the holes with the mud.

21. Follow padding with monocrotophos 36 WSC 10 ml per tree soaked in

absorbent cotton when the trees are not in bearing stage.

22. Apply carbofurean 3 - 5 g per hole and plug with mud after removing the

grub by using needle.

23. Apply carbofuran granules in the soil at 75 g / tree basin.

1. Scale -Aspidiotus destructor Sign and Saisettia nigra

NMetn.(Coccidae: Hemiptera)
Damage

o The scales infest the twigs and leaves causing dropping of leaves.

1. Basket worm -Acanthopsyche snelleri Heye. (Psychidae ;

Lepsdoptera)
Damage

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 o The larva attacks newly tapped surface making small wound from which

latex flows out freely.

2. Weevil- Apoderus chrysochlorus Wied. (Curculionidae:

Coleoptera)
Damage

o The reddish brown adult weevil twists the leaf tips.

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 Lecture No.26

Distribution, host range, bio-ecology, damage and integrated management of

important insect and mite pests of Cashew

1. Cashew tree borer Plocaederus ferrugineus Linn.

(Cerambycidae: Coleoptera)
Damage

o The grubs tunnel and feed inside the tree trunks and branches and damage

cambial tissues and stop the flow of sap.

o It results in weakening and death of the plant.

Bionomics

o The adult beetle is reddish brown measuring 25-40 mm in length.

o It lays eggs in the cracks and crevices of the loose bark on the trunk.

o The eggs are ovoid or elliptical and dirty white in colour hatch in 4-6 days.

o The newly hatched grubs start feeding on soft tissues and bore in to the

bark and make tunnels.

o The grub is off-white colour and the grown up grub measures 60-75 mm in

length.

o The fully grown grub decends to root zone through tunnels.

o The grub stage last for 6-7 months.

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 o The pupal period last 60 days inside the cocoon.

Management

o Uproot and remove the dead trees from the plantation as they serve as

source for multiplication of the borer.

o Avoid any injury or damage to the stem and exposed portion of the root.

o Apply coal tar and kerosene (1:2) on the trunk up to 1 metre height which

prevent the beetles from egg laying.

o Detect the infestation in the early stage and swab the tree trunk with

carbaryl 50 WP 0.1% suspension to save the tree.

o Adopt stem padding with cotton wool soaked in monocrotophos at 30 ml

/tree gives good recovery.

o Follow the root feeding of monocrotophos 36 WSC 10 ml +10 ml of water

kept in a polythene bag in two places (20 ml / tree) gives good protection

to the trees.

2. Bark caterpillar-Indarbela tetraonis M. (Metarbelidae:

Lepidoptera)
Damage

o The larva chews out the bark resulting zig-zag galleries and silken webbed

masses comprising of chewed materials and excreta.

Bionomics

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 o Adult moth is pale brown with fore wings having brown spots and streaks

and white hind wings. The larva is 40-45 mm long, stout and dirty brown

in colour.

3. Apple borer- Nephopteryx sp (Phycitidae: Lepidoptera)

Damage

o The larva bores into the tender cashew apple and feeds on the internal

tissues of false fruit.

Bionomics

o The adult moth is medium sized with dark fore wings and pale hind wings.

4. Apple and nut borer -Thylocoptila paurosema (Pyraustidae:

Lepidoptera)
Damage

o The caterpillar borers into the tender apple and nut and feeds on them.

1. Shoot and blossom webber- Macalia monocusalis Wlk.

(Pyraustidae: Lepidoptera)
Damage

o The larva webs together the tender leaves and inflorescence and feeds on

the same.

2. Shoot tip and inflorescence caterpillar- Hypatima (= Chelaria)

haligramma M. (Gelechiidae: Lepidoptera)
Damage

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 o The caterpillar webs together the terminal leaves and inflorescence and

bores into the shoot tips.

3. Tea mosquito bug-Helopeltis antonni Sign. (Miridae:

Hemiptera)
Damage

o The nymphs and adults feed on the young leaves, buds and tender shoots

the tissues around the feeding punctures die and dry up due to toxic action

of saliva injected.

o It results the water soaked lesions followed by brownish spots at the

feeding site.

o Resin exudes from the feeding puncture.

o Blossom or inflorescence blight and die back symptoms appear.

o The terminal shoots are also dried.

o Shedding of flowers and nut also takes place.

Bionomics

o The adult is a reddish brown bug with red thorax and black and white

abdomen.

o The eggs are inserted into the epidermis of tender shoots, axis of

inflorescence, the buds and midribs.

o The eggs are sausage shaped, 2 mm long, slightly covered with a pair of

breathing filaments which project out its operculum.

o The egg period is 5 to 7 days. Nymphal period is 15 days.

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 o The reddish brown and ant like nymphs undergoes five instars.

o The life cycle is completed in 22 days.

o This pest attacks guava, cocoa, pepper, cinchona, tamarind, mango, neem,

cotton and avocado.

Management

o Spray Dimethoate 0.03 % /litre + urea 3% thrice. The first at the time of

emergence of new flushes the second at floral formation and the third at

fruit set.

o Remove dead wood and criss cross branches in cashew plantations atleast

once in two to three years will help in effective spraying of insecticides

against the pest.

1. Leaf miner- Acrocercops syngramma M. (Gracillaridae:

Lepidoptera)
Damage

o The larva mines into the tender leaves causing whitish blotches.

Bionomics

o The adult is silvery greyish moth with fringes of hairs on the wing margins.

o The larva is reddish brown in colour.

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 2. Wild silk moth- Cricula trifenestrata H. (Saturnidae:
Lepidoptera)
Damage

o It causes defoliation.

Bionomics

o The adult moth is reddish brown in colour, female moth has 3 clear

hyaline spots, in fore wings and a smaller one in the center of hind wings.

The caterpillar is stout, dark brown in colour. They pupate in golden

yellow silken cocoon. The pupae are also reddish brown in colour and

about 40mm long.

Management

o Spray quinolphos 25 EC 2 ml/litre of water.

3. Hairy caterpillar - Metanastna hyrtaca C, (Lasiocampidae:

Lepidoptera)
Damage

o The hairy caterpillar feeds on leaves causing defoliation.

Bionomics

o The adult is stout grayish brown moth exhibiting sexual dimorphism. Male

moth has pectinate antenna and chocolate brown patch in the middle of

fore wings. Female moth is bigger in size with longer and broader wings

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 having wavy transverse bands. The larva is nocturnal, cylindrical grayish

brown, stout and hairy.

Management

o Kill the aggregating larvae on the bark using a torch of fire or with a

bucketful of cow dung slurry during the day time in households.

o Spray fish oil rosin soap to kill the larva because of asphyxiation.

o Spray dimethoate 0.03% or carbaryl 0.1 % or malathion 0.1%.

4. Slug caterpillar - Parasa lepida Cramer. (Cochlididae:

Lepidoptera)
Damage

o The caterpillar feeds on the leaves gregariously in the beginning,

subsequently they disperse.

o It causes severe defoliation.

Bionomics

o The adult moth is stout with wing expanse of 4.0 cm and having green

wings fringed with brown patches.

o The eggs are laid in batches of 10-15 on the under surface of leaves.

o The eggs are ovals flat scale- like in shape.

o The fecundity is on an average 167 eggs / female. The egg period is 7 days.

o The caterpillar is fleshy, slug-like with yellowish green body bearing a

greenish blue stripe dorsally and yellowish green stripes laterally.

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 o The larval period is 5-6 weeks undergoes seven instars.

o It pupates in a hard shield - like greyish cocoon on the tree trunks for 4-5

weeks.

Management

o Set up light traps to monitor and kill the adult moths.

o Spray the crown with carbaryl 0.1 % (or) dichlorovos 0.02 % or malathion

0.05 % solution.

o In severe cases, root feeding of monocrotophos as explained earlier under

leaf eating caterpillar may be taken up with safety precautions.

o Collect all the stages of pests viz. eggs on tree trunks, leaves, larvae during

migration stage, pupae in soil and leaf sheath and adult moth during

emergence and destruction.

o Organise mass collection campaign involving farmers, school children and

college students.

o Spray dichlorovos @ 2 ml / litre using specially designed tractor mounted

tall tree sprayer.

o Dust methyl parathion or endosulfan dust @ 1 kg / tree using power

operated bellowed crane duster to reach tall trees.

o Encourage the predatory birds to pick up the larval stages.

5. Leaf twisting weevil - Apoderus tranquebaricus Fab.

(Curculionidae: Coleoptera)
Damage

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 o The adult weevil has the habit of cutting and twisting the mango leaves

into shapely thimble like rolls which remain attached to the parent leaves.

o The grub feeds on the leaf tissue within the leaf roll.

Bionomics

o The adult weevil is medium sized, reddish brown with a long snout.

o Eggs are laid in each leaf roll.

o The grub pupates within the leaf roll.

Management

o Spray insecticides like monocrotophos at 1.25 ml or Dimethoate 0.03 % /

litre of water to check the spread of infestation.

6. Looper - Oenospila flavifuscata W, (Geometridae:

Lepidoptera)
Damage

o The larva infests the leaf margins cause defoliation.

1. Red banded thrips - Solenothrips rubocinctus G. (Thripidae:

Thysanoptera)
Damage

o Both nymphs and adults infest the leaves and cause crinkling

discolouration and leaf drop.

2. Thrips - Rhipiphorothrips crueniatus Hood. (Thripidae:

Thysanoptera)

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 Damage

o Both nymphs and adults lacerate the leaves and suck the sap.

o The infested leaves shows silvery white patches on leaves with excreta.

3. Flower thrips - Scirtothrips dorsalis (Thripidae: Thysanoptera)

Damage

o Both nymphs and adults lacerate the tender tissues and suck the exuding

sap.

o The infested leaves begin to curl downwards from the margin towards the

mid rib.

o Heavily infested trees exhibits sickly and faded appearance, which can be

recognized even from distance.

Bionomics

o The adult is minute measuring 1 mm in length.

o It is yellowish brown insect, with fringed wings. It reproduces

parthenogenetically.

o The fecundity is 30-50 eggs per female.

o It lays eggs on the lower surface of leaves by inserting them singly in the

tissues along the mid rib of tender leaves.

o The eggs are reniform and hyaline when laid but turn pale yellow just

before hatching.

o The egg period is about 4-6 days.

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 o The nymphs are pale yellow and wingless.

o They moult 2-3 times passing through 3-4 instars in 12-18 days according

to the prevailing temperature.

o Full grown nymphs undergo two resting stages called pre-pupa and pupa.

o The pupal period lasts for 6-10 days.

Management

o Sprays water twice or thrice during thrips out break helps to reduce its

population load appreciably.

o Spray monocrotophos 36 WSC 1.5 ml or endsulfan 35 EC 2ml/ml or

quinalphos 25 EC 2.0 ml / litre of water.

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 Lecture No. 27
Pest Management in Mint, betel vine, senna

MINT

1. Lace wing bug - Cochlochila bullita (Tingidae: Hemiptera)

Damage

o The nymphs and adults desap from the under surface of leaves.

o The infested leaves turn brown and gradually dry up.

o The stunted plant growth and presence of chlorotic spot on the leaf surface

are the symptom of attack.

Bionomics

o The adult bug is yellow in colour.

o The nymph is small, long flat and black in colour.

1. Cut worm - Agrotis segetum Dams and Schifffer Muller.

(Noctuidae: Lepidoptera)
Damage

o The caterpillar cuts the seedling at the ground level and eats tender parts.

Bionomics

o The adult noctuid moth is pale whitish brown in colour.

o The fore wings are yellowish brown with waxy lines and marginal series of

specks.

2. Semilooper - Plusia orichalcea Fab. (Noctuidae: Lepidoptera)

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 Damage

o The caterpillar cuts the edges of lamina, folds it over the leaf and feed from

within the leaf roll causing defoliation.

Bionomics

o The adult is stout dark brown with shiny fore wings.

o The larva is green the body having black warts and hump on its anal

segment.

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 Lecture No.29

Pest Management in Long pepper, medicinal yam, Aswagandha, Sarpagandha,

Opium poppy and geranium

OPIUM POPPY

1. Root weevil - Sternocarus fuliginosus (Curculionidae:

Coleoptera)
Damage

o Grubs feed on roots.

Management

o Apply lindane 1.3 D 25 kg/ha on soil at planting is it available in market.

2. Cutworm-Agrotis suffusa (Noctuidae: Lepidoptera)

Damage

o Larva cuts younger plants at the base above ground level. Larva remains

concealed in cracks in the ground and become active at night.

Bionomics

o Larva is dark with red coloured head.

3. Green peach aphid - Myzus persicae (Aphididae: Hemiptera)

o Both nymphs and adults suck sap from leaves. Body colour of apterous

form is yellowish green and rarely reddish.

4.Gram pod borer - Helicoverpa armigera (Noctuidae:

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 Lepidoptera)
Damage

o Larva feeds on flower heads and seeds. Adult is a medium sized mom with

'V' shaped speck and dull black border on hind wing.

o Full-grown larva is greenish with dark brown grey lines along sides of

body.

o Spherical, yellowish white eggs are laid singly on buds and flowers.

Bionomics

o Larval period lasts for 15 to 20 days. It pupates in the soil and pupal period

is 10 to 15 days.

Management

o Hand pick and destroy larvae.

o Use pheromone traps to attract and kill adult moths.

o Spray dimethoate 0.03 % /l.

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 Lecture No.30

Important insect pests attacking stored fruits and plantations

I. Internal feeders

1. Rice weevil - Sitophilus oyzae Linn. S. zeamais, S. granarius

(Curculionidae : Coleoptera)
Nature of damage

o Both grubs and adults cause damage to grains.

o Adult weevil cuts circular holes of 1.5 mm. dia on grains.

o During heavy infestation heating takes place which is known as dry

heating.

o The grub feeds internal content of the grain.

o It attacks the grains of rice, wheat, sorghum, barley, maize before harvest

and in store.

Bionomics

o The adult weevil is small in size of 3 mm reddish brown or chocolate to

almost black colour having characteristic beak or snout.

o The antenna is elbowed and slightly clubbed.

o The elytra have 4 yellow spots. The female makes a cavity on the grain and

deposits white translucent eggs singly and covers it with gelatinous fluid.

o The fecundity of weevil is 150-250 eggs per female.

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 o The grub is white, apodous with yellowish brown head, which feeds inside

the grain.

o The larval duration is about 20 days.

o It pupates inside grain itself for 3-6 days.

o The adult longevity is 3-5 months.

o The life cycle occupies 26 days at 30°C and 75% relative humidity.

2. Lesser grain borer - Rhyzopertha dominica Fab.(Bostrychidae:

Coleoptera)
Nature of damage

o Both grubs and adults make irregular holes of 1 mm diameter on the grain

and feeds on the internal content of it.

o The grain or kernels are reduced to mere powder. It attacks paddy, rice,

wheat and maize.

Bionomics

o The adult beetle is dark brown measuring about 3 mm in length.

o The head is deflexed downwards with a pair of antenna having serrated

and three segmented club.

o There is a prominent constriction between prothorax and elytra.

o .It lays eggs singly or in clusters on the surface of cereal grains. A single

female lays eggs up to 550.

o The grub is white, apodous with brown head.

o It develops within the grain or kernel and feeds on starchy material.

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 o It pupates inside the grain after 3rd instar.

o The total life cycle is completed in 25 days under optimum conditions.

3. Cigarette or tobacco beetle -Lasioderma serricorne

Fb.(Anobiidae: Coleoptera)
Nature of damage

o Both grubs and adults bore into tobacco products viz., cigarettes, cheroots

and chewing tobacco.

o Presence of circular pin head sized bore holes on processed tobacco is the

typical symptom of attack.

o It also attacks the grain of wheat, peanut, cocoa, bean, cotton seed etc.

Bionomics

o Adult light brown round beetle with its thorax and head bent downwards

and this presents a strongly humped appearance to the insect.

o The elytra have minute hairs on them.

o Antenna is of uniform thickness.

o The creamy white oval eggs are laid on the surface of stored material and

the incubation period is 9 - 14 days.

o The larval and pupal periods range respectively from 17 - 29 days and 2-8

days.

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 o Grub whitish hairy grub feed on stored tobacco, ginger, turmeric and

chillies.

4. Drug store beetle - Stegobium paniceum Linn. (Anobiidae:

Coleoptera)
Nature of damage

o Circular pinhead sized bore hole on turmeric, coriander, ginger, dry

vegetable and animal matter.

Bionomics

o Adult reddish brown small beetle has striated elytra and measures 3mm

long.

o Antenna is clubbed.

o It lays the eggs in batches of 10 - 40.

o Grub is not hairy but is pale white, fleshy with the abdomen terminating in

two dark horny points.

o LP: 10 - 20 and PPL 8-12 days.

5. Pulse beetle - Callosobruchus theobromae Linn.(Bruchidae:

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 Coleoptera)
Nature of damage

o Grub alone eats away the entire seed content make a cavity.

o Adult beetles are harmless and do not feed on stored produce at all.

o The infestation starts in the field itself from where the infestation is

carried over to godown and pulse seed with round exit holes and cigar like

eggs consented of them.

o It attacks all whole pulses, bean and gram.

Bionomics

o Adult is brownish grey coloured with characteristic elevated ivory like

spots near the middle of the dorsal side.

o Elytra do not cover the abdomen fully.

o It lays 80 - 100 eggs singly and glued on the surface of pod in the field or

on grain in stores.

o The egg period is about 5 days.

o The grub is fleshy, white, creamy in colour which moulds four times.

o Grub bores into the pod or grain.

o The larval period lasts for 30-50 days.

o It pupates in a pupal cell prepared beneath the seed coat.

o Pupal period last for 4 days in summer and two weeks in winter. The life

cycle is completed in 23 days at 30oC and 70% relative humidity.

6. Tamarind beetle - Pachymeres gonagra Fb. (Bruchidae:

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 Coleoptera)
Nature of damage

o Circular holes on fruits of tamarind both in tree and storage.

Bionomics

o Adult small grey coloured beetle.

7. Angoumois grain moth - Sitotroga cerealella Olivier

(Gelechiidae: Lepidoptera)
Nature of damage

o The larva bores into the grain and feeds on the internal content of it.

o Exit holes of 1 mm diameter with or without a trap door on the damaged

grain are typical symptoms of attack.

o It attacks paddy, maize, sorghum, barley and wheat before harvest and in

store.

Bionomics

o The adult moth has pale fore wings and uniformly grey pointed wings with

fringe of hairs.

o It lays about 100 white eggs singly in stores or fields on the surface of

damp grains.

o The egg period is 4-30 days.

o The larva is white in colour with yellow head measuring 5 mm in length.

o It undergoes four instars.

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 o It feeds in side and remain in a single grain only.

o It over winters in pupal stage.

o It spins a cocoon and pupates for 7 days

II. External feeders

1. Red flour beetle - Tribolium castaneum Herbst.(Tenebrionidae:

Coleoptera)
Nature of damage

o Both grubs and adults feed on milled products.

o Adult beetles are readily observed even in moderately infested stored

foods.

o They construct tunnels as they move through flour and other granular food

products.

o In addition they release gaseous quinones to the medium which may

produce a readily identifiable acid odor in heavy infestations.

o It attacks broken grains or mechanically damaged grains and milled

products.

Bionomics

o The beetle is small, oblong, flat, brown in colour measuring 3-4mm in

length.

o In T. confusium the compound eyes are completely notched and antennae

are not gradualy thickened in the latter where as in T. castaneum not

notch is not complete and antennae have a clear 3 segmented club.

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 o It lays 400-500 eggs in stored grain at random for several months.

o The eggs are white and cylindrical.

o The egg period is 5-12 days.

o The grub is white worm like having two spine like appendages at the last

abdominal segment.

o The larval period is 3-12 weeks.

o The pupal stage lasts for 5-9 days.

o The life cycle is completed in 3-4 weeks at 35-57°C at 70% relative

humidity.

2. Indian meal moth - Plodia interpunctella Huebn (Phycitidae:

Lepidoptera)
Nature of damage

o The larvae feed on the grain and contaminate with excrement, webbing,

dead individuals and cocoons.

o It attacks maize cereals, dry fruits groundnuts and cereal products.

Bionomics

o The adult moth has brown fore wins with white band.

o It lays greyish white coloured eggs on the surface of grain.

o The fecundity of this insect is 39-275 eggs per female.

o The egg period is 2-17 days.

o The larva is dirty white in colour.

o The larval period is 30-35 days.

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 o It pupates in silken cocoons for 10 days.

o The life cycle is completed in about 5-6 weeks.

3. Fig moth - Ephestia cautella Walk. (Phycitidae: Lepidoptera)

Nature of damage

o The larva mainly feeds on germ portion leaving the rest of the kernel

undamaged.

o It forms webs on the surface of commodity or on the bags by silk and silk

strands.

o It attacks wheat, rice, maize, sorghum, groundnut and spices.

Bionomics

o The small moth has dirty white to grayish wings with indistinct black

bands about 4 mm from the head.

o It lays 200 - 250 eggs on grains exposed at the sampling tube spots in jute

bags.

o The caterpillar is grayish white, hairy with dark brown head with 2 dark

areas on the first segment behind the head.

o It pupates in a silken cocoon at the junction of two overlapping edges of

stalked bags.

o The adult longevity is 14 days.

o The entire cycle is completed in 25 days.

4. Rice moth - Corcyra cephalonica Staint. (Galleriidae:

Lepidoptera)

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 Nature of damage:

o The larva feeds on the grains and pollutes them with frass, moult and

dense webbings.

o It attacks rice, sorghum, other millets whole cereals, deals, processed

products of cereals, pulses oilseeds, nuts, dry fruits and milled spices.

Bionomics:

o Adult moth has pale yellowish green fore wings and grey white hind wings.

o It lays small, oval, elliptical eggs on walls, bags or on grain.

o The egg period is 3-5 days.

o The larva is creamy with prothoracic shield.

o The grown up larva is fleshy, 12 mm in size.

o It pupates in a silken cocoon sticking on to gunny bags.

o The pupal period is 10 days.

5. Khapra beetle - Trogoderma granarium Everts. (Dermestidae:

Coleoptera)
Nature of damage

o It chews up the seed coat in an irregular manner on all cereals and reduces

the grain into frass.

o It attacks wheat, maize sorghum, rice, pulses, oilseeds and their cakes.

Bionomics

o Adult beetle is reddish brown measuring 4-6 mm in length.

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 o The male beetles are smaller than females in size.

o It lays about 80-125 eggs.

o The yellowish brown grubs are clothed with long hairs.

o The grubs are active, move and feed freely.

o It pupates on the surface of the grain in bulk and overlapping edges of

bags.

o The pupal period last for 5-8 days.

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 Lecture No. 31

Secondary pests and scavengers of stored product

1. Saw toothed grain beetle - Oryzaephilus surinamensis

Linn.(Cucujidae: Coleoptera)
Nature of damage

o It feeds on grains, dried fruits etc. by scarving of grain surface or

burrowing holes in them.

o It attacks rice, wheat, maize, cereal products, oil seeds and dry fruits.

Bionomics

o It is slender, dark brown, narrow, flattened beetle having a row of saw like

sharp teeth on each side of the prothorax.

o The antenna is clubbed and elytra cover abdomen completely.

o It lays 300 whitish eggs loosely in cracks of storage receptacles of godown.

o The eggs period is 3-17 days.

o The larva is sender, pale cream in colour with no slightly darken patches

on each segment.

o The larval period is 14-20 days.

o It pupates in a protective cocoon like covering with sticky secretion.

o The pupal period is 7-21 days.

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 2. Long headed flour beetle - Latheticus oryzae Water
house.(Tenebrionidae: Coleoptera)

Nature of damage

o Both grubs and adults beetles feed on the milled products.

o It occurs as secondary infestation in stored grain.

o It attacks cereal flour, packaged food, rice and rice products.

Bionomics

o The beetle is light brown in colour with elongated body, measuring 2-3

mm in length and resembles Tribolium castaneum.

o It lays 400 white eggs singly on grain and seams of the bags.

o The incubation period is 7-12 days.

o The grub is small, white active which feeds voraciously.

o The larval period is 15-80 days.

o It pupates for 5-10 days.

o Life cycle is completed in 25 days at 35° C and 70% relative humidity.

3. Flat grain beetle - Cryptolestes minutus Olivier.(Cucujidae:

Coleoptera)
Damage

o Both grubs and adults feed on broken grains or on milled products.

o In case of heavy infestation it cause heating in grain and flour.

o It attacks rice, maize, wheat with excessive broken, different flours,

groundnut particularly with high moistures and mouldy grain.

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 Bionomics

o It is smallest amount the stored grain insect pests.

o It is light to dark reddish brown beetle measuring 1.5 mm to 2.0 mm.

o It lays white eggs loosely in flour, grain or crevices.

o The egg period is 5 days.

o The larva is cigar like, yellowish white with two reddish brown spots at

anal segment.

o The larval period is 21 days.

o It pupates in a gelatinous cocoon.

o The life cycle is completed in 42 days.

4. Grain lice - Liposcelis divinitorius Muli. (Psocoptera)

Damage

o They are scavengers affecting only germ portion in heavy infestation.

o .It thrives on insect fragments and broken grains.

o It attacks all starchy material.

Bionomics

o It is pale grey or yellowish white coloured, small, pin head sized louse with

filiform antenna.

o It lays about 7-60 eggs.

o The metamorphosis is incomplete.

5. Grain mite - Acarus siro Linn. (Acarina)

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 Damage

o It feeds on the surface of the grains.

o It attacks cereal grains, flour and other eatables.

Bionomics

o It is pale straw to dark reddish brown mite.

o It lays about 100 eggs.

o The eggs are hatched into 6 legged larvae which mould into nymphs.

o There are 1-3 instars.

o The life cycle is completed in 9-12 days at 23°C and 70% relative humidity.

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 Lecture No. 32

Integrated Management of Stored Produce Pests

Control methods

o The control methods of stored produce pests can be categorized into

preventive and curative measures.

A. Preventive measures

o Brush the cracks, crevices and corners to remove all debris in the godown.

o Clean and maintain the threshing floor / yard free from insect infection

and away from the vicinity of villages.

o Clean the machines like harvester and thresher before their use.

o Made the trucks, trolleys or bullock carts free from infestation.

o Clean the godowns/storage structures before storing the newly harvested

crop to eliminate various bio stages of pest hiding.

o Provide a metal sheet upto a height of 25 cm at the bottom of the wood in

doors to arrest the entry of rats.

o Fix up wire meshes to windows, ventilators, gutters, drains etc. to prevent

entry of rats, birds and squirrels.

o Remove and destroy dirt, rubbish, sweepings and webbings etc. from the

stores.

o Close all the rat burrows found in godown with a mixture of broken glass

pieces and mud and plastered with mud / cement.

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 o Plaster the cracks, crevices, holes found on walls, and floors with mud or

cement and white wash the stores before storing of grains.

o Provide dunnage leaving gangway or alleyway of 0.75 to 1 m all around to

maintain good storage condition.

o Store the food grains in rat and moisture proof storage structures.

o Disinfest the storage structures receptacles by spraying malathion 50 EC

@ 3 lit 100 m before their use.

B. Curative measures

i. Ecological methods

o Manipulate the ecological factors like temperature, moisture content, and

oxygen through design and construction of storage structures/godown and

storage to create ecological conditions unfavorable for attack by insects.

o Temperature above 42oC and below 15oC retards reproduction and

development of insect while prolonged temperature above 45oC and below

10oC may kill the insects.

o Dry the produce to have moisture content below 10% to prevent the

buildup of pests.

o Kill the pests bio stages horboured in the storage bags, bins etc. by drying

in the sun light.

o Store the grains at around 10% moisture content to escape from the

insects attack.

o Manipulate and reduce oxygen level by 1% to increase the CO2 level

automatically, which will be lethal to all the stages of insects.

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 ii. Physical methods

o Provide a super heating system by infrared heaters in the floor mills and

food processing plant to obtain effective control of pests since mostly the

stored produce insects' die at 55-60oC in 10-20 minutes.

o Modify the storage atmosphere to generate low oxygen (2.4% and to

develop high carbon dioxide (9.0 - 9.5) by adding CO2 to controls the

insects.

Seed purpose

o Mix 1 kg of activated kaolin (or) lindane 1.3 D (or) Malathion 5 D for every

100 kg of seed and store / pack in gunny or polythene lined bags.

Grain purpose

o Mix 1 kg activated kaolin for every 100 kg of grain and store. To protect the

pulse grains, mix activated kaolin at the above dosage or any one of the

edible oils at 1 kg for every 100 kg of grin or mix 1 kg of neem seed kernel

for every 100 kg of cereal or pulse and store.

o Do not mix synthetic insecticides with grains meant for consumption.

iii. Cultural methods

o Split and store pulses to escape from the attack by pulse beetle since it

prefers to attack whole pulses and not split ones.

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 o Store the food grains in airtight sealed structures to prevent the infestation

by insects.

iv. Mechanical methods

o Sieve and remove all broken grains to eliminate the condition which

favour storage pests.

o Stitch all torn out bags before filling the grains.

v. Chemical methods

o Treat the walls, dunnage materials and ceilings of empty godown with

Malathion 50 EC 10 ml / 1 (or) DDVP 76 WSC 7 ml / 1 at 31 spray solution

/ 10 sq.m.

o Treat the alleways and gangways with Malathion 50 EC 10 ml / 1 or DDVP

76 WSC 7 ml / 1 (1 litre of spray fluid / 270 M3).

o Spray Malathion 50 EC 10 ml / 1 @ 3 1 of spray fluid / 100 M2 over the

bags.

o Do not spray the insecticides directly on food grains.

o Use knock down chemicals like lindane smoke generator or fumigant

strips pyrethrum spray to kill the flying insects and insects on surfaces,

cracks and crevices.

o Use seed protectants like pyrethrum dust, carbaryl dust to mix with grains

meant for seed purpose only.

o Decide the need for shed fumigation based on the intensity of infestation.

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 o Check the black polythene sheets or rubberized aluminum covers for holes

and get them ready for fumigation.

o Use EDB ampoules (available in different sizes of 3 ml, 6 ml, 10 ml, 15 ml

and 30 ml) at 3 ml / quintal. At for wheat the pulses and 5 ml / quintal for

rice and paddy (Do not recommend EDB for fumigation of flour oil seeds

and moist grains).

o Use EDCT (available in tin containers of 500 ml, 1 liter and 5 litres) at 30-

40 litres / 100 cubic meter in large-scale storage and 55 ml/quintal in

small-scale storage.

o Use fumigants like Ethylene dibromide (EDB), Ethylene dichloride carbon

tetra chloride (EDCT), Aluminium phosphide (ALP) to control stored

produce pests effectively.

o Apply Aluminium phosphide (available in 0.6 g and 3 gram tablets) @ 2

tablets (3 gram each) per tonne of food grains lot with help of an

applicator.

o Choose the fumigant and work out the requirement based on the following

guidelines.

o 3 tablets of aluminum phosphide 3 g each per tonne of grain (For cover

fumigation)

o 21 tablets of aluminium phosphide 3 g each for 28 cubic meters (For shed

fumigation)

o Period of fumigation is 5 days.

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 o Mixclay or red earth with water and make it into a paste form and keep it

ready for plastering all round the fumigation cover or keep ready sand

snakes (For cover fumigation).

o Place the required number of aluminium phosphide tablets in between the

bags in different layer.

o Cover the bags immediately with fumigation cover.

o Plaster the edges of cover all round with wet red earth or clay plaster or

weigh down with sand sankes to make leak proof.

o Keep the bags for a period of 5 - 7 days under fumigation based on

fumigant chosen.

o Remove the mud plaster after specified fumigation periods and lift cover

in the corner to allow the residual gas to escape.

o Lift the cover after few hours to allow aeration.

General precautions

o Read the label carefully and follow the instructions given by manufactures

o Keep the pesticides in labelled containers only

o Store pesticides under lock and key beyond the reach of children

o Do not store insecticides near food stuff and store them in cool places

o Never use empty containers for any other purposes except for insecticides

o Destroy and dump the waste containers

o Wash hands with soap and water after using pesticides

o Do not use moth for cleaning nozzles etc. of sprayers.

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 o Avoid swallowing, inhalation, or contact with skin as far as possible.

o Keep first air box ready along with universal antidote.

o Activated charcoal 2 parts + tannic acid 1 part + magnesium oxide 1 part

(Dose: 15 grams in half tumblers of water).

o Consult a doctor in case of signs of illness eg. giddiness, nausea, head ache,

blurred vision, vomiting, depression, respiratory problem and inform

about the pesticide the patient had handled.

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 Lecture No. 33

Integrated pest management of rodent pests

Introduction

o Integrated pest management is a system which in the context of the

associated environment and the population dynamics of the pest species,

utilize all suitable techniques and methods in a compatible way and

maintains pest populations at levels below the economics injury level.

Rodent control is a problem of applied ecology factors into management

polity. The primary aim is to reduce damage, rather than to kill the pest.

However, most often this is achieved by use of a lethal chemical. However,

if lethal control is followed by rapid immigration then the damage

reduction may be short lived. Thus it is important to take account of

spatial dynamics of the pest. Simple ecological theory treats a population

as a group of organisms in one place at one time, the number of which

change through time according to the number of births, deaths,

immigrants and emigrants.

o Although rodents have potentiality for fast breeding, the geometrical

progression is countered by various limiting factors operated by nature.

Implantation failure, intra uterine mortality, maternal cannibalism and

postnatal mortality due to social strife etc. limit their number. However,

the higher carrying capacity of crop fields result in maintaining more

number of rodents resulting in significant crop losses.

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 o A number of vegetables, groundnut, pulses, sugarcane, cotton boll finger

millet, sesame and tender coconuts in the field and also stored grains in

ware house and store rooms are damaged by rats and nice. Rats are among

the most destructive pests of paddy in field causing about 5 - 10% damage.

o It has been estimated that there are about 2500 million rats in our

country. Five species of rats and three species of mice are important pests

of cultivated crops in the field in Tamil Nadu.

o They are as follows.

6. Mole rat or lesser bandicoot or field rat - Bandicota bengalensis

7. Bandicoot rat - Bandicota indica

8. Grass rat - Millardia meltada

9. Gerbil rat - Tatera indica

10. Common house rat - Rattus rattus rufescens

11. Indian field mouse - Mus booduga

12. Brown ring mouse - Mus platythrix

13. House mouse - Mus musculus

1. Mole rat - Bandicota bengalensis Gray. (Muridae: Rodentia)

Nature of damage

o The rat enters the paddy nursery and nibbles the seeds.

o After transplantation the seedlings are cut.

o In short stage it cuts the tillers and the affected area is seen as circular

patches in a field.

o The rat revisits the same area next night and spread the damage.

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 o It cuts ear heads and carries to its burrow and in a burrow up to 2 kg of

hoarded grain can be noticed.

o It also feeds on pulses, grasses and grains.

Bionomics

o The rat lives in burrows made in the sides of bunds channel bunds and in

waste lands adjoining the fields.

o Mole rat is robust, dark brown to black with a short, stumpy truncated and

pig like face.

o Tail has scaly rings, normally smaller but sometimes equal to head and

body.

o The adults weigh 300 grams.

o It breeds round the year with 5-8 litters year. Life span is approximately 7-

8 months.

o It is expert in digging burrows, excellent swimmer and aggressive fighter.

2. Bandicoot rat - Bandicota indica Bechstein. (Muridae:

Rodentia)
Nature of damage

o It weakens the foundation of walls, river bunds, railway tracts by making

bug burrows.

o It cuts the tillers / leaves in the rice field and reduce the yield drastically.

o It hoards grain in burrows. It feeds on grain in burrows.

o It feeds on grain, animal products, meat etc. in stores.

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 Bionomics

o It is the largest rat in size with a ferocious look and brownish to black in

colour head is broad, truncated, pointed with long black whiskers.

o Eyes are small with white eye borrows and ears are short, rounded opaque

and nude.

o Fur is thick coarse with spines.

o It weighs about 800 - 1000 grams.

o The tail is equal to the length of body but not uniformly tapering

Droppings are scattered and spindle shaped.

3. Grass rat - Millardia meltada Gray. (Muridae: Rodentia)

o Body small and slender, dark brownish grey above and pale grey below

with soft fur.

o Head and body is about 13 cm long and tail 10 cm long.

o The burrows of the grass rat are similar to that of the mole rat excepting

that they are smaller in length and diameter and that usually more than

one adult rat occupies a single burrow.

o It attacks rice in all stages and feeds upon young germinating grains.

o It damages green cotton bolls in black cotton soils.

4. Gerbil rat - Tatera indica Hrdwicke. (Muridae: Rodentia)

o It is reddish grey in colour with white under side and it equals the

common house rat in size with about 18 cm long head and body and a

hairy tail little longer than the head and body.

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 o It generally feeds on grams, grass, roots and fruits.

5. Common house rat- Rattus rattus rufescens Linn. (Muridae:

Rodentia)
Nature of damage

o It feeds upon all kinds of vegetable and animal food.

o Its damage is great in ware house and storage godowns on vegetable grains

and preserved food materials.

o It is responsible for plague.

Bionomics

o It is brownish grey with dark under surface.

o It has small eyes, large sparsely hairy ears and pointed snout.

o The tail is uniformly dark coloured and is equal to the size of body plus

head.

o It weighs about 150-200 gram.

o The droppings are banana shaped and found scattered.

o It has 5-7 litters per year, each having 6-14 young ones after gestation

period of about 25 days.

o The life span is 1 year in field and 2 years in laboratory condition.

o It lives in roots of houses and underground burrows.

6. Indian field mouse - Mus booduga Gray. (Muridae: Rodentia)

o It is about 5 to 8 cm long with 5 cm long tail.

o It is brown in colour with a white belly.

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 o It burrows in field bunds causing extensive damage to bunds and wastage

of water.

o It produces 3 to 9 young ones per litter.

o It cuts and removes grains from rice crop.

o It feeds on gram and grain.

7. Brown ring mouse - Mus platythrix (Muridae: Rodentia)

o Body-small, fur crisp and tends to be spiny grayer basally, browner

terminally, above dark brown to pale brown, under part with a clear line of

demarcation along the sides.

o Tail stout averaging below 90% of the length of the body.

o It feeds on grains and grasses.

8. House mouse - Mus musculus Linn. (Muridae: Rodentia)

Nature of damage

o It feeds on cereals, cereal products, vegetables, meat, fat, carbohydrates

etc.

o It also damage wooden furnitures, paper clothes, rubber and leather goods

etc.

o It consumes 3-4 grams per day.

Bionomics

o Adult is dark brown to sandy brown rat with short hairs, undersurface

light grey.

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 o It weighs about 23-35 grams.

o Tail is longer than head and body and dropping are scattered and spindle

shaped.

o There are 8 litters per year with gestation period of 19 days.

9. Brown rat of ship rat - Rattus norvegius Birken (Muridae :

Rodentia)
Nature of damage

o It feeds on gains damages bags, cartons and pollutes gain with excreta,

dropping and hairs.

Bionomics

o Adult is soft skinned brownish grey rat with whitish belly.

o It weighs about 200-300 grams.

o The snout is wide and blunt.

o The tail is shorter than head and body.

o There are 6-14 liters per year with a litter size of 5-7 young ones.

o The gestation period is 4 weeks.

o The life span is one year.

Integrated Rodent Management

o The following integrated approaches can be adopted for the management

of rodents both in field and storage.

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 1) Cultural methods

2) mechanical methods

3) biological methods and

4) chemical methods.

I. Field

1. Cultural methods

o Dig burrows and kill rats at the beginning of crop season while rectifying

bunds for cultivation and plan to have narrow bunds in the field, which are

adequate for the rats to construct furrows.

o Avoid keeping hay stakes near the fields as they provide excellent

harborage for rats.

o Plough the field deeply up to 18" to unearth rat burrows and to expose the

rats to enemies like cats and kites before the sowing operation.

o Flood the field with water to suffocate and kill the rats.

o Organise campaigns to dig out rat burrows and kill them soon after the

harvest.

2. Mechanical methods

o Kill the solitary rats by sticks and brooms

o Set up indigenous local trap like bow traps at 20-25 per acre.

3. Biological methods

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 o Keep up the trained dogs to prey upon rats or even dig out rats from

burrows by smelling.

o Conserve snakes and mangooses to reduce the rat populations.

o Set up owl perches in the paddy field to reduce rate damage.

4. Chemical Methods

a. Single dose poison

o Use acute or single dose poision bait at 1 part Zinc phosphide with 49 parts

popped corn / rich / dry fish.

b. Multi dose poison

o Use ready to feed anticoagulant like warfarin 0.5% cakes to cause blood

haemorrhage in rats.

o Prepare dry bait by mixing flour (ie. cereals or millets) 450 g (4 tea cupful)

any edible oil 10 g (2 teaspoonful) sugar or jaggery 15 g (3 teaspoonful)

and anticoagulant, warfarin 0.5% 25 g (5 teaspoonful) for effective rat

control.

o Prepare water-soluble bait by mixing 1 part anticoagulant and 19 parts of

water (2.5 grams of anticoagulant dissolved in 475 ml of water).

o Use ready to use second generation anticoagulant namely bromodiolone at

125 grams (1 teacupful).

o Before providing poison bait keep the plain or non poisoned bait for 2-3

days as a pre bait to make the rats used to the food provided.

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 c. Fumigation

o Control the rats by fumigating the burrows with aluminium phosphide

tablets during the process of baiting with rodenticides.

o Plug the entry holes of all rat burrows and locate the burrows which have

the entrance opened by the rats and inset two tablets each of 0.5 or 0.6 g

aluminium phosphide per burrow.

II. Storage

o Construct the pucca masonry cement concrete storage structures on plinth

of 75 cm high without steps or ladder.

o Plaster the walls and floors of godowns with cement.

o Provide a metal sheet up to height of 25 cm at the bottom of the wooden

doors and fit the wire meshes to windows, ventilators, gutters, and drains

to prevent the entry of rats, birds and squirrels.

o Plug the rat holes and plaster with glass pieces and cement.

o Provide automatic door closures in houses to prevent the entry of rat.

o Prepare and keep dry bait and water bait with rodenticide as detailed

above.

o Keep the bait with multi dose or chronic anticoagulant in small cups on

the rat runs, dark places etc. where rat frequently move.

o Replace consumed bait daily, collect the rats which begin dying after 5 or 6

days and bury them.

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 o Use also water soluble bait by mixing 25 g water soluble coagulant in 475

ml of water and keep them in shallow cups or plates in a number of places

inside the godown for the rats to drink the poisoned liquid and get killed.

o Discontinue the baiting or remove all the baited food and destroy as soon

as the rat population is controlled.

1.1. Factors for rodent incidence

o Climate affects the food supply in nature. Based on this the rodents exhibit

unimodal or bimodal peaks in breeding activity often coinciding with the

crop maturity periods. Bimodal pattern of breeding is observed in

Bandicota bengalensis, Millardia meltada, Funambulus pennant, Tatera

indica and Meriones hurrianae. However, wherever single cropping is

practiced unimodal pattern is reported for these species in the country.

o Harbourage or cover is an important parameter that limits the rodent

infestation. Weeds afford both shelter and food to the rodents. Bunds with

more volume have more weeds, thereby more rodent infestation.

Similarly, denser fields with more tiller density afford cover and energy,

which enhance reproductive activity of rodents. Wider spacing and even

maintenance of alleys in rice fields prevent rodent damage. Cover / shelter

in storage of commodities is one of the major factors influencing the

rodent population.

o Rodents are highly mobile and form limited social structures based on a

hierarchy. These home ranges depend on food reserves, cover, and

presence of other individuals of it or other species. Home ranges change

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 with altered resources. Rodents emigrate from their ecosystems once the

food source is removed/shifted. This is particularly important since rat

control is done in some places at harvest time. They also immigrate very

fast. Sustained trapping and poisoning which may reduce 80-90% of

rodent infestation often fail to prevent the damage because of constant

immigration from untrapped and unpoisoned areas nearby. In cereal crops

booting stage attracts rodents, which on arrival settle in the field and start

breeding due to abundant availability of quality food. This is one of the

factors to planning timing the rodent control operations. Pre seasonal rat

control operations are vogue in some of the States. Such control may have

limited result due to this dispersal behavior. Further the compensatory

capacity of the cereal crops before booting stage also makes it imperative

to take up rat control operations at late tillering stage.

1.2. Monitoring rodent incidence

o Since the aim is primarily for damage reduction, but not individual rat

killing, there is a necessity of monitoring the situation in different

ecosystems through either their damage or through their levels of

infestation. The control decision may be taken depending on the

monitoring surveys. Limited work undertaken on monitoring indicated

that damage index of 15% of rodent affected hills or 2% tiller damage may

be taken as threshold value.

o Looking at National perspective it is recommended that efforts for periodic

monitoring of rodent infestation in crop fields at tehsil levels be made

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 based on the number of active burrows per hectare (25 burrows per

hectare: low intensity, 25 to 50 burrows/ha: medium intensity and more

than 50 burrows/ha : severe intensity).

1.3. Rodent management measures

o Different methods exist in controlling rodents. However, each method has

its own limitation. The methods that are in vogue and limiting factors are

given below.

o Role of predators/Biological control

o Snake and owls have been the natural predators for field rodents. Bird

perches are used for attracting owl perching in the nights to facilitate

hunting the colonizing rats. The perches should be used at tillering stage of

the crops to tackling immigrating rodents. However, if these perches are

continued in later stages, granivorous birds may cause damage to the

panicles. Since most of the predators of rodents are general feeders, they

often tend to feed on food other than rodents. Cats in residential premises

are one of the examples. Declined rodent population after harvest of the

crops also makes the predators to leave the area. There is also sometimes a

possibility of predation triggering increase in rodent populations after

partial removal of the rodents.

o Attempts were also made with parasites and pathogens to bring successful

rodent control. However, the efforts are so far not fruitful since they also

equally affect human populations. Attempts are in progress to use immuno

contraception through viral vectors (VVIC) among rodents. This

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 combination of induction of sterility by activating body immune response

through a viral vector appears to be promising in modern rodent

management. Laboratory results are quite promising. However, the trials

are at infancy stage only.

Physical methods

o Trap Barrier System (TBS) is being tried in different countries employing

fences to the rice farming and fixing traps at different intervals. Trap crop

is also is added to attract rats to immigrate by growing a small patch of the

crop on the periphery. However, looking at the cost of fencing and land

holdings, it may not be appropriate in Indian conditions to use this

method, although the preliminary studies yielded significant results.

However, in North-eastern States this method can be followed in jhum

cultivation. Non lethal electric fencing as a barrier method were found to

be cost effective and has limited extension value.

Ultrasound and electromagnetic devices

o The sense of hearing among rodents is above 20kHz thus extending well

into ultrasonic range. Ultrasound devices are being used as deterrents to

rodent immigration. However no convincing evidence was found them as

effective against rodents. Similarly little scientific support was found for

use of electromagnetic devices.

Chemical repellents

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 o There is no effective chemical repellent available that is not also toxic.

Although pheromones appear to be promising, lot of scientific work is

required to identify, isolate and bring out the pheromones for extension

purpose.

Trapping

o Trapping is one of the oldest methods of animal control. A variety of traps

can be used against rodents-live or snap. The efficacy of trapping, whether

live or snap trap, depends on operational conditions of the trap, number of

traps set, type of bait, place and time of placement. Scientific literature has

seldom proved trapping as effective method against rodents as a measure

of reducing their numbers. However, they can be employed in controlling

localized infestations effectively. Tanjor kitties, bamboo Palmyra traps are

highly effective for localized infestations. They help in maintaining rodent

numbers at a low level once they have been reduced by other methods.

Use of rodenticides

o Generally rodenticides are used for mass scale rodent control campaigns.

Application of rodenticides and environmental manipulation should be

considered as complimentary to each other rather than alternative

approaches. Amalgamating various methods as above results in reduction

in rodent damage in different situations.

1.4. Suggested control measures

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 o The suggested control practices under different situations for rodents for

large scale treatments are given below:

1.4.1. In field conditions

Day 1

o Make a survey in the area to locate rodent burrows on the bunds and no

mans lands around the fields. Identify the live rodent burrows, through

the presence of soil plugs and faecal pellets.

o Prepare poison bait of Bromadiolone at 0.005% a.i. in cereal base. Keep

the bait approximately 15 g. wrapped in paper packet inside the burrows.

No pre baiting is required while using this anticoagulant.

[or]

o Acute rodenticide like zinc phosphide may be used when infestations are

high.Keep pre bait of approximately 20 g. broken grain of staple food with

little amount of vegetable oil.

Day 4

o Prepare zinc phosphide poison bait at 2.5% using broken grain of staple

food with vegetable oil as binding medium.

o Keep bait deep inside burrows.

Day 5

o Close all rodent burrows.

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 o Locate dead rodents and bury them. Normally most of the rodents die

inside the burrows. Hence, mostly dead rodents cannot be seen. Dear rats

may not be taken as a criterion to evaluate success of any rodenticide.

Day 6:

o Treat the residual burrows with bromadiolone based on the situation.

o Place 1 piece of Bromadiolone wax block (16.6 g.) or 15-20 g. of loose

Bromadiolone bait (0.005% a.i. Bromadiolone mixed in bait material) in

packets in all the reopened burrows. With Bromadiolone, rodents die

between 3-10 days after the placement of bait material.

In rodent endemic areas or when the rodent problem is quite serious, fumigant

like aluminium phosphide may be used to treat all the residual rodent burrows in

the field conditions. At each time of fumigation enblock treatment should be

followed. Fumigation by individual farmers at different times should not be

encouraged. Residual burrows are the reopened burrows after closure of the

burrow entrances with mud one day prior to the observations. The following

procedure may be followed while using aluminium phosphide fumigation.

o Cover the nose and mouth with a cotton cloth.

o Cover hands with gloves / polythene cover.

o Take a tube/pipe

o Take two Aluminium phosphide pellets.

o Insert the tube deep inside the rodent burrow.

o Leave the Aluminium phosphide pellets inside the tube.

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 o Remove the tube/pipe and close the burrow.

o Fumigation should be done under the technical guidance and strict

supervision of officials from the State Department of Agriculture.

1.4.2. In Residential Premises / storage situations

o Inspection of the residential premises for rodent infestation is to be

performed as a first step. The procedure of the inspection is as follows.

1. Observe the following around the premises and mark them on the layout of the

area.

o Rodent burrows

o Drainage canals

o Holes at the base of compound wall

o Garbage dumps

2. Observe the following on the building / premises and mark them.

o Branches of trees overhung on the premises

o Wires from poles to the premises

o Holes in the walls

o Drainage pipes

3. Observe for rodent ―signs‖ inside the premises, room wise and mark them.

o Faecal pellets adjoining walls or corners

o Rat holes, if any, active/inactive

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 o Rat/mouse paw markings

o Rat runways

o Rat smears on beams, wiring etc.

o Base of the doors for space

o Windows/ventilators connecting any wiring or on roof

o Drainage

Special care should be taken while inspecting storage areas. Based on the layout

marked the following actions may be initiated based on the severity/intensity of

the problem;

Hygiene and Sanitation

o Proper cleanliness of the premises.

o Left over foods and empty food tins should be kept in dustbin with tightly

fitted lids.

o Remove piles of rubbish, timber and bricks near the godowns/houses.

Rodent proofing

o Use modern rodent proof storage structure or improve the existing ones.

o Fix wire meshes (24 gauge) to all windows, ventilators, gutters and drains

o Fix 25 cm. metal sheet lining or rubber sheet at the bottom of the doors

o Close the rodent burrows with concrete and cement.

o Remove the branches of the trees over hung on the godowns.

Poison baiting

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 o Step 1. Select the rooms where infestation is reported

o Step 2. Fix 10 tracking points using fine powder at 10 x 10 cm.on the

runway of rodents or at the areas frequented by them.

o Step 3. Observe the 10 tracks next day for rodent activity.

o Step 4. Coumatetralyl which is available as 0.75% Concentrate Powder

may be used at 0.0375% in cereal baits in houses and in storage by mixing

1 part of the poison with 19 parts of the bait. Vegetable oil should be used

as binding medium. Bromadiolone baiting can also be used at 0.005% in

the baits. The poison bait (about 100g) should be placed in suitable bait

stations (discarded tins, earthen pots etc.) @ 2-5 bait stations in the

premises based on level of infestation. The poison bait should be

maintained for 5-7 days with replenishment if required. Bromadiolone

may also be used at 0.005% a.i. in baits distributed at number of places

preferably in bait containers/stations.

o Step 5. Repeat step 2 on 15th day

o Step 6. Observe the tracking points for rodent activity

o Step 7. Calculate the control success

A-B

Control Success = ——————x 100

Where

‗A‘ is pre-control infestation (per cent tracks touched) level and ‗B‘ is post-

control infestation level.

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 Note: Keep vitamin K1 as stand by for meeting any exigency of accidental

poisoning.

2. Application Techniques
The chemical control of rodent infestation is most commonly accomplished by

the use of poisoned baits. Hence, selection of acceptable baits and their

placement is an important element in a successful rodent control.

o Bait materials most commonly used for the control of rodents are crushed

cereals followed by nuts, fruits or vegetables. Cereal-type baits have found

the widest use because rodents generally prefer them; they are most easily

mixed with poisons; and because of their low moisture content they also

tend to keep well, both in the store and in the field.

o The baits should be laid in the late evening, since rodents are mostly

nocturnal.

o Open baiting i.e. placing the baits in open places should not be resorted. In

houses/godowns, the baits should be exposed in protected bait containers

as far as possible on the runways of rodents.

o Baits should be exposed in protected bait containers, which provide a

secure place where rodents can become accustomed to feed; their use also

helps to prevent other animals from gaining access to poison bait.

o The position of bait containers should not be changed

o While using bromadiolone small quantities of the poison bait (10-20 g.)

should be laid at all the places frequented by the rodents. The application

may be repeated on 8th day to tackle residual population.

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 o While using coumatetralyl poison, bait of approximately 100 g. be kept at

2 or 3 places frequented by the rodents in the residential premises. The

poison bait should be maintained for 5-7 days with replenishment, if

required.

o Precaution while using rodenticide baits:

o Know-how of the operation should be told to the public always in local

language followed by demonstrations by departments concerned.

o Baits should always be placed late in the evening, as most of the rodents are

active during night.

o Keep poisons away from the reach of children, pet animals, drugs and food.

o Smoking, eating and drinking should be totally avoided while handling the

poison.

o Containers of the poisons should be opened in a well-ventilated room.

Unused baits, containers and dead rodents should be buried deep.

o Ensure that the antidotes of poisons are available with the doctor for use in

case of any accidental ingestion of poison.

o Acute poison bait is generally better accepted and an improved kill obtained

by laying prebait for a few days before hand. The bait laid should be the

same as that used later in the poison treatment.

o Acute poison baits should be exposed for more than one day.

3. Prevent Rodent Management

o Rodents require food and shelter for their survival in crop fields or in

storage.

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 o If any of these two factors are altered or eliminated, they will leave the

place.

3.1. Crop fields

o Hygiene practices in the fields are often referred to a habitat manipulation.

It simply means that the habitat the living area of rodents is managed or

altered so that it is less acceptable rodents. The main principal in habitat

manipulation is to reduce the shelter to the rodents to the maximum

extent possible. Following measures may be followed.

2. Weed removal

3. Maintenance of small bunds

4. Rouging planting etc.

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 Lecture No.34
Toxicology- insecticide residue problems in fruit, plantation medicinal and
aromatic crops and their tolerance limits
Insecticide residues

o Pesticides are normally applied at only very low rates typically 1-2 kg ha-1.

Even so small amounts may be found on or in the treated crop on harvest.

These traces, expressed as parts per million (ppm) of active ingredients

and, breakdown products are generally known as ‗residues‘. Residues are

the left out chemical and their metabolite present in the environment or

treated surface plant, grain, animal, over a period of time after the

application of insecticides. The footstuff may get contaminated by

pesticides in the following ways.

1. Through deliberate application of pesticide on plants.

2. Through drift during application of pesticide on plant.

3. Pesticide residues may occur on crops gown in soil to which the

pesticides were previously applied.

4. Pesticide residue may occur on animal products (milk, egg, meat) as

result of contamination of animal feed with pesticide.

o Compatibility of pesticides: For higher crop production, simultaneous

application of insecticides, fungicides, fertilizer etc is made in a single

cropping season. There are often advantages of spraying two or more

pesticides simultaneously. The main reason for combination of pesticides

is saving time, equipments wear and cost of application. But there are also

problems associated with this practice like physical incompatibility

(agglomeration, phase separation etc) chemical incompatibility

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 (degradation of native ingredient, change in PH) and biological

incompatibility (reduction in bio-efficacy of one by other, phytotoxcityy.)

Hence it is advised to consider the following before combination of

pesticide is restore. Do not mix two insecticides, as they will hasten the

development of resistant in pests. Do not mix incompatible pesticides. Do

not mix the pesticides as a matter of routine.

Impact of pesticides on agroecosystem

o I. Abiotic environment: Include soil, air and water. 1) Soil: Source of

contamination. Direct application; Fall out from plants, Rain. 2) Air:

Source of contamination; Drift during conventional and aerial application;

Volatilization; Thermal decomposition; Evaporation with water vapour. 3)

Water: Source of contamination; Direct treatment; Surface run off; Aerial

spraying; Precipitation Effect: biomagnifications, reduction of o2content,

toxic to fishes.

o II.Plants:1) Presence of residual amount – health hazard 2) Damage

because of phytotoxicity 3) Changes in the vegetative development –

Etiolation by heribicide

o III. Animals: 1) Domestic animals: Source, Forage treatment; Direct

application Effect; Chronic poisoning; storage in fat reserves. 2) Wild life:

Trophic transfer of pesticides through food chain kill wild life (eg) Egg

shell thinning led non vitality of bird eggs through D.D.T. poisoning. 3)

Natural enemies: Elimination of parasitoid and predators upset the biotic

balance. Effect: I) Pest resurgence: Recovery of pest population following

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 the application of insecticides to levels higher than before treatment. (eg)

BPH resurgence after quinalphos application. II)Secondary pest outbreak;

increase in the population of non-target insect to damaging levels followed

by the application of pesticides due to the elimination of natural enemies

of minor pests or potential pests (eg) Red spider mite outbreak in apple

followed by the application of organo chlorines. III) Pollinators: Pesticide

applications during blooming kill honey bees and other pollinators.

o IV. Man: a)Operational hazards: Manufacture – Distribution –

Application – Post – application, b)Accidental and intentional poisoning,

c)Indirect hazards through food chain – Handigodu syndrome, d) Disease:

carcinogenic, Mutagenic and Teratogenic effects.

o V. Food: Residues in human food – Reason; Use of persistent chemicals;

spraying crops nearing harvest; Excessive and improper use of pesticides.

o VI. Target insect: Development of resistance to insecticides in insects.

Excessive use exerts a high selection pressure in selecting resistant strains;

(eg) Mosquito resistance in DDT; Synthetic pyrethroid resistance in cotton

bollworms and diamond black moth.

Insecticide resistance insect: The resistance is the development of an

ability in a strain of insects to tolerate doses of insecticides which prove

lethal to the majority of individuals in a normal population of the same

species.

Resurgence of insect pests: The tremendous increase in the pest

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 population brought about by the insecticides, in spite of a good initial at

the time of treatment is called as ―resurgence‖ or ―flare black‘.

Impact of global warming on pests

What is global worming?

o Sun Earth reflects some solar energy as infrared radiation.

Green house gases.

Infra red radiation from earth reflected back to earth by green house gases.

This increases the temperature of earth and lower atmosphere. This is

called global warming or greenhouse effect

Solar radiation falls on earth surface. Earth absorbs and gets heated

up. EARTH

o Warmth from sun heats the surface of the earth

o Earth absorbs most of the energy but reflects back some energy in the

form of infra red radiation.

o Greenhouse gases (e.g.CO2,Methane, CFC (Chloro Fluoro Carbon),

Nitrous oxide) present in atmosphere traps the infrared radiation and

reflects back to earth.

o This reflected energy falls on earth and also lower atmosphere and keeps it

warmer (Heats the earth‘s surface).

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 o This is called global warming or green house effect.

Effect of global warming on world and agriculture

o Increase in overall temperature on earth (e.g.) Earth‘s surface temperature

has increased 1.4°F in Ist one century (Forecast:5°F rise in next century).

o Change in climate tremendously.

o Melting of ice in Polar region.

o Increase in sea level and submerging of coastal areas.

o Flooding and intense down pours.

o Drought in warmer regions.

Impact of global warming on pest status

21. Due to change in climate, temperature and water availability, the farmers

may change the type of crops grown.

22. Due to increase in temperature, there can be outbreak of certain insect

pests and diseases.

23. In forest areas there will be a shift in tree species and also pest species.

24. In agriculture lands since cropping pattern is changed, new crops to suit

the climate is introduced and new pest are also introduced.

25. When water to availability is less, crops will be raised as rainfed. It will be

difficult to take up control measures without water.

Sources of green house gases

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 Developed countries : Emission from Automobiles and factories
contain CFCs
Developing countries : Deforestation causes rise in CO2 level
Methane gas from paddy fields and
livestock.
Nitrous oxide from ‗N‘ based fertilizer.

o The rapid growth of chemical industry in India, while helped in the

progress due to increased production, also contributed to the pollution of

the environment, following their extensive use.

o Agriculture and horticulture sector uses two main groups of chemicals viz.,

fertilizers and pesticides to combat the increasing demand of foodgrains,

fruits and vegetables by increasing the production and preventing the

losses.

o Pesticide chemicals have decidedly been proved to control the heavy losses

of crops in field and during storage due to various pests to the extent of

Rs.140000 crores annually.

o However, pesticide consumption in India is still insignificant as compared

to developed countries It is because the importance of their use has not

reached to the common fanner.

o Further, these chemicals are costly too. Therefore, only progressive

farmers are currently using under irrigated conditions of crop production.

Apart from agriculture use, the pesticide use in health programme for

control of vectors of various diseases has also achieved significance.

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 Among the various pesticides, used in the country, insecticides constitute

75%, fungicides 15%, weedicides 6% and others 4%.

o To date, 144 chemicals are registered with Govt. of India that come under

the category of pesticides possessing insecticidal, fungicidal, nematicidal,

weedicidal and molluscicidal properties. The major classes of synthetic

pesticides employed today include: organochlorines, organophosphates,

organocarbamates, synthetic pyrethroids, thiocarbamate, nitrochloroalkyl

thiocyclohexane dithiocarboxymide substitutes, alkyl halides, hydroxy

coumarine derivatives, metal phosphides, phenoxy acetic acid derivatives,

bipyridium derivatives, triazine derivatives, substituted anihilides,

dinitroalkyl tolydines, antibiotics and gibberallins.

o The use pattern of various pesticides increasing sharply year by year with

the growing awareness among farmers about the utility of pesticides in

maximising their benefits.

o Their bad effects become more relevant as the hazards caused by them

start from manufacturing state itself and continue upto the post

application stage. The harmful effects of pesticides are well known.

Human-beings are exposed to pesticides by following ways:—

34. Intentional : Suicide

35. Accidental : Careless handling

36. Occupational : In production plants, application in agriculture and public

health

37. Contaminated food, : Residues resulting at post application stage air and

water

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 o The post-application stage hazards concern the common man, as they

come from pesticide residues persisting on food following their use in

plant protection resulting in the contamination of food chain.

o Pesticide residues are essentially the ramanents of a pesticide as any

substance or mixture of substances that can be found in or on crop, food,

soil, water, etc., resulting from the use of pesticide chemicals for the

control of pest infestation and includes metabolic and degradation

products along.

Contamination and persistence of pesticide residues in fruits

o Application of pesticides is associated with fruit cultivation so intensely

that today it has become impossible to get economic yield without their

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 use. At times, their use close to harvest as well as post-harvest applications

result in the build-up of pesticide residues in bioconcentrations which on

consumption may cause toxic hazards. Among the common fruits being

consumed, mango, grape, guava, banana, citrus, apple, plum and sapota

were monitored across the country for the extent of contamination and

persistence of pesticide residues with various pesticides. It is surprising to

find that majority of the market basket fruit samples were found

contaminated with the residues of toxic and hard to degrade chlorinated

hydrocarbon insecticides like DDT and BHC

o Mango fruits from Parbhani markets recorded 24.1% contamination with

DDT at average residues of 0.045 ppm ranging between traces -0.09 ppm

and HCH at 1.145 ranging between 0.04 and 2.25 ppm. Over 95.6% mango

fruits from Delhi-Ghaziabad markets were found contaminated with 0.74

ppm DDT (traces -1.48 ppm) and 0.95 ppm BHC (0.02 -1.05 ppm)

residues while monitoring of mango fruits in Kanpur, Lucknow and

Allahabad markets showed no detectable contamination with pesticide

residues.

o Periodic monitoring of grape berries from the markets of Hyderabad

during 1972 and 1975 recorded 81.8% samples contaminated with 1.2 ppm

malathion (0.40 -2.00 ppm) residues, 100% with 3.00 ppm BHC (tr - 6.00

ppm) residues, and 49% with 0.125 ppm DDT. 0.04 ppm endrin and traces

of Lindane. It was recorded 23.3% berry samples at Ludhiana market

contaminated with 1.00 ppm methyl parathion (traces.-2.00 ppm), 0.75

ppm DDT (0.50 - 1.00 ppm), traces of lindane and 0.75 ppm malathion

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 (0.50 -1.00 ppm) levels. Over 56.6% samples of grape berries at Parbhani

market were found contaminated by Jadhav, (1986) with 1.815 ppm DDT

(0.08 - 3.67 ppm) and 0.640 ppm BHC (0.05-1.23 ppm) while 100%

samples were reported contaminated from the markets of Lucknow,

Kanpur and Allahabad with DDT and HCH residues at 0.004 ppm (0.001-

0.006 ppm DDT) and 0.004 ppm (0.002-0.006 BHC) levels.

o Similarly, guava fruits from Parbhani recorded 21.6% samples

contaminated with 0.08 ppm DDT (0.05 - 0.11 ppm) and 0.53 ppm BHC

(0.04 -1.02 ppm) residues whereas, 84.6% samples from Delhi-Ghaziabad

markets were found contaminated with 1.58 ppm DDT (0.04-3.13 ppm)

and 0.68 ppm BHC (0.01—1.36 ppm) levels. A high level of contamination

to the tune of 70% samples of guava fruits from Lucknow, Kanpur and

Allahabad was detected by with 0.003 ppm DDT (0.001-0.005 ppm) and

0.003 ppm BHC (0.001-0.005 ppm) residues Banana fingers at Delhi were

found to be 85.6% contaminated with residues of 0.095 ppm DDT (traces-

1.10 ppm) and 1.62 ppm BHC (0.02-1.05 ppm).

o Over 90.9% sweet lemon fruits in Delhi-Ghaziabad markets were found

containing DDT residues at 0.02 ppm level (traces -0.04 ppm) and BHC at

0.15 ppm level (0.01-0.30 ppm).

o A moderate contamination of 23.8% sapota samples from Parbhani

market were found contaminated with 0.55 ppm DDT (traces-1.10 ppm)

and 0.075 ppm BHC (0.05-0.10 ppm) whereas 100% plum samples from

Delhi-Ghaziabad markets were found contaminated (Anon, 1987) with

0.82 ppm DDT (0.01-1.63 ppm) and 0.61 ppm BHC (0.02-1.20 ppm).

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 o Apple fruit samples from Delhi Ghaziabad markets (Anon; 1987) were

found to be 90% contaminated with 0.92 ppm DDT (0.01-1.80) and 1.62

ppm BHC (traces -3.24 ppm). Equally contaminated apple fruits to the

extent of 100% were detected in with 0.004 ppm DDT (0.001-0.007 ppm)

and 0.002 ppm BHC (0.001-0.004 ppm). Dube and Nath (1991) reported

85% apple fruit samples of Solan markets contaminated with residues of

thio-carbamate fungicide at an average of 4.50 ppm residues (1.00 -8.00

ppm).

o The screening of various fruit samples from the markets of different cities

in India for the contamination and persistence of pesticide residues works

out an average of 59.4% ranging between 23.5-100% contaminated

samples containing residues of persistent and toxic insecticides like DDT

and BHC in most of the cases.

o There was wide variation in the contamination of different fruits like

41.8% mango, 57.6% grape, 47.6% guava, 85.6% banana, 90.9% sweet

lemon, 23.5% sapota, 100% plum and 87.6% apple samples were found

contaminated across the country.

o The detection of residues of DDT and BHC in most of the fruit samples

appears to be the result of post-harvest application during storage or

transport as they are not being recommended for pest control in fruit

crops any more.

Contamination and persistence of pesticide residues in vegetables

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 o Pesticide residues in vegetables result mainly due to frequent and repeated

applications necessitated because of heavy pest infestation all through the

crop growth stages to fruiting due to intensive crop cultivation cutting

across the cropping seasons. The persistence of pesticide residues in

vegetables is more important and of great concern because they are

consumed afresh and directly without much processing or storage and

consumption of such vegetables loaded with excess toxic residues can

cause both acute and chronic toxicity effects as the build-up of residues is

not even subjected to degradation and aging. The analysis of market

samples of various vegetables viz., okra, cabbage, cauliflower, potato,

tomato, brinjal, chillies, beans, gourds, onion, carrot and leafy vegetables

across the country showed wide spread contamination with the residues of

various insecticides sometimes in excess of prescribed maximum residue

limits, that may danger the consumer's health

o Over 20% vegetable samples comprising of various vegetables from

Pantnagar market were reported contaminated with average residues of

0.72 ppm DDT. Higher contamination to the extent of 44.6% of vegetable

samples from Hyderabad was recorded with 0.25 ppm DDT and 0.25 ppm

BHC while Verma (1989) reported the contamination of vegetable samples

from Hissar to the extent of 33.7% with 0.76 ppm DDT, 3.45 ppm BHC

and 0.81 ppm endosulfan residues.

o Potato and Starchy Vegetables —DDT, aldrin, endrin and chlordane

residues were detected in 60% of potato samples to the extent of 3.25,

traces and 3.00 ppm, respectively, however, in 1972 the contamination

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 level being only 10% with 0.15 ppm DDT and 0.15 ppm BHC residues.

Periodical monitoring in 1975 detected DDT, BHC, aldrin, dieldrin, endrin,

heptachlor and lindane residues at trace levels only in 60% potato samples

from the same markets reported 100 % samples of potato contaminated

with DDT at residue range of 0.1-169.0 ppm and 0.12-8.00 ppm,

respectively. The qualitative contamination analysis of potato showed 48

samples contaminated with DDT, BHC, endrin,endosulfan and lindane

residues. Noronha (1978) reported 43.4% potato samples from Bombay

markets contaminated with DDT (3.67ppm), lindane (3.90 ppm), dieldrin

(0.80 ppm) and endrin (1.80 ppm) residues. All the potato samples of

Ludhiana markets were found containing DDT, BHC and aldrin residues

at'the concentration levels of 0.008, 0.006 and 0.001 ppm respecitvely.

About 50% samples from Parbhani markets were found loaded with 1.92

ppm DDT and 1.06 ppm BHC residues. The contamination level of 0.685

ppm DDT, 0.004 ppm BHC, 0.010 ppm heptachlor and 0.012 ppm aldrin

residues in 100% potato samples of Delhi markets. Similarly, 100%

samples from Kanpur, Lucknow and Allahabad were found contaminated

with 0.001 ppm BHC residues.

o Tomato—Contamination level of 60% samples of tomato from Hyderabad

and Ludhiana markets with DDT residues at 0.05 and 0.08 ppm residues

was reported. Contamination of 40% tomato samples with 2.16 ppm DDT

and 1.65 ppm lindane from markets. Cent per cent contamination in

tomato fruits with 0.195 ppm DDT, 2.55 ppm BHC and 0.75 ppm

endosulfan residues A lower level of 22% contamination with malathion

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 and organophosphate insecticides in the range of 2.64-5.88 ppm was

detected and 10% with BHC (0.002-0.007 ppm). Recently, carbon

disulphide residues resulting from thiocarbamate treatments were

detected on tomato fruits marketed at Solan in the range of 1-8 ppm

contaminating 85% tomato fruits.

o Brinjal—the contamination of 71.4% brinjal samples was detected. with

0.2 ppm DDT, 1.1 ppm heptachlor and traces of endrin residues, 40%

brinjal samples in markets were found to possess 100% contaminated

brinjal fruits with DDT (0.01-1.00 ppm) and BHC (0.10-56.0 ppm).

Persistence of DDT, BHC, endrin and endosulfan residues in 38.5%

samples were found.BHC residues in the range of 4.3-4.4 ppm were found

in 100% samples of brinjal.

o Chilli—wide spread contamination of 0.6 ppm endosulfan in 100% chilli

samples was recorded. However, only 23% samples in markets were found

containing 2.48 ppm carbaryl and 5.04 ppm organophosphate residues.

o Cabbage—Cabbage samples from Hyderabad (Lakshminarayana and

Menon, 1969) were cent per cent contaminated with DDT (tr-0.20 ppm)

and endrin (tr-0.10 ppm) residues. Samples from Delhi market (Agnihotri

et al., 1974) showed wide variation in residue build-up of tr - 5.00 ppm

DDT and tr - 56.2 ppm BHC. It was recorded contamination in 50%

samples with 0.04 ppm DDT and 0.005 ppm BHC. Delhi markets

possessed contamination of low magnitude with 0.070 ppm DDT, 0.004

ppm HCH, 0.004 ppm heptachlor and 0.024 ppm aldrin residues.

Similarly, samples from Kanpur, Lucknow and Allahabad contained only

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 0.025 ppm DDT and 0.012 ppm BHC though contamination was in 100%

samples. Organophosphate insecticide residues were detected only in 6%

samples from to the extent of 3.60 ppm.

o Cauliflower—A wide variation in the magnitude of contamination of

100% cauliflower samples from Delhi markets was recorded. Residues of a

number of insecticides 0.06 ppm BHC, 0.89 ppm lindane, 0.52 ppm

aldrin, 1.75 ppm dieldrin and 0.45 ppm heptachlor were detected.

Ludhiana markets recorded as high as 100% contamination with 0.013

ppm DDT and 0.007 ppm BHC, while, it was detected 0.017 ppm DDT,

0.001 ppm BHC and 0.002 ppm heptachlor residues in cauliflower

samples.

o Knol-khol samples of Hissar markets were found contaminated with 1.80

- 1.90 ppm residues.

o Bhendi—DDT and endrin residues to the extent of 0.60 and 0.20 ppm,

respectively were detected on 50% bhindi fruit samples. Insecticides like

DDT, BHC, endrin, endosulfan and lindane were detected in 42.6%

samples of Hyderabad-Secunderabad. BHC residues in the range of 2.10-

6.00 ppm and 0.20-0.50 ppm DDT were detected from Hissar markets in

most of the bhindi fruit samples. 100% contamination in samples from

Ludhiana with 0.050 ppm DDT and 0.007 ppm BHC. Contamination level

of 64.5% was reported.. About 50% samples were found contaminated

with 5.52 ppm malathion, 0.70 ppm carbaryl and 5.10 ppm residues of

different organophosphate insecticides.

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 o Root vegetables—Contamination level of over 87.5% in carrot samples

was detected by with 0.35 ppm DDT, 1.05 ppm lindane, 0.50 ppm aldrin

and traces of dieldrin. Dahia and The persistence of 0.90 ppm BHC

residues from Hissar. Ludhiana markets were found to contain 0.015 ppm

/DDT, 0.005 ppm HCH and 0.070 ppm aldrin residues in 100% carrot

samples.

o Radish sample from Ludhiana markets were found to possess 0.05 ppm

DDT residues in 80% samples while sample from Delhi contained 0.092

ppm DDT, 0.009 ppm HCH, 0.020 ppm heptachlor and 0.006 ppm aldrin

residues

Onion—Residue persistence of 0.040 ppm DDT, 0.260 ppm HCH, 0.015

ppm heptachlor and 0.015 ppm aldrin on 100% onion samples of Delhi

market was detected.

o Beans and greenpea—Wide spread contamination of bean samples was

detected with 0.40 ppm DDT. Residues of malathion (5.50 - 6.00 ppm)

and other organophosphate insecticides (2.76 - 3.24 ppm) were found in

50% bean samples

o Gourds—Bittergourd samples recorded about 70% samples contaminated

with 0.65 ppm endodulfan and 1.25 ppm BHC residues. Delhi market

samples contained 0.01 ppm DDT, 0.001 ppm BHC, 0.002 ppm

heptachlor and 0.001 ppm aldrin residues. Bottlegourd samples from

Hissar markets were found to contain 4.35 ppm endosulfan residues.

Smooth gourd samples of Delhi markets were found to contain 0.093 ppm

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 DDT, 0.045 ppm HCH, 0.002 ppm heptachlor and 0.008 ppm aldrin

residues.

o Leafy vegetables—DDT residues in 41.2% leafy vegetables of Hyderabad

were found to contain 0.15 ppm residues.

Mustard leaf samples were 100% contaminated with tr -2.50 ppm DDT

and 0.20 - 0.25 ppm BHC residues

Radish tops were also found equally contaminated with 0.05 -1.00 ppm

DDT and 0.30 - 50.0 ppm BHC in the samples from Delhi markets.

o Coriander leaves were reported to be contaminated with 0.008 ppm

DDT, 0.007 ppm HCH, 0.001 ppm heptachlor and 0.016 ppm aldrin

residues.

o Coccinia samples of Hyderabad-Secunderabad markets were found to

possess traces of DDT and BHC residues. Colocasia samples of Delhi were

found possess 0.024 ppm DDT, 0.002 ppm HCH, 0.001 ppm heptachlor

and 0.004 pm aldrin residues.

o The pesticide residue contamination in vegetable produce after harvest

and ready to consume, ranged between 33.3 to 100% in market samples

across the country. On an average, potato samples registered

contamination to the extent of 45.6%; tomato 49.5%; brinjal 47.3%; chilli

61.6%; cabbage 42.0%; cauliflower 61.8%; Knol-Khol; 100% Bhindi 58.0%;

root vegetables 97%; onion 33.3%; beans and green peas 71.9%; gourds

91.8% and leafy vegetables 86.6% with residues of various pesticides,

mainly being from chlorinated hydrocarbon insecticides like DDT, BHC,

aldrin, dieldrin, heptachlor and endosulfan.

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 o Among other groups of insecticides only carbaryl, malathion and other

organophosphates were detected.

The prevalence of the residues of various hard to degrade insecticides like

DDT and HCH in samples monitored in recent years reflect the source of

residues from post-harvest use by dipping the vegetables in pesticide

solutions presumably to keep vegetable fresh looking and during

transport. These practices are unauthorised and injudicious use of toxic

pesticides.

Pesticide residue studies in fruits and vegetables for safety

constants

o Extensive studies have been carried out under different agroclimatic

conditions of India over a period of time on the persistence and dissipation

of pesticide residues mainly from insecticide group on various fruit and

vegetable crops following the supervised field trials based on

recommended plant protection schedules involving the applications of

emulsifiable concentrates, water dispersible powders, dust and granular

formulations of various pesticides.

o While foliar applications effected surface residues, the soil granular

applications resulted in plant uptake by fruit and vegetable crops. The

periodic analysis of residues brought about the rate of residue decay (half

life) as an index of persistence pattern, that is governed by various factors

and hence required to study across the climatic zones of the country.

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 o This data in turn helped in working out safe waiting periods (Tol), the

period in days required for residues to reduce to safe levels, based on

prescribed maximum residue limits. The waiting period requirements

varied from pesticide to pesticide and crop to crop, being dependent on

persistence of pesticide residues as the degradation of residues is governed

by chemical nature of pesticide, type of formulation, type of crop, ,

application rates and frequency, cropping season and climatic conditions.

o The studies revealed the variable pattern of residues of various insecticides

and accordingly required waiting periods of 15-21 days on citrus fruits, as

against 7-10 days on mango, grape, guava, papaya, ber and banana from

foliar applications of insecticides. While waiting periods of 2-3 days for

endosulfan, malathion, carbaryl, 3-7 days for dichlorvos, phosalone,

dimethoate, fenthion, methyl parathion, monocrotophos, phosphamidon

and 7-10 days for fenitrothion, quinalphos, chlorpyriphos and synthetic

pyrethroids insecticides have been recommended on variety of vegetables

belonging to malvaceae, solanaceae, cucurbitaceae, cruciferae,

leguminaceae, root, bulb and leafy groups.

o The soil granular applications of insecticides, like phorate, aldicarb and

carbofuran, etc., required 50-60 days time for degradation of their

residues translocated into plant system to safe limits.

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