Comparative
Stylistics of French
and English. A Methodology for
Translation
By Vinay, Jean-Paul and Jean Darbelnet (1995)
C. Serena Santonocito
carmenserena.santonocito@unina.it
Translation Studies - infinite possibilities
Translation is a process by which the chain of signifiers that constitutes the source-
language text is replaced by a chain of signifiers in the target language which the
translator provides on the strength of an interpretation. Because meaning is an effect
of relations and differences among signifiers along a potentially endless chain
(polysemous, intertextual, subject to infinite linkages), it is always differential and
deferred, never present as an original unity.
J. Derrida (1982)
Translation Studies - infinite possibilities
Translation is a process by which the chain of signifiers that constitutes the source-
language text is replaced by a chain of signifiers in the target language which the
translator provides on the strength of an interpretation. Because meaning is an effect
of relations and differences among signifiers along a potentially endless chain
(polysemous, intertextual, subject to infinite linkages), it is always differential and
deferred, never present as an original unity.
J. Derrida (1982)
SOURCE LANGUAGE (SL) language being translated from (lingua di partenza)
TARGET LANGUAGE (TL) language into which a text is translated (lingua d’arrivo)
E.g. Translation IT > EN
Translation involves the transfer of meaning contained in one set of language signs into
another set of language signs through competent use of the dictionary and grammar.
[This] process involves a whole set of extra-linguistic criteria also.
Basnett (2014)
The act of translating can be described as:
Derivative process Productive process
Translations depend on other In the replacement of linguistic and
preexisting materials: not only the cultural aspects from SL to TL the
source text but also aspects linguistic and cultural differences of the
concerning the cultural and political source text are preserved. This forces
environment in which the text is readers to reflect upon linguistic and
conceived, i. e. the source language cultural shifts and promotes
context. experimentalism in the TL.
A Methodology for translation ( by Vinay and Darbelnet)
Process of translating -> translators have to establish relationships between two linguistic
systems.
Initial steps:
v Identify the units of translation;
v Examine the ST (descriptive, literal, informative, specific);
v Reconstitute the situation which gave rise to the message;
v Weigh up and evaluate the stylistic effects;
v Formulate the message in the TL.
Units of translation:
- Functional - > unis whose elements have the same syntactic function
FR EN
E.g. Il habite / he lives
- Semantic - > units of meaning
E.g. prendre place / to sit
- Dialectic - > related to reasoning
E.g. puisque / since
- Prosodic - >unis whose elements have the same intonation
E.g. je vous crois! / You bet!
Stylistics
EN vs. FR
Superiority is traded La qualité est sacrifiée
for convenience à la commodité
Two methods of translating
Direct Oblique
Literal translation Free translation
Lucky cases of structural parallelism (parallel categories) and metalinguistic parallelism (parallel concepts)
By juxtaposing the ST (source text) and the TT (target text), the result would be that the
TL has juxtaposing stylistic structures of both the syntax and the semantic of the ST.
Lacunae = when linguistic expressions in the SL do not have a match in the TL (bidirectional)
Translators must fill the corresponding gaps so that the message is the same between SL and TL.
Structural and metalinguistic differences imply upsetting the syntactic, stylistic and lexical
patterns so that the TT reads fluently and coherently with the ST.
Lucky cases of structural parallelism (parallel categories) and metalinguistic parallelism (parallel concepts)
By juxtaposing the ST (source text) and the TT (target text), the result would be that the
TL has juxtaposing stylistic structures of both the syntax and the semantic of the ST.
Direct translation
Lacunae = when linguistic expressions in the SL do not have a match in the TL (bidirectional)
Translators must fill the corresponding gaps so that the message is the same between SL and TL.
Structural and metalinguistic differences imply upsetting the syntactic, stylistic and lexical
patterns so that the TT reads fluently and coherently with the ST.
Oblique translation
Procedures for direct translation
BORROWING
Usually to overcome a metalinguistic lacuna (technical process, unknown concept).
Foreign terms adopted from the SL and incorporated into the TL without translation.
Ex. In a story with a typical Spanish setting, the word tortillas is typically translated in English by maintaining
the Spanish borrowing tortillas.
Well-established borrowings -> widely used that they have become part of the TL lexicon.
Examples: menu, déjà-vu, chic.
From: art and sports (allegro, tempo, aria, soprano, ballet), food and drinks (pizza, espresso, soufflé, crêpe,
crème brûlée)
Procedures for direct translation
BORROWING
Usually to overcome a metalinguistic lacuna (technical process, unknown concept).
Foreign terms adopted from the SL and incorporated into the TL without translation.
Ex. In a story with a typical Spanish setting, the word tortillas is typically translated in English by maintaining
the Spanish borrowing tortillas.
Well-established borrowings -> widely used that they have become part of the TL lexicon.
Examples: menu, déjà-vu, chic.
From: art and sports (allegro, tempo, aria, soprano, ballet), food and drinks (pizza, espresso, soufflé, crêpe,
crème brûlée)
Used to convey the message of the ST and for stylistic reasons
CALQUE
“special borrowing”
TL borrows an expression from the SL by translating literally each of its elements.
LEXICAL CALQUE respects the syntactic structure of the TL while introducing a new mode of expression.
STRUCTURAL CALQUE introduces a new construction into the TL.
FIXED CALQUES have stratified and, after a period of time, have become an integral part of the language.
Fixed calques may undergo semantic change and turn into false friends (faux amis).
LEXICAL CALQUE
EN Skyscraper IT grattacielo FR gratte-ciel
STRUCTURAL CALQUE
IT Occorre che i cittadini sappiano chi fa che cosa influenced by the EN double object “who does
what?”
LITERAL TRANSLATION
Word for word translation -> direct transfer of a SL text into a grammatically and idiomatically appropriate TL
text. The translator adheres to the linguistic patterns of the TL.
EN FR
It is common for languages of the same family share the same cultural and linguistic structures
Historical bonds
Definite article
Physical coexistence
(moments of bilingualism)
EN and FR
However, translation is not just an unambiguous transfer from the SL to the TL.
Translation requires intellectual challenging
What about machine-based
translation?
A literal translation is unacceptable when:
v It has another meaning;
v It has no meaning;
v It is structurally impossible;
v Does not have a corresponding expression within the metalinguistic patterns of the TL;
v Has a corresponding expression in the TL but not within the same register.
Compare:
1
2
1 can be translated literally
2 can be translated literally only for an expressive reason ( person who does not speak a very good French)
Tornerò in quattro e quattr’otto
*I will come in four and four eight
I will come back soon
EN IT
It is raining cats and dogs Sta piovendo cani e gatti ??
How can we translate to reflect the
message conveyed in the SL (huge
amount of rain)?
Procedures for oblique translation
TRANSPOSITION
Replacement of a word class with another without changing the meaning of the message.
Transposition can happen also within the same language.
He announced that he would come back. -> BASE EXPRESSION substitution of the
subordinate verb with a
He announced his return. -> TRANSPOSED EXPRESSION noun.
Transposition can be OBLIGATORY or OPTIONAL
Obligatory transposition Optional transposition
FR Dè son lever FR Après qu’il sera revenut
EN As soon as he gets up EN After he comes back BASE
After his return TRANSPOSED
The TL does not have a noun that
corresponds to lever (SL).
We resort to change the word class -> from The TL allows both for a literal translation (base
a noun to a verb. expression) and a transposition (transposed
expression)
In optional transposition the choice depends on the
nuances and intended style.
Usually the transposed expression is more literary.
MODULATION
Variation in the form of the message obtained by a change in the point of view.
This change is justified when a literal or transposed translation results in an unsuitable or awkward utterance
in the TL, although it can be considered grammatically correct.
OBLIGATORY MODULATION FREE MODULATION
EN The time when EN it is not difficult to show
FR Le moment où FR Il est facile de démontrer
The twist of point of view (from negative in the SL to
positive in the TL) is motivated by the frequency of
use and the acceptability of the expression in the TL.
FREE MODULATION
EN it is not difficult to show
FR Il est facile de démontrer
The translator should have a good knowledge of the TL so as to determine that although a literal translation
exists from a purely linguistic and structural point of view, this is not pragmatically accepted by the L1
speakers of the TL as the preferred expression.
Yes, that is exactly what I would say!
The resulting translation should correspond accurately to the situation indicated by the SL.
FREE MODULATION tends towards a solution which rests upon habitual train of thought which is felt as
necessary rather than optional.
It corresponds to systematic application.
EN danger of death DE Lebensgefahr [literally, ‘danger to life’]
EN top floor FR dernier étage
Gradually, if translators/ students do not adhere to this modulation the translation is felt inaccurate.
Free modulation becomes fixed when it is referred to in dictionaries and grammars and when it is taught in
language courses.
EQUIVALENCE
Procedure in which the same situation is replicated as in the original but different wording is used.
Equivalent texts render the same communicative situation using completely different stylistic and structural
means.
Reactions to physical pain:
EN Ouch! FR Aïe!
Onomatopoeic sounds of animals:
EN meow FR miaou
Proverbs, idioms
EN like a bull in a china shop FR Comme un chien dans un jeu de quilles
EQUIVALENCE
Procedure in which the same situation is replicated as in the original but different wording is used.
Equivalent texts render the same communicative situation using completely different stylistic and structural
means.
Reactions to physical pain:
Equivalent expressions are
EN Ouch! FR Aïe! usually fixed and belong to
the phraseological
Onomatopoeic sounds of animals:
repertoire of idioms,
EN meow FR miaou cliché, nominal or
adjectival phrases
Proverbs, idioms
EN like a bull in a china shop FR Comme un chien dans un jeu de quilles
When dealing with proverbs, fixed expressions that convey also the socio-cultural aspects of the SL, it is
advisable to seek equivalence at the level of sense and not image.
In order to render an equivalent of an expression in the SL text looking up in a dictionary or glossary does
not suffice nor it guarantees a successful translation since the context surrounding the term in question
plays an equally important role in determining the translation strategy employed.
The situation is what determines the need for creating equivalences.
So we are encouraged to firstly look in the situation of the ST in order to come up with a solution!
ADAPTATION
Special kind of equivalence - > something specific to the SL is expressed in a totally different way that is
familiar or appropriate to the TL culture. It is a shift in cultural environment due to the fact that the SL
message is unknown in the TL culture.
English expressions derived from cricket: ‘being on a sticky wicket’, ‘having had a good innings’ or ‘bowling a
googly’
How do we translate these in a TL whose culture does not have the elements necessary to be knowledgeable
on cricket?
Adaptation is extremely used in film and book titles:
FR Trois hommes et un couffin EN Three men and a baby.
While syntax and lexical structures are among the very important stylistic and internal verbal factors
that affect the translator's attitude towards the source text materials; sociocultural, politics, and
diplomatic interests are among the very important external non- verbal factors that influence the
methodology of the translator’s behavior.
Two methods of translating
Direct Oblique
Literal translation Free translation
TRANSPOSITION
BORROWING
MODULATION
CALQUE
EQUIVALENCE
LITERAL TRANSLATION
ADAPTATION
Can be applied at different levels: lexis, syntax, structure and message.
More than one procedure can be used in a text.
Sometimes it is even difficult to distinguish them: the translation of “paper weight” by
“pressepapiers” is both a fixed transposition and a modulation.
