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The history of swimming research

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In: World Book of Swimming: From Science to Performance ISBN: 978-1-61668-202-6
Editors: L. Seifert, D. Chollet and I.Mujika ©2011 Nova Science Publishers, Inc.

THE HISTORY OF SWIMMING RESEARCH

Patrick Pelayo and Morgan Alberty

Laboratory of Human Movement Studies, Faculty of Sport Sciences,
University of Lille, Ronchin, France

ABSTRACT
The aim of the present paper was to survey the emergence and the state of the
literature in swimming research through the last centuries. Before 1970, the date of the
first International symposium on biomechanics and medicine in swimming, scientific
research in swimming was poor and anecdotal, and the improvements of performance
were linked firstly to the swimmer’s experience and secondly as the result of a permanent
research for speed. Before and after the Second World War, scientific studies were
conducted by pioneers and marked the beginning of research in stroke mechanics and
swimming physiology exercise. Today and as illustrated and highlighted in this book, the
body of knowledge available for the improvement of sports coaching and training
practice in swimming, seems to be relevant, numerous, and diversified enough to help
swimming coaches to bridge the gap between theory and practice.

1. INTRODUCTION
Between 1538, the date of the first book specifically dedicated to swimming, written by
Wynmann, and 1970, the date of the first International Symposium on Biomechanics and
Medicine in Swimming (organized by J. Lewillie and JP Clarys in Brussels), the art of
swimming can be described as both the result of the swimmer’s experience and technical
aspects discovered and/or developed by scientists. From 1970 up to 2009, as the level of
national and international swimming has become more competitive and professional, sport
practitioners turned to science to help deciding which methods are more effective than others.
Today, and specifically highlighted in this book, human swimming is an important topic of
scientific research. Thus, the purpose of this non exhaustive historical review was to analyze
the emergence, the evolution and the state of swimming science and research from 1538 up to
2008.
xx Patrick Pelayo and Morgan Alberty

2. FROM 1538 TO 1970

Numerous written works and swimming films tried to explain technical and teaching
concepts relevant to practitioners [20]. The different texts available change from a gymnastic,
military and utilitarian form of swimming, up until the First World War, to a more swimming
sport form thereafter. Swimming has become an important cultural phenomenon where
teaching is complex and differs relatively to the biomechanical concepts predominant in the
same period. Among the different authors and more specifically in France, one can
differentiate:

- The humanist instructors [23], [9], [22]: They were clerics, intellectuals and
professionals. Swimming assumes a utilitarian and educational form. The objectives
are a complete education and an adaptable swimmer.
- The military [6]: Swimming is considered as a strategic weapon. Two aspects are
pursued: a hygienic and a disciplined activity.
- The "Gymnasiarque" [10], [25]: Swimming is a gymnastic art. It consisted of
learning positions in a group activity involving discipline [2].
- The engineers: Technology and the use of devices were more important than
technical solutions themselves. Floating and propelling devices (from the stool to the
swimming-teaching machine) involved a real educational renunciation.
- The doctors [21]: Swimming was an additional aid to health promotion and also
include the beneficial effects of baths and physical exercise.
- The swimming teachers [4], [2]: They had commercial ambitions and published
progressive learning strategies in order to obtain an institutional recognition.
- The sportsmen [2], [8]: They appeared at the beginning of the XXth century with the
sports phenomenon. The goal was new: competition.

Moreover, the evolution of biomechanical knowledge and regulation constraints were put
forward to explain balance, breathing and propulsion changes in the modern swimming
strokes [20]. In the past 100 years, and in relation to the development of competition,
swimming strokes have been greatly refined because swimmers throughout history have
experimented how to swim faster through different ways.
On the one hand, swimmers experimented by trial and error, and watching others,
including human swimmers, and also animals, but few champions have the background
necessary to explain the mechanical action of the strokes they perform. The evolution of
technical solutions in swimming has been the result of a permanent research for speed. From
1850 to1910, the most decisive landmark was when the first competitors swapped from breast
stroke to front crawl. In 1902, Richard Cavill set the world record of the 100 yards by
swimming the whole distance in front crawl. On this date, crawl became the fastest stroke.
The front crawl stroke is very efficient because the streamlined position of the body and arm
recoveries out the water, decrease the drag resistance and the alternative arm actions
guarantee the continuity of the propulsive forces. Between 1912 and 1932 the evolution
comes from balance and particularly breathing changes, which mainly explain the
improvement of performances. At the Olympic Games in Stockholm in 1912, Duke
Kahanamoku adopted a streamlined position and in Paris (1924) Johnny Weissmuller broke
 History of Swimming Research xxi

the mythical one minute for the 100 m distance. In his book [26], he explained that "The
instinctive thing for a beginner to do is to hold his breath. As soon as he learns to overcome
this, half his fight is won, and he is ready for the finer points of swimming." and "After
improving my breath control,…, where a mile a day had exhausted me completely, I began to
do a mile and a half a day with greater ease". In 1926, Gertrude Ederle broke the record of the
crossing of the Channel, performing the crawl stroke over the complete distance. On this date,
crawl became accepted as the most economical stroke, which was demonstrated only in the
seventies [15] and confirmed much later for swimming pool conditions [1].
On the other hand, the first scientific analysis conducted by Dubois-Reymond, in 1905
and 1927 [10, 11], and Cureton in 1930 [7] has helped to produce more varied strokes, greater
speeds, and a better understanding of propulsion through water. This marked the beginning of
research into stroke mechanics and swimming exercise physiology, together with Karpovitch,
in 1933 [17], and some others. In 1928, Armbruster first filmed swimmers underwater to
study stroke’s technique. The Japanese also photographed and studied world-class swimmers,
using their research to produce a swim team that dominated the 1932 Olympic Games. Then,
researchers [19], [16], such as Dr. James Edward Counsilman [5] focused both on the forces
that act on a body moving through the water, and on the exercise physiology applied to
swimming, to better define training programs. Owing to their pioneering and painstaking
work, they revolutionized stroke mechanics and teaching and training methods in swimming.

3. FROM 1970 UP TO 2009

Today, the science of swimming is highly developed and helps coaches to improve
swimmers' performances in competition. In this second part of this paper, the purpose of this
historical review was to analyze the evolution and state of scientific swimming research.
From 1970 up to 2009, the level of national and international swimming has become more
competitive and professional, and swimming science has become one of the keys of
swimming success. Nevertheless, scientific studies have led to high levels of frustration
among coaches due to both: (i) the inability of a single approach such as physiological,
biomechanical, psychological, ..., to provide the required answer for each practical problem,
and (ii) the difficulty to produce relevant results in a sufficiently short period to allow a
profitable interaction with practice. However, determining the most correct answer in the
training process is dependent upon the weight of the scientific background available at a
specific moment. The results from the scientific studies along with results from practical
experiences can help to determine the best answer as shown by Troup [24] through the
concept of the learning continuum:

Scientific results Applications Evaluation Improved training

Nevertheless, the scientific process is simultaneously and mainly influenced by the

quality of the experimental design, the status of the experimental and control groups, and the
specificity of the test markers affecting training and performance or experimental results.
xxii Patrick Pelayo and Morgan Alberty

Following a similar approach to Troup [24], three degrees of control can be distinguished in
the current contents of publication:

1. Basic studies and applied studies, where interventions on animal or swimming

material are tested with a lack of external influencing factors. These papers are found
in the most respected peer reviewed journals with impact factor higher than 4.
However, they are very difficult to numerate because they do not correspond to
specific keywords such as swimming or training.
2. Descriptive studies where characteristic and typical responses during swimming
exercise in humans are scientifically measured and are mostly published in scientific
journals with an impact factor lower than 3.5.
3. Practical and field studies where findings emerge from a practical and useful point of
view, while still maintaining scientific integrity and controls. Nevertheless, the
results are more often linked to a specific context of training and population. They
cannot be extended to general and scientific concepts, and are published in
professional national or international journals applied to swimming. Indeed, these
studies do not tightly control confounding factors, such as compliance between coach
and athlete, but provide practical information derived from level 1 and 2 of scientific
knowledge. These publications are very often written in different national languages
and are difficult to innumerate.

The first two levels of publications are today very large and diversified. Clarys, in 1996
[3], reported that by the mid 1990’s there were 685 peer reviewed papers on swimming and
Keskinen in 2006 [18] using EBSCOhost Research Databases and Sport Discus observed
16067 papers with swimming, when the time line was kept unlimited (but excluding animal
experiments). Over the last decades, the increase in these publications (essentially level 2)
reflects the growing interest of researchers to carry out studies in situ and can also indicate
that these researchers are in part solicited and financed by the national swimming federations.
For most of the great nations, the later have developed their own research structures or
partnerships with private or university laboratories.

Figure 1. Evolution of specific papers related to swimming and referenced in PUBMED data base from
1970 to 2005
 History of Swimming Research xxiii

Indeed, we can notice on figure 1 the increase of the number of scientific papers (level 1
and 2) published during the last four decades related to swimming performance in humans.
Systematic literature searches were performed through the years 1970-2005 and calculated
every four years utilizing Pubmed databases and introducing specific keywords such as
swimming, performance, human and competition and excluding papers about pregnant
women, toddlers, scuba diving, infections, therapeutic properties of water, … and triathlon,
water polo, synchronized swimming and diving not specifically related to swimming.
Moreover, and as shown in figure 2, the different scientific fields investigated in the
specific 182 papers related to swimming and referenced in PUBMED data base from 2005 to
2008 are very diversified and can be classified in Biomechanics, Physiology, Technique,
EMG, Medical, Psychology, Sociology and History, Learning, Technology and Methodology,
Training, and Anthropometry areas.

Figure 2. Different scientific domains investigated in the 182 specific papers (expressed in %) related to
swimming and referenced in PUBMED data base from 2005 to 2008

These three levels of swimming research and publications are complementary and
necessary to improve the training process, and provide a service to coaches and swimmers. In
fact, an appropriate balance of the three levels of swimming research can lead to the
enhancement of a scientific approach of swimming teaching and training process. The
different national and international congresses such as those of the World Congress of
Medical and Scientific Aspects in Aquatic sports (FINA), and particularly the most well-
known by the swimming scientific community, the International Symposiums on
Biomechanics and Medicine in Swimming (BMS), can give us a wealth of research unique
and unprecedented in the world of sports. Table 1 illustrates the evolution of different fields
of studies during the first ten International Symposiums on Biomechanics and Medicine in
Swimming Papers. Further than the relative relevance of the different areas of research
interest, it is important to note, from Table 1, the progressive and steady growth of the
number of published papers, starting with 24, in 1970, and temporarily finishing with 144 in
2006; this was a 600% increase in the publishable volume, accomplished in 36 years and 10
editions of the Symposium.
 Table 1. Evolution of the different fields of studies (expressed in %) during the 10 International Symposium on Biomechanics and
Medicine in Swimming. Papers (n) can be related both to one, two or three different domains of investigation.

Olympic Sociology / Technology/

BMS Biomechanics Physiology Technique EMG Medical Psychology Learning Training Anthropometry
Games History Methodology
1968 1970 – BMS I
Mexico Brussels 11.4 34.3 28.6 11.4 5.7 2.9 2.9 0 2.9 0 0
(Belgium) n=24
1972 1974 – BMS II
Munich Brussels 9.8 32.8 23 1.6 3.3 1.6 0 8.2 13.1 1.6 4.9
(Belgium) n=37
1976 1978 – BMS III
Montreal Edmonton 5.6 38.9 25.9 5.6 0 0 0 1.8 3.7 13 5.6
(Canada) n=31
1980 1982 – BMS IV
Moscou Ansterdam 25.7 31.4 11.4 4.3 4.3 1.4 2.9 0 4.3 8.6 5.7
(Holland) n=50
1984 1986 – BMS V
Los Angeles Bielefeld 20.5 30.8 17.9 9 2.6 2.6 0 3.8 1.3 5.1 6.4
(Germany) n=44
1988 1990 – BMS VI
Seoul Liverpool 25.8 20.4 16.1 3.2 6.4 3.2 0 2.1 0 14 8.6
(UK) n=59
1992 1994 – BMS VII
Barcelona Atlanta 22.6 33.4 19.3 3.2 4.8 0 0 0 1.6 11.3 3.2
(USA) n=35
1996 1998 – BMS VIII
Sidney Jyvaskila 18.4 33.3 14.9 1.4 2.1 0.7 0 3.5 5.7 14.9 5
(Finland) n=95
2000 2002 – BMS IX
Atlanta Saint Etienne 21.5 25.9 29.9 0.7 3 1.5 0.7 3 5.2 5.2 4.4
(France) n=98
2004 2006 – BMS X
Athènes Porto 20.1 26.3 21.1 1 3.1 1 0.5 4.6 12.4 7.2 2.6
(Portugal) n=144
 History of Swimming Research xxv

The 11th Biomechanics and Medicine in Swimming conference will celebrate its 40th
anniversary, in 2010 (Oslo, Norway). The topics which will be covered are not only
biomechanics and medicine, but cover many more aspects of swimming science:

- Biological and Physical Science of Swimming : physiology, biomechanics, anatomy,

electromyography, anthropometry, body composition, physics, bioenergetics,
ergonomics ;
- Medical Science of Swimming : clinical medicine, public health, injury prevention ;
- Educational Science of Swimming : pedagogy, didactics, motor learning ;
- Social Science of Swimming: psychology, sociology, anthropology, history,
philosophy.

4. CONCLUSION
Science plays an important role in the understanding and development of swimming
performance. Swimming research can play an important role in indentifying factors of
performance and developing methods to improve them. The added benefit of research results
is the information that can enhance the educational and training materials and programs.
Moreover, a practical sport science program can also be the background topic of research
designed to model and evaluate new concepts in training. Swim researchers also contribute to
initiating new techniques, drills, and teaching and training methods based on scientific
principles. Furthermore, it must be understood by both the scientist and the swimming coach
that today, research study and swimming success are linked and dependant on a scientific
continuum. The greatest nations, vying for places on the swimming podiums at the highest
level, have understood and financed research structures and athlete study centers, allowing
coaches and researchers to work together in a fruitful way.

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