THEORIES OF TRANSLATION

Eugene A. Nida

expressions in two or more languages. On one occasion

I
n developing a theory of translation there are so
often a number of wrong concepts that I asked the director of a famous school of translating in
constitute problems for the study of interlingual Europe to tell me how many really outstanding
communication: first, the idea that translation is a translators he had helped to train during the twenty-
science and second, the assumption that translating five years in which he had directed a school of
depends on a theory of language that includes all classes translating, but he immediately replied that their
of texts, audiences, and circumstances of use. famous school had not trained any highly creative
Translating is not a separate science, but it often does translators. Such persons seem to be born with such
represent specialized skills and can also require skills of linguistic and behavioral equivalence.
aesthetic sensitivity. Skilled translators must have a The basic problem of formulating an adequate
special capacity for sensing the closest natural theory of translation is the fact that translation actually
equivalent of a text, whether oral or written. But takes place in our brains, and we do not know precisely
translating is essentially a skill and depends largely on a what actually happens. How is it that children of
series of disciplines, for example, linguistics, cultural only five years of age can often interpret very effectively
anthropology, philology, psychology, and theories of when scholars of fifty years often have great difficulties.
communication. In contrast with the various sciences, In many cases people who have never studied the
such as physics, chemistry, and biology, translation is an principles of translation turn out to be much more
activity that all bilingual people can engage in without effective translators than those who may have studied
special studies of technical procedures. As efficient translation in some school designed specifically for
bilinguals they quickly sense the degrees of equivalence helping people recognize linguistic and cultural
in comparable texts. parallels and contrasts. In fact, our ignorance about
In the future we may be able to speak more linguistic and cultural equivalences or parallels is much
greater than we like to admit. Unfortunately, most of
scientifically about translating when we know more about
the books about translating are written by persons
the ways in which the brain manipulates information
whose range of experience is largely academic. Would
and transfers concepts from one language to another.
we learn more about interlingual communication if we
Without such information about neural processes we
studied responses of children who apparently translate
cannot really understand what takes place in our brains.
without thinking? Perhaps the following set of
Some persons, however, seem to be unusually skilled in
principles can help new translators know how they can
manipulating words, phrases, and clauses. In a technical
best initiate themselves into the principles and
sense a fully adequate theory of translation would
procedures of translation.
consist of a group of general and coherent principles in
matching the semantic contents of verbal utterances. 1. A language is a series of verbal habits that
The best translators do not spend years memorizing represent aspects of a culture. No one speaker possesses
sets of related meanings, but they have incredibly alert a complete inventory of the signs and the structures of
sensitivity to the meanings of corresponding a living language, but the society of speakers collectively

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possesses a language and can accordingly change the not help to understand such expressions as the well ran
forms. But persons who wish to use the language of a dry or he ran for mayor. Much of the semantic role of
different language community must learn how to use language is arbitrary and highly specialized in objects,
the words in a culturally acceptable manner. activities, states, and purposes.
Persons living separated from one another cannot The acceptance of this type of semantic analysis
preserve a language because languages are essentially by means of contexts is confirmed in large measure by
interactive. For example, Negro slaves that fled from the a number of dictionaries produced for the European
Caribbean to the coast of Honduras had to learn Community, but the specific applicability to texts is not
the language of the Miskito Indians on the coast. But too encouraging. For example, in the Spanish
assimilation was so extensive that most of the local dictionary entitled El inglés jurídico only an average of 12
people along the coast of Honduras are now Miskitos out of 85 expressions are symbolized by a single term.
in language, but Negros in physical appearance. Unfortunately, too high a proportion of verbal
2. The meaning of a verbal symbol is defined meanings have to be understood in terms of 5 to 9
indirectly by all contrastive symbols. For example, the words. This should not be surprising, since so many
meaning of traffic symbols is defined by all the other specific objects, activities and states require defining
symbols referring to the movement of vehicles on phrases consisting of series of words and not single
streets. Accordingly, it is not possible to have an terms.
absolute set of definitions. For example, in English the 4. There are no complete synonyms within a
diverse uses of whisper can be analyzed syntagmatically language or between different languages, but such
in such expressions as they whispered in class, a whisper a statement seems evidently incorrect because almost
campaign, a stage whisper, the breeze whispered through the all dictionaries have extensive lists of synonyms, for
trees. In the first example there is every reason to assume example, sets such as rich/wealthy and run/race. But such
that there was no voicing by the vocal chords, while in sets of synonyms are normally limited to a restricted set
the following two expressions there would have of contexts. In English it is easy to speak of the same
generally been some voicing, and in the last example the person as a rich man or a wealthy man but this measure
voicing would not be the result of vocal chords of similarity in meaning does not extend to such
vibrating. phrases as rich experience and wealthy experience. Even the
3. Within any symbolic system the context synonymous phrases they raced around the track and they
normally contains more information than any focal term. ran around the track almost always suggest a distinction
This means that the different contexts are maximized in competition.
and the functions of specific terms are minimized. The Many persons insist that the Spanish phrase
functions of the verbal contexts are evident in the various cooperación económica and the English phrase economic
uses of the verb run in English, for example, the man ran cooperation have exactly the same meaning, but in Latin
fast, the crab ran up the beach, the snake ran across the lawn, America cooperación económica is generally understood as
his heart is running, the bus runs between Madrid and implying financial help, frequently with no suggestion
Barcelona, the line ran off the page, the play ran for three weeks, of paying back the loan.
he is running for mayor of town, his stocking is running, the well
ran dry. 5. All languages and cultures are continually in the
process of change, and such changes occur on all levels
The traditional manner of speaking about such
of structure. The English phrase merry Mary married
differences in meaning is (1) to assign a series of
previously had three distinctive front vowels in the first
meanings to a word such as run and then look to the
syllables of the three words, but the leveling of this
contexts for the correct meaning in each instance or (2)
distinctiveness in the western part of the United States
to choose a basic typical meaning and to derive the
and the spread of the loss of this distinctiveness in the
extensions of meaning from each context.
Eastern part of the United States is further evidence of
But definitions of meaning are not easy to the linguistic strength of certain features of the
formulate, especially if one tries to combine a number phonological usage in American English dialects. But
of meanings into a single set of related usages. For there are also a number of significant changes in
example, one can define the prototypical meaning of run grammatical usage. For example, as Charles Fries has
as rapid movement in space by means of feet that pointed out, American English normally employed an
alternatively touch the supporting surface. But this does expression such as the boss told you and me to finish by noon

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but increasingly speakers of American English use the particular local doctor, but to new arrivals in a
boss told you and I to finish by noon. community they can explain that they are not
permitted to promote the excellencies of particular
6. On all levels of American English, from sounds doctors, but they can let people know the doctor to
to discourse, important changes are occurring, but most whom they normally go.
speakers are largely unaware of what is happening. The
standard orthography of English largely disguises these 8. For translators and interpreters probably the
differences, as in beat, bit, bait, bet, bat, bot (a kind of fly), most important part of their training is the thorough
bought, but, boat, put, boot. The majority of these subtle knowledge of different referential classes: entities
differences are lost in rapid speech. Furthermore, failure (people, stars, mountains, rivers, plants), activities
to distinguish contrasts in the pronunciation of word (think, speak, walk, swim, dance), states (dead, alive,
final consonants is widespread, for example, in the tired, happy), processes (die, sicken, degenerate,
series cab/cap, kid/kit, pig/pick. improve), characteristics (large, small, attractive), and
relationals (and, or, nevertheless, but),… Some words,
In many instances the meaning of words does not however, belong to more than one referential class. For
depend on grammatical contexts but on the practical example, in the phrase a good dancer the qualifier good
contexts of the communication. For example, the refers to the capacity to dance well and not to any
English word stock may refer to a number of distinct reference to cultural acceptability. Some words,
objects, for example, cattle, traded shares, supplies in a however, function primarily to relate words to other
warehouse, and plants. words, for example, and, but, nevertheless, if, although, in
The meaning of such a word in a particular order to, so that.
context may depend on a local usage, for example, sack 9. Some universal models of discourse are very
or poke (a distinction made in the south part of the important for translators and interpreters. The four
United States). Compare also jacket and blazer. most important classes of discourse are narration,
Differences in texts often suggest distinct social description, argumentation, and conversation. Narration
levels in the use of language, for example, extermination, includes novels, stories, personal experiences, history,
liquidation, ethnic cleansing. Unfortunately some people biography, while description describes the features of
assume that if the style of a text does not reach a complex entities or events, and argumentation is
relatively high level of vocabulary and grammar it primarily a collection of reasons for or against some
cannot be scholarly or true. Such persons often insist development, while conversation is clearly the least
on Whom did you see? rather than Who did you see? Or regulated. Conversations by politicians can be
Each student must turn in their term papers by Monday in exceptionally complex because no one knows the rules
place of Each student must turn in his or her term papers by and each participant is usually seeking his or her
Monday. personal advantage.

It is not always easy to distinguish stylistic classes The purpose of a text may be described in terms
of texts, for example, poetic prose, free prose, of impact (relevance, novelty, and clarity), attraction
conversation, interview, novels, and stories. But in some (unity, totality, appropriateness, and circumstances of
languages in the Orient professional writers think that the communication), and esthetic factors (order,
they can come closer to a general audience by not parallelism, figurative expression, rhythm, and balance).
adhering closely to a particular style of language. A number of people have attempted to define a theory
of translation that would include all the differences of
7. One important aspect of languages and cultures texts, diverse historical and cultural contexts, and
is the fact that stylistic models have a very important distinct classes of receptors. But no description of the
role in communication, and proper adherence to such processes of translation has had the acceptance of the
models is imperative, but highly creative writing is not majority of translators.
always controlled by fixed rules. In fact, creative verbal
communication needs elastic rules. Creative writers One difficulty for the presentation of a theory of
constantly violate rigid traditions in order to attract translation is the fact that all languages reflect the culture
attention and to increase the impact of what they want of which they form a part. Before establishing a general
to communicate. theory of translating, it will be necessary to have a
generally acceptable theory of culture, and such is much
In the United States people who work in drug more difficult than setting up a standard theory of
stores are usually warned about promoting some language. Both culture and language are symbolic

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systems, but whereas language consists only in verbal BIBLIOGRAFÍA

symbols, culture includes all kinds of beliefs and practices.
Nevertheless, it is important to mention the ways BENJAMIN, Walter. Die Aufgabe des Übersetzers.
in which diverse authors have described the processes of Introduction to his translation of Charles
translation as a way of helping translators do their Baudelaire. Heidelberg, Tableaux, 1923.
work. But such helps represent a wide range of activity CATFORD, J. C. A Linguistic Theory of Translation.
and quite different justifications for processes and Oxford. OUP, 1965.
principles of translation. These principles of GUTT, Ernst-August. Translation and Relevance. Oxford,
communication include philology, linguistics, the Basel/Blackwell, 1991.
theory of communication and sociolinguistics. LADMIRAL, J. R. Traduire. Théorèmes pour la traduction.
Since the time of Saint Jerome, who had to defend Paris, Payot, 1979.
his Latin translation of the Bible, the principles of MALONE. The Science of Linguistics in the Art of
translation have focused primary on literary texts, Translation. New York, Albany State University of
possibly because these appeared to be the only texts New York, 1988.
worthy of being translated. Luther also made an MOUNIN, G. Los problemas teóricos de la traducción.
important contribution to the theory and practice of Madrid, Gredos, 1971
translation, but principally through his own translation NIDA, Eugene A. Toward a Science of Translating. Leiden,
of the Bible. Many other scholars have, however, written E. J. Brill, 1964.
extensively about translating, for example, Alexander OSGOOD, C. «Language universals and psycholinguistics».
Frazer Tytler, Goethe, Schopenhauer, Ezra Pound, I. A. En J. H. GREENBERG (ed.). Universals of Language.
Richards, Brower, Quine, Andre Fodorov, G. Mounin Cambridge, MIT, 1963.
(for this and additional authors, see the bibliography), SNELL-HORNBY, Marym Translation Studies, An Integrated
Meschonnic, George Steiner, and G. Toury. Approach. Amsterdam, John Benjamins, 1988.
Walter Benjamin is often cited because of his TOURY, G. In Search of a Theory of Translation. Tel Aviv,
insistence that formal equivalence is necessary, but his Porter Institute of Poetics and Semantics, 1980.
suggesting communication by means of meta-texts has VEGA, Miguel Ángel (ed.). Textos Clásicos de la Teoría de
not met with significant approval. Other important la traducción. Madrid, Cátedra, 1994.
translators include Mary Snell Hornby, who urged that VINAY, J. P. and DARBELNET, J. Stylistique comparée du
translating be considered an independent discipline, and français et de l’anglais. Paris, Didier, 1958.
Ernst-August Gutt has advocated relevance theory.
Ladmiral has focused on sociolinguistic factors, while ✺✺✺
Osgood has called attention to universal psycholinguistic
factors. Osgood has contributed insights in the area of
psycholinguistics, and Miguel Ángel Vega is the editor
of classic texts on translating. RESUMEN
Catford writes about a functional orientation,
and Malone has followed transformational linguistics, Teorías de la Traducción
basically a form of sociolinguistics. At the same time
Nida has employed comparative linguistics to gain Partiendo de una serie de errores que existen sobre la
insight concerning rare linguistic choices. See also disciplina y teniendo en cuenta que la traducción consiste en
Vinay and Darbelnay for their comparative studies of un ejercicio que cualquier persona que conozca los idiomas
English and French. puede llevar a cabo, el autor señala un conjunto de varios
principios que pueden ayudar a los traductores en el desem-
The theory of communication has also
peño de su trabajo. Ante la dificultad de establecer una única
introduced different perspectives and has emphasized
teoría general de la traducción, estos principios señalados dan
such factors as means of communication, types of
forma a las diferentes teorías de la traducción existentes, y
messages, receptors, noise, and circumstances of
que nunca pueden distanciarse excesivamente de las propias
communication. But the principles of translation more
culturas y sociedades en que se lleva a cabo la traducción.
widely employed focus on sociolinguistic factors
presented by Maurice Pergnier, because we essentially
exist in a multiple world of communication and we En la versión electrónica de Pliegos de Yuste
need theories that will make our world linguistically (http://www.pliegosdeyuste.com) se hallará la versión castellana
and culturally understandable. de este artículo.

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