Lecture Notes of M.A.

Basit (Lecturer Sociology, KP Higher Education Department)

1

Introduction to Sociology

Sociology (Meaning)

The word sociology is taken from the French term Sociologie first introduced by a French philosopher Auguste
Comte in 1838 when he suggested a science to study society.

It is the combination of the Latin word Socius meaning associate, companion, comrade, ally, partner, accomplice or
colleague and the Greek suffix logos meaning reason, principle, account, speech or rationale.

So, a literal sense, sociology means the study of social relationships.

Ilm-e-Umran or Imraniyat

It was the multi-skilled Arab polymath Muhammad Ibn Khaldun from Tunis (North Africa) who can be called as the
earliest sociologist or at least proto-sociologist as he proposed a new field of Ilm Al Imran in 1377, which he saw as
a study of society.

Ilm is an Arabic word meaning knowledge (of the world or religion) or science. Imran means prosperity in Arabic
and is taken from a Hebrew word Amram meaning the exalted people, the (exalted) nation, bundle or abundant.

Amram or Imran was the name of the legendary father of the Hebrew prophet Moses. Therefore, literally, Ilm Al
Imran means the field to study the social life of people, nations or tribes. This is the reason why in the Urdu
language, the word for sociology is Imraniyat.

Other terms for Sociology

Sociology is mostly named as Ilm Al Ijtimae in Arabic. It means the ‘knowledge or study of collectivity or groups’.

In Swahili language of East Africa, this term becomes Ilmu Ya Jami.

In West African Hausa language it is called Ilmin Halayyar Zaman Jama’a.

In Farsi, it is called Jamaa Shanasi.

In Spanish and Portuguese, the French Sociologie becomes Sociologia.

In Swedish and Danish it is translated as Sociologi.

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In Afghanistan, sociology is known as Tolanpohana in Pashto which can be translated as the study of groups or
group behaviour (as tolana means social group and pohana means study).

In Sindhi and Punjabi, it is called Samajiyat or the study of society. In India and Nepal, sociology is known as
Samajasastra.

In Malayalam language of South-Western tip of India, it is called Samuhyasastram with ‘samuh’ meaning society or
collectivity.

In Bangla it is called Samajabijnana and in Sri Lankan Sinhalese Samaaja Vidyaava.

In Chinese (Mandarin), sociology is called Shehui Xue (study of society).

In Thai, it is known as Sangkhmwithya.

In Tajik, it is called Someasinosai (study of community).

In other languages: Korean Sahoehag, Japanese Shakai-gaku (study of public), Greek koinoniologia (study of
community life), in Vietnamese Xa Hoi Hoc, and in Southern African Xhosa language Yokuhlalisana. In Turkish, it
is called Sosyoloji, in Serbian Socioloija, Russian Sotsiologiya, German Soziologie, Hungarian or Magyar language
Szociologia, Indonesian Sosiologi and in Filipino Sosyolohiya.

Definition of Sociology

Sociology can be defined as:

• The science of:

• Human social behaviour in society

• That systematically studies:

• Social relationships in social groups, social institutions and culture, and

• Social structure and social functions

• As well as explores the laws or general patterns governing:

• Social life and social phenomena,

• Social change and social order,

• Social control and deviance, and

• Social solidarity and variability.

• It also analyses:
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• Societal system,

• Social inequality,

• Social interaction, and

• Global inter-connectivity and dependence

• And tries to:

• Understand and find solutions to social problems.

Other definitions

The study of the social life, socialization, social cohesion and culture of nations and civilizations – Tunisian
sociologist Muhammad Ibn Khaldun (1332-1406).

The scientific study of society – French philosopher Auguste Comte (1838) and English sociologist Harriet
Martineau (1853).

The science (of social phenomena) that can be used as a tool for the betterment of society and removing social ills –
American sociologist Lester Ward (1841-1913).

It is an attempt to take up the larger program of social analysis and interpretation – American sociologist Albion
Small (1854-1926).

Sociology asks what happens to men and by what rules they behave, not in so far as they unfold their understandable
individual existences in their totalities, but in so far as they form groups and are determined by their group existence
because of interaction - German sociologist Georg Simmel (1858-1918).

The study of (understanding the meaning behind) social actions – German sociologist Max Weber (1864-1920).

The study of social relationships… it seeks to discover the principles of cohesion and of order within the social
structure, the ways in which it roots and grows within an environment, the moving equilibrium of changing structure
and changing environment, the main trends of the incessant change, the forces which determine its direction at any
line, the harmonies and conflicts, the adjustments and maladjustments within the structure as they are revealed in the
light of human desires, and thus the practical application of means to ends in the creative activities of social man –
Scottish sociologist Robert MacIver (1882-1970).

A generalizing science of socio-cultural phenomena viewed in their generic form, types and manifold
interconnections - Russian sociologist Pitirim Sorokin (1889-1968).

The investigation of demographic problems – Chinese sociologist Chen Da (1892-1975).

Study of man-in-relationship-to-men – American sociologist Marshall Jones (1949).

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The study of social system – American sociologist Talcott Parsons (1951).

It is the study of the way in which human beings are shaped by things (in the society) that they don’t see – American
sociologist Sam Richards (2011).

It is the study of the evolution, structure and stratification in society – Chinese sociologist Li Yi (2011).

Nature of Sociology

Nature literally means features or qualities. So by nature of sociology we simply mean the characteristics, traits and
properties of sociology. It is derived from the Latin word ‘natura’ which means quality.

Nature of a subject means the attributes that make a discipline distinct and defines its principles, philosophy,
methodology, sphere of study, goals and utility.

Some people misunderstand the nature of sociology. Although related to it but sociology is NOT:

• Ethics

• Arts

• Philosophy

• Moral teachings

• Religious teachings

• Socialism

• History

• Part of or similar to Psychology

• Any particular ideology, and

• Common sense.

According to American sociologist Robert Bierstedt (in his 1957 book Social Order), sociology is by nature:

• An independent science (it has its own area of study).

• A social science (study of social behaviour).

• A categorical discipline (based on neutral scientific analysis)

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• A pure science

• A relatively abstract (or theoretical) science

• A generalizing science

• A general science, rational cum empirical science

Other aspects of sociology’s nature include:

• A complete study (of society).

• A vast field (with many sub-fields).

• It uses both Qualitative and Quantitative research methods as well as mixed methods research (of qualitative and
quantitative methods).

• Unique but closely related with other social sciences.

• It is unbiased.

• It adheres to scientific and sociological ethics in research.

Scope of Sociology

In desi language by scope we generally mean the job opportunities related with a qualification and a degree. For
example: “Medical ka scope ziada hai” (Medical field has a greater scope). Young people also use it to describe how
much a girl or a boy is attractive to other people judging by her or his physical appearance, qualities, skills or status.
For instance: “Salman ka scope acha hai” (Salman has a good scope).

However, academically speaking, scope of a discipline means the range of issues discussed by a discipline.

The term itself has been derived from the Greek word ‘skopos’ meaning target or aim. Therefore, the scope of
sociology refers to the range of topics studied by sociology.

For example, health problems and diseases of children are dealt with by a doctor we call pediatricians and the field
called pediatrics. Similarly, urban sociologists are concerned with social issues related to urban communities and so
on.

The scope of sociology is very vast and wide-ranging. Its scope covers a lot of subject matter. Why do we need to
understand scope? Because in order to study or understand a discipline, we need to set its limits and boundaries. So
that we can learn what is included and what is not included in a discipline.

Schools of Thought regarding Scope of Sociology

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Synthetic School of Thought or the Broad View

• A view held by French sociologists Auguste Comte (1798-1857) and Emile Durkheim (1858-1917),

• English sociologists Harriet Martineau (1802-1876) and Herbert Spencer (1820-1903),

• Cornish sociologist Leo Hobhouse (1864-1929),

• Russian sociologist Pitirim Sorokin (1889-1968),

• Lithuanian sociologist Morris Ginsberg (1889-1970), German sociologist Karl Mannheim (1893-1947) and •
American sociologists Victor Calberton (1900-1940) and Alex Inkeles (1920-2010).

• As the name suggests, this intellectual tradition thinks of sociology as a synthesis or combination of various social
sciences (such as economics, political science and anthropology etc.) having a very wide scope.

Formalistic or Specialist School of Thought or the Narrow View

• A view held by German sociologists Ferdinand Tonnies (1855-1936), Georg Simmel (1858-1918), Max Weber
(1864-1920), Alfred Vierkandt (18671953) and Leopold von Wiese (1876-1969),

• And American sociologist Albion Small (18541926).

• As the name indicates, this viewpoint considers sociology as distinct (and independent as a result) from other
social sciences having a specific scope.

• It is the dominant view today.

Some important topics of sociology are:

• Society, social system and relationships

• Sociological perspectives

• Social processes

• Social interaction

• Social change

• Collective behaviour
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• Socialization

• Social structure

• Social norms and values

• Social stratification and inequality

• Gender, race and ethnicity

• Social institutions

• Social groups

• Social control and deviance

• Culture

• Social problems

SUBJECT MATTER of a discipline refers to the topics that are included in the SCOPE of sociology.

Sub-Fields of Sociology (American Sociological Association)

1. Sociology of Ageing

2. Sociology of Drugs

3. Sociology of Morality

4. Animals and Society

5. Sociology of Asia

6. Sociology of Youth

7. Collective Behaviour

8. Media Sociology

9. Rural and Urban Sociology

10. Historical Sociology

11. Sociology of Law and Deviance

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12. Disability in Society

13. Economic Sociology

14. Environmental Sociology

15. Ethnomethodology

16. Socio-biology

17. Sociology of Family

18. Global Sociology

19. History of Sociology

20. Sociology of Social Inequality

21. Sociology of Migration

22. Sociology of Labour

23. Latin American Sociology

24. Marxist Sociology

25. Mathematical Sociology

26. Medical Sociology

27. Sociological Methodology

28. Sociology of Work

29. Sociology of War and Peace

30. Political Economy of World System

31. Political Sociology

32. Sociology of Inequality (Social Stratification)

33. Sociology of Minorities

34. Rationality and Society

35. Sociology of Knowledge, Science and Technology

36. Social Psychology

37. Public Sociology

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38. Sociology of body

39. Sociology of Consumerism

40. Sociology of Culture

41. Sociology of development

42. Sociology of education

43. Sociology of emotions

44. Sociology of human rights

45. Sociology of law

46. Sociology of mental health

47. Social demography

48. Sociology of religion

49. Sociology of gender

50. Sociology of sexuality

51. Sociology of education

52. Sociological Theory

(NOTE: ABOVE NAMES WERE SIMPLIFIED BY ME)

IMPORTANCE OF SOCIOLOGY:

• Scientific study of society

• Social nature of humans

• Role of social institutions

• Our place in society

• Social planning

• Social problems

• Explain human diversity

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• Importance of humanity

• Importance of culture

• Explains crime and deviance

• Understand complex social world in few principles

• Understanding marginalized communities

• Show humans are so similar

Role of sociologists:

• Social scientist

• Social problem solver

• Social planner

• Social philosopher

• Policy maker

• Teacher

• Public intellectual

• Consultant

• Researcher

• Marketer

• PR

• Manager

• Public servant

• Social activist

• Author

• Social forecaster

Relationship of Sociology with other social sciences

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● SOCIAL SCIENCE can be defined as the branch of science devoted to the study of societies and the relationships
among individuals within those societies like:

○ Economics ○ Political Science ○ Social Anthropology ○ Psychology ○ Law ○ History ○ Social Work ○
Linguistics ○ Human Geography ○ Gender Studies ○ Criminology

● The mother of social sciences, sociology is closely related to other social sciences, including anthropology,
political science, psychology, and economics.

● Sociologists studies society as a whole whereas:

○ Political Scientists focus on politics.

○ Economists study the economy.

○ Psychologists are concerned with the individual mind.

○ Cultural Anthropologists analyse human cultures.

○ Gender Studies focus on gender in society etc.

Sociology and Social Sciences:

POLITICAL SCIENCE - The study of political behaviour.

COMMON TOPICS: Political culture, Political socialization, Political groups, Voting behaviour & Social
movements.

COMMON FIELD: POLITICAL SOCIOLOGY - The relationship of culture, society, human social nature with
politics.

ECONOMICS - The study of the production, distribution and consumption of goods and services as to maximize
profit and minimize loss in order to understand how to economies work and can be managed.

COMMON TOPICS: Economic problems, Poverty, Unemployment, Economic growth, Modernization &
Socio-Economic Development

COMMON FIELD: ECONOMIC SOCIOLOGY - The social causes and consequences behind economic
phenomenon.
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ANTHROPOLOGY - Anthropology is the science of human. It is divided into Social & Physical Anthropology.
Human Anthropology has many branches like Cultural, Educational, Psychological, Economical & Political
Anthropology etc.

COMMON TOPICS: Human cultures, Cultural evolution, Cultural diffusion, Acculturation, Assimilation,
Amalgamation, Innovation & Religion

COMMON FIELD: CULTURAL ANTHROPOLOGY - The study of how human cultures and they evolved.

SOCIAL WORK - The practical and applied field of social sciences in which the welfare of individuals (called Case
Work), social groups (called Group Work) and communities (called Community Development) is carried out through
Self-Help.

COMMON TOPICS: Social Problems, Child abuse. Child labour, Drug addiction, Community Organization,
Community Mobilization & Community Participation

COMMON FIELD: COMMUNITY DEVELOPMENT / APPLIED SOCIOLOGY - The organization and

mobilization of community to mobilize and utilize its resources for the development of the community through
participatory approach.

PSYCHOLOGY - The science of behaviour and mental processes.

COMMON TOPICS: Social group, Group, motivation, Propaganda, Collective Behaviour Crowd Rumour, Fashion,
Fad & Leadership etc

COMMON FIELD: SOCIAL PSYCHOLOGY - Study of individuals in relation to their social environment
especially social groups, social structure and aggregates.

CULTURE

MEANING OF CULTURE

● The word Culture is derived from Latin word ‘Cultura’ which means to grow or cultivate. Literally, culture means
to groom someone or something.

● In general language, culture is used to denote our traditional dress, cuisine religious tradition, ancient customs,
mother tongue language and folk music and songs like Attan dance, Rubab Music, Islamic teachings, Mangay,
Kabab, Pulao, Afghan Dress, Saplay or Pakol etc.

● But in sociology, culture has broader meaning. Sociological / Anthropological Definition of Culture: Culture is the
human made part of the environment which is socially:
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● Learned ● Shared ● and Transmitted

Which includes material or tangible culture like: ● Dress ● Tools, Machines, instruments and Hardware ●
Architecture and infrastructure ● Cuisine etc.

As well as symbolic or abstract culture like: ● Law, rules and social norms ● Knowledge, ideas and skills ●
Language and meanings ● Software ● Beliefs etc.

It is culture that makes us civilized citizen from a brute animal. Some animals especially mammals do have culture
but it is not as complex as compared to human culture mainly due to tool making and language.

Scientific Reasons behind Human Culture:

● According to American Linguist and Social Philosopher Noam Chomsky, humans have built-in NATURAL ability
for language (that other animals lack).

● Controlling FIRE allowed pre-historic Homo Sapiens (modern human species) to:

○ Eat more in less time with more energy which allowed bigger brains.

○ Protect themselves from wild animals.

○ Gathering place. Story telling began. Humans became most social beings.

● FREE HANDS by walking on 2 legs allowed Sapiens to:

○ Make tools especially to hunt bigger animals and cut their flesh in Stone Age.

● Lack of BODY HAIR like other mammals allowed humans to sweat and have:

○ More stamina and chase their prey.

○ They became HUNTERS instead of being hunted like other primates.

● Domestication of animals and plants:

○ Allowed them to use horses, dogs, cows, sheep and camels etc for their complex tasks.

○ Allowed humans to settle in villages, cities and create empires through agriculture.

● Religion:

○ Allowed greater cooperation within believers and competition against disbelievers as well as within believers.

● Trade, Philosophy and Science.

Evolution of Human Culture:

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Hunter-Gatherer culture:

● From around 2 Million Years Ago, ancestors of humans started hunting. The species Homo Erectus was really
successful and spread around the world.

● Around 70000 Years Ago, Cognitive Revolution occurred in our brains, causing Homo Sapiens to think like
modern humans and become top hunters.

● Around 60000 Years Ago, Sapiens left Africa to populate the rest of the world, reaching Australia 40000 Years
Ago and Americas 20000 Years Ago.

● The concept of group identity like clan and tribe was vital.

Evolution of Human Culture: Agriculture (Neolithic Revolution):

● Most experts claim that humans first discovered agriculture some 11000 years ago in the Middle East.

● Although some experts claim agriculture unique to Australia began some 40000 years ago.

● Agriculture began independently in Sub-Sahara Africa, Indus Valley, China’s Yellow River, Central America and
South America.

● Villages near rivers became cities which became kingdoms and later became empires.

● The concept of private property was vital.

Cultural Evolution: Industrial Age & Revolution

● Although Ancient Greeks, Arabs, Indians and Chinese did invent some primitive machines but Industrial
Revolution came in the 19th Century.

● Scottish inventor James Watt discovered steam engine while observing women wash clothes with warm water.

● This discovery led to train service and industries. British Empire spread industrialization around the world.

● Muscle power was replaced by fuels and engines.

● The concept of private company was vital.

Cultural Evolution: The Information Revolution

● Information is at our fingertips due to the internet.

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● Its development began in World War II in Mid-20th Century and was later developed by US military in the 1960s.
Nevertheless, in 1974, early form of internet was developed by Robert Kahn and Vinton Cerf.

● However, public consumption of the internet began at the beginning of the 21st Century.

APPROACHES TO CULTURE

Ethnocentrism

American sociologist William Graham Sumner developed the concept of Ethnocentrism which states: ● The belief
that the symbolic culture of social group is: ○ Superior ○ Justified ○ Based on truth ○ Right and ○ Moral etc.

● Compared to other cultures. For example: US vs THEM!

Xenocentrism

American sociologists Kent and Burnight gave this concept:

● The wonder, fetish and preferences associated with mostly products and goods of other cultures. For example:

● We do not like Roman Catholic religion as Muslim but we love Italian pizzas.

Cultural Relativism

A concept borrowed from Anthropology states:

● A culture should be understood in its own social, historical and geographical context.

● For example: ■ Indians respect cow because it has been an agricultural country for a long time since Indus Valley
Civilization.

Cultural Pluralism
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The tolerance of other cultures. For example:

● Love for Pakistan ignores the differences of Punjabi, Pashtun, Sindhi and Baluchi etc.

● Muslim brotherhood.

● Humanity.

● Global citizen.

Elements of Culture:-

CULTURE consists of:

● Traits (Idea/Tool) i-e- Wedding Ring or Dress.

● Patterns (Types of Ideas/Tools) i-e- Type of Marriages.

● Complexes (Combo of different traits)

● Themes (Summary) i-e- Life Partners.

● Ethos (Central Idea) i-e- Socially approved reproduction.

And its elements include:

SYMBOLIC & MATERIAL ELEMENTS:

Symbolic: ● Norms, Languages, Symbols, Beliefs, Skills, Rituals, Status, Roles & Knowledge etc.

Material: ● Technology, Tools, Machines, Building, Dress, Hardware & Infrastructure etc.

Types of Culture:-

MATERIAL CULTURE:

The tangible part of culture consisting of mostly products, tools and goods. For example: Mobile, Road & Building

SYMBOLIC CULTURE:

Also called NON-MATERIAL CULTURE, is the abstract part of culture consisting of ideas, beliefs, social norms,
values and skills like: Software, Religion, Respect
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Real and Ideal Culture:-

REAL CULTURE is the culture ACTUALLY followed in a society even if hidden like in Pakistan: Corruption,
Pornography & Dishonesty etc.

IDEAL CULTURE is idealized or held in high regard but not followed like in Pakistan: Honesty, Meritocracy &
Transparency etc.

SUB-CULTURE AND COUNTER-CULTURE:

SUB-CULTURE is the constituent part of a larger culture playing a role and having a specific social function like in
Pakistan: ● Tablighi Jamaat ● Army or Military culture ● Air Force ● Campus culture (College / University) ● Saraf
Community ● Peshori, Mardanwal, Nowkharayan, Swabiwal etc.

COUNTER-CULTURE is a minority culture that wants to replace the dominant culture of a society like in Pakistan:
● TTP ● TLP ● Radical socialists ● Radical feminists ● Baloch separatists etc.

Other types:

● Homogenous (monoculture) and Heterogeneous cultures - Similar and diverse cultures.

● Sexist culture - discriminatory against one gender.

● Pluralist culture - multiple cultures in the same society.

● Theocratic / Sacred culture - dominated by a religion/beliefs.

● Secular culture - religious freedom.

● Capitalist culture.

● High Culture - Upper Class.

● Blame culture.

● Culture of poverty - poor class.

● Rural culture - village.

● Urban culture - city.

● Metropolitan culture - big city.

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● Sports culture.

● Primitive culture - Hunter-Gatherers.

● Traditional culture - agriculture.

● Human/global culture.

● Church culture - culture related to religion.

CULTURAL PROCESSES

CULTURAL UNIVERSALITY

The similarities of different aspects of human culture:

● Life partners ● Family ● Language ● Religion ● Norms ● State etc.

CULTURAL VARIABILITY

Although sometimes social structure and even social function of different cultural elements may be the same but its
orientation is different like:

● Types of religions ● Types of families ● Types of marriages ● Types of states etc.

CULTURE SHOCK

When an individual socialized in one culture suddenly encounters a strange culture. For example: When you visit a
foreign country or even go on vacation to a remote community.

CULTURAL LAG

When one aspect of culture usually symbolic culture lags behind material culture.

For example: Older generation’s inability to use social media.

CULTURAL INERTIA

The tendency of a culture especially symbolic culture to resist social and cultural change. For example:
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● Resistance to educational reforms. ● VIP culture. ● Cultural constraints to women.

CULTURAL EXCHANGE

DIFFUSION - Exchange of cultural traits.

ACCULTURATION - Adjusting a minority culture to satisfy a dominant culture.

ASSIMILATION - Absorbing of minority cultures by the dominant culture.

AMALGAMATION - Two or more cultures becoming one.

SOCIAL STRUCTURE:

I define Social Structure as:

● A system

● Of Rules and Regulations

● As well as Traditions and Beliefs etc

● That hold society together

● With its Social Functions Social Structure includes: ● Social norms ● Social values ● Social roles ● Social status

● Social Stratification / Inequality

Or simply:

● Social institutions having the above in: ○ Family ○ Religion ○ Politics ○ Economy ○ Education etc.

Norms and Values:

SOCIAL NORMS

● First introduced by American sociologists Perkins and Berkowitz in 1986.

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● It can be defined as: ○ Socially approved, expected and rewarded behaviour regarding one’s: ■ Role & Status etc.
in society. ○ Violation of which leads to: ■ Social condemnation & punishment.

● Changes do occur in these norms but is resisted (as discussed by Ogburn in Cultural Lag in 1922).

SOCIAL VALUES

● Anything or anyone desired in the society:

○ Socially, politically, economically and spiritually etc.

For example:

● Degree is a value. Examination is a norm.

● Money is a value. Work is a norm.

TYPES SOCIAL NORMS

There are various types of norms:

● FOLKWAYS: The casual ways of a community, the violation of which is tolerated especially for non-locals. E.g.
Salam.

● MORES: The strict rules and regulations, the violation of which triggers a big social reaction. E.g. Abusing elders.

● LAWS: The legally sanctioned norms. These norms are defined, codified and enforced by the state. E.g. Pak Penal
Code No. 302 for Murder etc.

● TABOOS: The unimaginable violation of social norms which may or may not be legally prohibited. E.g. Incest,
child molestation and blasphemy in our society etc.

TYPES OF SOCIAL VALUES

It is closely related to Value Theory or Axiology in Ethics, which is a branch of Philosophy.

Some scholars have divided it to terminal and instrumental values:

● Terminal: Basic or important. E.g. happiness.

● Instrumental: Secondary. E.g. Type of Job.

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SOCIAL ROLES & STATUS

American sociologist Robert Merton first defined Social Roles in 1949 (Book: Social Theory and Structure)
although they were discussed by Max Weber before in 1910s in his theory of social stratification.

"All the world's a stage, And all the men and women merely players; ... And one man in his time plays many parts,
His acts being seven ages." (Shakespeare in As You Like It, 1599).

SOCIAL ROLES refer to the social expectations in particular social situations from particular individuals based on
their age, skill, knowledge, gender, race, creed and group affiliations etc as well as norms and values of the society.

SOCIAL STATUS refer to the importance, significance, prestige, esteem, worth and value etc attached to a certain
role of an individual.

ASCRIBED ROLE AND STATUS: The role and status given by society mostly on the basis of culture or nature:
Son, Young, Woman & Disabled etc.

ACHIEVED ROLE AND STATUS: The role and status achieved or gained by mostly the individuals themselves in
a society: Sports celebrity, Professor, Doctor, Engineer & Author etc.

CONCEPTS RELATED TO ROLES & STATUS:

ROLE MODEL: When society provides us ideal performers of certain roles through myth, literature, education or
media etc.

ROLE PLAYING: When we especially as kids pretend to play a role.

ROLE SET: The collection of different roles associated with a person like son, student, friend, neighbour, Muslim &
Pakistani etc.
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ROLE EXIT: The process of leaving a previously performed role: divorce, graduation and entering puberty etc.

ROLE STRAIN: When two or more roles of a person are incompatible to each other. E.g. Role of parent vs role of
work etc.

ROLE CONFLICT: When roles are clashing each other like humanity vs patriotism etc.

ROLE CONFUSION: When awkward role situations occur like former student arresting his teacher as a policeman
etc.

ROLE ENHANCEMENT: One role complimenting each other like Doctor and Husband of a Doctor etc.

TEAM ROLE: When individuals select their role according to their skills in a group.

ROLE STRAIN THEORY OF ROBERT MERTON:

Merton divided people into 5 categories on the basis of social roles:

WEBERIAN THEORY OF STATUS:

German sociologist Max Weber proposed THREE DIMENSIONS (or 3 Ps) of Social Status or Position: POWER,
PRESTIGE & PROPERTY.

SOCIAL STRATIFICATION:

Stratification is derived from Latin word Stratum which literally means ‘laying down in layers’ and is a term used in
Geology to denote the different layers of the Earth especially in the crust which is a record of different times and
eras of the Earth millions of years ago. Therefore, Social Stratification means the different layers or categories of
people in a society.

Social Stratification definition:

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It is the division of human society

Into different:

Social classes

Castes Estates

Races

Genders

Nationalities

Creeds &

Ethnicities etc.

In a hierarchical order

On the basis of their role and status in the society

Defined by social norms and values.

Forms:

SOCIAL CLASS: On the basis of socio-economic status.

CASTE: Ancestral occupation.

ESTATE: Land / Property ownership.

NATIONALITY: Passport.

GENDER: Role and status of one’s sexual orientation.

RACE: Division of humanity by physical features.

ETHNICITY: Culture, blood and language.

COMMUNALISM / SECTARIANISM: Beliefs.

SOCIAL CLASS:
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Social Class is a complex concept which is not only determined by WEALTH, INCOME or PROFESSION but also
influenced by one’s:

Family Background

Achievements

Prestige

Power

Knowledge

Skills

Unlike Caste System, Class System is called an open system of stratification as social mobility is possible and a
person can change his or her social class.

UPPER UPPER CLASS: Bankers, Corporate Elites, Political Elites, Bureaucratic Elites, Military Elites, Religious
Elites & Feudal Elites etc.

LOWER UPPER CLASS: Celebrities, Highly paid professionals & big business people etc.

UPPER MIDDLE CLASS: White collar jobs, govt jobs, well paid private employees & farmers with own land etc.

LOWER MIDDLE CLASS: Private employees, & small business people etc.

LOWER MIDDLE CLASS: Private employees, & small business people etc.

UPPER LOWER CLASS: Labourers, Working Poor & Private servants etc.

LOWER LOWER CLASS: Bonded workers, house maids, the unemployed and jobless etc.

Students and housewives’ status depend on their institutions and families etc. Organized criminals have higher status
than street criminals.

CASTE SYSTEM

It is also called CLOSED system of stratification as SOCIAL MOBILITY is not possible. It is the hierarchical
division or categorization of human beings on the basis of their ancestry and hereditorial occupation. It is called Zaat
in Urdu and the system is called Zaat Paat. Jati in Hindi and the Varna system. In Indo-Pak Sub-Continent, Caste
System has played a major role in both Hindu and Muslim societies:
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MUSLIM:

Ashrafiya or Conquerors / Sufis (Afghan, Mughal, Syeds etc.),

Ajlaf or Converts from upper caste (Jangua etc.),

Converts from midde caste (Lohar etc.) and

Arzal or Converts from lower caste (Jutt etc.).

HINDU:

Religious Brahmin like Sharmas etc.

Warrior Kshatriya like Rajputs etc.

Occupational Vaishiya like Agarwals etc.

Shudras like Kolis etc.

Untouchable Dalits like Gandhi etc.

GENDER

Division on the basis of GENDER:

Masculine, Feminine & Transgender etc.

GENDER:

Cultural

Varies

Changes with time

Socio-cultural roles

Defined by culture and social norms

Regulated by social values

Learned from environment

Inherited from Role Models

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Learned behaviours

Mental structures and processes which are influenced by environment

Conditioning

Gender in Pakistan:

Mard (Mardana)

Aurat (Zanana)

Khwaja Sara or Hijra

Some people are also identified as: Intersex, Homosexual / Hamgens Parast (Gay & Lesbian), Tomboy & Girlish
male etc.

RACE

RACE is the distribution of humans on the basis on physical appearances. However, current genetic and
anthropological research has refuted any real biological changes in races especially intelligence. Therefore, Race is
also a social construct like gender. It is based on the assumptions of people rather than reality. Haplogroups do not
correspond to biological difference.

ESTATE SYSTEM

British Raj introduced Jagirdari system instead of Mughal Mansabdari system although some Afghan / Turkic /
Hindu rulers did use Jagirs up to some extent even before the British. Pashtun society practiced Waish (distribution
based on consultation), tribal Sardar or elder was mostly elected by Jirga (King or Shah in Loya Jirga) both dynastic
and new. For example:

CHITRAL: Mehtar.

PAKHTUNKHWA: Khan / Nawab / Arbab / Malak (with Baghwan, Qalangi, Kutaeez & Zamidar)

HAZARA: Sardar.

BALOCHISTAN: (Powerful) Sardar,

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PUNJAB: Choudhary.

SINDH: Wadera. (with Harees)

ETHNICITIES

74 Language groups (66 Indiginous) in Pakistan

Provincial languages – Punjabi, Pashto, Sindhi, and Balochi.

OTHER: Saraiki,, Gujari, Kashmiri, Hindko, Brahui, Shina, Balti, Khowar, Dhatki, Haryanvi, Marwari, Wakhi and
Burushaski.

ETHNIC STRATIFICATION IN PAKISTAN:

PUNJABI (Mix)

PASHTUN (Spread)

MAHAJIR (Mostly Urdu)

SINDHI

BALOCHI / KASHMIRI etc.

GLOBAL STRATIFICATION:

SOCIAL DEMOCRACIES: Norway & Switzerland etc.

ASIAN TIGERS: Qatar & Japan etc.

SUPER POWERS: USA & China etc.

EMERGING: India & Brazil etc.

MIDDLE POWERS: Turkey & Malaysia etc.

NON-PEACEFUL: Pakistan & Afghanistan etc.

POOR: Congo & Somalia etc.

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TOP PASSPORTS:

Belgium

Germany

Austria

Luxemburg

Switzerland

Ireland

Japan

New Zealand

PAKISTAN: 60 out of 65 Groups

Stratification of SECTS (in Pakistan):

DEOBANDI, BARELVI, WAHABI, SALAFI OR ISMAILI etc.

SHIA

SIKHS

CHRISTIANS

HINDUS

ATHEISTS

AHMADI / QADIANI

SOCIAL INSTITUTIONS:

The collection of rules, regulations, norms and values that satisfy some basic human need like residence, income,
common law and belief etc.

For example: Family, Religious institution, Politics, Economy, Education, Recreation, Media etc.

Every institution has a social structure and social function.

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FAMILY:

Family is the primary social group and social unit of almost every society on planet Earth (including some animal
societies)

It usually consists of the following social structure:

Parent or parents

Offspring or children

Spouses of siblings (mostly brothers)

Grandparents (mostly paternal)

Siblings’ kids (in extended families)

Adopted family members

The social function of family is:

Socially approved reproduction

Social support

Emotional care

Identity

Cultural transmission

Primary socialization

Gender

Race

Caste

Class

Creed / Sect

Nationality
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Various other social functions

TYPES OF FAMILIES AND MARRIAGES

On the basis of lineage:

Patrilineal - ancestry of father is acknowledged (Most societies like Pakistan)

Matrilineal (Less societies like Israel)

Bilineal (Few societies like Native Australia)

Power:

Patriarchy - rule of father (Common like Pashtuns)

Matriarchy (Uncommon like Mosuos in the Yunnan province of China)

Bilateral family (Becoming common like in Kiwis)

Orientation:

Heterosexual - opposite sex

Homosexual:

Gay - male couple &

Lesbian - female couple)

Number:

Monogamy - a husband and a wife (most common like in Canada)

Polygamy:

Polygeny - multiple wives (becoming uncommon like in Middle East)

Polyandry (uncommon like in Maasais in Kenya)

Group marriage (Uncommon like in Melanesia, Pacific Ocean)

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Relations:

Single parent - one parent with kids (becoming common like in US) like Single mom & Single dad (uncommon)

Nuclear - parents and offspring (becoming most common like in Sweden)

Extended - married brothers (becoming uncommon like in Middle East)

Joint - Extended but with one kitchen (becoming uncommon like in Pakhtunkhwa)

Grand parenting - grandparents with grandchildren

Location:

Patrilocal - living in husband’s home (more common like in South Asia)

Matrilocal - living in wife’s home (uncommon like in Nairs in Kerala, India)

Neolocal - Going to new home (becoming common in sub-urban areas)

EVOLUTION OF FAMILY:

Oldest form of family was most probably BANDS in which all relatives lived together but males mostly mated with
females of other BANDS. Females shared responsibility of gathering/rearing and bearing of children while men did
hunting. However, structure of family was not uniform as found in HUNTER-GATHERER societies today.

PATRIARCHY probably developed after the NEOLITHIC REVOLUTION (adoption of agriculture).

NUCLEAR FAMILIES developed with the INDUSTRIAL REVOLUTION.

INFORMATION REVOLUTION has given rise to new forms of families such as cohabitation and homosexual
couples etc.

RELIGIOUS INSTITUTION:

Religious institution comprises of:

the norms, values, rituals, myths, beliefs, holy sites and church (any religious organization etc) that fulfill spiritual
needs of a social group.
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It can also fulfill needs/wants of: Identity, unity, minority rights, majority domination, elite interests, marginalized
interests, education, politics and economy etc.

RELIGION: Not every belief system is a religion.

Durkheim: Unified system of practices and beliefs relative to sacred things.

Religion is an organized form of beliefs, myths, holy things and places, church (place of worship & organization)
and rituals etc.

STRUCTURE:

Myths - important stories /spiritual or social reality

Beliefs - faith in something (even without proof)

Rituals - repeating some sacred action at given time and place

Church - a mostly uniform organization that helps in protection and promotion of beliefs and rituals

Identity - name, dress, language, codes & group etc.

FUNCTIONS:

Spirituality

Simple answers to complex questions

Creation myths

Afterlife myths

Morality and ethics

Social solidarity

Real or imaginary enemies (evil)

Political stability

Revolution or rebellion

Economic functions

Misc. functions
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TYPES OF RELIGION:

ANIMISM - Belief in spirits

SHAMANISM - Supernatural abilities

POLYTHEISM - Specialized deities

MYSTICISM - Spiritual practices

HENOTHEISM – Worshipping One God or Goddess out of many deities

DUALISM - Good vs Evil

MONOTHEISM - One God

NATURALISM - Natural order

HUMANISM - Human welfare

PANTHEISM - Tolerance for others

ATHEISM - Absence of belief

AGNOSTIC - Unsure

DETHEISM - God rule through laws

SYNCRETISM - Mixture

LEVELS OF RELIGION:

CULT - New, not mainstream or controversial religious movements. E.g. Ahmadia / Qadiani etc.

SECT - Sub-group of a major religion. E.g. Shia etc.

DENOMINATION - A major and well organized religion but not officially sanctioned. E.g. Hinduism in India etc.

ECCLESIA - A mainstream and major religion supported by the state. E.g. Islam in Pakistan etc.

EVOLUTION OF RELIGION:
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300,000 years ago, Homo Naledi placed their dead in caves (now S. Africa).

64,000 years ago, Homo Neanderthals painted supernatural things in Maltravieso cave (now in Spain).

ANIMISM - Human groups began to believe in spirits (even in non-living things like rivers) somewhere between
50000 years to even to this day.

30,000 years ago, Homo Sapiens painted supernatural and natural beings in Chauvet cave (now in France).

11,000 years ago, the oldest surviving temple in Gobekli Tepe (now Turkey).

In the Bronze Age and Iron Age, Stone Age local animist religions were replaced by polytheist regional and
UNIVERSAL (claiming beliefs for the whole world) religions like Hinduism etc.

Judaism is the oldest LOCAL MONOTHEIST religion (around 2000 BCE).

Zoroastrianism became the oldest DUALIST UNIVERSAL religion in 800 BCE.

Buddhism is the major NATURALIST religion (500 BCE).

CHRISTIANITY became the first UNIVERSAL MONOTHEIST religion, Islam followed.

SECULARISM is a form of humanism. Humanism (belief in natural rights of humans) is the dominant religion
today.

RELIGIONS OF THE WORLD:

CHRISTIANITY:

29% of world population. Est. 2.4 billion.

Abrahamic group (based on teachings of the legendary prophet Abraham). Monotheist. Missionary (aiming to
spread religion to all nations of the world). Universal.

Based on Jesus (Nazareth, Israel).

Main concepts: Trinity (oneness of the Father or God, Son or Jesus & The Holy Spirit or divine experience)

Holiest book(s): New Testament.

Sects: Orthodox, Catholic, Protestant & Evangelical etc.

In the Americas, Europe, Central Africa, Southern Africa, Oceania & Philippines etc.
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ISLAM:

24% of the world. Estimated 1.9 billion.

Abrahamic group.

Monotheist. Missionary. Universal.

Prophet Muhammad PBUH (Mecca, Arabia)

Main concepts: Tauheed (Oneness of the Almighty Allah)

Holiest book(s): Koran.

Sects: SUNNI (Hanafi, Maliki, Hanbali & Shafi etc.) including KHAWARIJ or non-traditional / fundamentalist
(Wahabi, Salafi, Ahl-e-Hadith, Ehl Quran & Ibadiya etc.) & Hindustani (Deoband & Barelvi etc), SHIA (Jafri,
Ismaili & Zaidi etc.) & SUFI, mostly/close to Sunni (Qadri, Chisti, Naqshbandi, Bektashi, Suhrawardi etc.).

In Northern Africa, Western Africa, Eastern Africa, Western Asia, C. Asia, S. Asia, South-Eastern Asia & SE
Europe etc.

HINDUISM (Sanatana Dharma or the Eternal Truth):

15% of the world. Est. 1.2 billion population.

Polytheist. Non-missionary. Universal.

Ancient Indo-Aryan traditions.

Main concept(s): Dharma (being true to one's purpose in life)

Holiest book(s): Vedas.

Sects: Shaktism, Shaivism, Vaishnavism & mix etc.

In India, Nepal, Mauritius, Guyana, Trinidad & Fiji etc.

NON-RELIGIOUS (Atheist & Agnostic etc):

14% of the world. Est. 1.1 billion population.

Universal. Non-missionary.

In E Asia, North-Western & C Europe etc.

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BUDDHISM:

6% world population (est. 506 million).

Naturalist. Both Atheist (Theravada) & Theist (Mahayana). Universal. Missionary.

Teachings of Buddha (Lumbini, Nepal).

Main concept(s): Nirvana (enlightenment)

Holiest book(s): Tripitakas.

Sects: Mahayana (includes Vajrayana & Zen) & Theravada etc.

In Sri Lanka, Tibet, E Asia, SE Asia, Mongolia, Ladakh & Sikkim (India), Bhutan & Kalmykia (Russia).

ANIMIST / ETHNIC / FOLK RELIGIONS:

5% world population (est. 402 million).

Traditional religions of ethnicities and tribes like Yazidis in Asia & local African faiths.

Based on ancient traditions of the area.

Main concept(s): Belief in supernatural spirits is common to almost all.

CHINESE FOLK RELIGIONS:

5% world population (est. 394 million).

Animist. Polytheist. Naturalist.

Based on local Chinese animism, foreign influences (Buddhist & Hindu concepts) & Chinese philosophers (such as
Kong Fu Zi & Laozi etc.).

Religions: Confucianism (focusing on respect for traditions), Taoism (existentialist or focusing on doing your own
thing), ancestor worship and local polytheism & animism etc.

SIKHISM:

26 million estimated population.

Local Monotheism. Non-missionary.

Teachings of Guru Nanak (Nankana Sahib).

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Main concept(s): Ek Onkar (Almighty God).

Holiest book(s): Guru Granth.

Sects: Udasi, Nirmala, Nanakpanthi, Khalsa, Sahajdhari, Namdhari Kuka, Nirankari and Sarvaria.

In Punjab & Punjabi diaspora (living abroad around the world).

JUDAISM:

14.7 million Estimated population.

Local monotheist. Non-missionary.

Main concept(s): Yahweh (God of Israel).

Holiest book(s): Old Testament.

In Israel & Jewish diaspora.

JAINISM:

4.2 million est. population.

Teachings of Mahavira (from Vaishali, E India).

Main concept(s): Ahimsa (non-violence).

Holiest book(s): Agamas.

Sects: Digambara and Svetambara.

Minority in India (mostly in Maharashtra).

SHINTO:

Estimated 4 million population.

Local animist, polytheist & naturalist.

Main concept(s): Kami (Spirit Forces).

In Japan.
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Other important religions/faiths/belief systems include:

Capitalism (Humanist) from the West. Focus: Desire of profit promotes development.

Communism (Humanist) from Europe. Focus: Reaction to capitalism in favour of labour rights & communal living.

Feminism (Humanist). Focus: Movement for women empowerment.

Nationalism (Naturalist). Focus: Love for motherland.

Zoroastrianism (Dualist & Non-Missionary) from Iran. Focus: Battle of Good VS Evil.

Bahai (Pantheist) from Iran.

Rastafari (Local Monotheist) from Jamaica.

POLITICS

The system of distribution of power in society from family to state as well as international affairs is called
POLITICS.

POLITICAL INSTITUTION is the organization of society by which rules and regulations are formulated to decide
who gets what, when and where.

There are THREE types of government institutions within a state:

LEGISLATIVE - Law making

EXECUTIVE - Law implementation

JUDICIARY - Law interpretation.

STATE:

A STATE is a political unit in international affairs which has:

TERRITORY,

POPULATION,

SOVEREIGNTY (authority over its territory and population) &

GOVERNMENT (body that runs affairs of the state).

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POLITICAL SYSTEM - Type of government, political structure and political culture in a state.

POLITICAL BEHAVIOUR - Any action and reaction related to power.

POWER - The capability of an individual to influence other person(s): Persuasion & coercion etc.

AUTHORITY - Legal power of a position. E.g. Office of PM.

POLITICAL CULTURE - Political norms and values of a society and state. For example: British people are
conservative and American society is capitalist etc.

POLITICAL SOCIALIZATION - The learning of political norms and values especially by youth in a society. E.g.
Learning Patronage politics by youth.

TYPES OF POLITICAL SYSTEMS:

CHIEFDOM - Tribal group(s) headed by a Patriarch (male chief) or a Matriarch (female chief) etc.

KINGDOM - The rule of a dynastic (hereditary) monarch.

EMPIRE - Ruling multiple client (dependent or conquered) states.

REPUBLIC - Democratic state. Government based on the wishes of the people with protection of minorities and
legal equality of citizens.

DICTATORSHIP - One person rule.

THEOCRACY - Rule of clergy / priests.

SECULARISM - State with religious freedom.

TOTALITARIANISM - Lack of civic liberties.

OLIGARCHY / ARISTOCRACY - Rule of an elite.

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WELFARE STATE / SOCIAL DEMOCRACY - Government taking care of citizen rights especially health and
education.

UNITARY STATE - One unit or centre of power.

FEDERATION - Many units or provinces and power centres with one federal capital.

CONFEDERATION - Alliance of autonomous states.

PARLIAMENTARY SYSTEM - Executive elected from legislative.

PRESIDENTIAL SYSTEM - Elected executive.

CONSTITUTIONAL MONARCHY - De Jure kingdom.

PARTICIPATORY / DIRECT DEMOCRACY - Rule of people through referendums and petitions etc.

POLITICAL EVOLUTION:

PATRIARCHS, MATRIARCHS or SHAMANS in HUNTER-GATHERERS.

The first Kings appeared in the Fertile Crescent around 5500 to 5000 years ago (Egypt, Levant & Mesopotamia).
However, no historical documents are available of the earliest king as their stories are legendary. Probably, the first
recorded king is nicknamed King Scorpion around 3230 BCE (or 5250 years ago) who conquered Egypt or King
Ma-baragesi who ruled Kish (now Iraq).

First Emperor was Sargon of Akkad (Iraq) around 2300 BCE or 4300 years ago who created the Akkadian Empire
around Mesopotamia (Iraq).

Although oligarchies first developed in Mesopotamia and India, the first ancient democracy developed in Athens
(500 BCE).

Around the same time, Cyrus The Great (Zulqarnain) created the first secular empire.

The State of Medina (c. 622 CE) was a tribal form of welfare state.

Vikings formed the oldest existing parliament called Althing in 930 CE in Iceland.

Magna Carta (1215) started the journey of the UK becoming a constitutional monarchy.

Loya Jirga (Grand Assembly) elected Ahmad Durrani in 1747.

The US became the 1st Federation in 1789.

Rise of Republicanism, Parliamentary Democracy, Communism, Liberalism, Nationalism and Internationalism in

18th and 19th century.
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The Caliphate ended in 1924 & USSR collapsed in 1991.

The beginning of the 21st century saw the rising power of global capitalist corporations or companies decreasing the
power of nation states.

The rise of totalitarian China in the early 21st century challenged the democratic world.

ECONOMY:

The system of: production, distribution and consumption of goods and services, exchange of currency and goods,
supply of goods and services as per demand, regulated by the principle of profit and loss.

TYPES OF ECONOMY:

CAPITALIST OR OPEN - Based on capital.

SOCIALIST OR PLANNED - Policies friendly to labour class or lower classes.

COMMUNIST - No private property.

BARTER - Exchange of goods services.

TRADITIONAL / AGRARIAN - Agriculture.

CONSUMER - Based on consumption of goods and services.

MIX - Command and market both.

INDUSTRIAL - Based on industrial production.

TOURISM-BASED - Country or region depends on tourists / pilgrims coming from foreign countries / region with
money.

SELF-SUFFICIENT - Mostly agricultural and relying on indigenous production.

Evolution of Economy:

In Stone Age (before 10000 years ago) and early Bronze Age (before 5000 years ago), there was BARTER system.
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TRADE: Mesopotamia & IVC (3000 BCE).

Ancient Sumeria (Iraq) - Barley (Jo) became the first currency in world in 3000 BCE:

Began COMMODITY MONEY.

SEA SHELLS used for exchange in ASIA.

INDUS SEALS (3000-2000 BCE).

MERCHANT CLASS & LOANS (2000 BCE).

COINAGE: First ever coins in human history:

LYDIAN COINS (640 BCE) in Turkey.

SILK ROUTE - 200 BCE. Multi-purpose Corporations began in Ancient Rome, developing into companies in 17th
century.

USURY of inanimate objects (not reproduced) banned by Abrahamic religions.

7th Century CE - PAPER MONEY started in China (Tang Dynasty) as Receipt Bills.

14th Century CE: Private BANKS owned by rich merchant families started in Italy (like Florence & Venice etc) due
to trade with Middle East & China.

17th Century London - Goldsmiths began modern banking. Dutch & British E India Company.

1695 - Bank of England.

1821 - GOLD STANDARD adopted by UK. Joint Stock Companies Act 1844.

Russian Revolution 1917.

1944 - Bretton Woods System (Dollar=Gold).

1971 - NIXON SHOCK - US Dollar for Gold. Collapse of Soviet Union 1991.

EDUCATION INSTITUTION

The academic organization regulated by the state and sometimes designed by corporations / businesses and religious
or political movements to impart skills and knowledge formally to create compliant citizens who can be compliant
or contribute to the economic, political and religious institutions. E.g. Public or private schools etc.

EDUCATION SYSTEM IN PAKISTAN:

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SCHOOLING:

Expensive Private Schools

Less expensive Private Schools

Public Schools

Madrassas (Sectarian schools)

COLLEGE:

A Levels & O Levels

Cadet Colleges

Top Public Colleges

Private Colleges

Public Colleges

Madrassas

UNIVERSITIES:

Top Universities

Medical Colleges

Engineering / IT Colleges

Public Universities in Cities

Public Universities in Villages

Private Universities

Jaamiyat (Sectarian Religious Universities)

EVOLUTION OF EDUCATION:
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Priests/Scribes were trained in Egypt (2000 BCE).

1000 BCE - Phoenician alphabets (in Lebanon).

6th Century BCE - Takshila University (Taxila) & Milesian School (Ionia/Yunan, now Turkey).

Plato’s Academy (Athens, 387 BCE).

Imperial University China (200 BCE).

3th Century CE - Academy at Gondashipur (Iran).

425 CE - University at Christian Istanbul.

Competitive exams in China (10th Century CE).

859 CE – Oldest continuous University at Qarawiyyin (Fez, Morocco).

17th Century - Renaissance in Europe.

19th Century - Aligarh movement.

MEDIA (evolution):

Oral legends prevailed in ancient world.

Literature flourished in middle ages.

1440 - Printing Press by German Gutenberg.

1895 - Radio by Italian Marconi.

1927 - TV by American Farnsworth.

1953 - Color TV by RCA in US.

1969 - Although idea of internet was developed by many scientists in the 20th century but APRANET by US
Defence Deptt. Created a famous early internet.

1997 - 1st Social Media site ‘Six Degrees’.

RECREATION (forms):
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Fine arts. Sports,

Swimming, bathing

& board games.

Dance & Music. Stories & Theatre.

Print, Electronic & Social Media.

Tourism, restaurants, parties & picnics. Drugs and drinking.

DEVIANCE

SOCIAL CONTROL