Unit 2

Maritime Law
Maritime law - is a complete system of law, both public and private, substantive and procedural,
national and international, with its own courts and jurisdiction, which goes back to Rhodian law of
800 B.C. and pre-dates both the civil and common laws. Its more modern origins were civilian in
nature, as first seen in the Rôles of Oléron of circa 1190 A.D. Maritime law was subsequently greatly
influenced and formed by the English Admiralty Court and then later by the common law itself. That
maritime law is a complete legal system can be seen from its component parts. For centuries
maritime law has had its own law of contract:
 contract of sale (of ships),
 contract of service (towage),
 contract of lease (chartering),
 contract of carriage (of goods by sea),
 contract of insurance (marine insurance being the precursor of insurance ashore),
 contract of agency (ship chandlers),
 contract of pledge (bottomry and respondentia),
 contract of hire (of masters and seamen),
 contract of compensation for sickness and personal injury (maintenance and cure) and
 contract of risk distribution (general average).

It is and has been a national and an international law (probably the first private international
law). It also has had its own public law and public international law.

Maritime law is composed of two main parts - national maritime statutes and international
maritime conventions, on the one hand, and the general maritime law (lex maritima), on the
other. The general maritime law has evolved from various maritime codes, including Rhodian
law (circa 800 B.C.), Roman law, the Rôles of Oléron (circa 1190), the Ordonnance de la Marine
(1681), all of which were relied on in Doctors' Commons, the English Admiralty Court, and the
maritime courts of Europe.
This lex maritima, part of the lex mercatoria, or "Law Merchant" as it was usually called in
England, was the general law applicable in all countries of Western Europe until the fifteenth
century, when the gradual emergence of nation states caused national differences to begin
creeping into what had been a virtually pan-European maritime law system.

Today's general maritime law consists of the common forms, terms, rules, standards and
practices of the maritime shipping industry - standard form bills of lading, charterparties,
marine insurance policies and sales contracts are good examples of common forms and the
accepted meaning of the terms, as well as the York/Antwerp Rules on general average and the
Uniform Customs and Practice for Documentary Credits. Much of this contemporary lex
maritima is to be found in the maritime arbitral awards rendered by arbitral tribunals around
the world by a host of institutional and ad hoc arbitral bodies. See Tetley , Int'l. M. & A. L., 2003,
Chap. 1, at pp. 1-30.
(William Tetley. Glossary of Maritime Law Terms, 2nd Ed., 2004) http://www.mcgill.ca/maritimelaw/glossaries/maritime/
Ex. 1

Pair work. Consider the following terms below and write down your ideas of their
meaning. Then discuss your ideas with your partner.

- public vs private law:

- substantive vs procedural law:
- national vs international law:
- civil vs common law:
- jurisdiction:

Ex. 2

Group work. Check the meaning(s) of the same legal terms above in any online dictionary
(general English or English dictionary of law), compare the definitions with you ideas and
then discuss your findings within your group. Find your own language equivalents for the
terms below.

- public vs private law:

- substantive vs procedural law:
- national vs international law:
- civil vs common law:
- jurisdiction:

Ex. 3

Answer the following questions:

1. Why is maritime law a system of its own (an independent law)? – two reasons:
2. What are the two laws by which maritime law was greately influenced in the history?
3. What is the meaning of the word 'statute' in the term national maritime statute. Consult
online general and legal dictionaries or definitions on the web.
4. Why is there no 'pan-European' maritime law system today?
5. What does general maritime law consist of? -(five constituent parts: ........). Discuss each
constituent part and give their equivalents in your language.
6. What are the most common forms of maritime law? - ......................... (four forms). Chech
your ideas of these forms in your group.
7. Consult your dictionaries for the meaning of the word 'award' and then define the term
'arbitral award'?
8. Check the synonyms for the word 'host' in the phrase 'host of arbitral bodies'.
9. Discuss the ideas on the difference between 'lex maritima' and 'lex mercatoria' in your group.
What is their relationship?
10. What do the individual contracts of maritime law deal with?
Admiralty law or maritime law is a distinct body of law that governs maritime questions and
offenses. It is a body of both domestic law governing maritime activities, and private
international law governing the relationships between private entities that operate vessels on
the oceans. It deals with matters including marine commerce, marine navigation, marine
salvaging, shipping, sailors, and the transportation of passengers and goods by sea. Admiralty
law also covers many commercial activities, although land based or occurring wholly on land,
that are maritime in character.

Admiralty law is distinguished from the Law of the Sea, which is a body of public
international law dealing with navigational rights, mineral rights, jurisdiction over coastal
waters and international law governing relationships between nations.

Maritime law consists of a body of laws, conventions and treaties that governs international
private business or other matters involving ships, shipping or crimes occurring on open water.
Laws between nations governing such things as national versus international waters are
considered public international law and are known as the Law of the Seas.

In most developed nations, maritime law is governed by a separate code and is a separate
jurisdiction from national laws. The United Nations, through the International Maritime
Organization, has issued numerous conventions that can be enforced by the navies and coast
guards that have signed the treaty outlining these rules. Maritime law governs many of the
insurance claims relating to ships and cargo, civil matters between shipowners, seamen and
passengers, and piracy.

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Admiralty_law

Ex. 4

Supply the missing word/term (given in brackets at the end of each passage):

Admiralty law or maritime law is a distinct body of law that governs maritime
questions and . It is a body of both domestic law governing maritime
activities, and private international law governing the relationships between private
that operate vessels on the oceans. It deals with matters including
marine commerce, marine navigation, marine _ , shipping, sailors, and
the transportation of passengers and goods by sea. law also covers
many commercial activities, although land based or occurring wholly on land, that are
maritime in character. (salvaging, offences, Admiralty, entities)

Admiralty law is distinguished from the Law of the , which is a body of

public international law dealing with navigational rights, mineral rights,
over coastal waters and international law governing between nations.
(relationships Sea, jurisdiction)

Maritime law consists of a body of , conventions and

that governs international private business or other matters involving ships,
or crimes occurring on open water. Laws between nations governing
 such things as national versus international waters are considered
international law and are known as the Law of the Seas. (treaties, laws, public,
treaties, shipping)

Ex. 5

Complete the sentences below:

1. Admiralty law or maritime law is a distinct body of law that governs .......................... .
2. It is a body of both domestic law governing ..............................., and private
international law governing .................................. that operate vessels on the oceans.
3. It deals with matters including marine commerce, marine navigation, marine
salvaging, shipping, sailors, and ................................................................................... .
4. Admiralty law is distinguished from the Law of the Sea, which is a body of public
international law dealing with ......................., ......................., jurisdiction
........................ and international law governing ........................................... .
5. Maritime law consists of a body of ....................................... that governs international
private business or other matters involving ships, shipping or ..................................... .
6. Laws between nations governing such things as national versus international waters
are considered public international law and are known as ....................................... .
Features of admiralty law
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Admiralty_law

1. Maintenance and cure

The doctrine of maintenance and cure is rooted in the Article VI of the Rolls of Oleron
promulgated in about 1160 A.D. The obligation to "cure" requires a shipowner to provide
medical care, free of charge, to a seaman injured in the service of the ship, until the seaman
has reached "maximum medical cure". The obligation to "cure" a seaman includes the
obligation to provide him with medications and medical devices which improve his ability to
function, even if they don't "improve" his actual condition. They may include long term
treatments that permit him to continue to function well. Common examples include
prostheses, wheelchairs, and pain medications.

The obligation of "maintenance" requires the shipowner to provide a seaman with his basic
living expenses while he is convalescing. Once a seaman is able to work, he is expected to
maintain himself. Consequently, a seaman can lose his right to maintenance, while the
obligation to provide cure is ongoing.

2. Personal injuries to passengers

Shipowners owe a duty of reasonable care to passengers. Consequently, passengers who are
injured aboard ships may bring suit as if they had been injured ashore through the negligence
of a third party. The passenger bears the burden of proving that the shipowner was negligent.
While the statute of limitations is generally three years, suits against cruise lines must usually
be brought within one year because of limitations contained in the passenger ticket.

3. Maritime liens and mortgages

Banks which loan money to purchase ships, vendors who supply ships with necessaries like
fuel and stores, seamen who are due wages, and many others have a lien against the ship to
guarantee payment. To enforce the lien, the ship must be arrested or seized.

4. Salvage and treasure salvage

When property is lost at sea and rescued by another, the rescuer is entitled to claim a salvage
award on the salved property. There is no "life salvage". All mariners have a duty to save the
lives of others in peril without expectation of reward. Consequently salvage law applies only
to the saving of property.

There are two types of salvage: contract salvage and pure salvage, which is sometimes
referred to as "merit salvage". In contract salvage the owner of the property and salvor enter
into a salvage contract prior to the commencement of salvage operations and the amount that
the salvor is paid is determined by the contract. The most common salvage contract is called
a "Lloyd's Open Form Salvage Contract“.
Ex. 6

Known, partly known and unknown words. Read the above text and note
down words into the following columns. Exchange views about these words
in your group.

These words are familiar I only partly know the I have never seen or heard
to me word; I am not sure of its of this word
meaning

Ex. 7

Supply the missing words:

Maintenance and cure

The doctrine of maintenance and is rooted in the Article VI of the Rolls

of Oleron promulgated in about 1160 A.D. The obligation to "cure" requires a
shipowner to provide _ , free of charge, to a seaman in the
service of the ship, until the seaman has reached "maximum medical cure". The
obligation to "cure" a seaman includes the obligation to provide him with _
and medical devices which improve his ability to function,
even if they don't "improve" his actual condition. They may include long term that
permit him to continue to function well. Common examples include prostheses,
wheelchairs, and pain .

The obligation of "maintenance" requires the shipowner to provide a seaman with his
basic while he is convalescing. Once a seaman is able to work, he is
expected to himself. Consequently, a seaman can lose his right to
maintenance, while the obligation to provide cure is .

Ex. 8

Supply the missing verb collocate in the text below:

1. Maintenance and cure

The doctrine of maintenance and cure is rooted in the Article VI of the Rolls of Oleron
in about 1160 A.D. The obligation to "cure" requires a shipowner to
medical care, free of charge, to a seaman injured in the service of the
ship, until the seaman has "maximum medical cure". The obligation to
"cure" a seaman includes the obligation to provide him with medications and medical
 devices which his ability to function, even if they don't "improve" his
actual condition. They may include long term treatments that him to
continue to function well.

The obligation of "maintenance" requires the shipowner to a seaman

with his basic living expenses while he is convalescing. Once a seaman is able to work,
he is expected to maintain himself. Consequently, a seaman can his
right to maintenance, while the obligation to provide cure is ongoing.

2. Personal injuries to passengers

Shipowners a duty of reasonable care to passengers. Consequently,

passengers who are injured aboard ships may suit as if they had been
injured ashore through the negligence of a third party. The passenger
the burden of proving that the shipowner was negligent. While the statute of limitations is
generally three years, suits against cruise lines must usually be within one year because
of limitations contained in the passenger ticket.

3. Maritime liens and mortgages

Banks which money to purchase ships, vendors who supply ships with
necessaries like fuel and stores, seamen who are due wages, and many others
a lien against the ship to guarantee payment. To the
lien, the ship must be or seized.

4. Salvage and treasure salvage

When property is lost at sea and rescued by another, the rescuer is entitled to
a salvage award on the salved property. There is no "life salvage". All
mariners have a duty to the lives of others in peril without expectation of
reward. Consequently salvage law only to the saving of property.

There are two types of salvage: contract salvage and pure salvage, which is sometimes
referred to as "merit salvage". In contract salvage the owner of the property and salvor
into a salvage contract prior to the commencement of salvage
operations and the amount that the salvor is paid is determined by the contract. The most
common salvage contract is called a "Lloyd's Open Form Salvage Contract“.

Ex. 9

Find translation equivalents in your language for the terms highlighted in yellow
colour. Consult monolingual and bilingual general English dictionaries and maritime
law dictionaries.
 1. Maintenance and cure
The doctrine of maintenance and cure is rooted in the Article VI of the Rolls of Oleron
promulgated in about 1160 A.D. The obligation to "cure" requires a shipowner to provide medical
care, free of charge, to a seaman injured in the service of the ship, until the seaman has reached
"maximum medical cure". The obligation to "cure" a seaman includes the obligation to provide
him with medications and medical devices which improve his ability to function, even if they don't
"improve" his actual condition. They may include long term treatments that permit him to
continue to function well. Common examples include prostheses, wheelchairs, and pain
medications.

The obligation of "maintenance" requires the shipowner to provide a seaman with his basic living
expenses while he is convalescing. Once a seaman is able to work, he is expected to maintain
himself. Consequently, a seaman can lose his right to maintenance, while the obligation to
provide cure is ongoing.

2. Personal injuries to passengers

Shipowners owe a duty of reasonable care to passengers. Consequently, passengers who are
injured aboard ship s may bring as if they had been injured ashore through the negligence of a
third party. The passenger bears the burden of proving that the shipowner was negligent. While
the statute of limitations is generally three years, suits against cruise lines must usually be
brought within one year because of limitations contained in the passenger ticket.

3. Maritime liens and mortgages

Banks which loan money to purchase ships, vendors who supply ships with necessaries like fuel
and stores, seamen who are due wages, and many others have a lien against the ship to
guarantee payment. To enforce the lien, the ship must be arrested or seized.

4. Salvage and treasure salvage

When property is lost at sea and rescued by another, the rescuer is entitled to claim a salvage
award on the salved property. There is no "life salvage". All mariners have a duty to save the
lives of others in peril without expectation of reward. Consequently salvage law applies only to
the saving of property.
There are two types of salvage: contract salvage and pure salvage, which is sometimes referred
to as "merit salvage". In contract salvage the owner of the property and salvor enter into a salvage
contract prior to the commencement of salvage operations and the amount that the salvor is paid
is determined by the contract. The most common salvage contract is called a "Lloyd's Open Form
Salvage Contract“
Components of maritime law
http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/365510/maritime-law

1. Maritime liens

Although admiralty actions are frequently brought in personam, against individual or

corporate defendants only, the most distinctive feature of admiralty practice is the proceeding
in rem, against maritime property, that is, a vessel, a cargo, or “freight,” which in shipping
means the compensation to which a carrier is entitled for the carriage of cargo.

Under American maritime law, the ship is personified to the extent that it may sometimes be
held responsible under circumstances in which the shipowner himself is under no liability.
The classic example of personification is the “compulsory pilotage” case. Some state statutes
impose a penalty on a shipowner whose vessel fails to take a pilot when entering or leaving
the waters of the state.
1
Maritime liens can arise not only when the personified ship is charged with a maritime tort ,
such as a negligent collision or personal injury, but also for salvage services, for general
average contributions, and for breach of certain maritime contracts.

In a proceeding in rem, the vessel, cargo, or freight can be arrested and kept in the custody of
the court unless the owner obtains its release by posting a bond or such other security as may
be required under the applicable law or as may be acceptable to the plaintiff. More frequently,
however, the owner will post security to avoid a threatened arrest, and the property never has
to be taken into custody.

Ex. 10

Supply the missing words or phrases in the right place and in the correct form

2. Maritime liens

Although admiralty are frequently in personam, against individual or corporate defendants only,
the most distinctive feature of admiralty practice is the proceeding in rem, against maritime
property, that is, a vessel, a cargo, or “freight,” which in shipping means the compensation to
which a carrier is for the carriage of cargo. (bring action, entitle)

Under American maritime law, the ship is personified it may sometimes be held responsible under
circumstances in which the shipowner himself is. The classic example of personification is the
“compulsory pilotage” case. Some state statutes a shipowner whose vessel fails to take a pilot
when entering or leaving the waters of the state. (against maritime property, against maritime
property, against maritime property)

1
tort, in common law, civil law, and the vast majority of legal systems that derive from them, any
instance of harmful behaviour, such as physical attack on one’s person, interference with one’s
possessions, or the use and enjoyment of one’s land, economic interests (under certain conditions),
honour, reputation, and privacy. The term derives from Latin tortum, meaning “something twisted,
wrung, or crooked.” The concept encompasses only those civil wrongs independent of contracts.
 Maritime liens can arise not only when the personified ship is with a maritime tort, such as a
negligent collision or personal injury, but also for, for general average contributions, and for of
certain maritime contracts. (charged, salvage services, breach)

In a proceeding in rem, the vessel, cargo, or freight can be arrested and of the court unless the
owner obtains its release by or such other security as may be required under the applicable law
or as may be acceptable to the. More frequently, however, the owner will to avoid a threatened
arrest, and the property never has to be taken into custody. ( kept in the custody, posting a
bond, plaintiff, post security)

Ex. 11

Complete the following sentences:

Although admiralty actions are frequently brought in personam, against

............................................, the most distinctive feature of admiralty practice is the proceeding
in rem, against ...................................................., or “freight,” which in shipping means
................................................

Under ........................................., the ship is personified to the extent that it may sometimes be
held responsible under circumstances in which the shipowner himself is under no liability. The
classic example of personification is the “...............................” case. Some state statutes
............................... whose vessel fails to take a pilot when entering or leaving the waters of
the state.

Maritime liens can arise not only when the personified ship is charged with a maritime tort,
such as a ........................................., but also for salvage services, for general average
contributions, and for ..........................................

In a proceeding in rem, the vessel, cargo, or freight can be arrested and

....................................... unless the owner obtains its release by posting a bond or such
............................ as may be required under the applicable law or as may be acceptable
to
.................. . More frequently, however, the owner will post security to ............................., and
the property never has to be taken into custody.
 3. Shipping charters

The function of ships, other than warships, pleasure craft, and service vessels of various types
is of course transportation of cargoes and passengers.

The great majority of the contracts governing the carriage of goods by water are evidenced
either by charter parties or by bills of lading. The term charter party (a corruption of the
Latin carta partita, or “divided charter”) is employed to describe three widely differing
types of contracts relating to the use of vessels owned or controlled by others. Under a
“demise” or “bareboat” charter, the shipowner delivers possession of the vessel to the
charterer, who engages the master and crew, arranges for repairs and supplies, and, in
general, functions in much the same way as an owner during the term of the charter. A
much more common arrangement is the “time” charter, whereunder the shipowner employs
the master and crew and the charterer simply acquires the right, within specified limits, to
direct the movements of the vessel and determine what cargoes are to be carried during the
charter period. Under both demise and time charters, the charterer pays charter hire for the
use of the vessel at a specified daily or monthly rate.

The third type is the “voyage” charter, which is essentially a contract of affreightment, or
carriage. Most voyage charters provide for the carriage of full cargoes on one voyage or a
series of voyages, but occasionally a charterer contracts for the use of only a portion of the
carrying capacity of the vessel, in which case the governing contract is described as a “space”
charter.

Under a voyage charter, it is customary for the master or his agent to issue a bill of lading to
the shipper, who is usually the charterer, although as between shipowner and charterer the
voyage charter remains the governing contract of carriage; the bill of lading serves only as a
receipt and as a document of title to the goods. Ocean bills of lading are usually in order
form; that is, they call for delivery to the order of the shipper or of some other designated
party.
Such a bill of lading may be negotiated in much the same way as a check, draft, or other
negotiable instrument, which means that a bona fide purchaser of the bill of lading takes it
free and clear of any defects not appearing on its face.

A distinctive feature of maritime law is the privilege accorded to a shipowner and certain
other persons (such as charterers in some instances) to limit the amount of their liability,
under certain circumstances, in respect of tort and some contract claims. In some countries,
including the United States, the limit, except as to claims for personal injury and wrongful
death, is the value of the ship and the earnings of the voyage on which it was engaged at the
time of the casualty. On the other hand, in the United Kingdom and the other countries that
have ratified the Brussels limitation of liability convention of 1957 or enacted domestic
legislation embracing its terms, the limit is £28, or its equivalent, multiplied by the adjusted
net tonnage of the vessel, regardless of its actual value.
Ex. 12

Match the following sentences in the two columns (Shipping charters)

1. The term charter party (a corruption of a. functions in much the same way as an 1b
owner during the term of the charter.
the Latin carta partita, or “divided
charter”) b. is employed to describe three widely
2. Under a “demise” or “bareboat” charter, differing types of contracts relating to the
use of vessels owned or controlled by
the shipowner delivers possession of the others.
vessel to the charterer, who engages the
master and crew, arranges for repairs
c. the charterer simply acquires the right,
and supplies, and, in general, within specified limits, to direct the
movements of the vessel and determine
3. Under the time charter the shipowner
what cargoes are to be carried during the
employs the master and crew and charter period.
4. Under both demise and time charters,
d. limit the amount of their liability, under
the charterer pays certain circumstances, in respect of tort
5. Most voyage charters provide for the and some contract claims.
carriage of
e. charter hire for the use of the vessel at a
6. Under a voyage charter, it is customary specified daily or monthly rate.
for the master or his agent to
f. full cargoes on one voyage or a series of
7. A distinctive feature of maritime law is voyages, but occasionally a charterer
the privilege accorded to a shipowner contracts for the use of only a portion of
the carrying capacity of the vessel
and certain other persons (such as
charterers in some instances) to g. issue a bill of lading to the shipper, who is
usually the charterer
 4. Collision liability

Under maritime law responsibility for collision damage is based upon the fault principle: a
colliding vessel will not be held responsible for damage to another ship or to a fixed object
such as a bridge, wharf, or jetty unless the collision is caused by a deficiency in the colliding
vessel or by negligence or a willful act on the part of its navigators. It is not always necessary,
however, to establish fault by positive evidence; there is a presumption of fault when a
moving vessel collides with a fixed object or with another vessel that is properly moored or
anchored, and the burden of proving freedom from fault will lie with the moving vessel.

In countries that have adopted the International Convention for the Unification of Certain
Rules Relating to Collisions between Vessels, signed at Brussels in 1910, the rule of
“comparative negligence” governs: if each of two colliding vessels is to blame, the total
damages will be divided between their owners or operators in proportion to the respective
degrees of fault. In certain countries that have not ratified the Convention, such as the United
States, the law is such that, if both vessels are to blame, the total damages are equally divided,
regardless of the respective degrees of fault.
Ex. 13

Group work. Discuss the following terms:

- the fault principle

- deficiency
- negligence
- willful act
- presumption of fault
- burden of proving
- to blame

Ex. 14

Cloze. Supply the missing words (every fifth word is missing)

Collision liability

Under maritime law responsibility _ collision damage is based the fault principle: a
vessel will not be _ _ responsible for damage to _ ship or to a object such
as a _, wharf, or jetty unless collision is caused by _ deficiency in the colliding
or by negligence or willful act on the _ _ of its navigators. It _ _ not always
necessary, however, _ to establish fault by _ evidence; there is a _ of fault when a
vessel collides with a _ object or with another _ that is properly moored _
anchored, and the burden of proving freedom from fault will lie with _ the
moving vessel.

Ex. 15

Where are the two rules below applied? What are the key phrases expressing the difference?

- if each of two colliding vessels is to blame, the total damages will be divided between their
owners or operators in proportion to the respective degrees of fault: _
- if both vessels are to blame, the total damages are equally divided, regardless of the
respective degrees of fault: _
 5. Salvage and general average

Salvage and general average are doctrines peculiar to maritime law. Under the law of salvage,
strangers to the maritime venture who succeed in saving maritime property from loss or
damage from perils of the sea or other waters are entitled to an award for their efforts and
have a maritime lien on the salvaged property therefor. Several elements will be taken into
account in fixing the amount of the award, including the extent of the efforts required; the
skill and energy displayed by the salvors, the amounts involved, including both the value of
the vessel or other property employed by the salvors in rendering the service and the value of
the vessel, cargo, or other property salvaged; the risks incurred by the salvors; and the degree
of danger from which the property was rescued.

General average is a principle still universally accepted, although there is some agitation for
its abolition, principally because the accounting and other expenses incurred in administering
a general average are often quite out of proportion to the amounts involved and because the
same underwriters sometimes insure both hull and cargo.

Ex. 16

Complete the sentences below:

..................................................... doctrines peculiar to maritime law.

Under the law of salvage, strangers to the maritime venture who succeed in saving
maritime property from loss or damage from perils of the sea or other waters are
................................................... and have ........................................................

Several elements will be taken into account in ..................................................,

including the extent of the efforts required; the skill and energy ..............................,
the amounts involved, including both the value of the vessel or other property
employed by the salvors in ............................... and the value of the vessel, cargo, or
...............................; the risks incurred .........................; and the ...............................
from which the property was rescued.

General average is a principle still universally accepted, although there is some

agitation for its abolition, principally because the accounting and
....................................... in administering a general average are often
................................ to the amounts involved and because the same underwriters
sometimes ...........................................
 6. Marine insurance

Most shipowners carry hull insurance on their ships and protect themselves against claims
by third parties by means of “protection and indemnity” insurance. Waterborne cargo is
almost universally insured against the perils of the seas. Most cases of damage to a ship or
its cargo resolve themselves into settlements between insurance carriers.

Marine insurance is the oldest known form of insurance. Indeed, the institution of general
average, under which the participants in a maritime venture contribute to losses incurred by
some for the benefit of all, may itself be looked on as a primitive form of mutual insurance.
Hull and cargo insurance today, in fact, is usually written on forms whose wording has
changed little since the 18th century. The so-called “perils” clause, enumerating the risks
insured against, customarily includes not only the natural hazards to which a vessel is
exposed but man-made perils such as capture or destruction by enemy forces as well.

An early type of marine liability insurance was against liability for damage that the insured
vessel caused to other vessels. Such insurance was effected by the addition of a “running
down” or “collision” clause to the basic hull policy insuring the owner or operator of a vessel
against its loss or damage.

With the advent of steam-driven vessels of iron and steel in the 19th century, the potential
liabilities of shipowners increased substantially. To protect themselves, British owners banded
together in “protection and indemnity” associations, commonly known as “P. and I. Clubs,”
whereby they insured each other against the liabilities to which they were all exposed in the
operation of their vessels. These included liability for cargo damage, personal injury, and
damage to piers, bridges, and other fixed objects, and also 25 percent of the liability for
damage to other vessels against which the hull underwriters refused to insure. Foreign owners
soon found the P. and I. Clubs attractive, and as of 1973 the operators of about 80 percent of
the world’s ocean tonnage were insured with the British clubs and their Scandinavian and
Japanese affiliates

Ex. 17

Supply the missing verb:

1. Most shipowners hull insurance on their ships and

themselves against claims by third parties by means of “protection and indemnity”
insurance.
2. Waterborne cargo is almost universally insured against the perils of the
seas.
3. Most cases of damage to a ship or its cargo resolve themselves into
settlements between insurance carriers.
4. The institution of general average, under which the participants in a maritime venture
to losses incurred by some for the benefit of all, may itself be
on as a primitive form of mutual insurance.
5. Hull and cargo insurance today, in fact, is usually written on forms whose wording has
little since the 18th century.
 6. The so-called “perils” clause, the risks insured against, customarily
not only the natural hazards to which a vessel is exposed but man-
made perils such as capture or destruction by enemy forces as well.
7. An early type of marine liability insurance was against liability for damage that
the insured vessel to other vessels.
8. Such insurance was by the addition of a “running down” or “collision”
clause to the basic hull policy insuring the owner or operator of a vessel
against its loss or damage.
9. With the advent of steam-driven vessels of iron and steel in the 19th century, the
potential liabilities of shipowners substantially.
10. To protect themselves, British owners banded together in “protection and indemnity”
associations, commonly as “P. and I. Clubs,” whereby they insured
each other against the liabilities to which they were all in the operation
of their vessels.
11. These liability for cargo damage, personal injury, and damage to piers,
bridges, and other fixed objects, and also 25 percent of the liability for damage to
other vessels against which the hull underwriters refused to insure.
12. Foreign owners soon the P. and I. Clubs attractive, and as of 1973 the
operators of about 80 percent of the world’s ocean tonnage were with
the British clubs and their Scandinavian and Japanese affiliates

Ex. 18

Underline the insurance terms in the text above. The first one has been
underlined for you (6. Marine Insurance)

Ex. 18
Match the term with its definition:
1. charter party A. The branch of law that deals with relations between a 1K
state and its individual members and the whole
nation
2. treaty B. The law of a state relating to private and civilian
affairs
3. private law C. The branch of law that deals with the rights and
duties of private individuals and the relations
between them
4. Law of the Sea D. The body of law based on judicial decisions and
custom, as distinct from statute law
5. jurisdiction E. The right or power to administer justice and to apply
laws
6. public law F. A decision made by an arbitration tribunal in an
arbitration proceeding. It is analogous to a judgment
in a court of law
7. maritime law G. A distinct body of law that governs maritime
questions and offenses.
8. common law H. Laws between nations governing such things as
national versus international waters, protection of the
marine environment and various maritime boundaries
9. civil law I. A formal agreement or contract between two or more
states, such as an alliance or trade arrangement
10. maritime lien J. The proceeding against maritime property, that is, a
vessel, a cargo, or “freight,” which in shipping means
the compensation to which a carrier is entitled for the
carriage of cargo
11. arbitral award K. Contracts relating to the use of vessels owned or
controlled by others
International conventions
Prior to the mid-1970s, most international conventions concerning maritime trade and
commerce originated in a private organization of maritime lawyers known as the Comité
Maritime International (International Maritime Committee or CMI). Founded in 1897, the
CMI was responsible for the drafting of numerous international conventions including the
Hague Rules (International Convention on Bills of Lading), the Visby Amendments
(amending the Hague Rules), the Salvage Convention and many others. While the CMI
continues to function in an advisory capacity, many of its functions have been taken over by
the International Maritime Organization, which was established by the United Nations in 1958
but did not become truly effective until about 1974.

The IMO has prepared numerous international conventions concerning maritime safety
including

- the International Convention for the Safety of Life at Sea (SOLAS),

- the Standards for Training, Certification, and Watchkeeping (STCW),
- the International Regulations for Preventing Collisions at Sea (Collision
Regulations or COLREGS),
- Maritime Pollution Regulations (MARPOL),
- International Aeronautical and Maritime Search and Rescue Convention
(IAMSAR) and others.
- The United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea (UNCLOS) defined a treaty
regarding protection of the marine environment and various maritime boundaries.

Once adopted, the international conventions are enforced by the individual nations which are
signatories, either through their local Coast Guards, or through their courts.

Individual countries
Common law legal systems are opposed to civil law legal systems, that prevail in Europe and
trace back to old Roman and modern French Law.

Most of the common law countries follow English statute and case law.

Other countries which do not follow the English statute and case laws also have established
well-known maritime courts which decide international cases on a regular basis.

Admiralty courts assume jurisdiction by virtue of the presence of the vessel in its territorial
jurisdiction irrespective of whether the vessel is national or not and whether registered or
not, and wherever the residence or domicile or their owners may be. A vessel is usually
arrested by the court to retain jurisdiction. State-owned vessels are usually immune from
arrest.