‫ملخص مادة الشعر‬

Poetry
Summary
nd
2 Stage
16th & 17th

‫احمد كريم‬ Telegram: @EnglishDepartment2

 University of Al-Muthanna
College of Education for Humanities
Department of English
Stage : Second
Course : Poetry
Lecture : (2)
Topic : The Poem “ Hind”
Instructor : Asist. Lec. Ali Hasan

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 Whoso List to Hunt

BY SIR THOMAS WYATT (1503-1542)

Whoso list to hunt, I know where is an hind,

But as for me, hélas, I may no more.

The vain travail hath wearied me so sore,

I am of them that farthest cometh behind.

Yet may I by no means my wearied mind

Draw from the deer, but as she fleeth afore

Fainting I follow. I leave off therefore,

Sithens in a net I seek to hold the wind.

Who list her hunt, I put him out of doubt,

As well as I may spend his time in vain.

And graven with diamonds in letters plain

There is written, her fair neck round about :

Noli me tangere, for Caesar's I am,

And wild for to hold, though I seem tame.

Introduction

Whoso list to hunt• powerfully exemplifies the artistic skills of Sir

Thomas Wyatt in Sonnet, which decorated with deep emotions and
initiate use of literary devices. To England sonnet was introduced by
Wyatt who was a diplomat in Italy, the birth place of sonnet and
renascence, for some time. Sonnet during 13 to 16 century was the best
and appropriate form of poetry at first for love subject; later for variety
of subjects even nature in romantic period.

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 Sir Thomas Wyatt Born in Kent, England, he was an ambassador to
France and Italy for King Henry VIII. Wyatt’s travels abroad exposed him
to different forms of poetry, which he adapted for the English language
most notably, the sonnet. Wyatt was in love with a woman by the name
of Anne Boleyn, but the king of the time, Henry VIII, defeated him and
won her before him. Thereafter he realized that he can't do anything
about it because his opponent was the king. Later it is said she had done
adultery with Wyatt; the king imprisoned Wyatt in the Tower of London
and beheading Anne Boleyn. In this sonnet Wyatt with a very deep
sorrow express his pure love toward Anne, and how all the rumors about
her were nothing, but calumny .

The form of this sonnet is petrarchan with rhyme scheme (ABBA-ABBA-

CDDC -EE). Wyatt used Petrarchan sonnet form sometimes with a slight
change in its rhyme scheme, he divided sonnet into three four lines
stanzas and two last lines, 13th and 14thl lines, as couplet. The meter of
this sonnet is iambic pentameter .

The word choice, imaginary language, grammatical disorder techniques,

alliteration that makes the sonnet more musical, and metaphors that are
used in this sonnet, make it more expressive and rich.

Summary
The poem opens with a question to the reader, asking who enjoys the
hunt, and pointing out that the poet knows a worthy hind (female deer).
He then continues with a contrast to the excitement of line 1 to say that he
is regrettably no longer up to the chase.

In line 3 he notes that his efforts have been in vain and he is greatly tired,
and that he is now at the back of the hunting party. However, he tells us
in line 4 and 5, he cannot draw his tired thoughts away from the deer; as
she runs before him he follows exhausted. He gives up due to the futility
of trying to hold the wind in a net.

By line 9 he confidently tells those who follow the hunt that, just as for
him, the pursuit is fruitless. Picked out plainly in diamond lettering there
is a collar around the neck of the hind. The collar says ‘do not touch me,
as I belong to Caesar, and I am wild, though I seem tame.’

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 Analysis
Wyatt uses the sonnet form, which he introduced to England from the
work of Petrarch. The Petrarchan sonnet typically has 14 lines. The first 8
lines, or octet, introduces a problem or issue for contemplation and the
remaining six lines, or sestet, offers a resolution or an opinion. Wyatt
uses iambic pentameter. This means that there are five pairs of syllables,
each with the stress on the second syllable. It is the most common rhythm
used in traditional poetry and was used by Shakespeare in his sonnets,
poems and plays. Iambic pentameter, though a regular rhythm, was
thought to be closest to ordinary speech patterns, so it is an attempt to
imitate but also elevate the sounds of everyday conversation.

By opening the poem with a question, the narrator challenges the reader.
There is an invitation in his words, and the use of an exclamation mark at
the end of the first line implies excitement at the idea. As hunting was a
popular pastime in the court of Henry VIII, this suggests a poem along
the lines of Henry VIII’s own most famous lyric, ’Pastime With Good
Company’. However, problem within the octet is revealed in line 2 as the
poet tells us that he is no longer part of the hunt. An exclamation mark is
used in line 2, again to emphasize emotion, but this time frustration and
regret. This is a passionate yet contradictory introduction.

Line 3 makes use of assonance to reveal the poet’s earlier hunting efforts
as ‘vain travail’ which has tired him out to the point of physical pain. We
can see that the poem is an extended metaphor for the end of a
relationship. The poet is now at the tail end of the pursuit, although, he
says in line 5 that his mind has not deviated from the hunt. Wyatt makes
use of enjambment (breaking a phrase over more than one line of verse)
and caesura (concluding a phrase within the first half of a line of verse)
across lines six and seven to highlight the discord represented by the end
of the relationship as he subverts and challenges his own chosen
structure.

In line 8, the poet uses the concluding line of the octet to stress the futility
of his former quest. He uses the metaphor of catching the wind in a net to
emphasize the pointlessness of his chase.

The final sestet begins with line 9 reiterating the appeal to those who
wish to join the hunt, but he continues in to line 10 to explain that the
pursuit will be in vain for them too. Again there is an exclamation mark
to indicate an intensity of feeling.

Line 11 continues the extended metaphor as an explanation of why his

hunt of this ‘hind’, and that of others who pursue her, is so pointless. She

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 has a bejeweled collar, indicating she already has an owner. Her collar is
adorned with the Latin phrase ‘Noli Me tangere’ meaning ‘touch me not’.
This expression refers to a phrase spoken by Jesus to Mary Magdalene in
the Bible. The design also includes the name of her owner – ‘for Caesar’s
I am.’ If we identify the poem as referring to Anne Boleyn, then her new
owner would be King Henry VIII; the pair were married around the time
when this poem was composed and Wyatt could no longer compete for
her affections. By describing Henry using the allusion of Caesar, Wyatt
bestows on his monarch the qualities of a reputation of greatness and
incisive rule.

Themes

It has three major themes:

1-Power and weakness, or ruler and subjects

2 -Unreachable goal

3-Unreachable love

In power and weakness the theme is about how the king can do and
have whatever he wants and the subjects should obey without any
complain. The next theme, unreachable goal, points out how man
struggle to get to something unreachable although he knows he can't.
The third theme, unreachable love, shows the speaker is in love with a
lady which is in king possession. The tone of this work is hopelessness.

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 University of Al-Muthanna
College of Education for Humanities
Department of English
Stage : Second
Course : Poetry
Lecture : (1)
Topic : The Poem “ Spring”
Instructor : Asist. Lec. Ali Hasan

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 Spring by Henry Howard, Earl of Surrey

THE soote season, that bud and bloom forth brings,

With green hath clad the hill, and eke the vale.
The nightingale with feathers new she sings ;
The turtle to her make hath told her tale.
Summer is come, for every spray now springs,
The hart hath hung his old head on the pale;
The buck in brake his winter coat he slings ;
The fishes flete with new repairèd scale ;
The adder , all her slough away she slings ;
The swift swallow pursueth the fliës smale ;
The busy bee her honey now she mings ;
Winter is worn that was the flowers' bale.
And thus I see among these pleasant things
Each care decays, and yet my sorrow springs !

Introduction

Henry Howard, Earl of Surrey (1516-1547), was an English aristocrat,

and one of the founders of English Renaissance poetry. He was a brave
and able soldier, serving in Henry VIII's French wars as "Lieutenant
General of the King on Sea and Land." He was repeatedly imprisoned for
rash behavior, on one occasion for striking a courtier, on another for
wandering through the streets of London breaking the windows of
sleeping people.

Howard experimented with Petrachan sonnet form. The structure of this

sonnet is 14 lines comprised of one opening quatrain followed by a octet

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 and concluded with a rhyming couplet. The volta (turn/ switch from one
topic to another topic) is line five. To restate this, the first four lines form
a quatrain devoted to the topic of the coming of spring: "The soote
season, that bud and bloom forth brings". The next eight lines form an
octet devoted to the topic of nature's summer changes: "Summer is
come, ... / The hart hath hung his old head...." The switch from the first
topic to the second occurs at line 5; the switch is called the volta or the
"turn." The rhyme scheme is a consistent abab / abababab with an aa
couplet.

Summary

"Spring" is one the simple poems that the reader or listener can figure
out the meaning easily. the poem is a sonnet about lost or unrequieted
love. The poet looks around and sees how everything is beautiful and
new, acknowledges this and yet states his sadness in the midst of the
beauty and renewal of the world.

Analysis

" Spring" is written in the form of an English, or Shakespearean, sonnet,

consisting of three open quatrains followed by a couplet. If you look at
the title, you see that the poem is about spring and the rebirth of
nature. This is an Elizabethan sonnet whose rhymes are abab abab abab
aa. The speaker exposes the beauty of nature´s revival in springtime. As
with most sonnets, it is characterized by a "turn" or striking and abrupt
reversal between the third quatrain and the final couplet.

The first twelve lines, as the title suggests, are a description of the way
life renews itself in the spring. Several such renewals are described,
including the fresh plumage of the nightingale and the song of the
turtledove. Fish, deer, snakes, and bees all participate in the joyous new
life that emerges at the end of winter.

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 The poem is rich in visual imagery. Thus, “With green hath clad the hill
and eke the vale” (line 2), makes the reader to see the rebirth of the
flowers, and the greenness in the hills and valleys. The speaker uses
metaphors, when he refers to the hart hanging his old head, or the buck
flinging in his winter coat. Those devices help the reader to perceive the
changes in nature. The first twelve lines connote exaltation and
euphoria, whereas the two last couplets imply sorrow and unhappiness.

If you look again to the title you see that is everything renews, but
there is exception. The exception to this is the narrator of the poem,
who despite being surrounded by and appreciating the spring, and
seeing it as a time of joy when cares are shed, nonetheless himself
remains sorrowful. The last couplet shows the poet's sadness for not
being part of this renewal because of his unrequited love. Thus, the
theme of the poem can be alterations and changes in nature, but these
alterations and changes don’t include the poet. So, the speaker is not
included.

Themes

" Spring" is a love sonnet, but which kind of love? The main theme of
this poem is unrequited love summed up in the rhyming couplet of lines
13 and 14:

And thus I see among these pleasant things

Each care decays, and yet my sorrow springs !

We another important theme of Henry Howard's poem " Spring" which

is change. The speaker of the poem is reflecting on the spring which is to
come. As the poet indicates in his "Spring", that everything in process of
change doesn’t implies him. So, winter is passing, spring and summer are
coming, they bring the promise of new life and new outlooks. None of
these affects or changes the poet's situation, since his sorrow springs
inside him.

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 Poetry
Second Year - Second course
By: Hayder Gebreen

Holy Sonnet 10, "Death be not proud"

By: John Donne
‫الشعر الغيبي أو الميتافيزيقي يعد نموذجا ً لتحليل الشعور اإلنساني وليس لتجسيده والبحث عن الفلسفة الكامنة‬
‫ يرى البعض أن العقائد‬.‫وراء الحب بكل أنواعه وليس تعبيراً عن التجربة النفسية التي يخوضها المحبون‬
‫الدينية النصرانية هي الخلفية الفكرية للمذهب الغيبي الميتافيزيقي األدبي… ولعل عجز اإلنسان عن فهم‬
..‫ والقدر والموت‬،‫ دفعه إلى التعبير عن جميع الظواهر الغيبية مثل الروح والحياة‬،‫األمور الغيبية في الحياة‬
‫ أماكن النفوذ‬.‫ لعل اإلنسان يستطيع التوصل إلى فهم كنه هذه الظواهر‬..‫عن طري ق الشعر والرواية والمسرحية‬
‫ بدأ المذهب(*) الغيبي الميتافيزيقي في إنكلترا… وإن كانت أفكاره أثرت تأثيراً كبيراً في أدباء‬: ‫واالنتشار‬
،‫ الميتافيزيقية هي اتجاه أدبي‬:‫ ويتضح مما سبق‬.‫الكالسيكية الجديدة في أوروبا كلها والعالم الغربي برمته‬
‫ من أجل الجمع بين كل ما هو مؤتلف ومختلف من‬،‫يبحث عن ظواهر العالم بطريقة عقلية ممزوجة بالعاطفة‬
‫ وإبرازه في أعمال مسرحية وشعرية وروائية تجسد الفلسفة الكامنة وراء‬،‫األخيلة الفكرية والظواهر الطبيعية‬
‫ ومع أن هذا االتجاه يؤكد الدالالت الدينية واألخالقية الكامنة وراء القوى‬.‫ بأسلوب سهل وتعبير سلس‬،‫الحب‬
.‫ فكرة وحدة الوجود‬،‫ كالخيال الصوفي الجامح‬،‫الميتافيزيقية إال أنه يتبنى‬
Introduction: Donne’s “Holy Sonnet 10” follows the Elizabethan/Shakespearean
sonnet form in that it is made up of three quatrains and a concluding couplet.
However, Donne has chosen the Italian/Petrarchan sonnet rhyme scheme of abba for
the first two quatrains, grouping them into an octet typical of the Petrarchan form. He
switches rhyme scheme in the third quatrain to cddc, and then the couplet rhymes ee
as usual.
Summary: “Death Be Not Proud” presents an argument against the power of death.
Addressing Death as a person, the speaker warns Death against pride in his power.
Such power is merely an illusion, and the end Death thinks it brings to men and
women is in fact a rest from world-weariness for its alleged “victims.” The poet
criticizes Death as a slave to other forces: fate, chance, kings, and desperate men.
Death is not in control, for a variety of other powers exercise their volition in taking
lives. Even in the rest it brings, Death is inferior to drugs. Finally, the speaker predicts
the end of Death itself, stating “Death, thou shalt die.”
Analysis:
Death, be not proud, though some have called thee
Mighty and dreadful, for thou art not so;
For those whom thou think'st thou dost overthrow
Die not, poor Death, nor yet canst thou kill me.
‫ ال تفخر‬, ‫أيها الموت‬
1

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 Poetry
Second Year - Second course
By: Hayder Gebreen

,‫وتمضي في التيه و الكبرياء‬

,ِ‫فعلى النقيض‬
,‫البعض يصفك بالمخيف‬
,‫صاحب القوة والبأساء‬
:‫إال أنك لست كذلك‬
‫فهؤالء الذين تعتقد بأنك‬
‫أخذتهم تحت جناحك‬
,‫وانتزعتهم من عالم األحياء‬
‫ هم ال يموتون‬, ‫أيها المسكين‬
,‫وال يطويهم الفناء‬
‫بل أنت ال تستطيع قتلي‬

The first quatrain focuses on the subject and audience of this poem: death. By
addressing Death, Donne makes it/him into a character through personification. The
poet warns death to avoid pride (line 1) and reconsider its/his position as a “Mighty
and dreadful” force (line 2). He concludes the introductory argument of the first
quatrain by declaring to death that those it claims to kill “Die not” (line 4), and
neither can the poet himself be stricken in this way.
From rest and sleep, which but thy pictures be,
Much pleasure; then from thee much more must flow,
And soonest our best men with thee do go,
Rest of their bones, and soul's delivery.
,‫فالراحة والنوم‬,
,‫ما هما إال صورتان منك‬
,‫يا مدعي الخلود والبقاء‬
,‫وبالتالي نجد فيهما‬
,‫الكثير من السرور والملذات‬
‫فبمجرد أن يمضي معك الصفوة‬
:‫من الرجال والعظماء‬

The second quatrain, which is closely linked to the first through the abba rhyme
scheme, turns the criticism of Death as less than fearful into praise for Death’s good
qualities. From Death comes “Much pleasure” (line 6) since those good souls whom
Death releases from earthly suffering experience “Rest of their bones” (line 8).
Thou art slave to fate, chance, kings, and desperate men,
And dost with poison, war, and sickness dwell,
And poppy or charms can make us sleep as well

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 Poetry
Second Year - Second course
By: Hayder Gebreen

And better than thy stroke; why swell'st thou then?

‫إال أن عظامهم وأرواحهم‬
,‫ رغم أنفك‬, ‫تبقى حية‬
!‫تتحدى البوار و الفناء‬
,‫فأنت عبد ذليل للقدر‬
,‫ لألمراء‬, ‫ للملوك‬, ‫للصدفة‬
‫للرجال الهائمين‬
,‫بين اليأسِ والشقاء‬
,‫فأنت تسكن مع السموم‬
,‫مع الحروب‬
,‫ويحلو لك مع المرض البقاء‬
‫ و المغريات و المسكرات‬, ‫فالخشخاش‬
,‫يمكنها أن تغرقنا في النوم والسبات‬
,‫بل هي أفضل من ضرباتك‬
‫فلماذا كل هذا التيه والخيالء ؟‬

Donne then returns to criticizing Death for thinking too highly of itself: Death is no
sovereign, but a “slave to Fate, chance, kings, and desperate men” (line 9); this last
demonstrates that there is no hierarchy in which Death is near the top. Although a
desperate man can choose Death as an escape from earthly suffering, even the rest
which Death offers can be achieved better by “poppy, or charms” (line 11), so even
there Death has no superiority.
One short sleep past, we wake eternally
And death shall be no more; Death, thou shalt die.
‫فغفوة قصيرة ونمضي‬
,‫لننعم بعدها بالخلد والبقاء‬
:‫ولن يكون هناك موت‬
‫ألنك أيها الموت‬
‫سيطويك الموت‬
!‫وتصير هبا ًء في هباء‬
The final couplet caps the argument against Death. Not only is Death the servant of
other powers and essentially impotent to truly kill anyone, but also Death is itself
destined to die when, as in the Christian tradition, the dead are resurrected to their
eternal reward. Here Donne echoes the sentiment of the Apostle Paul in I Corinthians
15:26, where Paul writes that “the final enemy to be destroyed is death.” Donne taps
into his Christian background to point out that Death has no power and one day will
cease to exist.
3

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 Metaphysical Definition

Metaphysical is a philosophical concept used in literature to describe the things

that are beyond the description of physical existence. It is intended to elucidate the
fundamental nature of being and the world and is often used in the form
of argument to describe the intellectual or emotional state an individual goes
through. It is deliberately inserted to make the audience think about the things they
had never imagined. Although it is often considered a complex phenomenon, it,
however, plays a pivotal role in advancing the idea of the text. In literature,
metaphysical is often used with poetry. It is a type of poetry written during the
seventeenth century.

Features of Metaphysical Poetry

1. Metaphysical texts are based on wit and often deal with serious questions
about the existence of God and the tendency of human beings to perceive
this world.

2. In metaphysical poetry, serious issues are discussed with a touch of humor.

In this sense, it makes the seriousness a bit light in intensity.

3. Metaphysical poetry elevates the readers of their normal existence to make

them question the unquestionable.

4. Metaphysical texts offer comparisons of unlikely things and are loaded with
conceits, paradoxes, irony, and

5. They are argumentative, intellectual, realistic and rational in their approach.

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 John Donne:

John Donne is considered now to be the

preeminent metaphysical poet of his time. His
work is distinguished by its emotional and
sonic intensity and its capacity to plumb the
paradoxes of faith, human and divine love, and
the possibility of salvation. In Donne’s own day
his poetry was highly prized among the small
circle of his admirers, who read it as it was
circulated in manuscript, and in his later years
he gained wide fame as a preacher.

“Death be not proud”

The poem is a direct address to death, arguing that

it is powerless because it acts merely as a “short
sleep” between earthly living and the eternal
afterlife—in essence, death is nothing to fear.

The sonnet is written mostly in iambic pentameter

and is part of a series known as Donne's "Holy
Sonnets"(or “Divine Meditations”/ “Divine
Sonnets”).

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 Analysis:

Death, be not proud, though some have called thee

Mighty and dreadful, for thou art not so;

For those whom thou think'st thou dost overthrow

Die not, poor Death, nor yet canst thou kill me.

The speaker directly addresses and personifies Death, telling it is not to be arrogant
just because some people find death scary and intimidating. In fact, death is neither
of these things because people don’t really die when death—whom the speaker
pities—comes to them; nor will the speaker truly die when death arrives for him.

From rest and sleep, which but thy pictures be,

Much pleasure; then from thee much more must flow,

And soonest our best men with thee do go,

Rest of their bones, and soul's delivery.

Comparing death to rest and sleep—which are like images of death—the speaker
anticipates death to be even more pleasurable than these activities. Furthermore,
it’s often the best people who go with death—which represents nothing more than
the resting of the body and the arrival of the soul in the afterlife.

Thou art slave to fate, chance, kings, and desperate men,

And dost with poison, war, and sickness dwell,

And poppy or charms can make us sleep as well

And better than thy stroke; why swell'st thou then?

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 Death is fully controlled by fate and luck, and often administered by rulers or
people acting desperately. The speaker points out that Death is also associated with
poison, war, and illness. Drugs and magic spells are more effective than death
when it comes to rest. With all these in mind, what possible reason could death
have for being so puffed up with pride?

One short sleep past, we wake eternally

And death shall be no more; Death, thou shalt die.

Death is nothing but a mere sleep in between people’s earthly lives and the eternal
afterlife, in which death can visit them no more. It is instead death—or a certain
idea of death as something to be scared of—that is going to die.

Figures of speech:

Personification:

The main figure of speech in “Death be not Proud” is the personification.

Death is given negative human traits: pride mainly, but also inferiority.

Death is likened to sleep, a commonplace image. Donne doesn't pursue this

image very far in the second quatrain, but then picks it up in the third, suggesting
that death can never be more than sleep. The final reference to sleep is in the
couplet: „One short sleep past'. Death really is no more than a short sleep. It has
been reduced step by step in this extended metaphor.

Metonymy:

“Poppy and charms” refer to the use of opium and magic to produce sleep, or,
ambiguously, to produce a gentle death. Technically poppy is a metonymy rather

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 than a metaphor: it is what is derived from the poppy that is the opiate, not
literally.

“Fate, Chance, king” are all examples of metonymy, suggesting certain reasons
why death occurs:

Chance we can understand as accidents

Kings as the whole judicial and/or the military system

Fate must suggest a wider concept, that our length of life is decreed elsewhere,
and death is therefore no more than an executioner.

Conceit:

Death is likened to a slave as well, and this is the startling conceit. It has no choice
where it is to fall.

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 EDMUND SPENSER'S "LIKE A SHIP" SONNET 34 SUMMARY,
Analysis, themes and figures of speech
Edmund Spenser's "like a Ship"
Edmund Spenser's chronicles his courtship with his wife Elizabeth Boyle. It was
originally published in 1595 and loosely follows the Petrarchan sonnet model.
Petrarch wrote his sonnets about women that he would never be able to obtain, while
Spenser wrote about a single woman whom he did marry. Sonnet 34 appears to
describe a break in Spenser's relationship with Elizabeth; it seems like they had a
fight and Spenser is biding his time until she forgives him. Spenser uses the analogy
of a ship losing its way during a storm to convey the separation between him and
Elizabeth. It is also an adaptation of Petrarch's "Rima 189" (lines 1-4)
A ship traveling through a large ocean with no land in sight uses the stars to guide
its way, but when stormy clouds block the star's light the ship will stray far from its
course. The "her" mentioned in this stanza is referring to the ship; in the English
language most (if not all) modes of transportation are described with feminine
pronouns. In this analogy, Spenser would be the ship that has gone off course,
because his beloved's light is no longer shining on him. A storm is a clever way to
describe an argument, because arguments can be described as being dark, angry,
heated, wet (meaning crying), and other such adjectives. Astrology plays a big part
in this poem and in navigation. Before, all you had to guide your way were
compasses and the constellations. The brightest star is the North Star; however, he
is not referring to that star in this poem. Instead he is referring to Ursa Major (a.k.a.
Great Bear), which contains the Big Dipper. (5-8)
Now I wander around in the darkness, because his guiding light has been
concealed by the dark clouds of the storm. Without her light he is left vulnerable to
the hidden dangers surrounding him.
The storm has left him without his beloved to guide him. He misses her bright
ray, which can be interpreted as he misses her beautiful soul, wit, personality, or any
other such personality trait. He is consumed with sadness that he has lost his way,
and is left defenseless. (9-12)
I hope that when this storm passes my beloved's light will shine upon me again,
and guide me back to port (or her), so that they can be together once again. Helice,
also known as Callisto, is a wood-nymph turned into Ursa Major. In Edith
Hamiliton's mythology, the tale is as follows: "she was the daughter of Lycaon, a

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 king of Arcadia who had been changed into a wolf because of his wickedness. He
had set human flesh on the table for Zeus when the god was his guest. His
punishment was deserved, but his daughter suffered as terribly as he and she was
innocent of all wrong. Zeus saw her hunting in the train of Artemis and fell in love
with her. Hera, furiously angry, turned the maiden into a bear after son was born.
When the boy was grown and out hunting, the goddess brought Callisto before him,
intending to have him shoot his mother, in ignorance, of course. But Zeus snatched
the bear away and placed her among the stars, where she is called the Great Bear.
Later, her son Arcas was placed beside her and called the Lesser Bear. Hera, enraged
at this honor to her rival, persuaded the God of the Sea to forbid the Bears to descent
into the ocean like the other stars. They alone of the constellations never set below
the horizon" (305).
An alternate version of this story can be found in Hans Biedermann's dictionary
of symbplism: "the Arcadian princess Callisto ("the most beautiful"..., who while a
servant of Artemis was made pregnant by Zeus, whereupon Artemis turned her into
a bear. She gave birth to a perfectly formed human son, Arcas, who later felt
threatened by his ursine mother. Lest one should kill the other, Zeus transported
mother and son into the heavens: Zeus' jealous wife Hera, determined to prevent
Calisto from ever being able to refresh herself by bathing in the sea, placed her (as
Ursa Major) among the circumpolar stars, which never set; Arcas lives on the
constellation Bootes".
(13-14) these last two lines are known as the rhyming couplet, which functions
as a way to sum up the entire poem in as few words as possible. Spenser is telling
his beloved that until she forgives him, he will wander aimlessly all alone, thinking
sorrowful thoughts.
The Theme: The main purpose behind writing this poem is to reach the land and to
reach the correct way with his beloved.
Figures of Speech:
1- Metaphor:
A- Star: is compared with the poet’s beloved.
B- The ocean: is compared with life itself.
C- Clouds, storms and perils: are compared to life and love problems.
D- Landing: is love again.
2- Simile: we have two words “like” and “as”.
3- Personification: the ship and the star are personified to have human qualities.

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 SHAKESPEARE’S SONNET 18

THE POEM:

Shall I compare thee to a summer’s day?

Thou art more lovely and more temperate:
Rough winds do shake the darling buds of May,
And summer’s lease hath all too short a date:
Sometime too hot the eye of heaven shines,
And often is his gold complexion dimm’d;
And every fair from fair sometime declines,
By chance or nature’s changing course untrimm’d;
But thy eternal summer shall not fade
Nor lose possession of that fair thou owest;
Nor shall Death brag thou wander’st in his shade,
When in eternal lines to time thou growest:
So long as men can breathe or eyes can see,
So long lives this, and this gives life to thee.

The analysis:

This sonnet is certainly the most famous in the sequence of Shakespeare’s sonnets; it may
be the most famous lyric poem in English. Among Shakespeare’s works, only lines such as “To
be or not to be” and “Romeo, Romeo, wherefore art thou Romeo?” are better-known. This is not
to say that it is at all the best or most interesting or most beautiful of the sonnets; but the
simplicity and loveliness of its praise of the beloved has guaranteed its place.

The speaker opens the poem with a question addressed to the beloved: “Shall I compare
thee to a summer’s day?” The next eleven lines are devoted to such a comparison. In line 2, the
speaker stipulates what mainly differentiates the young man from the summer’s day: he is “more
lovely and more temperate.” Summer’s days tend toward extremes: they are shaken by “rough
winds”; in them, the sun (“the eye of heaven”) often shines “too hot,” or too dim. And summer is
fleeting: its date is too short, and it leads to the withering of autumn, as “every fair from fair
sometime declines.” The final quatrain of the sonnet tells how the beloved differs from the
summer in that respect: his beauty will last forever (“Thy eternal summer shall not fade...”) and
never die. In the couplet, the speaker explains how the beloved’s beauty will accomplish this
feat, and not perish.

Sonnet 18 is the first poem in the sonnets not to explicitly encourage the young man to have
children. The “procreation” sequence of the first 17 sonnets ended with the speaker’s realization
that the young man might not need children to preserve his beauty; he could also live, the
speaker writes at the end of Sonnet 17, “in my rhyme.” Sonnet 18, then, is the first “rhyme”—the
speaker’s first attempt to preserve the young man’s beauty for all time. An important theme of

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 the sonnet (as it is an important theme throughout much of the sequence) is the power of the
speaker’s poem to defy time and last forever, carrying the beauty of the beloved down to future
generations. The beloved’s “eternal summer” shall not fade precisely because it is embodied in
the sonnet: “So long as men can breathe or eyes can see,” the speaker writes in the couplet,
“So long lives this, and this gives life to thee.”

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 Sonnet 55: Not marble nor the gilded monuments
BY WILLIAM SHAKESPEARE

Not marble nor the gilded monuments

Of princes shall outlive this powerful rhyme,
But you shall shine more bright in these contents
Than unswept stone besmeared with sluttish time.
When wasteful war shall statues overturn,
And broils root out the work of masonry,
Nor Mars his sword nor war’s quick fire shall burn
The living record of your memory.
’Gainst death and all-oblivious enmity
Shall you pace forth; your praise shall still find room
Even in the eyes of all posterity
That wear this world out to the ending doom.
So, till the Judgement that yourself arise,
You live in this, and dwell in lovers’ eyes.

The analysis:
Sonnet 55 is all about the endurance of love, preserved within the words of the
sonnet itself. It will outlive material things such as grand palaces, royal buildings
and fine, sculptured stone; it will outlive war and time itself, even to judgement
day. This is because the poem will always be a 'living record', the memory of love
will stay alive within the sonnet, come what may. The effects of time, the
destructive forces of war - they count for nothing. This idea, of love, memory and
spirit being kept alive in the written word, is ancient and goes back at least to Ovid
in his Metamorphoses. Shakespeare was undoubtedly inspired by this but his
sonnets are still shrouded in mystery. We know he wrote them at a time when
England was going through social and religious chaos in the late 16th century but
scholars have no clear idea who he wrote them for. Was he directly inspired by the
fair youth and the dark lady? Or were they created for royalty and those aristocrats
who sponsored plays? Are the sonnets simply the work of a dramatic poet in love
with love itself and who had read Ovid, Horace and Homer and other classics?

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 They are certainly love sonnets but exactly which type of love is open to question -
the Greeks had eight different words for each aspect of love, amongst them Eros
(sexual passion) and Agape (love for everyone). Sonnet 55 is a curious mix of
both. It could well be inspired by a personal friend of the poet's. Equally, it could
point to a deity - say Venus - or the spirit of that goddess within a real male or
female.
1. Not marble, nor the gilded monuments

Marble was widely used in statuary and in monuments for tombs of the
powerful and wealthy. The more extravagant ones were large enough to
house the coffins of generations of the same family. Royal tombs would be
richly ornate, as those for example in Westminster Abbey. (See illustration
below left, and at bottom of page).
gilded monuments - Memorials in churches would often be decorated with
gold leaf.
2. Of princes, shall outlive this powerful rhyme;
princes - a word which was used to refer to all royalty and rulers, male and
female.
powerful - in the sense of being able to withstand time's destruction, and
perhaps to confer immortality.
3. But you shall shine more bright in these contents
But = in contrast to the things listed, you etc.
in these contents - in the content of this verse. SB points out that it could
have a suggestion of 'in this coffin' as though the verse were a physical
container, a capacious monument.
4. Than unswept stone, besmear'd with sluttish time.
unswept stone - a stone monument left uncared for. Those in cathedrals and
churches would generally be kept clean and polished. But older monuments
in churchyards gradually would be forgotten and fall to ruin, as the living
memory of its builders and inhabitants died out.
sluttish = of unclean habits and behaviour; lewd and whorish. The adjective
was applied to both males and females. It is descriptive of time's
indifference to keeping the world orderly.
5. When wasteful war shall statues overturn,

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 wasteful war - war devastates city and country, hence the term to lay waste,
from the Latin vastare.
6. And broils root out the work of masonry,

broils = tumult, fighting, disturbances, esp. in war. As in :

Prosper this realm, keepe it from civil broils. 1H6.I.1.53.
The destruction caused by war, even in the days before high explosives, was
often made evident when conquered towns were razed to the ground by the
soldiery. All buildings (masonry) would be flattened. In the bible total
destruction is foretold to Jerusalem by Christ:
For the days shall come upon thee, that thine enemies shall
cast a trench about thee, and compass thee round, and keep
thee in on every side, And shall lay thee even with the ground,
and thy children within thee; and they shall not leave in thee one stone upon
another;
because thou knewest not the time of thy visitation. Luke.19.43-4.

7. Nor Mars his sword, nor war's quick fire shall burn
Neither the sword of Mars (the God of war), nor the searching fire of
war. quick = lively, fast moving, searching out.
8. The living record of your memory.
living record = the memory of you among those currently alive; the memory
of you which continues after you are dead; the written record of your life.
9. 'Gainst death, and all oblivious enmity
'Gainst = against.
all oblivious enmity - enmity which seeks to destroy everything, or is
forgetful of everything; time, the enemy. SB gives seven possible meanings
of this phrase: entirely unmindful; every (all of the) unmindful; that is
forgetful of all things; that causes forgetfulness; that causes
forgetfulness of everything; that causes forgetfulness in everyone; that
brings everything to oblivion, causes everything to be forgotten.
10. Shall you pace forth; your praise shall still find room
Shall you pace forth = you shall stride forwards. The image is perhaps that
of leading a procession, or of striding on to a stage.
your praise = praise of you, praise which is due to you.

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 still = constantly; for ever, despite all.
find room = be given time and space (whereas most things disappear or are
lost with the passage of time).
11. Even in the eyes of all posterity
Even in the eyes of = in the very presence or sight of, in the opinion of.
all posterity = all future generations.
12. That wear this world out to the ending doom.
Interestingly this sonnet starts off with a negative, the adverb is not introducing
the reader to think about what is not important in life, which is fine stone and
crafted stonework. Note the double alliteration and the allusion to grand palaces.
This is iambic pentameter, five feet of unstressed then stressed syllable, English
poetry's most dominant metre (meter in USA). Shakespeare uses it a lot in his
sonnets but also mixes it up with spondee and trochee - watch out for the changes.
Note also the enjambment, the first line carrying on straight into the second, no
punctuation.So the stone work is royal, or at least, belongs to a young royal male.
Is this a clue as to who the sonnet is written for? Another young male, but not a
prince? Or is this generic royal stone? Either way this material doesn't get to
outlive the power of this poetry. Again iambic pentameter is to the fore, with
assonance and alliteration in evidence. The third line helps the reader put things in
perspective because now there is a person or figure involved...you shall shine...in
the contents of the poem, which will endure.
That - the antecedent is presumably all posterity, being the closest noun,
whereas death and all-oblivious enmity of l.9 are rather remote. It depends partly
on how one wishes to interpret the phrase wear this world out. The most obvious
meaning is 'to destroy gradually by attrition', a meaning which does not sit entirely
happily with posterity, but is more suggestive of time, or death, or war. On the
other hand posterity could be taken to embrace the idea of the tedious progress of
the generations bringing the world to the brink of exhaustion, recalling for example
Macbeth's despairing cry when confronted with Banquo's descendants:

What, will the line stretch out to the crack of doom! Mac.IV.1.117.

the ending doom = the last judgement. When the world comes to an end, according
to Christian mythology, the fate (doom) of all humans who have ever lived is
finally decided. Those who are to be saved sit on the right hand of God the Father.

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 Those who are damned go to the left and are condemned to everlasting flames, the
bottomless pit which was prepared for the devil and his angels.

13. So, till the judgment that yourself arise,

On the final day, the day of the last judgement, (see above), even those who died
some time ago will arise from the dead and be judged. After that date there is no
point in celebrating anyone in poetry.
14. You live in this, and dwell in lovers' eyes.
In this verse: live, dwell - the repetition of words connected with 'to live' (outlive,
living, oblivious, arise, dwell) counteracts the effect of death, war and destruction.
in lover's eyes - a reminder that this is also a love poem, and a reminder of the
power of love to transcend mortality. Perhaps a reference also to 'seeing babies' in
the loved one's eyes. See Sonnet 24.
Note the alliteration again and the trochee which comes as a surprise after the
steady iambics - but contents is pronounced with the stress on the con - and leaves
a feminine ending with enjambment. Time is here given a physical quality,
unusually, and the word sluttish is associated with the world of whores and
dubious morals. The suggestion is that material things eventually become dirtied
and degraded but that this will not happen to the person.
Regular iambics returns. Note the prominence of the letter s. Besmear is to cover
with a sticky or greasy substance. Start of the second quatrain taking the reader in
to the war zone, with an immediate full on alliterative opening image - the icons
are falling as the steady iambic rhythm echoes that of marching foot soldiers. The
war against property continues in the sixth line. Broil means chaos and commotion,
also battles, and root out is to get to the bottom of or dig up, so more violence is
expressed here, aimed at the stonework again, never humanity. The variation on a
theme of the letter o is nowhere better exemplified than in this line.
 Nor Mars his sword nor war's quick fire shall burn
The god Mars enters the fray, classical Roman god of war. Venus was his consort.
A parallel with the opening negative Not, nor places emphasis on what the sword
and quick fire cannot do.
A splendid line, each word a single syllable, the whole line a joy to read as the
anaphora (repeated word or phrase) of Nor Mars....nor war's is an echo almost of
the battlefield. Again, pure iambics with enjambment for good measure, smoothly
taking the reader to the next line.

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  The living record of your memory.
No matter the violence of future war and military strife, what will prevail is the
positive about you, so alive in memory.
 Gainst death and all-oblivious enmity
Praise continues in the third quatrain, the speaker clearly declaring that even death
and ignorant hostility won't stand in his lover's way.
** Line 9 is a challenge because the iambics are not quite as clear and the syllabics
of all-oblivious enmity demand careful attention from the reader. You can scan
'Gainst death and all-oblivious enmity as a full eleven syllables
('Gainst death and all-ob-liv-i-ous enmity) which becomes 4 iambs and a dactyl or
regular ten syllables ('Gainst death and all-ob-liv-ious enmity) which becomes 4
iambs and a pyrrhic.
 Shall you pace forth; your praise shall still find room,
Onwards and upwards is the life message, there will always be space enough for
respect and gratitude. One of the strongest, assertive lines, looking to the future
with great positivity.
A line of single syllables and alliteration all wrapped up in iambic pentameter.
Simple, effective.
 Even in the eyes of all posterity
This third quatrain overflows with compliments and predictions. Future
generations will look on you with admiration.
Note the change from iambic to trochaic in the first foot, giving emphasis to the
line.
 That wear this world out to the ending doom.
So, there is no mistaking the sentiment here. Generations may eventually bring the
world to a weary halt, yet still the love, respect and praise will remain. The idea of
doom is biblical in origin, as is Judgement Day which appears later on in the
sonnet.
Regular iambics and alliteration bring the third quatrain to a neat end.

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  So, till the judgement that yourself arise,
And to conclude, until the day of judgement (when christians rise up, through Jesus
Christ) you will be alive in the poem.
 You live in this, and dwell in lovers' eyes.
The object of the speaker's admiration, be it the fair youth, the young lord, the
lovely boy, Venus, Love itself lives on in the sonnet itself, as well as in the eyes of
your love.

LITERARY DEVICES:
Sonnet 55 is a Shakespearean or English sonnet, having 14 lines made up of
three distinct quatrains and an end couplet.
Rhyme, Assonance and Alliteration
The rhyme scheme is ababcdcdefefgg and the end rhymes are all full, for
example:
rhyme/time, room/doom, arise/eyes.

This full rhyme helps bind the sonnet together and keep a tight hold on content.
Internally there is alliteration and assonance which bring texture and a variety of
sounds for the reader:
Line 1 : Not...nor / marble...monuments.
Line 2 : princes/outlive....powerful.
Line 3: shall shine/bright.
Line 4 : stone...sluttish.
Line 5 : When wasteful war...shall statues.
Line 6 : broils root out..of/masonry.
Line 7 : Nor/sword nor war's....his/quick.
Line 8 : record/your/memory.

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 Line 9 : oblivious/enmity.
Line 10 : pace/praise...forth/your...shall/still.
Line 11 : Even...eyes.
Line 12 : wear...world.

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 University of Al-Muthanna
College of Education for Humanities
Department of English
Stage : Second
Course : Poetry
Lecture : (4)
Topic : The Poem “Sonnet 116”
Instructor : Asist. Lec. Ali Hasan

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 Sonnet 116 by William Shakespeare (1564-1616)

Let me not to the marriage of true minds

Admit impediments. Love is not love
Which alters when it alteration finds,
Or bends with the remover to remove:
O no! it is an ever-fixed mark
That looks on tempests and is never shaken;
It is the star to every wandering bark,
Whose worth’s unknown, although his height be taken
Love’s not Time’s fool, though rosy lips and cheeks
Within his bending sickle’s compass come:
Love alters not with his brief hours and weeks,
But bears it out even to the edge of doom.
If this be error and upon me proved,
I never writ, nor no man ever loved.

William Shakespeare (1564-1616)

English poet and playwright, Shakespeare is widely considered to be the

greatest writer in the English language. He wrote 38 plays and 154 sonnets.

William Shakespeare was born in Stratford-upon-Avon on 23rd April 1564 and

died in 1616, it is not clear how he died, and numerous suggestions have
been put forward.

His father William was a successful local businessman, and his mother Mary
was the daughter of a landowner. Relatively prosperous, it is likely the family
paid for Williams education, although there is no evidence he attended
university.

The plays of Shakespeare have been studied more than any other writing in
the English language and have been translated into numerous languages. He
was rare as a play-write for excelling in tragedies, comedies and histories. He
deftly combined popular entertainment with an extraordinary poetic capacity
for expression which is almost matric in quality.

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 It is thought that during the 1590s he wrote the majority of his sonnets. This
was a time of prolific writing and his plays developed a good deal of interest
and controversy. His early plays were mainly comedies (e.g. Much Ado about
Nothing, A Midsummer’s Night Dream) and histories (e.g. Henry V)

By the early Seventeenth Century, Shakespeare had begun to write plays in

the genre of tragedy. These plays, such as Hamlet, Othello and King Lear,
often hinge on some fatal error or flaw in the lead character and provide
fascinating insights into the darker aspects of human nature. These later plays
are considered Shakespeare’s finest achievements.

Summary

This sonnet attempts to define love, by telling both what it is and is not. In the
first quatrain, the speaker says that love—”the marriage of true minds”—is
perfect and unchanging; it does not “admit impediments,” and it does not
change when it find changes in the loved one. In the second quatrain, the
speaker tells what love is through a metaphor: a guiding star to lost ships
(“wand’ring barks”) that is not susceptible to storms (it “looks on tempests and
is never shaken”). In the third quatrain, the speaker again describes what love
is not: it is not susceptible to time. Though beauty fades in time as rosy lips
and cheeks come within “his bending sickle’s compass,” love does not change
with hours and weeks: instead, it “bears it out ev’n to the edge of doom.” In
the couplet, the speaker attests to his certainty that love is as he says: if his
statements can be proved to be error, he declares, he must never have
written a word, and no man can ever have been in love.

Analysis

Along with Sonnets 18 (“Shall I compare thee to a summer’s day?”)

and 1 3 0(“My mistress’ eyes are nothing like the sun”), Sonnet 1 16 is one of
the most famous poems in the entire sequence. The definition of love that it
provides is among the most often quoted and anthologized in the poetic
canon. Essentially, this sonnet presents the extreme ideal of romantic love: it
never changes, it never fades, it outlasts death and admits no flaw. What is
more, it insists that this ideal is the only love that can be called “true”—if love

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 is mortal, changing, or impermanent, the speaker writes, then no
man ever loved. The basic division of this poem’s argument into the various
parts of the sonnet form is extremely simple: the first quatrain says what love
is not (changeable), the second quatrain says what it is (a fixed guiding star
unshaken by tempests), the third quatrain says more specifically what it is not
(“time’s fool”—that is, subject to change in the passage of time), and the
couplet announces the speaker’s certainty. What gives this poem its rhetorical
and emotional power is not its complexity; rather, it is the force of its linguistic
and emotional conviction.

The language of Sonnet 1 1 6 is not remarkable for its imagery or metaphoric

range. In fact, its imagery, particularly in the third quatrain (time wielding a
sickle that ravages beauty’s rosy lips and cheeks), is rather standard within
the sonnets, and its major metaphor (love as a guiding star) is hardly startling
in its originality. But the language is extraordinary in that it frames its
discussion of the passion of love within a very restrained, very intensely
disciplined rhetorical structure. With a masterful control of rhythm and
variation of tone—the heavy balance of “Love’s not time’s fool” to open the
third quatrain; the declamatory “O no” to begin the second—the speaker
makes an almost legalistic argument for the eternal passion of love, and the
result is that the passion seems stronger and more urgent for the restraint in
the speaker’s tone.

This poem is about love in its most ideal form. The poet praises the glories of
lovers who have come to each other freely, and enter into a relationship
based on trust and understanding. The first four lines reveal the poet's
pleasure in love that is constant and strong, and will not "alter when it
alteration finds." The following lines proclaim that true love is indeed an "ever-
fix'd mark" which will survive any crisis. In lines 7-8, the poet claims that we
may be able to measure love to some degree, but this does not mean we fully
understand it. Love's actual worth cannot be known – it remains a mystery.
The remaining lines of the third quatrain (9-12), reaffirm the perfect nature of
love that is unshakeable throughout timeandremains.

In the final couplet, the poet declares that, if he is mistaken about the
constant, unmovable nature of perfect love, then he must take back all his
writings on love, truth, and faith. Moreover, he adds that, if he has in fact

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 judged love inappropriately, no man has ever really loved.

Themes

In this poem, we have some themes, like theme of loyalty, Theme of

mortality but the main theme in this poem is the theme of love which
discusses the true false types of love.

Theme of love

Everyone has a different definition of love, and this sonnet offers an

optimistic take on it. Love here is seen as a truly powerful, unstoppable
force of nature. It’s the only constant in a tumultuous and confusing
world, and it’s a guiding star for all of us who are lost out there. This
idealized view of love is timeless or it is permanent if it is true and it is
temporal if it is false.

Theme of loyalty

As far as Sonnet 116 is concerned, loyalty plays a key role in true love –
actually, it is a significant role. The poem asserts that the true marker of
love is its persistence, without constant devotion, "love is not love." A lot
of difficulties can arise when two people who love each other, but if
their feelings are real, none of these things should matter. In the ideal
world of the poem, true lovers always forgive each other and stay
together, regardless of the circumstances.

Theme of mortality

Mortality in this poem, if not anywhere else, is a non-issue. While Time

is usually seen as a force of destruction, which wreaks havoc with
basically everything we mere mortals do, it doesn’t have an impact on
the true power of Love in this poem. Though age and decay may affect
the beauty of a loved one, Sonnet 116 claims that real love perseveres in
spite of this, and continues to live on until "the edge of doom" (12),
otherwise known as Judgment Day.

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 Sonnet 116: Let me not to the marriage of true minds
BY WILLIAM SHAKESPEARE

Let me not to the marriage of true minds

Admit impediments. Love is not love
Which alters when it alteration finds,
Or bends with the remover to remove.
O no! it is an ever-fixed mark
That looks on tempests and is never shaken;
It is the star to every wand'ring bark,
Whose worth's unknown, although his height be taken.
Love's not Time's fool, though rosy lips and cheeks
Within his bending sickle's compass come;
Love alters not with his brief hours and weeks,
But bears it out even to the edge of doom.
If this be error and upon me prov'd,
I never writ, nor no man ever lov'd.

Sonnet 116 is an English or Shakespearean sonnet. The English sonnet has

three quatrains, followed by a final rhyming couplet. It follows the typical rhyme scheme
of the form abab cdcd efef gg and is composed in iambic pentameter, a type of
poetic metre based on five pairs of metrically weak/strong syllabic positions. Sonnet
116 was first published in 1609. Its structure and form are a typical example of
the Shakespearean sonnet. The poet begins by stating he should not stand in the way of
"the marriage of true minds", and that love cannot be true if it changes for any reason; true
love should be constant, through any difficulties. In the seventh line, the poet makes a
nautical reference, alluding to love being much like the north star is to sailors. Love also
should not fade with time; instead, true love is, as is the polar star, "ever-fixed" and lasts
forever. The movement of 116, like its tone, is careful, controlled, laborious…it defines
and redefines its subject in each quatrain, and this subject becomes increasingly
vulnerable. It starts out as motionless and distant, remote, independent; then it moves to
be "less remote, more tangible and earthbound"; the final couplet brings a sense of

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 "coming back down to earth". Ideal love is deteriorating throughout the sonnet and
continues to do so through the couplet.
Sonnet 116 is one of Shakespeare's most famous love sonnets, but some scholars have
argued the theme has been misunderstood. Hilton Landry believes the appreciation of 116
as a celebration of true love is mistaken, in part because its context in the sequence of
adjacent sonnets is not properly considered. Landry acknowledges the sonnet "has the
grandeur of generality or a 'universal significance'," but cautions that "however timeless
and universal its implications may be, we must never forget that Sonnet 116 has a
restricted or particular range of meaning simply because it does not stand alone." Carol
Thomas Neely writes that, "Sonnet 116 is part of a sequence which is separate from all the
other sonnets of Shakespeare because of their sense of detachment. They aren't about the
action of love and the object of that love is removed in this sequence which consists of
Sonnets 94, 116, and 129". This group of three sonnets does not fit the mold of the rest of
Shakespeare's sonnets, therefore, and they defy the typical concept and give a different
perspective of what love is and how it is portrayed or experienced. "Though 116 resolves
no issues, the poet in this part of the sequence acknowledges and accepts the fallibility of
his love more fully than he could acknowledge that of the young man's earlier". Other
critics of Sonnet 116 have argued that one cannot rely on the context of the sonnet to
understand its tone. They argue that since "there is no indisputably authoritative sequence
to them, we cannot make use of context as positive evidence for one kind of tone or
another." Shakespeare does not attempt to come to any significant conclusion within this
particular sonnet because no resolution is needed.
The sonnet begins without the poet's apparent acknowledgment of the compelling
quality of the emotional union of "true minds". As Helen Vendler has observed, "This
famous almost 'impersonal' sonnet on the marriage of true minds has usually been read as
a definition of true love." This is not a unique theme of Shakespeare's sonnets. Carol
Neely observes that "Like [sonnet] 94, it defines and redefines its subject in each quatrain
and this subject becomes increasingly concrete, attractive and vulnerable." Shakespeare
tends to use negation to define love according to Lukas Erne, "The first and the third
[quatrains], it is true, define love negatively: 'love is not...'; Love's not...'. The two
quatrains are further tied together by the reappearance of the verbs 'to bend' and 'to
alter'. Love is defined in vague terms in the first quatrain. Garry Murphy observes that the
meaning shifts with the distribution of emphasis. He suggests that in the first line the
stress should properly be on "me": "Let ME not to the marriage of true minds..."; the

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 sonnet then becomes "not just a gentle metaphoric definition but an agitated protest born
out of fear of loss and merely conveyed by means of definition." C.R. B. Combellack
disputes the emphasis placed on the "ME" due to the "absence from the sonnet of another
person to stand in contrast. No one else is addressed, described, named, or
mentioned." Murphy also claims that "The unstopped first and second lines suggest
urgency in speech, not leisurely meditation." He writes that the short words when
delivered would have the effect of "rapid delivery" rather than "slow rumination".
Combellack questions this analysis by asking whether "urgency is not more likely to be
expressed in short bursts of speech?" He argues that the words in the sonnet are not
intended to be read quickly and that this is simply Murphy's subjective opinion of the
quatrain. Murphy believes the best support of the "sonnet itself being an exclamation"
comes from the "O no" which he writes a person would not say without some agitation.
Combellack responds that "O no" could be used rather calmly in a statement such as "O
no, thank you, but my coffee limit is two cups." If anything, Combellack suggests, the use
of the "O" softens the statement and it would require the use of different grammar to
suggest that the sonnet should be understood as rapid speech.
The poetic language leaves the sort of love described somewhat indeterminate; "The
'marriage of true minds' like the 'power to hurt' is troublesomely vague open to a variety of
interpretations." Interpretations include the potential for religious imagery and the love
being for God, "Lines one and two echo the Anglican marriage service from the Book of
Common Prayer." The concept of the marriage of true minds is thought to be a highly
Christian; according to Erne, "The mental picture thus called up in our minds of the bride
and bridegroom standing up front in a church is even reinforced by the insistence on the
word alter/altar in the following line. The second quatrain explains how love is
unchanging according to Neely, "Love is a star, remote, immovable, self-contained, and
perhaps, like the 'lords and owners of their faces,' improbably and even somewhat
unpleasantly cold and distant." The second quatrain continues Shakespeare's attempt to
define love, but in a more direct way. Shakespeare mentions "it" in the second quatrain
according to Douglas Trevor, "The constancy of love in sonnet 116, the "it" of line five of
the poem, is also – for the poet – the poetry, the object of love itself." Not only is there a
direct address to love itself, the style Shakespeare's contemplation becomes more direct.
Erne states, "Lines five to eight stand in contrast to their adjacent quatrains, and they have
their special importance by saying what love is rather than what it is not." This represents
a change in Shakespeare's view that love is completely undefinable. This concept of

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 unchanging love is focused in the statement, "'[love] is an ever-fixed mark'. This has
generally been understood as a sea mark or a beacon." This concept may also convey in a
theological sense. During the Reformation there was dispute about Catholic doctrines,
"One of the points of disagreement was precisely that the Reformers rejected the existence
of an ever-fixed, or in theological idiom, 'idelible' mark which three of the sacraments,
according to Catholic teaching, imprint on the soul." This interpretation makes God the
focus of the sonnet as opposed to the typical concept of love. The compass is also
considered an important symbol in the first part of the poem. John Doebler identifies a
compass as a symbol that drives the poem, "The first quatrain of this sonnet makes
implied use of the compass emblem, a commonplace symbol for constancy during the
period in which Shakespeare's sonnets were composed." Doebler identifies certain images
in the poem with a compass, "In the Renaissance the compass is usually associated with
the making of a circle, the ancient symbol of eternity, but in sonnet 116 the emphasis is
more upon the contrasting symbolism of the legs of the compass." The two feet of the
compass represent the differences between permanent aspects of love and temporary ones.
These differences are explained as, "The physical lovers are caught in a changing world of
time, but they are stabilized by spiritual love, which exists in a constant world of eternal
ideals." The sonnet uses imagery like this to create a clearer concept of love in the
speaker's mind.
In the third quatrain, "The remover who bends turns out to be the grim reaper, Time,
with his bending sickle. What alters are Time's brief hours and weeks…" and "Only the
Day of Judgment (invoked from the sacramental liturgy of marriage) is the proper
measure of love's time". The young man holds the value of beauty over that of love. When
he comes to face the fact that the love he felt has changed and become less intense and, in
fact, less felt, he changes his mind about this person he'd loved before because what he
had felt in his heart wasn't true. That the object of his affection's beauty fell to "Time's
Sickle" would not make his feelings change. This fact is supported by Helen Vendler as
she wrote, "The second refutational passage, in the third quatrain, proposes indirectly a
valuable alternative law, one approved by the poet-speaker, which we may label "the law
of inverse constancy": the more inconstant are time's alterations (one an hour, one a
week), the more constant is love's endurance, even to the edge of doom". Vendler believes
that if the love the young man felt was real it would still be there after the beauty of that
love's object had long faded away, but he "has announced the waning of his own
attachment to the speaker, dissolving the "marriage of true minds" Shakespeare is arguing

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 that if love is true it will stand against all tests of time and adversity, no manner of
insignificant details such as the person's beauty fading could alter or dissolve "the
marriage of true minds".
The couplet of Sonnet 116 Shakespeare went about explaining in the inverse. He says
the opposite of what it would be natural to say about love. For instance, instead of writing
something to the effect of 'I have written and men have loved', according to Nelson,
Shakespeare chose to write, "I never writ, nor no man ever loved." Nelson argues that
"The existence of the poem itself gives good evidence that the poet has written. It is harder
to see, however, how the mere existence of the poem could show that men have loved. In
part, whether men have loved depends upon just what love is…Since the poem is
concerned with the nature of love, there is a sense in which what the poem says about
love, if true, in part determines whether or not men have loved." Nelson quotes Ingram
and Redpath who are in agreement with his statement when they paraphrase the couplet in
an extended form: "If this is a judgment (or a heresy), and this can be proved against me,
and by citing my own case in evidence, then I've never written anything, and no man's
love has ever been real love."" Vendler states "Therefore, if he himself is in error on the
subject of what true love is, then no man has ever loved; certainly the young man (it is
implied) has not loved, if he has not loved after the steady fashion urged by the speaker,
without alteration, removals, or impediments". Each of these authorities agree in the
essence of the Sonnet and its portrayal of what love really is and what it can withstand, for
example, the test of time and the fading of physical attraction of the object of our love.
The couplet is, therefore, that men have indeed loved both in true and honest affection
(this being the most important part of the argument) as well as falsely in the illusions of
beauty before just as Shakespeare has written before this sonnet.

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 Christopher Marlowe “ The Passionate Shepherd”

Come live with me and be my love,

2And we will all the pleasures prove,
3That Valleys, groves, hills, and fields,
4Woods, or steepy mountain yields.
5And we will sit upon the Rocks,
6Seeing the Shepherds feed their flocks,
7By shallow Rivers to whose falls
8Melodious birds sing Madrigals.
And I will make thee beds of Roses
10And a thousand fragrant posies,
11A cap of flowers, and a kirtle
12Embroidered all with leaves of Myrtle;
13A gown made of the finest wool
14Which from our pretty Lambs we pull;
15Fair lined slippers for the cold,
16With buckles of the purest gold;
A belt of straw and Ivy buds,
18With Coral clasps and Amber studs:
19And if these pleasures may thee move,
20Come live with me, and be my love.
21The Shepherds’ Swains shall dance and sing
22For thy delight each May-morning:

"The Passionate Shepherd" is a poem written by the English poet Christopher

Marlowe, likely in the early 1590s. It was one of the most popular and widely read
poems of the English Renaissance; many poets, such as Sir Walter Ralegh,
wrote responses praising, criticizing, and poking fun at it. In the poem, the speaker
tries to seduce someone whom he refers to simply as his "love." In order to seduce
this person, he describes a rural life full of intense sensual pleasure—but
unpolluted by sin or sorrow. The resulting tableau is both beautiful and idealized:
in his attempt to seduce his "love," the shepherd leaves out much of the

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 complication and sorrow that mark real relationships. "The Passionate Shepherd" is
a poem of seduction. In it, the speaker tries to convince his listener to come to the
country and be his lover. The speaker makes his case on the basis of the luxuries
they will enjoy together in the countryside, describing it as a place of pleasure that
is at once sensual and innocent. He wants his "love" to simply sit on the rocks for a
while and appreciate the scene, without worrying about their responsibilities.
Although the joys the speaker describes may be fleeting, they are still rich and
seductive. Listing them, the speaker makes a case for embracing the pure pleasure
of love and rejects the idea that doing so might have negative consequences.
For the speaker, the countryside is a very sensual place. He is attentive to the
materials and objects one finds in rural life: “straw,” “ivy-buds,” “beds of roses,”
and “fragrant posies.” In his fantasy, he brings these objects into contact with the
body of his “love”—making them into garments and beds. The fact that the
speaker uses these objects in a suggestive fashion implies his underlying desire: he
seems to want to take their place and caress his “love,” to pay close and sensual
attention to the lover's body.
As its title suggests, “The Passionate Shepherd” is thus a passionate poem, full of
sexual tension. But, diverging from traditions that associate sexuality with sin and
death, the poem portrays this sexuality as an innocent. There seem to be no costs
associated with the pleasures the speaker describes in his seduction. Instead, the
countryside is presented as a place of play and sheer joy, song, and dance. The
speaker refuses to admit any problems, troubles, or downsides into the world he
imagines occupying with his “love.” Instead, he urges his love to just live in the
moment, enjoying the sensual pleasures he lists for their own sake, without
worrying about the consequences. Indeed, the speaker offers these delights as an
escape from responsibilities and consequences.
Of course, this isn't necessarily a realistic depiction of love, and some readers may
feel that the poem is too idealized. In that vein, Sir Walter Ralegh, a contemporary
of Marlowe, directly objects to the speaker of “The Passionate Shepherd” in his
own poem “The Nymph’s Reply.” It's arguable that because the speaker of
Marlowe's poem does not acknowledge any costs or problems associated with love,
he fails to seduce the reader; this love is too perfect to be real or meaningful. Even

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 so, the poem's speaker is steadfast in his argument: love, essentially, is pleasure,
and is meant to be enjoyed without guilt.
It's important that the speaker locates the pleasures he describes in a specific
landscape of "valleys, groves, hills and fields, woods or steepy mountain." Though
this landscape is described in great detail and with considerable feeling, it is
located at an implicit distance from the speaker’s “love.” The poem implies that
this "love" lives in the city, with all its political entanglements, pollution, and grit.
The poem thus draws an implicit contrast between the city and country, making the
former dirty, busy, and unpleasant, and the latter peaceful, harmonious, and filled
with pleasure.
The speaker begins the poem with an invitation: "Come live with me." The word
"come" suggests that his love must cross some distance before being able to enjoy
the pleasures the poem describes—which means that this "love" must live
somewhere else. In keeping with the poem's general refusal to describe anything
negative or unpleasant, the speaker doesn’t name this other place. Yet the
implication is clearly that the beloved lives in an urban environment that contrasts
with the speaker’s idealized depiction of rural life. This urban place must not be
particularly pleasant; if it were, the speaker probably wouldn’t be so adamant that
he and this "love" go live elsewhere!
Indeed, given that the speaker lists specific things about life in the country in order
to entice the lover to leave the city behind, readers can assume that the city doesn’t
share any of these positive attributes. For example, where the countryside is filled
with "melodious birds," the city likely screeches with cacophonous noise. While in
the country the lovers can sit idly and watch shepherds tending to their flocks, in
the city they’d probably have to toil away at work. In the country the "love" could
wear a gown of fine wool, gold-buckled slippers, and a belt woven from straw.
None of these lovely, delicate clothes would hold up in the dirty city streets.
In the tradition that Marlowe was working in—called the pastoral—poets pose the
innocence and pleasures of country life against city life, where they locate all the
politics and problems that usually affect people. The speaker's presentation of the
countryside here follows the ideals of the pastoral tradition: it is an innocent and
pleasure-filled space that acts an implicit critique of the city. The poem thus argues
for a return to a simpler, purer way of life embodied by the countryside.

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 Of course, rural life was certainly not as easy as the speaker makes it out to be, and
the poem notably lacks any mention of, say, what happens when winter comes. In
this sense, its depiction of rural life is as innocent and (perhaps purposefully) naïve
as its vision of love.
One of the rural pleasures that the speaker lists stands out from the rest: in the
poem’s second stanza he describes the pleasure of watching “the shepherds feed
their flocks.” Indeed, the title implies that the speaker himself is also a shepherd.
This reference locates the poem within a long tradition of European poetry: the
pastoral. Pastoral poems usually focus on shepherds, presenting their work as
innocent and joyful—though, in reality, herding sheep is difficult and dirty work.
Like the poets who came before him, then, the speaker suppresses much of the
reality of rural life and agricultural labor. Instead, he presents an idealized,
uncomplicated view of a complicated place. That he focuses specifically on
shepherds suggests not only that the countryside is a more pleasant place to live
than the city, but also that there is a unique nobility to the kind of work that brings
people closer to nature.
After its first stanza, the poem consists of a long list of rural pleasures. This list
opens and closes with shepherds, the traditional central figures in pastoral poetry.
In lines 5-6, the speaker notes that he and his love will watch “the shepherds feed
their flocks.” This is a strange way to seduce his “love,” and one might wonder
why watching other people work would be particularly enjoyable. The answer to
this question, the speaker implies, is that shepherding is different from other kinds
of work. It is not particularly painful or unpleasant; instead, it is enjoyable to do
and watch. In lines 13-14, the speaker even suggests that he and his "love" own
sheep themselves, since he refers to gathering wool from "our pretty Lambs." It
seems, then, that this idyllic scene brings the speaker and his "love" directly into
this noble, joyful work.
After listing the many rural pleasures that he and his beloved will enjoy, the
speaker returns to the image of shepherds, now describing them as being in a
happy, celebratory mood: they are singing and dancing. They seem in no way
wearied or worn down by their work; instead, they participate with gusto in all the
rural pleasures that the speaker describes. Pastoral work, then, seems to be
something energizing and fulfilling. The implication is that the shepherds aren’t

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 exhausted after their days because they find some sort of satisfaction and meaning
in their labor—which, the poem implies, is largely absent from the ignoble toil of
those living far from nature.
Even as the speaker celebrates the beauty and nobility of working in a natural
setting, he overlooks the fact that that work is actually difficult and exhausting. To
seduce this “love,” the speaker keeps glossing over the truth—though whether the
speaker does so purposefully is up for debate.
The first four lines of “The Passionate Shepherd” establish the poem’s broad
subject and its approach to this subject. The speaker begins by directly addressing
someone, whom he refers to simply as his “love,” without specifying the person's
gender. The entire poem will be addressed to this "love." This is an instance
of apostrophe. It makes the poem feel intimate and direct: the speaker is not
addressing a broad, general audience. Rather, he is trying to convince someone of
something specific: he is trying to seduce the person he addresses, to convince his
"love" to follow him to the countryside. The speaker’s language here subtly
suggests some differences between himself and his “love.” While the speaker is, as
the poem’s title suggests, a “shepherd,” someone who works with sheep and lives
in the country, his “love” is not. This person has to be convinced to "come" to the
country—which implies that they do not live there already.
The poem’s second line suggests how the speaker will try to seduce his “love.”
Once they are in the country together, they will try “all the pleasures”—every
delight and joy offered in rural settings (the speaker goes on to list those many
settings in lines (3-4). Right away, the speaker depicts the countryside as a
pleasurable space: he does not mention the downsides of living in the country, or
the difficulty of working on a farm or with livestock. It's clear from line 2 that his
portrayal of life in the country will be idyllic and idealized—perhaps too much so.
As if to underline this focus on pleasure, the writing itself—here and throughout
the poem—is unusually musical and rich in sound. The poem begins with a
strong alliteration on the /l/ sound in the first line: “Come live with me and be
my love.” (This line will eventually become a kind of refrain for the poem,
recurring in lines 20 and 24). This /l/ sound is carried through the next several
lines, becoming consonance as it continues: “And we will all the pleasures

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 prove…” Although these lines are wide-ranging in content (particularly lines 3-4),
they are knitted together by this unifying sound.
These lines are further organized formally: each line is in an
easy iambic tetrameter; the quatrain is divided into two rhyming couplets, with
strong end-rhymes. Later in the poem a clear pattern of enjambment and end-
stop will develop, alternating line by line between the two. But here that pattern
has not yet developed; while lines 1 and 4 are end-stopped, lines 2 and 3 enjambed.
There is thus a tension between the rhyming couplets, which serve as sonic units,
and the grammar of the quatrain, which crosses the boundaries of those couplets.
This gives the poem, right from the start, a sense of looseness: though it has
underlying formal architecture, it is not fussy or overly precise. Instead, in its
informality, it imitates the easy-going country life it describes.

The Passionate Shepherd to His Love’ by Christopher Marlowe is a six stanza

poem which is made up of sets of four lines, or quatrains. Each of these quatrains
follows the consistent rhyming pattern of aabb ccdd… and so on. The poet has
chosen to utilize this rhyming pattern in an effort to create a sing-song-like melody
to the poem. It is a piece with a hopeful and pleasant tone, and the rhyme scheme
emphasizes this feature. The Passionate Shepherd to His Love’ by Christopher
Marlowe describes the life that a shepherd wishes to create for his lover if she
agrees to come and live with him.
The poem begins with the speaker asking his lover to come and be with him
forever. If she does this simple thing, they will be able to experience all the joy that
the world has to offer. They will have all the best of life.
He continues on to state that not only will they be happy in their love, but that he
will create for her the most lovely of items. He will use the flowers in their new
abode to craft pieces of clothing like hats and petticoats. The shepherd will also use
the wool from their lambs to make her dresses. He clearly believes that these items
of clothing will be enough, along with his love, to entice her to live with him.
By the end of the piece it is not clear whether or not she accepts his offer, but he
seems to understand that it is up to her. He has done his best, and is awaiting her
answer

Come live with me and be my love,

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 And we will all the pleasures prove,
That Valleys, groves, hills, and fields,
Woods, or steepy mountain yields.
The speaker of this poem, the “Passionate Shepherd,” begins by making the one
request of his lover that serves as the basis for the rest of the poem. He at once
lives up to his name as he asks his unnamed lover to “Come live with me.” He is
hoping that she, upon hearing his request, will leave whatever life she is living
behind, and come and “be [his] love” wherever he may be.
He does not leave her without some idea of what it will be like to live with him, in
fact, he spends the majority of the rest of the poem describing to his love what her
life will be if she agrees.
The second half of this first quatrain describes how when the two of them are
together, with nothing standing between them, they will “all the pleasures prove.”
They will venture out into the world and “yield,” or take, from the “Valleys,
groves, hills and fields / Woods, or steepy mountain[s],” everything they have to
offer. There will be nothing in the world from which the couple cannot feel
passion.

And we will sit upon the Rocks,

Seeing the Shepherds feed their flocks,
By shallow Rivers to whose falls
Melodious birds sing Madrigals.
In the second stanza the speaker goes on to describe some day to day details of
what their lives would be like together. He states that they will “sit upon the
Rocks” of this new and beautiful world they are living in together and “See” the
“Shepherds” with their flocks of sheep. They will observe the world that they used
to live in, and appreciate its intricacies.
Due to the fact that their lives are now devoted to one another and to the world
they inhabit, they have time to notice the details around them. They will see and
hear the “shallow Rivers,” and the “Melodious birds” which sing to the crashing of
the falling water. The songs the birds sing will be like “Madrigals,” or harmonious
pieces of music written for multiple voices.
And I will make thee beds of Roses
And a thousand fragrant posies,
A cap of flowers, and a kirtle

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 Embroidered all with leaves of Myrtle;
The shepherd still has a number of different enticements to offer his lover in the
hope that she will join him. He describes how he will “make [her] a bed of Roses.”
He will fill her life with flowers by creating for her a “kirtle” or an outer gown, and
a “cap,” which will all be “Embroidered…with the leaves of Myrtle,” a common
flowering shrub.

A gown made of the finest wool

Which from our pretty Lambs we pull;
Fair lined slippers for the cold,
With buckles of the purest gold;
In the fourth quatrain, and the halfway point of this piece, the speaker continues on
describing the different pieces of clothing and accessories that he will craft for his
lover. It is important to remember that all of these items are contingent on her
coming to live with him.
He will spin for her a “gown made of the finest wool” from the lambs that they will
tend together. His occupation is now working in her favour and he is able to make
her exactly, what he thinks, she wants. He does not neglect her feet, and states that
she will also have “Fair lined slippers” that she can wear when it gets cold. Her
buckles on her shoes will be made of the “purest gold.”

A belt of straw and Ivy buds,

With Coral clasps and Amber studs:
And if these pleasures may thee move,
Come live with me, and be my love.
In the second to last stanza he begins to conclude his offer. He finishes up
describing the wardrobe she will have by describing her gaining a belt made “of
straw and Ivy buds.” It will also feature “Coral clasps and Amber studs.” It is clear
that the speaker is doing his utmost to find and describe things that he thinks she
wants the most. Wether this is the case or not the reader will never know. In the
second half of the stanza he repeats his request that if only she will “live with
[him]” all “these pleasures” will be hers.

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 The Shepherds’ Swains shall dance and sing
For thy delight each May-morning:
If these delights thy mind may move,
Then live with me, and be my love.
In the final section of the poem the speaker describes how after she has accepted
his offer the “Shepherds’ Swains,” or their comrades and lovers, will “dance and
sing.” All people will “delight” in the fact that they are finally together as they
should be.
In the last two lines he repeats, for the third time, his offer. He asks that if “these
delights” move “thy mind” then she should come “live with [him], and be [his]
love.”

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 ‫‪Introduction to English Literature- second course‬‬
‫‪By: Hayder Gebreen‬‬

‫‪c-THE MILTONIC SONNET: This has the same rhyme scheme as the Petrarchan‬‬
‫‪sonnet but differs in one important respect: there is no break in thought between‬‬
‫‪the octave and sestet.‬‬
‫‪On His Blindness‬‬
‫‪By: John Milton‬‬

‫جون ميلتون (‪1674 -1608‬م)‬

‫س نفسه للشعر وعندما تجاوز العشرين‬ ‫ولد جون ميلتون في لندن في أسرة متدينة ‪.‬من سن المراهقة َك َر َ‬
‫بسنة كتب رائعته ‪ :‬أغنية في الصباح لميالد المسيح ‪..‬كان يؤمن بان لديه رسالة في الحياة وان ثمة عمل ما‬
‫أختاره هللا سبحانه وتعالى له ليقوم به ‪.‬وضع في اعتباره أن يصبح قسيسا ً لكنه إلعتبارات معينة قرر عكس‬
‫ذلك إلعتراضه على بعض المفاهيم السائدة في الكنيسة في ذلك الوقت ‪.‬فكان في قرارة نفسه أنه كونه شاعراً‬
‫قسيسا ً‪.‬‬ ‫كونه‬ ‫من‬ ‫أفضل‬ ‫الرسالة‬ ‫بتلك‬ ‫سيقوم‬
‫في شعره يمتزج تياران هامان عصر النهضة األوروبية و الخاص بإصالح نتج عنهما تفرد وتميز شعره ‪.‬عندما‬
‫نشب الصراع والنزاع بين الملك والبرلمان أتخذ جانب البرلمان حيث أنه كان يؤمن باإلصالح ‪ .‬شغل وظيقة‬
‫حكومية تعادل وظيفة وزير إعالم ‪ ,‬كتب الكثير من المقاالت السياسية واإلجتماعية بالنثر وهجر الشعر فيما عدا‬
‫بالمناسبات‪.‬‬ ‫الخاصة‬ ‫السونيتات‬ ‫من‬ ‫القليل‬
‫في عام ‪1643‬م وقع في الحب وتزوج من األبنة الكبرى التي تبلغ من العمر سبعة عشر ربيعا ً ألحد المؤيدين‬
‫للملك ‪.‬ل كنها بعد شهر من الزواج تركت البيت وعادت لوالدها بالدموع تاركة الشاعر ميلتون يكتب رسائل ثائرة‬
‫مطالبا ً ومؤيداً الطالق ‪ ,‬بالرغم من عودتها إال أن ميلتون تزوج بعد ذلك مرتين وكان سعيداً ‪.‬لكن المرارة‬
‫األولى بقيت وظل مطالبا ً بأن المرأة يجب أن تكون فى حالة خضوع وطاعة تامة لزوجها‪ .‬لكن الفاجعة الكبرى‬
‫عندما أصيب بالعمى في عز قوته ‪.‬ولكونه يعتقد أن هللا قد اختاره لرسالة ما فقد وجد نفسه يجادل ان هللا قد ابتاله‬
‫بهذا العجز والذى من الممكن أن يمنعه من آداء رسالته ‪.‬استمر في عمله بمساعدة زوجاته وبناته فيما بعد ‪.‬عام‬
‫‪ 1660‬م عندما تهاوت حكومة البرلمان وعادت الملكية استقال واعتزل فقيرا ً ضريراً عاد لشعره وكتب مالحمه‬
‫‪0‬‬ ‫المسترد‬ ‫والفردوس‬ ‫المفقود‬ ‫الفردوس‬ ‫مثل‬ ‫العظيمة‬

‫‪Introduction: On His Blindness is a sonnet believed to have been written before 1764,‬‬
‫‪after the poet, John Milton, had gone completely blind. The sonnet is‬‬
‫‪in “Petrarchan” style, rhyming ABBA ABBA CDE CDE. This form is also called an‬‬

‫‪1‬‬

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 Introduction to English Literature- second course
By: Hayder Gebreen

Italian sonnet. It is written in iambic pentameter, and it is separated into one octave, the
first eight lines, and one sestet, of the remaining six lines.
Summary: On His Blindness is an exploration of a moral dilemma faced by John
Milton, and conveyed through his speaker, as he was forced to come to terms with his
blindness. Milton’s speaker is faced with the impossibility of continuing his works.
Works which are often considered to be the same as Milton’s, types of writing, or not
serving God due to his blindness. He is unable to continue as he had been, and he asks
and receives and answer to his inner query.
Analysis:
When I consider how my light is spent
Ere half my days in this dark world and wide,
‫ عندما أتذكر فى حسرةٍ كيف فقدتُ بصرى‬,
، ‫ عمرى‬, ‫ف‬
ِ ‫ لألس‬, َ‫قبل أن ينتصف‬

The poem begins with the speaker’s consideration of how he has spent the years of his
life, represented as his “light.” This light, as well as being a metaphor for life, is also a
literal representation of the days of Milton’s life in which he could see. The second line
expands on that, explaining that before even half of the speaker’s life had passed, he is
forced to live in a world that is “dark… and wide.” Since Milton went blind at 42, he’d
had the opportunity to use his writing skills, his “talents” in the employee of Oliver
Cromwell. He had risen to what was, more than likely, the peak of his possible
achievement, the highest position a writer in England could hope to gain. He did not
know at the time that his greatest works would be written while he was blind. His
“talents” come into play in the next lines which are some of the trickiest in the whole
piece.
And that one talent which is death to hide
Lodg’d with me useless, though my soul more bent
To serve therewith my Maker, and present
My true account, lest he returning chide,
‫ فى هذا العالم المظلم الفسيح‬,
‫ فضياع نعمة البصر نقمة تعادل الموت‬,
‫ بالرغم أنني كنتً أسعى‬، ‫محاصر بعجزى‬

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 Introduction to English Literature- second course
By: Hayder Gebreen

‫ وأقدم كتابى‬, ‫ يا ربي‬،‫ألخدم َك يا خالقى‬

‫ خوفا ً من سخطك‬، ‫ََ بيمينى‬
Milton speaks of his “talent,” this talent, his skills with words and love for writing, was
his entire life. His livelihood and self-worth depended on it. This word “talent” is the
most important in understanding these lines. As a biblical scholar Milton was familiar
with the texts of the bible and chose to reference, The Parable of Talents from Matthew
25, here. When Milton refers to talent he is relating the loss of his ability to read and
write to the servant in Matthew 25 who buries the money given to him by God in the
desert rather than investing it wisely. It is “death” to Milton to have hidden, through no
choice of his own in this case, his talents beneath his blindness. The next lines begin to
speak to Milton’s devotion to God. He explains that his talents are still hidden even
“though [his] soul [is] more bent” to serve God and present his accounts through
writing. He wants nothing more than to do right by God, and serve him. In this context,
“account” refers to both his records in writing and money (once more connecting his
dilemma to that in The Parable of Talents). He must do all he can for God, “lest he
returning chide.” So that if God returns, he will not chide, or admonish, Milton for not
taking advantage of the gifts that God has given him.
“Doth God exact day-labour, light denied?”
I fondly ask. But Patience, to prevent
That murmur, soon replies, “God doth not need
Either man’s work or his own gifts; who best
.‫هل تطلب مني ربي خدمة عبادك وأنا فاق ٌد لبصري‬
‫سألتُ بحمق ٍ لكن الصب َر منعني من الشكوى‬
‫أخبرني الصبر أن هللا ال يحتاج لعمل العبد‬
,‫وال استخدام أنعمه وهباته وعطاياه‬
At this point, Milton is finishing the sentence that he began at the beginning of the
poem with the word, “When.” In short, he asks, “does God require those without light
to labor?” He wants to know whether when he is not able to continue his work, due to
his blindness, will God still require work of him. Milton continues on, invoking the
personification of Patience in the next line. Patience appears as a pacifying force to
“prevent that murmur” in which the speaker would question God (as described above).

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 Introduction to English Literature- second course
By: Hayder Gebreen

Patience replies to the speaker’s internal question, and the remainder of the poem is
that response.
Bear his mild yoke, they serve him best. His state
Is kingly; thousands at his bidding speed
And post o’er land and ocean without rest:
They also serve who only stand and wait.”
,‫هؤالء الناس الذين يطيعونه و يخضعون لمشيئته‬
‫هو الملك األعظم‬, ‫هم الذين يخدمونه بصدق‬
‫سبحون بحمد ِه‬ َ ُ ‫آالفٌ من عبيده ي‬
:‫في البر والبحر بال كلل‬
‫و الذين يصبرون وينتظرون أوامره بال ملل‬
.‫هم أيضاً بكل بساطة يخدمون هللا‬

Patience explains that God does not need special gifts or works from man, such as
Milton’s writings, but loves best those who “Bear his mild yoke.” This complicated
phrase references a “yoke,” or a wooden frame, that used to be placed around the neck
and shoulders of plowing animals. This would allow the animals to be directed around
the field. Essentially, those who give over their life to God and accept that he is in
control of their fate are loved best. That is what God requires, not “gifts” or “work.”
Patience comes to the final point of the poem in the next three lines. Patience compares
God to a king, saying that his “state is kingly” with “thousands at his bidding.” These
people, in the state that is the world, are part of the unlimited resources of the king,
God. They “post” (or move quickly) over “Land and Ocean” without pausing for rest.
The poem ends with the answer to the speaker’s unasked question, that those who are
unable to rush over land and ocean, like Milton, also serve God.

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 Poetry
Second Year - Second course
By: Hayder Gebreen

The Collar
By: George Herbert

Introduction: The Collar’ by George Herbert is a thirty-six line poem about a

speaker’s struggle for freedom. It was written by Herbert in 1633 while he struggled
with his own religious beliefs. The poem does not conform to one particular rhyme
scheme but jumps from half or slant rhymes to full end rhymes. There are a few
moments which are more consistent in their patterns, such as the final four lines of the
poem which rhyme abab. Herbert chose this pattern, or lack of pattern, to mimic the
chaos of his speaker’s own thoughts. The first element of this piece a reader should
take note of is the title. If one understands a bit about Herbert’s religious background,
the title takes on a second layer of meaning. The word “collar” has immediate
connotations of submission and control but it also refers to the piece of clothing worn
by a member of the clergy.
Summary of The Collar
‘The Collar’ by George Herbert describes a speaker’s desire to escape from his
religious life and turn to one of greater freedom.
The poem begins with the speaker stating that he will stand for his present life no
longer. It is time for him to make a change and he intends to resurrect the parts of
himself the lost in his youth. He will seek out real pleasures and no longer worry
about what is right and wrong.
As the poem continues, the extent of his confinement is revealed. He has crafted a
prison for himself out of his own belief. The ropes will no longer keep him and he
will utilize his fears to his own benefit. He will be a stronger man.

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 Poetry
Second Year - Second course
By: Hayder Gebreen

The final lines bring the speaker back to his religious reality. The voice of God
penetrates through his “rav[ing]” and calms his ardour. He will not do as he said he
would; he has been taken back into the fold of the church.
Analysis of The Collar
Lines 1- 9:
I struck the board, and cried, “No more;
I will abroad!
What? shall I ever sigh and pine?
My lines and life are free, free as the road,
Loose as the wind, as large as store.
Shall I be still in suit?
Have I no harvest but a thorn
To let me blood, and not restore
What I have lost with cordial fruit?

In the first stanza of this piece the speaker shocks his reader by crying out, seemingly
without provocation, that he has had enough. He says, ‘“No more.”’ He will not
remain in his life any longer. The speaker will “abroad.” He asks in the following
lines if it is necessary for him to “sigh and pine.” The speaker is becoming more and
more sure that it is not his sole purpose in life to want something he cannot have. He
is severely dissatisfied with the current direction of his life and is ready to make a
change.
He sees himself as being able to live in “life”and write his “lines…free, free as the
road.” There should be no restraints on what he is allowed to do or say. He sees a
future in which is life is “Loose” and resembles the “wind.” He desires to live in a
world as large as he wants it to be.
The following lines are used to ask if he must be “still in suit.” He wants to know if it
is possible for him to change his life at this time, or if he is trapped in the world he
has made around himself. The next phrase proposes one type of life he could be
living, one he cannot escape from. In this scenario he compares himself to a plant
which produces no fruit, but only thorns on which he cuts himself. It is the blood he

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 Poetry
Second Year - Second course
By: Hayder Gebreen

loses that he hopes to use to reinvigorate himself. Perhaps he can benefit off his own
present suffering.
Lines 10-18:
Sure there was wine
Before my sighs did dry it; there was corn
Before my tears did drown it.
Is the year only lost to me?
Have I no bays to crown it,
No flowers, no garlands gay? All blasted?
All wasted?
Not so, my heart; but there is fruit,
And thou hast hands.
In the next set of lines he tries to remember if there was a point in his life in which
“there was wine.” It would have had to have been before his “sighs did dry it.” He
thinks there is no way the suffering he is going through now has always been present
in his life. There must’ve been days before in which one could find “corn” and
“wine.” These days would be before his “tears did drown it.” To some extent, he feels
as if his own emotional state is making his already bad situation worse.
The second half of the section is made up of a number of questions. He asks if there is
any way for him to “crown” or save his year. He does not want it to be “lost to” him.
The speaker searches for “flowers” or “garlands gay” which might be used to improve
his remaining days.
Two short phrases follow; they inquire if the flowers have all been “blasted” or
“wasted.” The final two lines clarify that no, they have not. In his “heart…there is
fruit” still. With his hands he plans to retrieve that fruit along with his happiness.
Lines 19-28:
Recover all thy sigh-blown age
On double pleasures: leave thy cold dispute
Of what is fit and not. Forsake thy cage,
Thy rope of sands,
Which petty thoughts have made, and made to thee
Good cable, to enforce and draw,
And be thy law,
While thou didst wink and wouldst not see.

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 Poetry
Second Year - Second course
By: Hayder Gebreen

Away! take heed;

I will abroad.
The second half of the poem begins with the speaker asking a number of different
things of himself. First, he wants to recover the pleasures of his past and leave behind
his “cold dispute / Of what is fit and not.” He is done wasting time worrying about
what is holy, proper, or good. These things will no longer interest him. It is his goal to
leave behind his cage and “rope of sand.”
These means of confinement that the speaker mentions were crafted by religion and
by his own hands. They were made by “petty thoughts” and turned into “Good cable”
which was able to “enforce and draw” and turn into the “law” which he obeyed.
He is no longer going to be a part of this lifestyle. He is moving on, away from his
confinement and “collar.” The final line repeats the declaration which appears at the
beginning of the poem, “I will abroad,” he will depart.
Lines 29-36:
Call in thy death’s-head there; tie up thy fears;
He that forbears
To suit and serve his need
Deserves his load.”
But as I raved and grew more fierce and wild
At every word,
Methought I heard one calling, Child!
And I replied My Lord.

The final section of this piece concludes the narrator’s agitated speech and produces a
slight twist to the narrative. He continues speaking to himself and tries to boost his
confidence for the change he is trying to make. The speaker asks that the “death’s-
head” leave him alone. He does not want to be bothered by his fears. It is his intention
to “tie” them up and force them to serve his purpose.
The speech ends with a set of lines which utilize the rhyme scheme of abab. They are
used to bring the speaker back to his known reality. He describes how his “rav[ing]”
came to its climax and rather than building him up, it just brought on the voice of
God. The speaker heard “Child!” And replied, “My Lord.” Like a child, he was
chastised and brought back into the religious fold.

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 The Collar
BY GE OR GE HE RBE RT

I struck the board, and cried, "No more;

I will abroad!
What? shall I ever sigh and pine?
My lines and life are free, free as the road,
Loose as the wind, as large as store.
Shall I be still in suit?
Have I no harvest but a thorn
To let me blood, and not restore
What I have lost with cordial fruit?
Sure there was wine
Before my sighs did dry it; there was corn
Before my tears did drown it.
Is the year only lost to me?
Have I no bays to crown it,
No flowers, no garlands gay? All blasted?
All wasted?
Not so, my heart; but there is fruit,
And thou hast hands.
Recover all thy sigh-blown age
On double pleasures: leave thy cold dispute
Of what is fit and not. Forsake thy cage,
Thy rope of sands,
Which petty thoughts have made, and made to thee
Good cable, to enforce and draw,
And be thy law,
While thou didst wink and wouldst not see.
Away! take heed;
I will abroad.
Call in thy death's-head there; tie up thy fears;
He that forbears
To suit and serve his need
Deserves his load."
But as I raved and grew more fierce and wild
At every word,
Methought I heard one calling, Child!
And I replied My Lord.

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 The Collar by George Herbert

‘The Collar’ by George Herbert is a thirty-six line poem about a speaker’s

struggle for freedom. It was written by Herbert in 1633 while he struggled with his
own religious beliefs. The poem does not conform to one particular rhyme scheme
but jumps from half or slant rhymes to full end rhymes. There are a few moments
which are more consistent in their patterns, such as the final four lines of the poem
which rhyme abab. Herbert chose this pattern, or lack of pattern, to mimic the chaos
of his speaker’s own thoughts.
The first element of this piece a reader should take note of is the title. If one
understands a bit about Herbert’s religious background, the title takes on a second
layer of meaning. The word “collar” has immediate connotations of submission and
control but it also refers to the piece of clothing worn by a member of the clergy.

Summary of The Collar

‘The Collar’ describes a speaker’s desire to escape from his religious life and
turn to one of greater freedom.
The poem begins with the speaker stating that he will stand for his present life
no longer. It is time for him to make a change and he intends to resurrect the parts
of himself, the lost in his youth. He will seek out real pleasures and no longer worry
about what is right and wrong.
As the poem continues, the extent of his confinement is revealed. He has
crafted a prison for himself out of his own belief. The ropes will no longer keep him
and he will utilize his fears to his own benefit. He will be a stronger man.

The final lines bring the speaker back to his religious reality. The voice of God
penetrates through his anger and calms his mood. He will not do as he said he
would; he has been taken back into the fold of the church.

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 Analysis of The Collar
Lines 1- 9

I struck the board, and cried, “No more;

I will abroad!
What? shall I ever sigh and pine?
My lines and life are free, free as the road,
Loose as the wind, as large as store.
Shall I be still in suit?
Have I no harvest but a thorn
To let me blood, and not restore
What I have lost with cordial fruit?
In the first stanza of this piece the speaker shocks his reader by crying out,
seemingly without provocation, that he has had enough. He says, ‘“No more.”’ He
will not remain in his life any longer. The speaker will “abroad.” He asks in the
following lines if it is necessary for him to “sigh and pine.” The speaker is becoming
more and more sure that it is not his sole purpose in life to want something he
cannot have. He is severely dissatisfied with the current direction of his life and is
ready to make a change.
He sees himself as being able to live in “life" and write his “lines…free, free as
the road.” There should be no restraints on what he is allowed to do or say. He sees
a future in which life is “Loose” and resembles the “wind.” He desires to live in a
world as large as he wants it to be.
The following lines are used to ask if he must be “still in suit.” He wants to
know if it is possible for him to change his life at this time, or if he is trapped in the
world he has made around himself. The next phrase proposes one type of life he
could be living, one he cannot escape from. In this scenario he compares himself to
a plant which produces no fruit, but only thorns on which he cuts himself. It is the
blood he loses that he hopes to use to reinvigorate himself. Perhaps he can benefit
off his own present suffering.

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 Lines 10-18

Sure there was wine

Before my sighs did dry it; there was corn
Before my tears did drown it.
Is the year only lost to me?
Have I no bays to crown it,
No flowers, no garlands gay? All blasted?
All wasted?
Not so, my heart; but there is fruit,
And thou hast hands.
In the next set of lines he tries to remember if there was a point in his life in
which “there was wine.” It would have had to have been before his “sighs did dry it.”
He thinks there is no way the suffering he is going through now has always been
present in his life. There must’ve been days before in which one could find “corn”
and “wine.” These days would be before his “tears did drown it.” To some extent, he
feels as if his own emotional state is making his situation worse.
The second half of the section is made up of a number of questions. He asks if
there is any way for him to “crown” or save his year. He does not want it to be “lost
to” him. The speaker searches for “flowers” or “garlands gay” which might be used
to improve his remaining days.
Two short phrases follow; they inquire if the flowers have all been “blasted” or
“wasted.” The final two lines clarify that no, they have not. In his “heart…there is
fruit” still. With his hands he plans to retrieve that fruit along with his happiness.

Lines 19-28

Recover all thy sigh-blown age

On double pleasures: leave thy cold dispute

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 Of what is fit and not. Forsake thy cage,
Thy rope of sands,
Which petty thoughts have made, and made to thee
Good cable, to enforce and draw,
And be thy law,
While thou didst wink and wouldst not see.
Away! take heed;
I will abroad.
The second half of the poem begins with the speaker asking a number of
different things of himself. First, he wants to recover the pleasures of his past and
leave behind his “cold dispute / Of what is fit and not.” He is done wasting time
worrying about what is holy, proper, or good. These things will no longer interest
him. It is his goal to leave behind his cage and “rope of sand.”
These means of confinement that the speaker mentions were crafted by
religion and by his own hands. They were made by “petty thoughts” and turned into
“Good cable” which was able to “enforce and draw” and turn into the “law” which he
obeyed.
He is no longer going to be a part of this lifestyle. He is moving on, away from
his confinement and “collar.” The final line repeats the declaration which appears at
the beginning of the poem, “I will abroad,” he will depart.

Lines 29-36

Call in thy death’s-head there; tie up thy fears;

He that forbears
To suit and serve his need
Deserves his load.”
But as I raved and grew more fierce and wild
At every word,
Methought I heard one calling, Child!
And I replied My Lord.

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 The final section of this piece concludes the narrator’s agitated speech and
produces a slight twist to the narrative. He continues speaking to himself and tries to
boost his confidence for the change he is trying to make. The speaker asks that the
“death’s-head” leave him alone. He does not want to be bothered by his fears. It is
his intention to “tie” them up and force them to serve his purpose.
The speech ends with a set of lines which utilize the rhyme scheme of abab.
They are used to bring the speaker back to his known reality. He describes how his
anger came to its climax and rather than building him up, it just brought on the voice
of God. The speaker heard “Child!” And replied, “My Lord.” Like a child, he was
chastised and brought back into the religious fold.

Telegram: @EnglishDepartment2
 Definition of Cavalier Poetry

The Cavalier poets, members of the aristocracy, wrote in the 17th century and supported

King Charles I, who was later executed as a result of a civil war. They were known as

Royalists. Cavalier poetry is straightforward, yet refined. Many of the poems centered

around sensual, romantic love and also the idea of carpe diem, which means to 'seize the

day.' To the Cavalier poet, enjoying life was far more important than following moral codes.

They lived for the moment.

Cavalier poetry mirrored the attitudes of courtiers. The meaning of cavalier is showing

arrogant or offhand disregard.

Characteristics

Some of the most prominent Cavalier poets were Thomas Carew, Richard Lovelace, Robert

Herrick, and John Suckling. They imitated Ben Jonson, a contemporary of Shakespeare.

These poets opposed metaphysical poetry, such as that of John Donne.

While poets like John Donne wrote with a spiritual, scientific, and moral focus, the Cavalier

poets concentrated on the pleasures of the moment. Metaphysical poets also wrote in

figurative, lofty language, while the Cavaliers were simple, being more apt to say what they

meant in clear terms. The Cavalier poet wrote short, refined verses, and the tone of Cavalier

poetry was generally easy-going.

Cavalier poetry was a school of English poets of the 17th century, that came from the

classes that supported King Charles I during the English Civil War (1642–1651). These

poets grouped themselves with the King and his service, thus becoming Cavalier Poets.
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 A cavalier was traditionally a mounted soldier or knight. They were separate in their lifestyle

and divided on religion from the Roundheads, who supported Parliament, consisting often

of Puritans .

The best known of the cavalier poets are Robert Herrick, Richard Lovelace, Thomas Carew,

and Sir John Suckling. Most of the cavalier poets were courtiers, with notable exceptions.

For example, Robert Herrick was not a courtier, but his style marks him as a cavalier poet.

Cavalier poetry is different from traditional poetry in its subject matter. Instead of tackling

issues like religion, philosophy, and the arts, cavalier poetry aims to express the joy and

simple gratification of celebratory things much livelier than the traditional works of their

predecessors. The intent of their works was often to promote the crown (particularly Charles

I), and cavalier poets spoke outwardly against the Roundheads who supported the rebellion

of Parliament against the crown.

To Daffodils

BY ROBERT HERRICK

Fair Daffodils, we weep to see

You haste away so soon;

As yet the early-rising sun

Has not attain'd his noon.

Stay, stay,

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 Until the hasting day

Has run

But to the even-song;

And, having pray'd together, we

Will go with you along.

We have short time to stay, as you,

We have as short a spring;

As quick a growth to meet decay,

As you, or anything.

We die

As your hours do, and dry

Away,

Like to the summer's rain;

Or as the pearls of morning's dew,

Ne'er to be found again.

Surface meaning:

In his poem ‘To Daffodils’, the poet Robert Herrick begins by saying that we grieve to see

the beautiful daffodils being wasted away very quickly. The duration of their gloom is so

short that it seems even the rising sun still hasn’t reached the noon-time. Thus, in the very

beginning he has struck a note of mourning at the fast dying of daffodils. The poet then

addresses the daffodils and asks them to stay until the day ends with the evening prayer.

After praying together he says that they will also accompany the daffodils. This is so because

like flowers, men too have a very transient life and even the youth is also very short-lived.

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 Deep meaning:

“We have short time to stay, as you, we have as short a spring.” Robert Herrick symbolically

refers to the youth as spring in these lines. He equates/compares human life with the life of

daffodils. Further he says that both of them grow very fast to be destroyed later. Just like the

short duration of the flowers, men too die away soon. Their life is as short as the rain of the

summer season, which comes for a very short time; and the dew-drops in the morning, which

vanish away and never return again. Thus, the poet after comparing the flowers to humans,

later turns to the objects of nature – he has compared the life of daffodils with summer rain,

dew drops.

Themes:

• the short-lived nature of life, the fleeting passage of time.

• like the flowers we humans have a very short life in this world.

• beauty is not going to stay forever.

Message:

Life is short, and world is beautiful, love is splendid and we must use the short time we live

to make the most of it. This is shown in the words “haste”, “run”, “short” and “quick”.

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 John Milton (1608- 1674)

English poet, pamphleteer, and historian, considered the most significant English
author after William Shakespeare.

Milton is best known for Paradise Lost, widely regarded as the greatest epic poem in
English. It confirms Milton’s reputation as one of the greatest English poets. In his prose
works Milton advocated the abolition of the Church of England and the execution of Charles
I. From the beginning of the English Civil Wars in 1642 to long after the restoration
of Charles II as king in 1660, he espoused in all his works a political philosophy that
opposed tyranny and state-sanctioned religion. His influence extended not only through the
civil wars but also to the American and French revolutions. As a civil servant, Milton
became the voice of the English Commonwealth after 1649 through his handling of its
international correspondence and his defense of the government against polemical attacks
from abroad.

ON HIS BLINDNESS

BY JOHN MILTON

When I consider how my light is spent

Ere half my days, in this dark world and wide,
And that one talent, which is death to hide,
Lodged with me useless, though my soul more bent
To serve therewith my Maker, and present
My true account, lest he returning chide:
“Doth God exact day-labor, light denied?”
I fondly ask; but Patience, to prevent
That murmer, soon replies, “God doth not need
Either man’s work, or his own gifts. Who best
Bear his mild yoke, they serve him best. His state

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 Is kingly; thousands at his bidding speed
And post o’er land and ocean without rest.
They also serve who only stand and wait.”

On His Blindness Summary

In "On His Blindness," the poet John Milton explores his experiences with blindness
and religious faith.

• Milton went blind working for the English Republic. His service to the government required
that he extensively read and write. This caused him to lose his sight.
• The poem takes the form of a Petrarchan sonnet. These traditionally focus on love and
romance, but Milton subverts this in order to explore his relationship with God.
• Milton fears that his blindness will prevent him from doing God's work. The personification
of Patience tells him that even his idleness is useful to God if he continues to have faith.

When I consider how my light is spent

Ere half my days in this dark world and wide,

The poem begins with the speaker’s consideration of how he has spent the years of his life,
represented as his “light.” This light, as well as being a metaphor for life, is also a literal
representation of the days of Milton’s life in which he could see. The second line expands on
that, explaining that before even half of the speaker’s life had passed, he is forced to live in a
world that is “dark… and wide.” Since Milton went blind at 42, he’d had the opportunity to
use his writing skills, his “talents” in the employee of Oliver Cromwell. He had risen to what
was, more than likely, the peak of his possible achievement, the highest position a writer in
England could hope to gain. He did not know at the time that his greatest works would be
written while he was blind. His “talents” come into play in the next lines which are some of
the trickiest in the whole piece.

And that one talent which is death to hide

Lodg’d with me useless, though my soul more bent

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 To serve therewith my Maker, and present
My true account, lest he returning chide,

Milton speaks of his “talent,” this talent, his skills with words and love for writing, was his
entire life. His livelihood and self-worth depended on it. This word “talent” is the most
important in understanding these lines. As a biblical scholar Milton was familiar with the
texts of the bible and chose to reference, The Parable of Talents from Matthew 25, here.
When Milton refers to talent he is relating the loss of his ability to read and write to the
servant in Matthew 25 who buries the money given to him by God in the desert rather than
investing it wisely. It is “death” to Milton to have hidden, through no choice of his own in
this case, his talents beneath his blindness. The next lines begin to speak to Milton’s
devotion to God. He explains that his talents are still hidden even “though [his] soul [is]
more bent” to serve God and present his accounts through writing. He wants nothing more
than to do right by God, and serve him. In this context, “account” refers to both his records
in writing and money (once more connecting his dilemma to that in The Parable of Talents).
He must do all he can for God, “lest he returning chide.” So that if God returns, he will not
chide, or admonish, Milton for not taking advantage of the gifts that God has given him.

“Doth God exact day-labour, light denied?”

I fondly ask.

At this point, Milton is finishing the sentence that he began at the beginning of the poem
with the word, “When.” In short, he asks, “does God require those without light to labor?”
He wants to know whether when he is not able to continue his work, due to his blindness,
will God still require work of him.

But Patience, to prevent

That murmur, soon replies, “God doth not need
Either man’s work or his own gifts; who best
Bear his mild yoke, they serve him best. His state
Is kingly; thousands at his bidding speed

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 And post o’er land and ocean without rest:
They also serve who only stand and wait.”

Milton continues on, invoking the personification of Patience in the next line. Patience
appears as a pacifying force to “prevent that murmur” in which the speaker would question
God (as described above). Patience replies to the speaker’s internal question, and the
remainder of the poem is that response.
Patience explains that God does not need special gifts or works from man, such as Milton’s
writings, but loves best those who “Bear his mild yoke.” This complicated phrase references
a “yoke,” or a wooden frame, that used to be placed around the neck and shoulders of
plowing animals. This would allow the animals to be directed around the field. Essentially,
those who give over their life to God and accept that he is in control of their fate are loved
best. That is what God requires, not “gifts” or “work.”

Patience comes to the final point of the poem in the next three lines.

Bear his mild yoke, they serve him best. His state
Is kingly; thousands at his bidding speed
And post o’er land and ocean without rest:
They also serve who only stand and wait.”

Patience compares God to a king, saying that his “state is kingly” with “thousands at his
bidding.” These people, in the state that is the world, are part of the unlimited resources of
the king, God. They “post” (or move quickly) over “Land and Ocean” without pausing for
rest. The poem ends with the answer to the speaker’s unasked question that those who are
unable to rush over land and ocean, like Milton, also serve God.

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 Paradise Lost John Milton
OF Mans First Disobedience, and the Fruit
Of that Forbidden Tree, whose mortal tast
Brought Death into the World, and all our woe,
With loss of Eden, till one greater Man
Restore us, and regain the blissful Seat,
Sing Heav'nly Muse, that on the secret top
Of Oreb, or of Sinai, didst inspire
That Shepherd, who first taught the chosen Seed,
In the Beginning how the Heav'ns and Earth
Rose out of Chaos: or if Sion Hill
Delight thee more, and Siloa's brook that flow'd
Fast by the Oracle of God; I thence
Invoke thy aid to my adventrous Song,
That with no middle flight intends to soar
Above th' Aonian Mount, while it pursues
Things unattempted yet in Prose or Rhime.
And chiefly Thou, O Spirit, that dost prefer
Before all Temples th' upright heart and pure,
Instruct me, for Thou know'st; Thou from the first
Wast present, and with mighty wings outspread
Dove-like satst brooding on the vast Abyss
And mad'st it pregnant: What in me is dark
Illumin, what is low raise and support;
That to the highth of this great Argument
I may assert Eternal Providence,
And justifie the wayes of God to men.

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 Summary: The Prologue and Invocation
Milton opens Paradise Lost by formally declaring his poem’s subject: humankind’s
first act of disobedience toward God, and the consequences that followed from it. The act is
Adam and Eve’s eating of the forbidden fruit of the Tree of Knowledge, as told in Genesis,
the first book of the Bible.
In the first line, Milton refers to the outcome of Adam and Eve’s sin as the “fruit” of
the forbidden tree, punning on the actual apple and the figurative fruits of their actions.
Milton asserts that this original sin brought death to human beings for the first time, causing
us to lose our home in paradise until Jesus comes to restore humankind to its former position
of purity.
Milton’s speaker invokes the muse, a mystical source of poetic inspiration, to sing
about these subjects through him, but he makes it clear that he refers to a different muse from
the muses who traditionally inspired classical poets by specifying that his muse inspired
Moses to receive the Ten Commandments and write Genesis. Milton’s muse is the Holy
Spirit, which inspired the Christian Bible, not one of the nine classical muses who reside on
Mount Helicon—the “Aonian mount”. He says that his poem, like his muse, will fly above
those of the Classical poets and accomplish things never attempted before, because his
source of inspiration is greater than theirs. Then he invokes the Holy Spirit, asking it to fill
him with knowledge of the beginning of the world, because the Holy Spirit was the active
force in creating the universe.
Milton’s speaker announces that he wants to be inspired with this sacred knowledge
because he wants to show his fellow man that the fall of humankind into sin and death was
part of God’s greater plan, and that God’s plan is justified.

Analysis
The beginning of Paradise Lost is similar in gravity and seriousness to the book from which
Milton takes much of his story: the Book of Genesis, the first book of the Bible. The Bible
begins with the story of the world’s creation, and Milton’s epic begins in a similar vein,
alluding to the creation of the world by the Holy Spirit.
The first two sentences, or twenty-six lines, of Paradise Lost are extremely
compressed, containing a great deal of information about Milton’s reasons for writing his
epic, his subject matter, and his attitudes toward his subject. In these two sentences, Milton

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 invokes his muse, which is actually the Holy Spirit rather than one of the nine muses. By
invoking a muse, but differentiating it from traditional muses, Milton manages to tell us
quite a lot about how he sees his project. In the first place, an invocation of the muse at the
beginning of an epic is conventional, so Milton is acknowledging his awareness of Homer,
Virgil, and later poets, and signaling that he has mastered their format and wants to be part of
their tradition. But by identifying his muse as the divine spirit that inspired the Bible and
created the world, he shows that his ambitions go far beyond joining the club of Homer and
Virgil.
Milton’s epic will surpass theirs, drawing on a more fundamental source of truth and
dealing with matters of more fundamental importance to human beings. At the same time,
however, Milton’s invocation is extremely humble, expressing his utter dependence on
God’s grace in speaking through him. Milton thus begins his poem with a mixture of
towering ambition and humble self-effacement, simultaneously tipping his hat to his poetic
forebears and promising to soar above them for God’s glorification.
Milton’s approach to the invocation of the muse, in which he takes a classical literary
convention and reinvents it from a Christian perspective, sets the pattern for all of Paradise
Lost. Through such comparisons with the classical epic poems, Milton is quick to
demonstrate that the scope of his epic poem is much greater than those of the classical poets,
and that his worldview and inspiration is more fundamentally true and all-encompassing than
theirs. The setting, or world, of Milton’s epic is large enough to include those smaller,
classical worlds. Milton also displays his world’s superiority while reducing those classical
epics to the level of old, nearly forgotten stories. For example, the nine muses of classical
epics still exist on Mount Helicon in the world of Paradise Lost, but Milton’s muse haunts
other areas and has the ability to fly above those other, less-powerful classical Muses. Thus
Milton both makes himself the authority on antiquity and subordinates it to his Christian
worldview.
The Iliad and the Aeneid are the great epic poems of Greek and Latin, respectively,
and Milton emulates (imitate) them because he intends Paradise Lost to be the first English
epic. Milton wants to make glorious art out of the English language the way the other epics
had done for their languages. Not only must a great epic be long and poetically well-
constructed, its subject must be significant and original, its form strict and serious, and its
aims noble and heroic.

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 In Milton’s view, the story he will tell is the most original story known to man, as it is
the first story of the world and of the first human beings. Also, while Homer and Virgil only
chronicled the journey of heroic men, like Achilles or Aeneas, Milton chronicles the tragic
journey of all men—the result of humankind’s disobedience. Milton goes so far as to say
that he hopes to “justify,” or explain, God’s mysterious plan for humankind. Homer and
Virgil describe great wars between men, but Milton tells the story of the most epic battle
possible: the battle between God and Satan, good and evil.

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 Portrait of Zimri

BY John Dryden

Some of their chiefs were princes of the land:

In the first rank of these did Zimri stand:
A man so various, that he seem’d to be
Not one, but all Mankind’s Epitome.
Stiff in opinions, always in the wrong;
Was everything by starts, and nothing long:
But in the course of one revolving moon,
Was chemist, fiddler, statesman, and buffoon:
Then all for women, painting, rhyming, drinking;
Besides ten thousand freaks that died in thinking.
Blest madman, who could every hour employ,
With something new to wish, or to enjoy!
Railing and praising were his usual themes;
And both (to show his judgment) in extremes:
So over violent, or over civil,
That every man, with him, was god or devil.
In squandering wealth was his peculiar art:
Nothing went unrewarded, but desert.
Beggar’d by fools, whom still he found too late:
He had his jest, and they had his estate.
He laugh’d himself from court; then sought relief
By forming parties, but could ne’er be chief:
For, spite of him, the weight of business fell
On Absalom and wise Achitophel:
Thus, wicked but in will, of means bereft,
He left not faction, but of that was left.

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 Introduction
John Dryden a poet, literary critic and a dramatist, belong to Augustan era. Absalom
and Achitophel appeared in 1681 and it is a political satire concerning events that occurred
during the reign of Charles ll of England. As King Charles II did not have a legitimate child
for the throne his brother James was suggested. But James was more inclined to Roman
Catholicism and people were not in favour of that. However King Charles II had an
illegitimate child called John of Monmouth/ Duke of Monmouth. As the King did not want
his illegitimate son to be the king after him the Duke of Monmouth began to rebel against his
father King Charles II. However since Dryden couldn’t write about these events openly he
cloaked them in a biblical story (allusion) of events that took place in the reign of King
David which were of a parallel nature. Charles ll becomes King David, Monmouth becomes
Absalom, and Shaftesbury; Monmouth’s helper becomes Achitophel. So that Monmouth
revolt against Charles ll instigated by Shaftesbury is presented as Absalom’s revolt against
David instigated by Achitophel. And Duke of Buckingham who was another co-worker of
Monmouth is presented as Zimri. As the poet was partial towards the king Charles II in his
poem he satirizes the Duke of Monmouth and his supporters. The poem consists of portraits
of different characters and here there is an explanation of the Portrait of Zimri.

Summary and Analysis

The poem is an allegorical, mock heroic epic and also a political satire. The poem was
written during a time of political turmoil. In the poem the character of Zimri is based on
Duke of Buckingham. Although the poem is based on political event there is also a personal
attack. And Dryden had highly ridiculed Zimri or else Duke of Buckingham’s character. He
was a poet, dramatist and also a politician. Though he had a brilliant mind he was
inconsistent, extravagant and wasteful. In the above extract with his dramatic language the
poet criticizes the character of Zimri though it sounds like praise. Here the poet presents
different aspects of his life for example his occupations, life style, his reactions, likes,
dislikes, his attitudes towards people and the way he spends money. Thus Zimri can be
described as a fickle, inconsistent, excessive, irrational, irresponsible and profligate. The
poet ironically points out all the positive aspects of his character by describing him with a
sense of positivity. The poet has used an effective sense of balance. “Was chemist, fiddler,
statesman and buffoon:” These can be quite exaggerative but at the same time it shows the

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 extremities of Zimri. This extract from Absalom and Achitophel brings the theme of a man
must be rational and be guided by reason as they have a greater social and moral
responsibility towards others in the society. At the same time the extract brings the idea that
public figures are also guided by reason because of their social and moral responsibilities
towards others in the society.

The portrait of Absalom contains characteristic features of the neoclassical era, such as
simplicity, clarity, order, good sense and decorum. The portrait appears to present the
character in a simple narrative/ discursive manner. But it contains beneath this surface a very
strong tone of irony with humour. Each couplet presents a self-contained idea or a
description that helps to create Zimri as an excessive, irrational and irresponsible man. The
restraint in the poetry lies in the control of the irony, what Dryden calls in his preface to the
poem “sweetness in good verse, which Tickles even while it hurts” the clarity of the portrait
lies in the presentation of those features without ornamentation which bring out the irony.

Duke of Monmouth, the illegitimate son of Charles II is given the biblical name of
(Absalom); Absalom is the illegitimate son of David, king of Israel, and a poetic
representation of the duke of Monmouth, the illegitimate son of Charles II, king of England.
The dissident Jews (Whigs) seek to make him heir to his father’s throne.
Duke of Shaftesbury, the false tempter is given the biblical name (Achitophel); Achitophel
is the chief of the rebellious Jews (Whigs) and a poetic representation of the Duke of
Shaftesbury, who attempts to persuade Absalom (the duke of Monmouth) to seize his
father’s throne.
Duke of Buckingham, is given the biblical name of (Zimri); Zimri is the unfaithful servant
and a poetic representation of Duke Buckingham.
Charles II is given the biblical name of (David). David, the king of Israel, a poetic
representation of Charles II, king of England. Many dissatisfied Jews (Whigs) wish to rebel
against him and secure the succession of his illegitimate son, Absalom (the duke of
Monmouth), to the throne.

Some of their chiefs were princes of the land: In the first rank of these did Zimri stand;

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 Some of these conspirators (traitors) were Lords of England. In the first rank (place) of these
conspirators, is Zimri (Duke of Buckingham) who betrayed his king although he was a close
friend of him but because the king chose his catholic brother as an heir, Zimri (Duke of
Buckingham) stands against his king.
A man so various, that he seemed to be Not one, but all mankind's epitome;
Zimri (Duke of Buckingham) is described as a man who has various talents and seemed to be
as the best of mankind.
Stiff in opinions, always in the wrong, Was everything by starts, and nothing long;
Dryden states that Zimri (Duke of Buckingham) is "stiff in opinions, always in the wrong,"
as he always chooses the wrong side and in the beginning of conspiracy, he was one of the
leaders but he didn't continue as such.
But, in the course of one revolving moon, Was chemist, fiddler, statesman, and buffoon;
Dryden gives a satirical portrayal of the Zimri (Duke of Buckingham) as in a course of one
month, he was a chemist, fiddler (either flirt or violinist), a political person and clown.
Then all for women, painting, rhyming, drinking, Besides ten thousand freaks that died in
thinking.
Dryden hints at Buckingham's womanizing and carousing ways of life in which he spends
his time and money on women, arts, parties and freaks to entertain him.
Blest madman, who could every hour employ, With something new to wish, or to enjoy!
Dryden paints a portrait of a man who is unstable, untrustworthy and aimless. Zimri (Duke
of Buckingham) was well known for these traits; he was also immoral, foolish and reckless.
Railing and praising were his usual themes; And both, to show his judgment, in extremes;
Criticizing and praising were Zimri (Duke of Buckingham) his usual subjects and in both
cases, he is to show his judgments in an extreme way.

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 So over violent, or over civil, That every man with him was God or devil.
As he was an extremist, Zimri (Duke of Buckingham) has either so violent or so civil
judgements and to him, people were either God or devil and nothing in-between.
In squandering wealth was his peculiar art; Nothing went unrewarded but desert.
Dryden satirizes Zimri (Duke of Buckingham)who has abnormal talent which is wasting
money on rewards for those fools who eventually desert him.
Beggared by fools, whom still he found too late; He had his jest, and they had his estate.
Those fools who are beggars that Zimri (Duke of Buckingham) had found late in his life. He
had his fun time and they had his money.
He laughed himself from court; then sought relief By forming parties, but could ne'er be
chief;
Zimri (Duke of Buckingham) left the court of king David (Charles II) to seek relief by
establishing the Whig party but could not be the leader.
For, spite of him, the weight of business fell On Absalom, and wise Achitophel;
Despite the fact that Zimri was one of the political personages who founded the Whig party,
the leadership went to Absalom (Duke of Monmouth) and Achitophel (Duke of Shaftesbury).
Thus, wicked but in will, of means bereft, He left not faction, but of that was left.
As a result, Zimri (Duke of Buckingham) who was wicked in his intentions but he was bereft
of means to achieve his goals, left not only his political party "faction" but he also retired
from the public life at the end.
Allegory is a metaphor whose means may be a character, place or event, representing real-
world issues and occurrences. Allegory has been used widely because it can freely illustrate
complex ideas and concepts in ways that are comprehensible to its readers. Writers typically
use allegories as literary devices or as stylistic devices that convey hidden meanings through
symbolic figures, actions, imagery, and/or events, which together create the moral, spiritual,
or political meaning the author wishes to convey. Satire is a literary work holding up human
vices and follies to ridicule or scorn. Wit, irony, or sarcasm are used to expose and
discredit vice or folly

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 An Essay on Criticism

Alexander Pope

A little learning is a dang'rous thing;

Drink deep, or taste not the Pierian spring:
There shallow draughts intoxicate the brain,
And drinking largely sobers us again.
Fir'd at first sight with what the Muse imparts,
In fearless youth we tempt the heights of arts,
While from the bounded level of our mind,
Short views we take, nor see the lengths behind,
But more advanc'd, behold with strange surprise
New, distant scenes of endless science rise!
So pleas'd at first, the tow'ring Alps we try,
Mount o'er the vales, and seem to tread the sky;
Th' eternal snows appear already past,
And the first clouds and mountains seem the last;
But those attain'd, we tremble to survey
The growing labours of the lengthen'd way,
Th' increasing prospect tires our wand'ring eyes,
Hills peep o'er hills, and Alps on Alps arise!

A perfect judge will read each work of wit

With the same spirit that its author writ,
Survey the whole, nor seek slight faults to find,
Where nature moves, and rapture warms the mind;
Nor lose, for that malignant dull delight,
The gen'rous pleasure to be charm'd with wit.
But in such lays as neither ebb, nor flow,
Correctly cold, and regularly low,
That shunning faults, one quiet tenour keep;
We cannot blame indeed—but we may sleep.
In wit, as nature, what affects our hearts
Is not th' exactness of peculiar parts;
'Tis not a lip, or eye, we beauty call,
But the joint force and full result of all.
Thus when we view some well-proportion'd dome,
(The world's just wonder, and ev'n thine, O Rome!'
No single parts unequally surprise;
All comes united to th' admiring eyes;

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 No monstrous height, or breadth, or length appear;
The whole at once is bold, and regular.

Pope's "Essay on Criticism" is a didactic poem in heroic couplets, begun, perhaps, as

early as 1705, and published, anonymously, in 1711. The poetic essay was a relatively new
genre, and the "Essay" itself was Pope's most ambitious work to that time. The verse "essay"
was not an uncommon form in eighteenth-century poetry, deriving ultimately from classical
writers. It was in part an attempt on Pope's part to identify and refine his own positions as
poet and critic, and his response to an ongoing critical debate which centered on the question
of whether poetry should be "natural" or written according to predetermined "artificial" rules
inherited from the classical past.

Part 1. This section offers general principles of good criticism (and of poetry--since
criticism for Pope means determining the merit of a work rather than its meaning,
understanding the principles of good criticism means understanding the rules for
good poetry and vice versa).

Part 2. This section identifies the main flaws a critic is prone to, and therefore the
greatest obstacles to good criticism.

• The biggest pitfall, in criticism as in just about everything else: pride (201-
214).
• Flaw #2: "little learning" (215-232). A little learning makes critics susceptible
to pride, by making them think they know more than they do. (Pope is not
praising ignorance here; the cure for the pride of little learning is more
learning, which teaches the scholar how little he or she knows.)
• #3: "a love to parts"--i.e. emphasizing one aspect of a poem at the expense of
all others (233-383). A critic SHOULD, instead, "read each work of wit/With
the same spirit that its author writ"; "Survey the whole" and "regard the
writer's end" (233-252).

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 The couplets analysis
1-The first couplet is showing the importance of knowledge and education. For the good
critic, it is so dangerous and risky to possess little information about his field. He has to
master his field of expertise or to get away from the job of a critic.

2-The poet links the little learning with the small doses of drug which damage the brain (
destroy the critics mentality). But drinking deeply from the Pierian waters (metaphorically
speaking) will make him awake. The Pierian water is an allusion to the spring in the
mountains of Macedonia which is sacred to the Muses.

3-In any work of art, there must be inspiration which lies behind the greatness of art.The
Muse is the goddess of inspiration that is so powerful in the period of youth.

4-On the other hand, the mind is limited by certain principles and methods of measuring
that are restricting the power of art.

5-The development in science and technology force the mind to accept things which were
regarded superstitious in the past.

6-Here, Pope presented the experience of climbing the Alps, the highest series of
mountains in the world. As humans, we are happy to participate in such an event for we
seem to touch the sky.

7-The snow is described as eternal which adds more to its magnitude, that is connected
with the greatness of the past. For the climber , the first cloud seemed to be the last which
reveals the greatness of the Alps.

8-As critics, we are terrified to talk or discuss the works of those who reached to the top.
Though they faced many problems in their way to reach this present position.

9-Metaphorically speaking, the varied different publications in the age of Enlightenment

cause trouble and confusion among the critics for being unable to accommodate with those
numbers. The scene is similar to someone viewing nature, hill after hill and Alp after Alp.
The hill is standing for the regular authors, while the Alp is referring to those great writers.

10-According to Pope, the perfect critic (judge) is supposed to read any book in the same
way, mentality, attitudes, and feelings the author used in writing it.

11-He has to have a comprehensive look to the work of art and not to search for little
mistakes or weak points especially when the work possesses a warming influence upon the
reader's mind.

12-As a critic, he is not to look for pleasure and enjoyment only, but to combine both the
heart and the mind. Wit is an important component in any respectable work of art.

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 13-The ebb and flow are used here to refer to the movement and progress of ideas
throughout the text. Some works of art are cold (without any warming touch) and their
scope of knowledge is limited.

14-Those faults are counted by the critic, yet they are not supposed to destroy all the work
of art. As a result, the readers may feel sleepy during the process of reading which means
that it is boring.

15-Wit is just like nature. It contains the strong, beautiful, surprising and weak, ugly, boring
parts. The critic's job is to evaluate the whole and not specific parts only.

16-Beauty is not connected with specific parts only like lips and eyes, but it refers to the
whole, body and spirit. Sometimes the appearances are deceiving and the outside beauty is
covering an inside ugly creature. The opposite is also true. So, critics are to look for the
whole.

17-As an example, Pope refers to the great buildings of the past. There is a historical
allusion referring to Rome the center of Knowledge and art.

18- In those great monuments, all the parts are important in reflecting the combined
beauty of the city and its greatness. The single parts cannot give the observer this
everlasting charm, just like the good work of art.

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