Rotterdam Convention - Operation of the Prior Informed

Consent (PIC) procedure for banned or severely restricted

chemicals

Decision Guidance Document

PARATHION

Secretariat for the Rotterdam Convention on

the Prior Informed Consent Procedure for
Certain Hazardous Chemicals and Pesticides
in International Trade
Introduction

The objective of the Rotterdam Convention is to promote shared responsibility and co-
operative efforts among Parties in the international trade of certain hazardous chemicals in
order to protect human health and the environment from potential harm and to contribute to
their environmentally sound use, by facilitating information exchange about their
characteristics by providing for a national decision-making process on their import and export
and by disseminating these decisions to Parties. The interim secretariat of the Convention is
provided jointly by the United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP) and the Food and
Agriculture Organisation of the United Nations (FAO).

Candidate chemicals1 for the Rotterdam Convention include those that have been banned or
severely restricted by national regulatory actions in two or more Parties2 in two different
regions. Inclusion of a chemical in the Convention is based on regulatory actions taken by
Parties that have addressed the risks associated with the chemical by banning or severely
restricting it. Other ways might be available to control/reduce such risks. However, inclusion
does not imply that all Parties to the Convention have banned or severely restricted this
chemical. For each chemical included in the Rotterdam Convention, Parties are requested to
make an informed decision whether they consent or not to the future import of the chemical.

In the period before the Convention enters into force the interim PIC procedure is in operation
which follows the obligations of the Convention. During this period chemicals are approved
for inclusion in the interim PIC procedure by the Intergovernmental Negotiating Committee
(INC).

At its eleventh session, held in Geneva on 18 September 2004, the Intergovernmental

Negotiating Committee adopted the decision guidance document for parathion with the effect
that this chemical became subject to the interim PIC procedure.

The Committee also decided that with the circulation of this decision guidance document,
countries would be invited to submit a single decision regarding future imports that would
apply to all forms of parathion, including the severely hazardous formulations listed in Annex
III of the Convention3 unless explicitly exempted in the submitted import response.

At its first meeting, held in Geneva 20 to 24 September 2004, the Conference of the Parties
agreed to include parathion in Annex III of the Rotterdam Convention, with the effect that
parathion became subject to the PIC procedure.

The present decision guidance document was communicated to the Designated National
Authorities on 1 February 2005 in accordance with Articles 7 and 10 of the Rotterdam
Convention.

Purpose of the Decision Guidance Document

1
“’Chemical’ means a substance whether by itself of in a mixture or preparation and whether
manufactured or obtained from nature, but does not include any living organism. It consists of the
following categories: pesticide (including severely hazardous pesticide formulations) and industrial.”
2
“’Party’ means a State or regional economic integration organization that has consented to be bound
by this Convention and for which the Convention is in force.”
3
All formulations – aerosols, dustable powders (DP), emulsifiable concentrate (EC), granules (GR)
and wettable powders (WP) – of this substance are included, except capsule suspensions (CS)
For each chemical included in Annex III of the Rotterdam Convention a decision guidance
document has been approved by the Conference of the Parties. Decision guidance documents
are sent to all Parties with a request that they provide a decision regarding future import of the
chemical.

The decision guidance document is prepared by the Chemical Review Committee (CRC).
The CRC is a group of government designated experts established in line with Article 18 of
the Convention, that evaluates candidate chemicals for possible inclusion in the Convention.
The decision guidance document reflects the information provided by two or more Parties in
support of the national regulatory actions to ban or severely restrict the chemical. It is not
intended as the only source of information on a chemical nor is it updated or revised
following its adoption by the Conference of the Parties.

There may be additional Parties that have taken regulatory actions to ban or severely restrict
the chemical as well as others that have not banned or severely restricted it. Such risk
evaluations or information on alternative risk mitigation measures submitted by Parties may
be found on the Rotterdam Convention web-site (www.pic.int).

Under Article 14 of the Convention, Parties can exchange scientific, technical, economic and
legal information concerning the chemicals under the scope of the Convention including
toxicological, ecotoxicological and safety information. This information may be provided
directly to other Parties or through the Secretariat. Information provided to the Secretariat
will be posted on the Rotterdam Convention website.

Information on the chemical may also be available from other sources.

Disclaimer

The use of trade names in this document is primarily intended to facilitate the correct
identification of the chemical. It is not intended to imply any approval or disapproval of any
particular company. As it is not possible to include all trade names presently in use, only a
number of commonly used and published trade names have been included in this document.
While the information provided is believed to be accurate according to data available at the
time of preparation of this Decision Guidance Document, the Food and Agriculture
Organization of the United Nations (FAO) and the United Nations Environment Programme
(UNEP) disclaim any responsibility for omissions or any consequences that may flow there
from. Neither FAO nor UNEP shall be liable for any injury, loss, damage or prejudice of any
kind that may be suffered as a result of importing or prohibiting the import of this chemical.
The designations employed and the presentation of material in this publication do not imply
the expression of any opinion whatsoever on the part of FAO or UNEP concerning the legal
status of any country, territory, city or area or of its authorities or concerning the delimitation
of its frontiers or boundaries.
ABBREVIATIONS
< less than
< less than or equal to
<< much less than
> greater than
> greater than or equal to
>> much greater than
µg microgram
m micrometer

AChE acetylcholinesterase
ADI acceptable daily intake
ADP adenosine diphosphate
a.i. active ingredient
AOEL acceptable operator exposure level
ARfD acute reference dose
ATP adenosine triphosphate

b.p. boiling point

bw body weight
o
C degree Celsius (centigrade)
CA chemical association
CAS chemical abstract service
cc cubic centimetre
ChE cholinesterase
CHO Chinese hamster ovary
cm centimetre

d day(s)
DNA Deoxyribose nucleic acid
DT50 time 50% of a chemical to degrade

E.C. European Community

EC50 effect concentration, 50% (median effective concentration)
ED50 effect dose, 50% (median effective dose)
EEC European Economic Community
EINECS European inventory of existing commercial substances
EHC Environmental Health Criteria

FAO Food and Agriculture Organisation of the United Nations

g gram
GEMS/Food Global Environment Monitoring System - Food contamination monitoring
and assessment programme

h hour
ha hectare

i.m. intramuscular
i.p. intraperitoneal
IARC International Agency for Research on Cancer
IC50 inhibition concentration, 50%;
IESTI international estimate of short-term dietary intake
ABBREVIATIONS
ILO International Labour Organisation
IPCS International Programme on Chemical Safety
IPM Integrated Pest Management
ISO International Organisation for Standardisation
IUPAC International Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry

JMPR Joint FAO/WHO Meeting on Pesticide Residues (Joint Meeting of the FAO
Panel of Experts on Pesticide Residues in Food and the Environment and a
WHO Expert Group on Pesticide Residues)

k kilo- (x 1000)
kg kilogram
Koc organic carbon-water partition coefficient

l litre
LC50 lethal concentration, 50%
LD50 lethal dose, 50%
LOAEL lowest observed adverse effect level
LDLO lowest lethal dose
LOEL lowest observed effect level
Log P logarithm of the octanol/water partition coefficient

m metre
m.p. melting point
mg milligram
ml millilitre
MOE margin of exposure
mPa milliPascal
MRL maximum residue level (or limit)
MTD maximum tolerated dose

ng nanogram
NOAEL no-observed-adverse-effect level
NOEL no-observed-effect level
NRA National Registration Authority for Agricultural and Veterinary Chemicals
(Australia)
NTP National Toxicology Program

OECD Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development

OHS Occupational Health and Safety

PCM phase contrast microscopy

Pow octanol-water partition coefficient
PPE personal protective equipment

RfD reference dose for chronic oral exposure (comparable to ADI)

SMR standardized mortality ratio

STEL short term exposure limit
STMR supervised trials median residues

TER(s) toxicity/exposure ratio(s)

ABBREVIATIONS
TLV threshold limit value
TWA time weighted average

UNEP United Nations Environment Programme

US EPA United States Environmental Protection Agency
UV ultraviolet

WHO World Health Organization

wt weight
Decision guidance document for a banned or severely restricted chemical

Parathion Published: 1 February 2005

1. Identification and uses (see Annex 1)

Common name Parathion (ISO)
Chemical name IUPAC: O,O-Diethyl O-(4-nitrophenyl) phosphorothioate
Other names/ CAS: O,O-diethyl O-(4-nitrophenyl) phosphorothioate
synonyms Synonym(s): Parathion ethyl, thiophos, ethyl parathion
CAS-No. 56-38-2
Harmonised System 29.2010.00 – active ingredient.
Customs Code 3808.10.40 – formulated product put up as insecticide.
Other numbers: European Community number: 200-271-7
Molecular formula C10H14NO5PS
Structural formula CH3CH2 O S
P
CH3CH2 O O NO2

Category Pesticide
Regulated Category Pesticide
Use(s) in regulated Insecticide/acaricide used in agriculture, horticulture, and viticulture notably to protect
category pome and stone fruit, vegetables, citrus fruits, vines and lucerne.
Trade names Ethyl parathion 100 EC; Ethyl parathion 500 EC; Farmoz; Pacol 4,5 (EO, 45 g/l, Aventis
Optimagro); Parathion E Insecticide; Novafos E Insecticide; Oléon Bladan (EC, 93 g/l,
Bayer SA); Oléoparatior (EO, 45 g/l Capiscol); Parafor ethyl (EC, 100 g/l, Capiscol);
Paretox 10 (WP, 10%, Bourgeois); Rhodiatox liquide 10% (EC, 100 g/l, Flexagri);
Tebing Parathion Insecticide; Ugécoil 10 (EC, 100 g/l, Sopcam-phyteurop); Ugécoil P
(EC, 30 g/l, Sopcam-phyteurop).
Parathion is widely distributed under numerous commercial names. This list is an
indicative list of trade names. It is not intended to be exhaustive.
Formulation types Available in a variety of formulations such as emulsifiable concentrate (EC), emulsion
(water in oil) (EO) or wettable powder (WP). The concentration of active ingredient (a.i.)
in these formulations ranges from 30 to 500 g/l.
Also available in mixtures with other active ingredients.
Uses in other No reported use as an industrial chemical.
categories
Basic manufacturers Cheminova, Shenzhen Jiangshan.
This is an indicative list of current and former manufacturers of Parathion. It is not
intended to be exhaustive.

2. Reasons for inclusion in the PIC procedure

Parathion is included in the interim PIC procedure as a pesticide. It is listed on the basis of the final regulatory
actions to ban all uses of parathion notified by Australia and the European Community.

Previously all formulations (aerosols, dustable powder, emulsifiable concentrate, granules and wettable powders) of
this substance (except capsule suspensions) were included in Annex III of the Rotterdam Convention as severely
hazardous pesticide formulations on the basis of the recommendation of the 3rd FAO/UNEP Joint Expert Group
Meeting. This action was taken because of their acute hazard classification and concern as to their impact on human
health under conditions of use in developing countries.

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2.1 Final regulatory action: (see Annex 2 for details)

Australia
The active constituent approval, all product registrations, and associated label approvals for products containing
parathion, were cancelled as from 11 June 1999. Wholesale supply to cease by 31 December 1999; retail sale to
cease by 30 June 2000 and maximum residue levels (MRL) withdrawn from 30 June 2001.

Reason: Human Health and Environment (Concerns with regard to operator exposure and aquatic
ecosystems).

European Community
The authorisations for plant protection products containing parathion had to be withdrawn by 8 January 2002. From
that date, no authorisations for plant protection products containing parathion could be granted or renewed.

Reason: Human Health and Environment (Concerns with regard to operator exposure and non-target
organisms).

2.2 Risk evaluation (see Annex 1 for details)

Australia:
The Australian National Registration Authority for Agricultural and Veterinary Chemicals (NRA) selected
parathion for review because of concerns about its high mammalian toxicity, occupational exposure concerns and
potential for adverse environmental impacts. The main issues are detailed below.
Parathion was registered for use on citrus, pome fruit, stone fruit, vines, vegetables, pastures and lucerne, with the
major use being in orchards. It was used to control mites, scale insects, aphids, moths, mealy bugs, lucerne fleas
and thrips. As the major use of parathion at the time of the review was to control moths as part of integrated pest
management (IPM) in pome fruit orchards, this was the use pattern used in the assessment. The application rate was
50 ml per 100 l of spray, which corresponds to 750-1500 ml/ha (375-750 g a.i./ha) for typical high volume spray of
1500 – 3000 l/ha.

Occupational Health and Safety (OHS):

The OHS risk assessment utilised measured worker exposure studies, published literature and predictive exposure
modelling to estimate the risk to workers using parathion. The risk assessment found that the health risk to workers
during ground spraying (airblast, electrostatic and boom spraying) of parathion products using prevailing practices
in all crops was not supported.

The OHS risk was not acceptable under the prevailing conditions of use for pastures and lucerne where parathion
was applied aerially. The OHS risk assessment concluded that field workers were at risk when re-entering parathion
treated areas. Re-entry restrictions on parathion product labels at the time of the assessment were inadequate. No
data were available to assess hand-held uses and greenhouse uses of parathion. Parathion and the products under
review are hazardous substances and were covered by regulations to control workplace hazardous substances. Tank
mixing with parathion was part of current practice at the time. The OHS risk assessment indicated unacceptable
risk when using parathion alone. The additional risk posed by tank mixing with other anticholinesterase products
was unacceptable.

Environmental Impact
Parathion was found to be hazardous to sensitive freshwater crustacea and other organisms, including bees. Spray
drift was identified as extremely hazardous to aquatic ecosystems.

European Community:
Pursuant to Article 8 (2) of the Council Directive 91/414/EEC of 15 July 1991 concerning the placing of plant
protection products on the market, parathion was reviewed to determine whether or not it should be included in
Annex I to this Directive (the list of active ingredients that can be used in plant protection products).

Parathion is a broad spectrum insecticide used on a large variety of crops. In the Member States, parathion-

2
 containing pesticides were registered for applications on apples, cereals, citrus fruit, grape, peach, pear,
pome and stone fruit by means of spray/foliar spray applications, which were considered in the risk
evaluation. Application rates considered in the risk assessment ranged from 0.2 to 0.3 kg a.i./ha.

Based on the information available and the proposed conditions of use, it was concluded from the evaluation that
parathion could not fulfil the safety requirements set out in Article 5 (1) (a) and (b) of Council Directive
91/414/EEC. The evaluation identified concerns with regard to the safety of parathion, in particular with regard to
operator exposure and non-target organisms. The main issues are detailed below.

Human Health and Safety

From the toxicological assay results available, the following conclusions on parathion health hazards were reached:
parathion is very toxic by inhalation or if swallowed and toxic by contact with skin. This active ingredient also
exhibits a danger of serious damage to health by prolonged exposure. The critical effect of this organophosphate
pesticide is inhibition of cholinesterase (ChE) activity.

No monitoring data for operator exposure under normal conditions were provided. Therefore, the German model
was used to evaluate operator exposure to a representative formulation, Ethylparathion EC 500, Toxicological data
were missing in a number of key areas, but when using an Acceptable Operator Exposure Level (AOEL) of
0.006 mg/kg bw/d, determined on the basis of the available data, acceptable exposure levels for operators were
exceeded in all scenarios of exposure. Even if traditional personal protective equipment (PPE) were to be worn, the
AOEL would have still been exceeded in two exposure scenarios: tractor-mounted and hand-held applications in
high crops.

Environmental Impact
Based on the registered uses of parathion in orchards, vines and arable land (0.2 – 0.3 kg a.i./ha) high risks were
identified for aquatic invertebrates after acute and chronic exposure to the substance and for fish after chronic
exposure. Risks were unacceptable when using buffer zones of 5 and 15 meters between the arable crop and the
adjacent surface water bodies. In addition unacceptable risks were identified for bees and birds.

3. Protective measures that have been applied concerning the chemical

3.1 Regulatory measures to reduce exposure

Australia: Under conditions of use in Australia, it was not shown that parathion could be used in a manner that
ensured the safety of people exposed to it during its handling. Its use also could have an unintended effect that was
harmful to the environment. It was concluded that conditions of registrations and approvals could not be varied in
such a way to allow continued use and as a result, registration for all parathion products was cancelled.

European Community: From the assessments made, it was concluded parathion did not satisfy the safety
requirements laid down in Directive 91/414/EEC, in particular with regard to acceptable operator exposure and
exposure of non-target organisms. As a result, authorisations for all parathion products had to be withdrawn.

Banning parathion has eliminated exposure and the associated risks to human health or the environment. Australia
and the European Community adopted the same risk management strategy to deal with the existing stocks, by
allowing a phase-out period:
- Australia: use was phased out over 2 years;
- E.C. Member States may have granted a period of grace of no longer than 18 months for disposal, storage,
placing on the market, and use of existing stocks.

This was seen as the lowest risk option for disposing of existing stocks in the light of the risks associated with
product recall, storage and disposal. It also allowed users time to adopt other pest management practices.

3.2 Other measures to reduce exposure

None.

3
3.3 Alternatives
It is essential that before a country considers substituting alternative pesticides, it ensures that the use is relevant to
its national needs, and the anticipated local conditions of use. The hazards of the substitute materials and the
controls needed for safe use should also be evaluated.

There are a number of alternative methods involving chemical and non-chemical strategies, including alternative
technologies available, depending on the individual crop-pest complex under consideration. Countries should
consider promoting, as appropriate, integrated pest management (IPM) strategies as a means of reducing or
eliminating the use of hazardous pesticides.

Advice may be available through National IPM focal points, the FAO, agricultural research or development
agencies. Where it has been made available by governments, additional information on alternatives to parathion may
be found on the Rotterdam Convention website www.pic.int.

Australia
The following alternatives were considered at the time of the notification to pose lower risks to workers and the
environment. World Health Organisation hazard classifications are provided as an aid to consideration of relative
risks. These classifications are for the active ingredient only. Actual hazard depends on the way in which the active
ingredient is formulated.
- Moderately hazardous: carbaryl, dimethoate, fenthion;
- Slightly hazardous: fenoxycarb, malathion.

European Community
The European Community did not provide any specific information on alternatives to parathion.

3.4 Socio-economic effects

Australia
Parathion has been an important component of integrated pest management in pears in one Australian State. It was
expected that the action would have a significant effect on these growers in the short term. The phase-out period
(two years) would reduce the impact and allow time for development of alternatives.

European Community
No detailed assessment of socio-economic effects was undertaken by the European Community.

Countries should consider the results of this information in the context of their own national conditions.

4. Hazards and Risks to human health and the environment

4.1 Hazard Classification
WHO / IPCS Technical a.i.: Ia (extremely hazardous),
classification based on oral toxicity in rats LD50: 13 mg a.i./kg bw of liquid
parathion (WHO 2000).
Formulations Oral toxicity Dermal toxicity
LD50: 13 mg a.i./kg bw LD50: 73 mg a.i./kg bw4
a.i. (%) hazard class a.i. (%) hazard class
Liquid  20 Ia  20 Ib
8 Ib 2 II
1 II
 0.5 III
Solid  30 Ib  80 Ib

4
Source of dermal LD50 value : JMPR, Australia and E.C. (Annex I Section 2.2.1)

4
 3 II  10 II
1 III 3 III

Group 3: The agent is not classifiable as to its carcinogenicity to humans.

IARC (IARC Subsequent evaluation: Suppl. 7 (1987), p. 69)
Classification of the active substance is (Commission Directive 93/72/EEC, 1 September 1993):
European T+ very toxic,
Community N dangerous for the environment,
R27/28 very toxic in contact with skin and if swallowed,
R50/53 very toxic to aquatic organisms, may cause long-term adverse effects in the aquatic
environment
Category 1 (highly toxic) (EPA 1985)
US EPA Group C (possible human carcinogen)

4.2 Exposure limits

Food
The FAO/WHO Joint Meeting on Pesticide Residues (JMPR) established an Acceptable Daily Intake (ADI) of
0.005 mg/kg bw at its first 3 reviews of parathion in 1963, 1965 and 1967. In its fourth and latest review in 1995, the ADI
was lowered to 0.004 mg/kg bw. An acute reference dose (ARfD) of 0.01 mg/kg bw was established in 1995.

The JMPR re-evaluated all food residues in 2000 (FAO/WHO 2001) and recommended maximum residue limits on
cereal grains, oil seeds and apples ranging between the limit of analytical detection of 0.05 mg/kg and 7 mg/kg.

The Codex Committee on Pesticide Residues at its 34th session in May 2002 recommended withdrawal of all maximum
residue limits as parathion was no longer supported by the manufacturer in the Codex system (CCPR 2002 paragraph 94
ALINORM03/24).

A dietary risk assessment was performed by the JMPR in 2000. For the commodities on which Codex maximum residue
limits were proposed, it concluded that the acute intake of residues of parathion from uses, other than on barley and
apples, was unlikely to present a public health concern. The JMPR also concluded that based for the commodities it
considered the long-term intake of residues of parathion were unlikely to present a public health concern. Further details
can be found in Annex I (Section 3.1) and in JMPR report, 2000.

Drinking water
The WHO has not established a drinking water guideline for parathion.
The European Community has proposed a drinking water limit of 18 µg/l (For further details, see Annex I, Section 3.3).

4.3 Packaging and labelling

The United Nations Committee of Experts on the Transportation of Dangerous Goods classifies the chemical in:
6.1 poisonous substance
Hazard Class:
Packing Group I: substances and preparations presenting a very severe risk of
Packing Group: poisoning, when the content of the active ingredient is 40-100%.
Packing Group II: substances and preparations presenting a serious risk of poisoning,
when the content of the active ingredient is 4-40%.
Packing Group III: substances presenting a relatively low risk of poisoning in
transport, when the content of the active ingredient is 1-4% (solid) or 0.4-4% (liquid).
International Maritime Severe marine pollutant.
Dangerous Goods (IMDG) Do not transport with food and feedstuffs.
Code
Transport Emergency Card TEC (R)-61GT6-I NFPA Code: H4; F1; R2.

5
For further specific guidance on appropriate symbols and label statements regarding formulations of
parathion, countries should also consult the FAO Guidelines on Good Labelling Practice for Pesticides
(1995).

4.4 First aid

NOTE: The following advice is based on information available from the World Health Organisation and the
notifying countries and was correct at the time of publication. This advice is provided for information only
and is not intended to supersede any national first aid protocols.

Signs and symptoms of acute parathion poisoning are typical of organophosphorus pesticides acting through
ChE inhibition and include pupillary constriction, muscle cramp, excessive salivation, sweating, nausea,
vomiting, dizziness, headache, convulsions, diarrhoea, weakness, laboured breathing, wheezing,
unconsciousness, abdominal cramps, respiratory failure, and death.

First aid personnel should wear rubber or plastic gloves to avoid contamination. Contaminated clothing and
contact lenses should be removed as quickly as possible to prevent further absorption. If skin contact occurs, the
area should be washed with soap and water. Eyes should be washed for 15–20 minutes with running water or
saline solution. In the case of ingestion, if the victim is conscious and not convulsing, give 1 or 2 glasses of
water to dilute the chemical. If the victim is unconscious or convulsing, do NOT give anything by mouth and do
NOT induce vomiting. The stomach should be emptied as soon as possible by careful gastric lavage, preferably
within one hour of ingestion. In massive overdoses, acute respiratory failure may occur. It is important to keep
the airway open and to prevent aspiration if nausea and vomiting occur.

Persons who have been poisoned (accidentally or otherwise) must be transported immediately to a hospital and
placed under the surveillance of properly trained medical staff. Where possible show the label of the parathion
container when the patient/affected person is presented for medical attention.

If the substance is formulated with solvent(s), also consult the International Chemical Safety cards (ICSC) of the
solvent(s). Carrier solvents used in commercial formulations may affect the toxicity of the active ingredient by
altering its extent of absorption from the gastrointestinal tract or through the skin.

Atropine and oxime reactivator compounds, such as Toxogonin, are well known antidotes to parathion
poisoning. Use and effectiveness of these antidotes in cases of human poisoning are well documented in the
scientific literature.

Further information may be found on the website of the IPCS/WHO at www.inchem.org

4.5 Waste management

Regulatory actions to ban a chemical should not result in creation of a stockpile requiring waste disposal. For
guidance on how to avoid creating stockpiles of obsolete pesticide stocks the following guidelines are available:
FAO Guidelines on Prevention of Accumulation of Obsolete Pesticide Stocks (1995), The Pesticide Storage and
Stock Control Manual (1996) and Guidelines for the management of small quantities of unwanted and obsolete
pesticides.

Australia and the European Community adopted the same risk management strategy to deal with the existing
stocks, by allowing a phase-out period. This period was two years in Australia and 18 months for E.C. Member
States. This was seen as the lowest risk option for disposing of existing stocks in the light of risk associated with
product recall, storage and disposal. It also allowed users time to change over to other pest management practices
(see Annex 2)

In all cases waste should be disposed of in accordance with the provisions of the Basel Convention on the Control
of Transboundary Movements of Hazardous Wastes and Their Disposal (1996), any guidelines thereunder
(Secretariat of the Basel Convention, 1994) and any other relevant regional agreements.

It should be noted that the disposal/destruction methods recommended in the literature are often not available in, or
suitable for, all countries e.g. high temperature incinerators may not be available. Consideration should be given to
the use of alternative destruction technologies. Further information on possible approaches may be found in
Technical Guidelines for the Disposal of Bulk Quantities of Obsolete Pesticides in Developing Countries (1996).

6
Annexes
Annex 1 Further information on the substance
Annex 2 Details on Final regulatory action
Annex 3 Address of designated national authorities
Annex 4 References

7
 Annex 1 Further information on the substance

Introductory text to Annex I

The information presented in this Annex reflects the conclusions of the two notifying parties: Australia and the
European Community. In a general way, information provided by these two parties on the hazards are
synthesised and presented together, while the risk assessments, specific to the conditions prevailing in these
parties, are presented separately. This information is contained in the documents referenced in the notifications
in support of their final regulatory actions banning parathion. The notification from Australia was first reported
in the PIC Circular XII of December 2000 and the notification from the European Community in PIC Circular
XVI of December 2002.

The FAO/WHO Joint Meeting on Pesticide Residues (JMPR) reviewed parathion in 1963, 1965, 1967, 1995 and
2000. The last review of toxicity data was in 1995 while residues were re-evaluated in 2000. The conclusions of
the JMPR were not substantially different from those reported here. As a result, details of the evaluations are not
included though their relevant conclusions, e.g. regarding acceptable daily intake (ADI) and acute reference
dose (ARfD), have been included in the interest of completeness.

The results of international reviews, such as that of WHO/IPCS (IPCS Health and Safety Guide, 1992) and
IARC (1983) have also been considered while drafting the document. They do not differ substantially from the
information provided by the notifying countries, and details of these evaluations have not been included though
the IPCS conclusions regarding acute toxicity endpoints have been included in section 2.2.7.

8
Annex 1 – Further information on parathion

1. Physico-Chemical properties
1.1 Identity ISO: Parathion
IUPAC: O,O-diethyl-O-(4-nitrophenyl) phosphorothioate
CAS:, O,O-diethyl O-(4-nitrophenyl) Phosphorothioate [56-38-2]
1.2 Formula C10H14NO5PS
1.3 Chemical type Organophosphorus compound
1.4 Colour and Texture Pure parathion: pale yellow liquid with phenol like odour
1.5 Decomposition Isomerises to O,S-diethyl isomer on heating above 130°C
temperature
1.6 Density (g/cm3) 1.2694
1.7 Solubility In water: 11 mg/l at 20°C; 12.4  0.7 mg/l at 25  1C
Completely miscible with most organic solvents.
1.8 Log P 1598 (log Kow = 3.15 ± 0.27)
1.9 Vapour pressure 0.89 mPa at 20 °C
1.10 Melting point 6.1 ºC
1.11 Boiling point 150°C/80 Pa
1.12 Reactivity Hydrolysis: Rapidly hydrolyses in alkaline media, more slowly in acidic media
pH 4: DT50 = 272 d,
pH 7: DT50 = 247-356 d, depending on the buffer
pH 9: DT50 = 102-130 d (several tests)
1.13 Stability Not highly flammable. Non-explosive
1.14 Molecular Weight 291.3 g/mol

2 Toxicological properties
2.1
General
2.1.1 Mode of Action The biological mode of action of parathion is by cholinesterase (ChE) inhibition.
The transmission of nerve impulses is blocked at the nerve synapses. In brief, nerve
impulses are transmitted to the next fibre (or to a muscle) by acetylcholine being
released from the transmitting nerve, which stimulates the receiving nerve (muscle).
The acetylcholine is then immediately catabolised by the enzyme
acetylcholinesterase (AchE). The organophosphorus insecticides bind to AchE so
that acetylcholine cannot be catabolised. Consequently control via the nervous
system is blocked by nerves being permanently stimulated. Specifically, the toxicity
of parathion is directly related to the inhibition of ChEs by the major parathion
activation product, paraoxon.

2.1.2 Symptoms of The symptoms of parathion poisoning are typical of organophosphorus pesticides
poisoning acting through cholinesterase inhibition and include: pupillary constriction,
weakness, nausea, vomiting, excessive sweating, headache, tightness in the chest,
laboured breathing, dizziness, excessive salivation, muscle cramp, difficulty in
walking, convulsions, diarrhoea, wheezing, abdominal cramps, miosis, muscle
fasciculation, unconsciousness, coma, respiratory failure, and death.

2.1.3 Absorption, Rate and extent of absorption

distribution, The absorption of parathion is rapid and extensive (more than 90%) in rats
excretion and following oral administration.

9
 metabolism in Studies of the absorption of parathion through the skin in mice, rats and humans
mammals have shown that the substance is readily absorbed and metabolised, but with a high
variability among species, gender, application site and individuals.

Distribution and excretion

Parathion does not accumulate in tissues. It is generally excreted very rapidly, more
than 99% within 48 hours, mainly via the urine (86-94%). There are only very low
concentrations of residues (about 2% of the administered dose) remaining in tissues
such as fat, lung, liver and brain 48 hours after oral administration.
Metabolism in animals
The metabolism is well defined and proceeds through a process of desulphurisation,
dealkylation, conjugation and oxidation. The process is common across mammalian
species, the key metabolite is paraoxon-ethyl which is of similar acute toxicity to
the parent compound.
Human data:
Studies in human volunteers indicate that approximately 10% of a parathion dose
applied to human skin is absorbed, with approximately a 5-fold difference between
individuals.
As in other mammalian species, paraoxon-ethyl (paraoxon) is the major degradation
product of parathion.
2.2 Toxicology
studies
2.2.1 Acute toxicity Oral: Parathion is very acutely toxic by the oral route, with LD50 values ranging
from 2 to 22 mg/kg bw for rats, 12 mg/kg bw for mice, 10 mg/kg bw for pigs.
The estimated human oral lethal dose for parathion is 1.43 mg/kg.
Dermal: Parathion is acutely toxic following percutaneous application, with LD50
values ranging from 71 to 100 mg/kg bw for rats.
A microencapsulated form of parathion was of low-moderate toxicity to rats when
tested by the oral and dermal routes.
Inhalation: Parathion is very toxic by the inhalation route. The LC50 (aerosol, 4h,
nose only) is 0.03 mg /l for male and female rats.
Irritation: Parathion is not / slightly irritant to rabbit’s skin and to rabbit’s eyes.
The microencapsulated product is a slight eye irritant and a slight skin irritant in
rabbits, and is a weak skin sensitiser in guinea pigs.
Sensitisation: Parathion does not induce skin sensitisation in guinea pigs tested
according to the method of Magnusson and Kligman.

Human data:
Australia: Several acute/short-term studies conducted on human volunteers were
reported. In these early studies, it was found that oral doses of 0.05 – 0.07 mg
parathion/kg bw may be asymptomatic. Doses of 0.1 mg/kg bw and above gave
signs and symptoms typical of cholinesterase inhibition, as well as measured
reductions in plasma and whole blood cholinesterase activity. In later studies, oral
intake of up to 0.1 mg/kg bw/d for up to 14 weeks produced no clinical signs but
inhibited plasma cholinesterase markedly and erythrocyte cholinesterase slightly
with significant individual variability. From these studies NOELs in the range 0.05 -
0.1 mg/kg bw/d were established for plasma ChE inhibition. The lowest NOEL was
used for the human risk assessment.

European Community:
In one study, a group of five volunteers were given parathion by capsule, firstly at 3
mg/person/d for 28 days, then at 4.5 mg/person/d for 28 days and finally at 6
mg/person/d for 43 days. The administration at 3 and 4.5 mg/person/d did not affect
plasma or erythrocyte cholinesterase activity. The highest dose of 6 mg/person/d
produced a slight depression (10 - 15%) of plasma and erythrocyte cholinesterase
activity. No adverse clinical symptoms were observed.
In a second study, groups, each consisting of five male subjects, were given
parathion by capsule at doses of 3, 4.5, 6 or 7.5 mg/person/d for 35 days. There was

10
 no effect on plasma or erythrocyte cholinesterase activity at the two lower dose
levels. At 6 mg/person/d there was a slight, but not significant, depression of
plasma cholinesterase activity. At the highest dose level of 7.5 mg/person/d, plasma
cholinesterase on average was depressed by 15%, although, in some individuals,
this depression was 50%. A slight inhibition of erythrocyte cholinesterase activity
was also seen at this dose level.
The ‘no-effect’ level in humans, as a result of the above studies was, therefore,
4.5 mg/person/d, equal to 0.06 mg/kg bw/d. This value was used for the human risk
assessment (Section 3).

Acute reference dose (ARfD):

European Community: An acute reference dose of 0.005 mg/kg bw was established
based on acute neurotoxic effects observed in rats, with a safety factor of 100 (see
point 2.2.6).
JMPR (1995): An acute reference dose of 0.01 mg/kg bw was established by
applying a 10-fold safety factor to a NOAEL of 7.5 mg/d (highest oral dose),
corresponding to about 0.1 mg/kg bw per day, in humans. This was based on
the absence of inhibition of erythrocyte AChE.
Australia: An acute reference dose of 0.01 mg/kg bw was established by
applying a 10-fold safety factor to a NOEL of 0.125 mg/kg bw in humans. This
was based on the absence of inhibition of erythrocyte AChE in a 35-d study
(five males), at the highest dose tested of 7.5 mg/person/d.

2.2.2 Short term Oral

toxicity Short term studies
In rats (14 d) and mice (28 d) inhibition of erythrocyte ChE was the most sensitive
endpoint, with death occurring at the highest doses. A NOEL (oral, 14 d) = 1 mg/kg
in the diet was established in rats.
Sub-chronic studies
In several studies performed on rats (90 d), mice (90 d) and dogs (90 d – 6 months)
inhibition of erythrocyte ChE was also observed with additional inhibition of
plasma ChE and in the longer studies brain ChE activities. The lowest NOEL was
reported by Australia: NOEL (oral, dogs, 6 months) = 0.0024 mg/kg bw/d based on
plasma ChE inhibition.

Dermal
Lowest relevant NOEL (Rabbits, 21-day) = 0.1 mg/kg bw (inhibition of erythrocyte,
plasma and brain ChE at 2 mg/d).

Inhalation:
In a 21-d inhalation (nose only) study in rats, there were no effects at the low dose
of 0.25 mg/m3 (NOEL), reductions in plasma, erythrocyte or brain ChE activity at
the mid dose (0.92 mg/m3) or high dose (3.9 mg/m3), and clinical signs of poisoning
and deaths at the high dose. LOEL (rats, 30 x 7 h/d) = 0.01 mg/m3 air (inhibition of
erythrocyte ChE).
2.2.3 Genotoxicity The weight of the evidence indicates no genotoxic potential.
(including Parathion does not interact with genetic material and has been shown not to cause:
mutagenicity) mutations in bacterial or mammalian cells, chromosomal damage in mouse or
human blood cells or mouse germ cell cells, inhibition or stimulation of DNA
repair. Parathion did not exhibit mutagenic activity in in vivo mouse bone marrow
micronucleus or dominant lethal assays
2.2.4 Long term In general for long term toxicity studies, at the highest dose levels, the toxic effects
toxicity and were consistent with exposure to cholinesterase inhibiting compounds, namely
carcinogenicity increased mortality, reduced body weight gain, cholinergic and clinical signs,
peripheral neuropathy and reduced red cell count. At these levels, cholinesterase
activity in erythrocytes, plasma and brain were all markedly inhibited.

11
 In rats:
- the lowest NOEL (diet, 24 months) was 0.01 mg/kg bw/d (plasma ChE inhibition)
(Australia);
- the lowest NOEL (diet, 24 months) was 0.1 mg/kg bw/d (erythrocyte/plasma ChE
inhibition) (E.C.)
In dogs, the lowest NOEL (diet, dogs, 12 months) was 0.01 mg/kg bw/d
(erythrocyte/plasma ChE inhibition) (Australia, E.C.)

Carcinogenicity: Under the conditions of the available studies parathion did not
show carcinogenic potential (rat, two years).
2.2.5 Effects on Reproduction
reproduction
In 2 two-generation reproduction studies in rats (dosed with 0.05 to 2.3 mg/kg bw/d
parathion by gavage) and a third where rats were fed (1, 5, 10, 20 mg/kg in diet –
1 mg/kg being equivalent to 0.05 mg/kg bw/d) with parathion in the diet the NOELs
for parental toxicity ranged from 0.05 to 0.9 mg/kg bw/d and from 0.6 to 1 mg/kg
bw/d for reproductive effects.

Developmental effects

In two studies in rats dosed with parathion at levels ranging from 0.1 to 1.5 mg/kg
bw/d and one in rabbits dosed at levels ranging from 0.03 to 0.3 mg/kg bw/d effects
were only observed at maternotoxic doses. In rats the NOEL for maternal toxicity
ranged from 0.3 to 1 mg/kg bw/d and in rabbits the NOEL for maternal toxicity was
4 mg/kg bw/d.

Under the conditions of these studies parathion did not show teratogenic potential.

2.2.6 Neurotoxicity/ Acute neurotoxicity study, rats single oral doses between 0.025 and 10 mg/kg.
delayed At 10 mg/kg there were deaths and clinical signs of toxicity. Neurological effects
neurotoxicity, were typical of acute cholinesterase inhibition and were seen at doses that caused
Special studies significant inhibition of plasma, erythrocyte and brain cholinesterase activity.
where available Substantial recovery of cholinesterase levels was seen at day 14 post treatment. The
NOEL for the study was 0.5 mg/kg bw/d based on inhibition of plasma, erythrocyte
and brain cholinesterase and acute neurological effects seen at 2.5 mg/kg and above.
This study was used by the EC to derive the ARfD.

There was no evidence of delayed neurotoxic effects in rats or hens in studies up to

13 weeks.

Human data:
Neither single or repeated exposure to parathion in humans appears to lead to
delayed neuropathy, but the possibility of neuropsychiatric effects cannot be
completely eliminated.
2.2.7
Summary of Parathion is rapidly absorbed by the major routes of exposure (oral, dermal and
mammalian inhalation) with some interindividual/interspecies or gender variations in the case of
toxicity and dermal contact. Parathion does not accumulate in tissues, and is quickly excreted,
overall mainly via urine. Parathion is metabolised mainly in the liver where its major
evaluation metabolite (paraoxon) is formed.

Parathion has a high acute toxicity:

LD50 (oral, rats) = 2 - 22 mg/kg bw (Australia, European Community)
LD50 (oral, rats) = 2 - 22 mg/kg bw (JMPR, 1995)
LD50 (oral, rats) = about 13 mg/kg bw (IPCS, 1992)

LC50 (inhalation, aerosol, 4h, nose only) = 0.03 mg /l (Australia, European

Community)

12
 LC50 (inhalation, 4h) = 0.03 mg /l (JMPR, 1995, study from 1986)
LC50 (inhalation, 4h) = 24 - 91mg /l (JMPR, 1995, study from 1972)
LC50 (inhalation) = no data (IPCS, 1992)

LD50 (dermal, rats) = 71 - 100 mg/kg bw (Australia, European Community)

LD50 (dermal, rats) = 73 mg/kg bw (JMPR, 1995)
LC50 (dermal) = no data (IPCS, 1992)
LD50 (dermal, rabbits) = 910 – 1400 mg/kg bw (JMPR, 1995)

Parathion was not highly irritating to the skin or the eyes of rabbits, and was not a
skin sensitiser in guinea pigs (Australia, European Community, JMPR, 1995).

The major toxic effect of parathion (organophosphorus compound) is cholinesterase

inhibition.

Short-term studies
Lowest NOEL (oral, dogs, 6 months) = 0.0024 mg/kg bw/d (plasma ChE inhibition)
(Australia)

Long term studies:

Lowest NOEL (diet, dogs, 12 months) = 0.01 mg/kg bw/d (erythrocyte/plasma ChE
inhibition) (Australia/E.C.)
Lowest NOEL (diet, rats, 24 months) = 0.01 mg/kg bw/d (plasma ChE inhibition)
(Australia)
Lowest NOEL (diet, rats, 24 months) = 0.1 mg/kg bw/d (erythrocyte/plasma ChE
inhibition) (E.C.)

Human oral study

Lowest NOEL = 0.05 mg/kg (plasma ChE) (Australia)
= 0.06 mg/kg bw/d
(erythrocyte/plasma ChE) (E.C.)

Parathion was not found to be genotoxic (Australia, E.C.).

Parathion was not found to be carcinogenic, in several two years dietary studies.
Acute reference dose (ARfD):
Australia: ARfD = 0.01 mg/kg bw (applying a 10-fold safety factor to a NOEL of
0.125 mg/kg bw/d for inhibition of erythrocyte AChE in humans).

European Community: ARfD = 0.005 mg/kg bw based on acute neurotoxic effects

observed in rats, with a safety factor of 100.

JMPR (1995): ARfD = 0.01 mg/kg bw (10-fold safety factor, NOAEL = 0.1 mg/kg
bw/d, in humans (highest oral dose), based on the absence of inhibition of
erythrocyte AchE.

Acceptable Daily Intake (ADI)

ADI of 0.001 mg/kg bw/d based on the human NOEL of 0.05 mg/kg bw/d (plasma
Australia ChE), and application of a 50-fold safety factor to account for the reported
variability in human populations.

13
 ADI of 0.006 mg/kg bw/d based on the human NOEL of 0.06 mg/kg bw/d
European (erythrocyte/plasma ChE), and application of a 10-fold safety factor.
Community
ADI of 0-0.004 mg/kg bw/d based on a NOAEL of 0.4 mg/kg bw/d in the two-year
JMPR, 1995 study in rats for retinal atrophy and inhibition of brain acetylcholinesterase at the
higher dose and application of a 100-fold safety factor.

Lower NOAELs in animals, based only on inhibition of erythrocyte or brain AchE,

were not considered relevant because of the availability of an NOAEL for
erythrocyte AchE inhibition in humans, which was 0.1 mg/kg bw per day.

3 Human exposure/Risk evaluation

3.1 Australia
Food No Australian residue trial data were presented for review. However, using
available data several maximum residue levels (MRLs) were set ranging from 0.05
to 1 mg/kg (withdrawn June 2001). The risk for consumers was not assessed.

European Community
MRLs were set by Commission Directive 2002/66/EC of 16 July 2002 at the
following levels:
Meat, milks, eggs: 0.05 mg/kg (LOD = lower limit of analytical determination)
Fruits, vegetables, pulses, oilseeds, potatoes, cereals: 0.05 mg/kg (LOD)
Tea, hops: 0.1 mg/kg (LOD).

JMPR
The JMPR performed a dietary risk assessment for short-term and chronic exposure
in 2000. The Codex Committee on Pesticide Residues at its 34th session in May
2002 recommended withdrawal of all MRLs as parathion was no longer supported
by the manufacturer in the Codex system (CCPR 2002 paragraph 94
ALINORM03/24). However, in the absence of any other information on dietary
risk, results from this dietary risk assessment (JMPR report, 2000) are reported
below.

Short-term intake
The International Estimate of Short-Term Dietary Intake (IESTI)of parathion was
calculated for the food commodities (and their processing fractions) for which
maximum residue levels and supervised trials median residues (STMR) values have
been estimated and for which data on consumption were available. The IESTI
represented 0– 400% of the ARfD for the general population. The 400% value took
into account estimates of beer consumption, but the calculation in this case was
based on the residues in barley because no data were available on the fate of
parathion during brewing. The IESTI represented 0–140% of the ARfD for children.
The value of 140% represents the estimated short-term intake of residues in apples,
but the Meeting was informed that the large portion size (679 g) of apple
consumption by children may represent total apple consumption (including apple
juice) rather than consumption of whole apples only.

The JMPR concluded that the acute intakes of residues of parathion from uses, other
than on barley and apples, were unlikely to present a public health concern.

Chronic intake
The review of parathion at this time resulted in recommendations for new and
revised MRLs and new STMR values for raw and processed commodities. Data
on consumption were available for 10 food commodities and were used in
calculating dietary intake. The international estimated daily intakes from the

14
 five GEMS/Food regional diets, based on estimated STMR values, represented
7–20% of the ADI.

The JMPR concluded that long-term intake of residues of parathion from uses that it
considered is unlikely to present a public health concern.

3.2 Not relevant.

Air Parathion formulations are normally used at times when re-entering the crops
shortly after spraying is not necessary. The half-life of the active ingredient in air is
less than 1 day.
3.3
Water European Community: Field studies demonstrated that parathion is not mobile
below 10 cm soil depth, indicating that under normal agricultural use there is no
potential risk of contaminating drinking water supplies. On the basis that exposure
through drinking water should not account for more than 10% of ADI, assuming
average consumption of 2 litres of water per person per day and body weight of
60 kg, a limit of 18 µg/l is proposed.

Occupational In line with internationally accepted practices, the occupational risk evaluation was
3.4
exposure based on hazard characteristics and worker exposure. The latter took into
consideration the mixing, loading and applications activities involved in the use of
pesticides.

Australia
The OHS risk assessment utilised measured worker exposure studies, published
literature and predictive exposure modelling (UK Predictive Operator Exposure
Model – POEM) to estimate the risk to workers using parathion.
Parathion was applied in Australia to the following crops: stone and pome fruit,
citrus, vines, vegetables, and pastures and lucerne.
The maximum parathion concentration in working strength spray was 0.05% in
horticultural crops and 0.088% in field crops.
It was assumed that maximum PPE (personal protective equipment) was worn (i.e.
gloves, overalls and waterproof clothing).

Assessment of health risk to workers

In estimating health risk to workers from exposure data, an average body weight of
60 kg per worker and a skin penetration rate of 10% for parathion were used.
Assessment of risk was based on calculations of margins of exposure (MOE). MOE
for Australian use patterns were calculated by comparing the NOEL of 0.05 mg/kg
bw/d with measured and/or predicted worker exposure. An MOE of 50 or more was
considered acceptable. The NOEL of 0.05 mg/kg bw/d determined in humans based
on erythrocyte ChE inhibition was selected for the occupational health and safety
risk assessment of parathion (see section 2.2.1).

Assessment - ground application

Worker health risk was assessed from measured exposure data including the study
conducted in Australian orchards and model data. A range of control measures was
considered including maximum PPE, closed mixing systems and closed cabs.
Stone and pome fruit The critical uses of parathion were ground application in stone
and pome fruit. In the Australian study, MOE generated for parathion were
unacceptable, at  2. This was for workers performing combined functions and
using high-pressure airblast and electrostatic equipment with and without air-
conditioned cabs. Biological monitoring results indicated that one out of seven
workers in the parathion group exceeded the Biological Exposure Index (BEI) for
parathion defined by the American Conference of Governmental Industrial
Hygienists (ACGIH).
Both measured exposure data and modelled data indicated unacceptable exposures,
under the then prevailing use conditions in stone and pome fruit. The data on the
influence of mixer/loader exposure on overall exposure was conflicting. Predicted

15
 applicator exposure appeared acceptable for low volume and ultra low volume
spraying. Further data would be required to assess whether use is safe with closed
mixing/loading systems and closed cabs.
Other crops The assessment of parathion use in other crops found an unacceptable
level of risk during ground spraying. Further data would be required to assess
whether use is safe with closed mixing/loading systems and closed cabs.
Assessment - aerial application: Limited measured exposure data indicated that
worker exposure and risk during aerial application of parathion in field crops was
acceptable. However, further data would be required to show that exposures are
acceptable for aerial loading teams.
Bystander exposure: human flagging during aerial application was not acceptable,
unless workers had additional protection.
Re-entry assessment: For all uses, an interim minimum re-entry period of 14 days
was recommended.

Summary
The risk assessment found that the health risk to workers during ground spraying
(airblast, electrostatic and boom spraying) of parathion products using prevailing
practices in all crops was not supported. The OHS risk was not acceptable in the
uses at the time of the assessment for pastures and lucerne where parathion was
applied aerially. The OHS risk assessment concluded that field workers were at risk
when re-entering parathion treated areas.

European Community
There were no measured worker exposure studies for mixing, loading or application
of parathion. Therefore the German model was used to estimate exposure for the
proposed uses.

Acceptable operator exposure level (AOEL)

The NOEL of 0.06 mg/kg bw determined in human volunteer studies (see section
2.2.1) was used to calculate the AOEL, with a 2.5-fold Safety Factor (intraspecies
variability). However, a higher Safety Factor of 10 was deemed necessary to take
into account the fact that this NOEL is based on an acute end-point (cholinesterase
inhibition), and that this study had been performed at times when analytical
methods for cholinesterase determination were rather poor. On this basis, the AOEL
= 0.006 mg/kg bw/d.
Operator exposure risk assessment:
The risk of systemic effects arising from operator exposure to the active substance
during mixing and application activities was estimated for Ethyl parathion EC 500.
Ethyl parathion EC 500 is a broad-spectrum insecticide used on a variety of crops
including vegetables, fruit trees, field crops, protected crops and ornamental plants.
It is applied using field crop sprayers, portable or hand-held sprayers and air
assisted fruit-tree sprayers.
Operator exposure estimates, calculated using the experimentally determined
specific exposures provided by the German Generic Database indicated that, when
no personal protective equipment (PPE) is worn, the AOEL will be exceeded in all
scenarios of exposure, whether assuming a 20% or a 10% skin absorption.
When traditional personal protective equipment is worn, the AOEL will still be
exceeded in two exposure scenarios: tractor-mounted and hand-held applications in
high crops.
Therefore, the margins of safety obtained by calculation are inadequate, and the risk
is not acceptable.
The results of risk evaluation based on Generic Databases to predict operator
exposure indicate the need to proceed to a Tier-III risk assessment, based on actual
measurements of exposure, rather than on exposure estimates.

3.5 Humans may be among the more sensitive species to parathion, with marked
individual variations. A 60-fold variation was observed in the activity of the enzyme
Medical data responsible for parathion metabolism in humans.
contributing to The estimated human oral lethal dose for parathion is 1.43 mg/kg ( Section 2.2.1).

16
 regulatory
decision

4 Environmental fate and effects

4.1
Fate
4.1.1 Biodegradation: In a soil metabolism study a DT50-value of about 58 days was
Soil established whilst laboratory degradation studies revealed DT50-values of 150 to 170
days based on the first 20 days of the study. These studies were carried out in 3
different soils with different pH at 22 – 25 ˚C. Degradation mainly took place to CO2
(43%), non-extractable residues in the soil (maximum of 49.1% of the initial dose
after 92 days incubation and 36.6% after 366 days) and some minor metabolites
(2.9% 4-nitrophenol, 1.6% paraoxon and 2.1% O,O-bis(4-nitrophenol)
ethylphosphate). In field studies with application rates of 1.1 and 0.35 kg/ha,
dissipation is faster. DT50-values of 3 – 32 days were determined depending on soil
and temperature. Parathion is fairly degradable and is not considered as persistent
(field DT50 < 3 months).

Degradation of parathion in sterile soils was not investigated.

Photodegradation of parathion showed no additional enhancement compared to

biodegradation. A DT50 of 73 days was determined.

Degradation under anaerobic conditions has not been investigated because exposure
to anaerobic conditions was not considered likely based on the low DT50-values of
the substance.

Mobility: Parathion may be classified as slightly mobile to immobile. In sorption

experiments in four different soils Koc-values of 1700 – 1100 dm3/kg were
determined at organic carbon contents of 0.1 – 2.1%. In soil column aged leaching
studies only small amounts were found in the leachate: 0.23 – 0.28% after 135 days
of ageing and leaching with 200 mm in 2 days. Also in a field leaching study no
leaching of parathion could be demonstrated. Furthermore, no leaching properties
were found for the metabolites in these studies.

4.1.2

Water Hydrolysis: The hydrolysis of parathion is expected to be slow in the environment. At

25°C and pH 7, there was little hydrolysis with half-lives of 247-356 days. The half-
life due to hydrolysis ranged from 100-102 days at pH 9 to 133 days at pH 5.

Photolysis: Half-lives of parathion of 203, 30 and 4.4 days were obtained for dark
controls, non-sensitised samples and samples sensitised with acetone (1% v/v),
respectively. These studies were carried out in clear waters. It is expected that in
turbid waters photolysis does not play a significant role.

Biodegradation: Parathion can be rated as readily degradable. The aerobic aquatic

metabolism shows that the first half-life of parathion is approximately 2 days in the
aquatic phase with an overall half-life of 5.2 days. These results were obtained from
water / sediment studies with natural water taken from a ditch and a small lake. The
mineralisation to CO2 was negligible (< 3%) and the amount found in the sediment
varied between 13 and 70 %, whilst in one study the amount of unextractable
residues increased up to 60%.

Mobility: It was shown that parathion is readily absorbed by sediment. Within one
day of application approximately 70% of the chemical was absorbed to the sediment

17
 with the remainder either degraded or remaining in the aquatic phase. No sorption
constant however was determined.

4.1.3
Air Volatilisation: Parathion is classified as slightly volatile. The vapour pressure of
parathion is 1.29 x 10-3 Pa at 25C, whilst the Henry’s Law constant is 0.0302
Pa.m3/mol. Therefore the dimensionless air / water distribution constant is 5.2x10-7.
Based on the Henry’s Law constant volatilisation of parathion is not expected.

Photolysis: In a laboratory experiment, parathion had a half-life of about 60 days in

the exposed sample and about 1100 days in the dark control at 30°C.

Based on the findings on volatilisation and photolysis in air, parathion is not

expected to be found in significant amounts in air.

4.1.4 A bioaccumulation study with bluegill sunfish has shown that parathion residues in
Bioconcentration water are rapidly taken up by fish, extensively metabolised and rapidly excreted, with
little potential to bioacumulate. The steady-state bioconcentration factor for whole
body tissues was calculated as 430. During the depuration phase, the calculated half-
life was 0.76 days for whole body tissues.

4.1.5 Based on the DT50-values found in soil (ca. 58 days) and water (5.2 days) parathion is
Persistence not considered a persistent substance. Therefore, any accumulation in an
environmental compartment is not expected (See Sections 4.1.1 and 4.1.2).
4.2
Effects on non-
target organisms

4.2.1 Mammals:
LD50 (rat, oral) = 2.4 mg/kg bw
Terrestrial
vertebrates Birds:
LD50 (acute, bobwhite quail) = 2.7 mg/kg bw
Lowest LC50 (dietary, 4 species) = 76 – 336 mg/kg

NOEC (reproductive toxicity, mallard duck) = 2.85 mg/kg bw

4.2.2 Fish:
Aquatic species Parathion is acutely highly toxic to fish.
LC50 (golden orfe, 96h) = 0.58 – 0.69 mg/l.
LC50 (rainbow trout, 96h) = 1 – 1.5 mg/l.
Parathion may be classified for chronic toxicity as highly toxic.
NOEC (sheepshead minnow, 28d) = 0.72 μg/l.
Crustaceans:
Parathion is acutely highly toxic to daphnids.
EC50 (Daphnia magna, 48h) = 2.5 µg/l.
Parathion may be classified for chronic toxicity as highly toxic to daphnids.
NOEC (Daphnia magna, 21d) = 0.1 - 0.56 µg/l.
Algae:
Also for algae Parathion is classified acutely as highly toxic.
EC50 (Scenedesmus subspicatus, 48h) = 0.5 mg/l.
4.2.3 Bees:
Honeybees and Parathion is classified as highly toxic to bees.
other arthropods LD50 (contact) = 0.066 µg/bee; LD50 (oral) = 0.1 µg/bee.

18
4.2.4 Parathion may be classified as moderately toxic to earthworms.
Earthworms 14-d LC50 = 65 mg/kg; 14-d NOEC = 32 mg/kg.
4.2.5 Nitrogen mineralisation:
Soil No significant effect up to 20 kg a.i. /ha in silty sand and loamy silt soil, up to 2.5 kg
microorganisms a.i. /ha in loamy sand and sandy silt soil
Carbon mineralisation:
No significant effect up to 20 kg a.i. /ha in silty sand and loamy silt soil, up to
2.5 kg a.i. /ha in loamy sand and sandy silt soil
4.2.6
Terrestrial No quantitative information available
plants

5 Environmental Exposure/Risk Evaluation

5.1 Mammals
Terrestrial Australia: As the applications are normally made by tractor- powered equipment,
vertebrates accidental direct spraying of larger non-target organisms, such as marsupials, is
considered unlikely as it is expected that these animals will move some distance from
the area where spray operations are occurring, while smaller mammals will be
undercover. Thus they are unlikely to be exposed.
European Community: A worst-case assessment was first performed and indicated
that mammals may be at risk (mammals eating 100% short grass, in the treated area).
However, under practical conditions the risk to mammals from the use of parathion
as an insecticide in grapes, orchards and field crops appeared to be lower.

Birds
Australia: For fruit sprayed at 750 g a.i./ha the concentration of parathion residues
on the fruit was calculated as 10 mg/kg wet weight. This concentration indicated a
low hazard to birds from the toxicity data reviewed (Section 4.2.1).
European Community: The risk evaluation of the use of parathion in the European
Community was performed taking into account the intended applications notified for
authorisation. Application rates of 0.2 to 0.3 kg a.i./ha were considered in the case of
arable land and in vines and orchards. For calculations, the LD50 values of 2.4 mg/kg
bw for mammals and 2.7 mg/kg bw for birds were used as reference for the acute
toxicity.

The Toxicity/Exposure Ratios (TER) were calculated for small, medium-sized and
relatively large herbivorous mammals and birds. These TERs must be greater than
the trigger value (10) established in the European Community.
For small birds TER-values are 0.6 – 24, for small herbivorous birds TERs are 0.08
– 3.4 and for large herbivorous birds TERs are 0.53 – 22.

19
5.2 Aquatic species Australia:
The application of parathion directly to a body of water 15 cm deep at the lowest rate
of 0.375 kg a.i./ha was calculated to give a concentration in water of 250 µg.l-1. As
this is above the EC50’s for all aquatic organisms tested, except algae, there is a
potential hazard to all other aquatic organisms.

Effects on daphnids and other aquatic insects/invertebrates from direct overspray are
likely to be severe, with the concentration in water approximately 65 times the EC50
for daphnia from the lowest application rate. While the then prevailing use pattern
would not be expected to cause direct overspray, aerial application could.
Furthermore, even with precautions, the hazard to aquatic invertebrates and macro-
crustacea from spray drift was considered to be unacceptably high. Despite the rapid
degradation, chronic effects are possible on sensitive organisms at application rates >
500 g a.i./ha.

European Community:
The risk evaluation of the use of parathion in the European Community was
performed taking into account application rates of 0.2 kg a.i./ha for arable land
and 0.3 kg a.i./ha for vines and orchards. The exposure levels were calculated
using buffer zones of 5 m for arable land and 15 m for vines and orchards . The
toxicity data concerning the most sensitive species in each trophic level were
used.

The TERs were calculated for fish, daphnids and algae in acute exposure and for fish
and daphnids in chronic exposure. For fish and daphnids, these TERs must be greater
than the trigger values (100 for acute and 10 for chronic exposure) established in the
European Community. The trigger value for algae is 10.

The results of the acute and chronic studies with Daphnia magna indicate significant
levels of toxicity. The resultant acute TER and long-term TER values are very low,
all being less than 100 and less than 10, respectively. The results of the studies
assessing the acute toxicity of parathion to fish and to green algae indicate a
moderate level of acute toxicity. The resultant acute TER values for the organisms
are all greater than 100 and so a low risk can be assigned. However, the results of the
studies assessing the chronic toxicity of parathion to fish indicate a somewhat higher
level of toxicity (early life stage study). This is confirmed by the long-term TER
values, which in the most severe case (orchards application) are less than 10. The
results are summarised in the following table.

Applica- Crop Organism Time- Dis- TER Trigger

tion rate scale tance values
(kg (m)
a.i./ha)
0.2 Arable crops Rainbow trout 96 h 5 1450 100
0.3 Vines Rainbow trout 96 h 15 725 100
0.3 Orchards Rainbow trout 96 h 15 232 100
0.2 Arable crops Daphnia magna 48 h 5 6.3 100
0.3 Vines Daphnia magna 48 h 15 3.1 100
0.3 Orchards Daphnia magna 48 h 15 1 100
0.2 Arable crops Scenedesmus subspicatus 96 h 5 1250 10
0.3 Vines Scenedesmus subspicatus 96 h 15 625 10
0.3 Orchards Scenedesmus subspicatus 96 h 15 200 10
0.2 Arable crops Sheepshead minnow 21 d 5 1.8 10
0.3 Vines Sheepshead minnow 21 d 15 0.9 10
0.3 Orchards Sheepshead minnow 21 d 15 0.3 10
0.2 Arable crops Daphnia magna 21 d 5 1.4 10
0.3 Vines Daphnia magna 21 d 15 0.7 10
0.3 Orchards Daphnia magna 21 d 15 0.2 10
5.3 Honey bees Australia: Bees are at risk if spraying occurs when they are present in the crop. Even

20
 at the lowest rate, 375 g a.i./ha, the estimated dose (2.25 µg a.i./bee) is significantly
above the contact EC50 (= 0.131 µg/bee). Spray drift from orchard application is also
likely to be toxic to bees.

European Community: Based on the hazard quotient, defined as the ratio of

application rate and LD50-value, in the European Community a value less than
the trigger value of 50 is considered safe. Hazard quotients established for
parathion are > 3000 g ha-1/(µg bee-1). Therefore parathion is considered very
dangerous for bees.

5.4 Earthworms Australia: following an application rate of 750 g a.i./ha, the top 5 cm of soil would
contain parathion residues at 1.1 mg/kg of soil (assumes no crop cover, density of
soil 1300 kg/m3, direct application). As the concentration of pesticide in the soil due
to direct application is significantly below the EC50 for earthworms (65 mg/kg of
soil), effects on earthworms from orchard spraying are not expected.

European Community: Based on the normal application rates of parathion

resulting in concentrations in the upper soil of 0.13 – 0.2 mg a.i./kg soil are
considered not to cause risk to earthworms.

5.5 Soil Normal agricultural use of parathion will not cause effects on the carbon and
microorganisms nitrogen mineralisation cycle in soil.

5.6 Summary – The two notifying parties performed risk assessments for the use of parathion in the
overall risk conditions prevailing in their countries. The main difference in use pattern was the
evaluation aerial application of parathion in Australia, which was not intended in the European
Community. It should be noted that the risk assessments were performed on the
recommended applications rates, which were higher in Australia than in the European
Community. Despite these differences in agricultural practices, the two notifying
parties reached similar conclusions on the environmental risks.

Australia concluded that there were unacceptable risks to aquatic ecosystems,

especially to fish and macro-invertebrates, and to bees.

In the European Community, although there were a number of deficiencies in the

data package submitted that prevented a complete evaluation being carried out, it was
clear that the data already available indicated:
 for all applications, a high acute risk to birds and bees,
 for all applications (with a 5 or 15 meter buffer zone), a high acute and
chronic risk to daphnids, and also a chronic risk for fish.

21
 Annex 2 – Details on final regulatory actions reported

Country Name: Australia

1 Effective date(s) of From 11 June 1999: registration of parathion cancelled.
entry into force of Use phased-out according to the following schedule:
actions Whole sale supply: to cease by 31 December 1999
Retail sales: to cease by 30 June 2000
MRLs: withdrawn from 30 June 2001

Reference to the National Registration Authority for Agricultural and Veterinary Chemicals (NRA)
regulatory Board Resolution 752, Action 99-29, 11 June 1999
document The NRA Review of parathion, Volume I, February 2000. NRA Review Series 00.2.
National Registration Authority for Agricultural and Veterinary Chemicals.

2 Succinct details of The active constituent approval, all product registrations and associated label
the final approvals for products containing parathion, were cancelled.
regulatory
action(s)
3 Reasons for action Unacceptable occupational health and safety risks, and unacceptable risk for the
environment.

4 Basis for inclusion Decision followed a review of parathion under Australian National Registration
into Annex III Authority for Agricultural and Veterinary Chemicals' (NRA) Existing Chemical
Review Program, which failed to satisfy the NRA that continued use of parathion
products, in accordance with the recommendations for its use, would not harm people
or the environment.

4.1 Risk evaluation The review concluded that continued use of parathion would pose an unacceptably
high risk to workers and wildlife.

4.2 Criteria used Risks to the environment, to occupational health and safety, and to public health.

Relevance to other The action has minimal relevance as parathion is already subject to the PIC
States and Region procedure.

5 Alternatives The following alternatives were considered at the time of the notification to pose
lower risks to workers and the environment. World Health Organisation hazard
classifications are provided as an aid to consideration of relative risks. These
classifications are for active constituents. Actual hazard depends on formulation.
Moderately hazardous: carbaryl, dimethoate, fenthion; Slightly hazardous:
fenoxycarb, malathion. It is suggested that if any of these chemicals are to be
considered as alternatives, advice should be sought from product manufacturers
concerning the suitability for the proposed use and for local conditions.
6 Waste Phase-out of existing stocks following the regulatory action.
management

7 Other Australian Classification:

Parathion is listed in Australian National Occupational Health and Safety
Commission (NOHSC) List of Designated Hazardous substances.
It is included in Schedule 7 (Dangerous poisons) of Australia's ‘Standard for the
Uniform Scheduling of Drugs and Poisons’.

22
 Country Name: European Community
1 Effective date(s) of The measures laid down by Commission Decision 2001/520/EC of 9/07/2001 had to
entry into force of be put into effect by 08/01/2002 at the latest.
actions

Reference to the Commission Decision 2001/520/EC of 9/07/2001 concerning the non-inclusion of

regulatory parathion in Annex I to Council Directive 91/414/EEC and the withdrawal of
document authorisations for plant protection products containing this active substance (Official
Journal of the European Community L187 of 10/07/2001, p. 47)

2 Succinct details of Parathion is not included as an active ingredient in Annex I to Directive 91/414/EEC.
the final It is therefore prohibited to place on the market or to use plant protection products
regulatory containing parathion. The authorisations for plant protection products containing
action(s) parathion had to be withdrawn within a period of 6 months from the date of the final
regulatory action, i.e. 08/01/2002. From that date, no authorisation for plant
protection products containing parathion could be granted or renewed.

3 Reasons for action The Decision followed the review of parathion pursuant to Article 8 (2) of the
Council Directive 91/414/EEC of 15 July 1991 concerning the placing of plant
protection products on the market. In accordance with that Directive, the Commission
initiated a programme of work for the gradual examination of active substances
available on the market. Parathion was one of the 90 active substances included in the
list of substances covered by the first stage of the work programme. The main notifier
submitted a dossier, which was reviewed by the Member States and the Commission
within the Standing Committee on Plant Health. This review was finalised on 7
February 2001 in the form of a Commission review report for parathion.
From the assessments made, it was concluded that the submitted information had not
demonstrated that the safety requirements laid down in Article 5(1)(a) and (b) and
5(2)(b) of Directive 91/414/EEC were met, in particular with regard to operator
exposure and non-target organisms.

4 Basis for inclusion None of the intended uses were considered to present an acceptable risk as regards
into Annex III operator exposure and the environment.

4.1 Risk evaluation It was concluded that continued use of parathion would pose an unacceptably high
risk to human health and the environment.

4.2 Criteria used Exposure/effects ratios for occupational use, public health and the environment.

Relevance to other Of special concern to developing countries due to the high risk associated with
States and Region spraying of parathion, even when rigorous Good Agricultural Practices (GAP) are
employed and protective equipment is used.

5 Alternatives No alternatives are proposed.

6 Waste Member States were allowed to grant a limited period of grace for disposal, storage,
management placing on the market and use of existing stocks in accordance with the provisions of
Article 4(6) of Directive 91/414/EEC. This period was set at not longer than a
maximum of 18 months from the date of adoption of Commission Decision
2001/520/EC of 9/07/2001 (i.e. by 8/1/2003).
7 Other

23
 Annex 3 – Addresses of designated national authorities
AUSTRALIA

P Phone +61 2 6272 5391

Senior Manager Fax + +61 2 6272 5697

Agricultural and Veterinary Chemicals Telex ---
Product Integrity, Plant and Animal Health
Department of Agriculture, Fisheries and Forestry, Australia
GPO Box 858 e-mail andre.mayne@affa.gov.au
Canberra Act 2601
Australia
Mr André MAYNE

C Phone +61 2 6274 1841

Assistant Secretary Fax +61 2 6274 2060
Environment Quality Division Telex
Environment Australia
GPO Box 787 e-mail peter.burnett@ea.gov.au
CANBERRA ACT 2601
Mr Peter Burnett

EUROPEAN COMMUNITY

CP Phone +322 299 48 60

Administrator Fax +322 295 61 17
European Commission Telex
DG Environment e-mail Klaus.Berend@cec.eu.int
Rue de la Loi, 200
B-1049, Brussels – Belgium
Mr Klaus BEREND

C Industrial chemicals
CP Pesticides and industrial chemicals
P Pesticides

24
Annex 4 – References
Regulatory actions
Australia:
 National Registration Authority for Agricultural and Veterinary Chemicals (NRA) Board Resolution 752,
Action 99-29, 11 June 1999.
 The NRA Review of parathion, Volume I, February 2000. NRA Review Series 00.2. National Registration
Authority for Agricultural and Veterinary Chemicals. Available at
www.apvma.gov.au/chemrev/parathio.shtml
[Note the NRA is now known as the Australian Pesticides and Veterinary Medicines Authority (APVMA)]
European Communities
 Commission Decision 2001/520/EC of 9/07/2001 concerning the non-inclusion of parathion in Annex I to
Council Directive 91/414/EEC and the withdrawal of authorisations for plant protection products containing
this active substance (Official Journal of the European Community L187 of 10/07/2001, p. 47).
Available at http://europa.eu.int/eur-lex/pri/en/oj/dat/2001/l_187/l_18720010710en00470048.pdf

Other Documents

Standard for the Uniform Scheduling of Drugs and Poisons (SUSDP). Australia
Review report for the active substance parathion – Finalised to support European Commission decision
concerning the non-inclusion of parathion as active substance in the Annex I to the Directive 91/414/EEC
and the withdrawal of authorisations for plant protection products containing this active substance.
European Commission – Directorate General Health for consumer Protection (2001).
Full Report on Parathion, ECCO Peer Review Meetings, 2000 (The table of contents of the report and
excerpt (page 1 to 48))
Monograph on the Review of Parathion, European Community (Volume 1 of the monograph, which
contains report and proposed decision)
Commission Directive 2002/66/EC of 16 July 2002 amending the Annexes to Council Directives
76/895/EEC, 86/362/EEC, 86/363/EEC and 90/642/EEC as regards the fixing of maximum levels for
pesticide residues in and on fruit and vegetables, cereals, foodstuffs of animal origin and certain products
of plant origin, including fruit and vegetables respectively (Official Journal of the European Community
L 192 of 20/7/2002, p 47). Available at http://europa.eu.int/eur-
lex/pri/en/oj/dat/2002/l_192/l_19220020720en00470053.pdf
FAO/WHO, 1965. Pesticide Residues in Food – 1965 - Evaluation of the toxicity of pesticide residues in
food. Joint Meeting of the FAO Committee on Pesticides in Agriculture and the WHO Expert Committee
on Pesticide Residues, Rome, 15-22 March 1965. FAO Meeting Report No. PL/1965/10/1 WHO/Food
Add./27.65 (available at http://www.inchem.org/documents/jmpr/jmpmono/v065pr34.htm)
FAO/WHO, 1967. Pesticide Residues in Food – 1967 - Evaluations of some pesticide residues in food. The
monographs. Joint Meeting of the FAO Working Party of Experts and the WHO Expert Committee on
Pesticide Residues, Rome, 4 - 11 December, 1967. (FAO/WHO, 1968). FAO/PL:1967/M/11/1
WHO/Food Add./68.30 (available at http://www.inchem.org/documents/jmpr/jmpmono/v067pr29.htm)
FAO/WHO, 1969. Pesticide Residues in Food – 1969 - Evaluations of some pesticide residues in food. The
monographs. Joint Meeting of the FAO Working Party of Experts and the WHO Expert Committee on
Pesticide Residues, Rome, 8 - 15 December 1969. (FAO/WHO, 1968). FAO/PL:1969/M/17/1
WHO/FOOD ADD./70.38 (available at
http://www.inchem.org/documents/jmpr/jmpmono/v069pr24.htm)
FAO/WHO, 1995. Pesticide Residues in Food – 1995 - Parathion (Pesticide residues in food: 1995
evaluations Part II Toxicological & Environmental)
(available at http://www.inchem.org/documents/jmpr/jmpmono/v95pr13.htm)
International Agency for Research on Cancer (IARC) - Summaries & Evaluations PARATHION. VOL.:
30 (1983) (p. 153) and Subsequent evaluation: Suppl. 7 (1987) (p. 69: Group 3)
(available at http://www.inchem.org/documents/iarc/vol30/parathion.html )
FAO/WHO, 2001. Pesticide Residues in Food - 2000, Report 2000
FAO Plant Production and Protection Paper 163 (Rome 2001) available at
http://www.fao.org/WAICENT/FAOINFO/AGRICULT/AGP/AGPP/Pesticid/Default.htm

25
 CCPR 2002 Report of the Thirty Fourth Session of the Codex Committee on Pesticide Residues May 2002
(Alinorm 03/24) available at ftp://ftp.fao.org/codex/alinorm03/Al03_24e.pdf

PARATHION HEALTH AND SAFETY GUIDE (1992) (IPCS International Programme On Chemical
Safety Health and Safety Guide No. 74, available at
http://www.inchem.org/documents/hsg/hsg/hsg74.htm)
Tomlin, Clive 2000. The Pesticide Manual: A World Compendium (12th ed.), British Crop Protection
Council, United Kingdom
WHO, 2000. Recommended classification of pesticides by hazard and guidelines to classification 2000-01.
WHO/PCS/01.5. World Health Organization, IPCS, Geneva.

RELEVANT GUIDELINES AND REFERENCE DOCUMENTS

Basel Convention on the Control of Transboundary Movements of Hazardous Wastes and their Disposal
1996.
FAO, 1990. Guidelines for personal protection when working with pesticides in tropical countries.
FAO, Rome.
FAO, 1995. Revised guidelines on good labelling practices for pesticides. FAO, Rome.
FAO, 1995. Guidelines on Prevention of Accumulation of Obsolete Pesticide Stocks. FAO, Rome.
FAO, 1996. Technical guidelines on disposal of bulk quantities of obsolete pesticides in developing
countries. FAO, Rome.
FAO, 1996. Pesticide Storage and Stock Control Manual. FAO, Rome.

26