Human motivation is a complex and well studied field that has

broad roots in a diverse collection of academic disciplines

including psychology, sociology, education, political science, and
economics. In simplified terms, motivation can be defined as,
“what causes people to behave as they do” (Denhardt et al., 2008,
p. 146). Unfortunately, this simple definition hides the dynamic
intricacies of the motivation literature.

There tends to be a general consensus as to the definition of

motivation which reflects that: (1) motivation is goal directed
(Lawler, 1994), (2) motivation outlines the achievement and
pursuit of goals (Denhardt et al., 2008) and (3) motivation is
environmentally dependent (Pettinger, 1996). Campbell and
Pritchard (1976) define motivation as being the set of
psychological processes that cause the initiation, direction,
intensity, and persistence of behavior.
Because motivation is so difficult to define, it may help in
determining what motivation is not. Denhardt, Denhardt and
Aristigueta (2008) outline four examples. Motivation is not: (1)
directly observable, (2) the same as satisfaction, (3) always
conscious, and (4) directly controllable.
Motivation is not directly observable. “Motivation is an internal
state that causes people to behave in a particular way to
accomplish particular goals and purposes. It is possible to observe
the outward manifestations of motivation but not motivation
itself” (Denhardt et al., 2008, p. 147). For instance, the
acquisition of money may be an extrinsic motivator, but it is
simply the manifestation of the internal drive to meet intrinsic
needs like purchasing food, paying rent for shelter, or acquiring
high social status.
Motivation is not the same as satisfaction. “Put simply,
satisfaction is past oriented, whereas motivation is future
oriented” (Denhardt et al., 2008, p. 147). While a worker may be
very satisfied by the compensation of their job, there are
countless instances where these workers are not entirely
motivated to continue doing what they  (Igalens & Roussel,
1999).
Motivation is not always conscious. Unconscious motivation is
quite central to Sigmund Freud’s theories of human behavior.
Freud posits that most human behavior is the result of
unconscious repressed memories, impulses, and desires that
influence and drive many human behaviors (Freud, 1976). A
manifestation of this idea is the “Freudian slip” where an
accidental word slip actually betrays true internal feelings and
intentions.
Motivation is not directly controllable. “Motivation is not
something that people do to others. Motivation occurs within
people’s minds and hearts. Managers can influence the
motivational process, but they cannot control it” (Denhardt et al.,
2008, p. 147).
The purpose of this paper is to give a detailed review of the
literature of motivation in a thematic and quasi-chronological
fashion. This will permit the reader to gain a thorough
understanding of the many facets of motivation theories in
modern literature. A cursory view of the literature will show that
there are two central categories of motivation theories: content
and process theories.
Content theories are centered around the assumption that
individuals all share a similar set of human needs and that we are
all motivated to satisfy those needs (e.g., Maslow, 1946;
McGregor, 1957; Herzberg, 1968; Alderfer, 1969; McClelland,
1988).  Process theories are centered around the rational cognitive
process and say that while most people may have similar needs,
the importance and placement of those needs is different for
everyone; that it is something highly subjective (e.g., Skinner,
1935; Festinger, 1957; Adams, 1963; Vroom, 1967; Porter &
Lawler, 1968; Kahler, 1975; Locke et al., 1990).
The Birth of Modern Motivation Theories
Modern theories of motivation are considered to have grown out
of the Elton Mayo-led study of worker output at the Western
Electric Company’s Hawthorn plant near Chicago. Famously
referred to as the Hawthorn studies, Mayo and a previous team of
researchers studied the productivity of workers under changing
conditions in temperature, humidity, and illumination (Pennock,
1930). Conventional wisdom at the time was that external
working conditions were directly responsible for worker
productivity (Taylor, 2008). This principle, known as scientific
management, was championed by Fredrick Taylor in 1911 and is
still a powerful reference for modern managers.
Mayo’s team, consisting of Fritz Roethlisberger, George Homans,
and T.N Whitehead, found that contrary to scientific management
principles, “interactional variables make the difference in
motivating people - things like attention paid to workers as
individuals, workers’ control over their own work, differences
between individuals’ needs, the willingness of managers to listen,
group norms, and direct feedback” (Ott et al., 2007, pp. 132-133).
The Mayo team’s findings directly challenged the principles of
scientific management, suggesting that perhaps people could not
be so easily fit to organizations (Roethlisberger, 1965). Rather,
considering and understanding the personal and social needs of
workers was just as influential, if not more so, than external
working conditions. This opened the door to a flood of new ideas
regarding motivation, organization theory, and human
psychology.

Motivation is defined as “a human psychological characteristic that add to

a person’s degree of commitment. It is the management process of
in¬‚uencing employees’ behavior”. (Badu, 2005)

Conversely, Bartol and Martin (1998) relate motivation to the force that
stimulates behavior, provide direction to behavior, and underlies the
tendency to prevail. In other words individuals must be sufficiently
stimulated and energetic, must have a clear focus on what is to be
achieved, and must be willing to commit their energy for a long period of
time to realize their aim in order to achieve goals.
However, other than motivation being a force that stimulates behavior,
Vroom (1964) emphasized on the ‘voluntary actions’. Supported by Steers
et al. (2004), Vroom (1964) defined motivation as “a process governing
choice made by persons…among alternative forms of voluntary activity.”
Similarly Kreitner and Kinicki (2004) assumed that motivation incorporate
those psychological processes that create the arousal, direction and
persistence of voluntary actions that are goal oriented.

Quite differently from the other definitions, Locke and Latham (2004)
identified that motivation influence people’s acquisition of skills and the
extent to which they use their ability. According to the authors “the
concept of motivation refers to internal factors that impel action and to
external factors that can act as inducements to action. The three aspects of
action that motivation can affect are direction (choice), intensity (effort),
and duration (persistence). Motivation can affect both the acquisition of
people’s skills and abilities; and also the extent to which they utilize their
skills and abilities” (Locke and Latham, 2004).

In a nut shell, different authors have put forward the concept of motivation
differently. Nonetheless, these definitions have three common aspects,
that is, they are all principally concerned with factors or events that
stimulate, channel, and prolong human behavior over time (Steers et al.
2004).

Motivation always has been a key variable in education:

 "Donnez à l'enfant le désir d'apprendre et... toute méthode lui sera bonne"
(Rousseau dans l'Emile en 1762).

 “The success of a training program is largely contingent on the beneficiary's

training motivation.” (Guerrero & Sire, 2000)

 “The general definition of 'motivation to learn' is 'an individual's desire to work

towards a learning goal. The motives which are the basis for the learning desire
activate, direct and maintain the learning activity' Ruohotie (2000:8)” but such
definitions are not very operational and the instructional designer should rely on
some model of motivation structure.
Huitt's model
“In general, explanations regarding the source(s) of motivation can be categorized as
either extrinsic (outside the person) or intrinsic (internal to the person). Intrinsic
sources and corresponding theories can be further subcategorized as either
body/physical, mind/mental (i.e., cognitive, affective, conative) or
transpersonal/spiritual.” (Huitt,2001)
Huitt's model
“In general, explanations regarding the source(s) of motivation can be categorized as
either extrinsic (outside the person) or intrinsic (internal to the person). Intrinsic
sources and corresponding theories can be further subcategorized as either
body/physical, mind/mental (i.e., cognitive, affective, conative) or
transpersonal/spiritual.” (Huitt, 2001).

Motivation to learn according to Huitt, 2001 (reproduced without asking permission)

Measuring student task motivation through 3 dimensions ([Dessus])

1. Motivations regarding activities and subject matter

2. Self-estimation of competence to achieve

3. Estimation of control

What teachers can do to enhance motivation (Ames and Ames

recommendations)
According to Marilla Svinicki, teachers, in order to increase student motivation,
should:

 Reduce social comparison

 Increase involvement in learning

 Focus on effort by student

 Promote beliefs in competence

 Increase chances for success

How theories are used to design for motivation

 Behavior theory - use reinforcement and punishment

 Expectancy value theory - increase expectancy for success and raise value
of task
 Attribution theory - get learner to focus on effort and controllable causes

 Goal theory - set reasonable, mastery-oriented goals

 Self-determination theory - give choices and control to learner

What students can do

 Fix objectives that can be evaluated

 Divide work in several parts (e.g. subgoaling, workpackages)

 Give a self-recompensation after a difficult activity

 Take time to evaluate both activity (e.g. problem-solving path) and the
outcome

 Think about a long term goal (e.g. aspiration for a nice job)

 Think about past success stories.

5.1 Motivation in classroom training

to do ...
5.2 Motivation in distance and blended training
to do ...
5.3 Motivation in vocational training
Guerrero & Sire (2000:3-4) again point out the complexity of motivation
and single out self-efficacy and instrumentality as two key dimensions
to study training motivation of french workers.

One of the definitions widely used in recent studies of training

motivation (Baldwin et al., 1991; Facteau et al., 1995; Quinones,
1995) is that introduced by Noe in 1986 in the Academy of
Management Review. It is inspired by American research on
motivation at work (Campbell & Pritchard, 1976). Training motivation
is described as "a specific desire of the trainee to learn the content of
the training program". Other definitions refer to the effort exerted in
training to learn the course contents (Hicks & Klimoski, 1987), along
with Vroom's expectancies theory (1964). Accordingly, Mathieu et al.
(1992) describe training motivation as "trainees' perceptions that
doing well in a program would lead to better job performance and
consequently to valued outcomes." Furthermore, several concepts
have been used to describe training motivation. In addition to
expectancies theories (Vroom 1964, Porter and Lawler 1968), authors
have built upon the studies of Bandura (1977) on self-efficacy and
Adams on equity (1965).
Manninen (2004:3) points out that “ The key question (why adults
engage themselves in learning activities and why not?) can be analysed
using two different but overlapping theoretical frameworks, which
are theories of motivation and theories of participation. Participation [...]
deals with the processes which make people to participate in organised
training situations. In addition to psychological explanations (cf. Boshier,
see Garrison 1987), there has been more sociologically oriented
 (Lehtonen & Tuomisto 1972) and interaction models (Rubenson 1979)
which take into account the wider context and individual life situations.”
In a large-scale empirical studies Manninen & Birke (2005) and Konrad
(2005) studied the learning motivations of lower qualified workers using a
multi-dimensional learning motivation scale that was based on the
following concepts (categories). Values, i.e Alpha, Neutral, Beta refer
to Dynamic concept analysis (Kontinen, 2002).

earning is a process, of both humans and animals can be seen. In a simple learning
a process of living things is won their behavior based on the experiences change. It
is also expressed byGage (1984), stating that learning is a process in which an
organism changes its behavior as a result of experience. Learn Experience in the life
of a person to do something, or take an action premised is, is a result of the learning
process. 

While Henry E. Garrett believes that learning is a process that lasts for a long time
through practice and experience that leads to change and the way in responding to a
certain stimulus change. Then Lester D. Crow suggests learning is an attempt to
acquire the habits, knowledge and attitudes. Learning is successful when a person is
able to repeat the material they have learned, then "memorization" learning called.
Then, when they have learned, it is able to come and to be expressed in their own
language, it is called "over learning"

are in line with the wording of the above there is also another interpretation of the
study, stating that learning is a process of change in behavior is individual behavior
through interaction with the environment. Learning can also be interpreted as a
process performed by individuals to learn new behavioral changes as a whole, as a
result of individual experience itself with the environment in interaction. Learning is
defined as a process of change in attitude and behavior after the interaction with
learning resources. Learning resources can books, neighborhood, teachers and
others. While this Gredler (1986) claimed that the process of changing attitudes and
behaviors that are substantially in an artificial environment (experimental) and very
little dependent on the natural situation (reality ) Has. Therefore, a supportive
learning environment to be created so that this learning process can be carried out
optimally.

learning can be defined as the process someone to gain the skills, abilities and
attitudes.Oemar Hamalik (01) explains in his book that "Learning a modification or
behavior through experience reinforce (learning as changing or reinforcing behavior
is defined by experienced)." According to this understanding, learning is a process,
an activity and not a result or goal. Learning, not only remember, but broader than
that, the experience. The results of the studynot to change a command of the drill, but
the behavior. This understanding is very different in another sense of learning that
learning is gaining knowledge; Learning exercises are habit forming machines and so
on.

What learning as a process, Muhibbin (03) suggests that learning an activity of the

process, and is a member of the accomplishment of any type and level of training is
fundamental. This means that the success or failure to achieve the goal of education
in the learning process of students learn depends to a large extent, both when he
was in school and in the home environment or his own family

The idea that learning changes in a includes organisms, means learning takes time
and a place. Learning to close the case if there were indications that human behavior
as a result of the learning process is changing. The main objective of the study is the
verbal behavior of the man, the human capacity, information about science is to be
detected, it is replaced in the study.

on these descriptions Based, then learning in general can be understood as a stage

for change throughout the individual behavior relatively sedentary as a result of
experience and interaction with the environment, changes in cognitive (knowledge)
caused, psychomotor (skills) and affective (behavior).

Results of the study shows to learn something, the ability of the learner. This is
consistent with the opinion of Purwanto (2011), stating that the learning process is a
unique and complex process. This uniqueness disebakan for learning outcomes
occur only in people who learn not to others. The people have the potential
kejiawaan behavior that can be formed and changed behavior, the area includes
cognitive, affective and psychomotor. cause learning behavior changes in the three
areas of the test results is a change in behavior in the field of cognitive, affective and
psychomotor.

Furthermore, according to Gagne and Driscoll in Djamaah (00: 126) argues learning

outcomesis the skills of students due to the act of learning and can be observed by
the appearance of the pupil (leartner of power). Meanwhile, according to Dick and
Reiser in Djamaah (00: 126) says that the learning outcomes are the skills of
students as a result of learning activities. They differ learning outcomes top four
types :. Knowledge, intellectual skills, motor skills and Settings

The definition of learning outcomes by Sagala (06: 23) , the results of study is

phenomena observed as a result of learning. Slip skill-intellectual skills that enable a
person with the environment through the use of symbols or ideas, strategies
cognitive processes of control and grouped by function. "
[zuinteragieren
Benjamin Bloom in dividing learning outcomes in three areas, namely cognitive,
affective and psychomotor.
1. Sphere cognitive terms learning outcomes mental consisting of enem aspects,
knowledge or memory, comprehension, application, analysis . synthesis and
evaluation
2. affective domain in terms of attitudes and values attitudes and values
-. which in his attitude expressed values every day Therefore assessment of
affective aspect is performed by conducting a review of behavior that income.
included, participation, organization, and value properties.
3. Sphere psychomotor regarding learning outcomes skills and abilities
act. There are six aspects of the psychomotor domain of reflexes, basic motor
skills , perception, accuracy, movement and the complex skills of expression
and interpretation movement (A.Suriyati, 08).
 Motivation is essential to the operation of
organizations and classroom activities. The
behavior is caused by the certain causes which
relate to person’s needs and consequences that
results from acts. 
Motives are expressions of a person’s needs.
Incentives on the other hand, are external to the
person. 

Definitions of Motivation: 
According to B.F. Skinner, “Motivation in
school learning involves arousing, persisting,
sustaining and directing desirable behavior.” 

According to Woodworth, “Motivation is the

state of the individual which disposes him to
certain behavior for seeking goal.” 

Characteristics of Motivation:

 Personal and internal feeling.

 Art of stimulating someone.
 Produces goal.
 Motivation can be either positive or negative.
 It is system oriented.
 It is a sort of bargaining.

Classification of Motivation: 

Classification of Motivation

Primary, Basic or Physiological Needs: 

It includes food, water, sleep, sex, etc. These
needs arise out of the basic physiology of life and
these are important for survival and preservation
of species. 

Secondary Needs:  
They represent needs of the mind and spirit. For
example, self-esteem, sense of duty, self-
assertion, etc.

Conscious action arises from the needs. Needs create tensions that are modified.
    The relation of needs of action is shown below: 

 Individual needs (Motives) tensions 

 Environment 
 Wants (Tension positive negative incentives)
 Perception 
 Action (Tension release)  

 Sources of Motivation to Learn: 

Curiosity 
It is a strong motivator of learning. Since, people
adapt rather quickly to surprising events,
curiosity must be sustained in order to be a
continuing source of motivation. To keep the
learners alert, instructors can employ such
strategies as varying their tone of voice, using
relevant humour occasionally, etc. 

Learning Task Relevance 

Students are more motivated to learn things that
are relevant to their interest. 

Goal Setting 
It is an important source of motivation. When
individuals set goals, they determine an external
standard, to which they will internally evaluate
their present level of performance. Setting goals
improves self-motivation and performance to a
greater extent. When learners set goals, they seek
to gain favorable judgments of their competence
or avoid negative judgments of their competence. 

The recommendation to foster a learning goal

orientation runs counter to much current
educational practice, which attempts to instill
learner confidence within a performance goal
orientation. 

Motive Matching 
It is the degree to which learning tasks meet
particular students needs or align with
students values. A need can be defined as “any
type of deficiency in the human organism or the
absence of anything the person requires or thinks
he requires for his overall well being.” The
instructor should be sensitive to individual’s
needs for achievement and for affiliation. 

Self-Efficacy 
Motivation also comes from learner’s beliefs
about themselves. According toBandura, self-
efficacy involves a belief that one can produce
some behavior, independent of whether one
actually can or not. Learners can be sure that
certain activities will produce a particular set of
outcomes. These expectations are referred as
outcome expectations. 
 Teacher Efficacy

Ashton and Webb (1986) defined teaching efficacy as

the teacher's judgment about the potential influence of
teaching on a child's learning. 

Personal teaching efficacy refers to the teacher's judgment

of his or her own ability to motivate students. 

In other's word, it is quite possible that teachers might

believe that teaching has potentially powerful effects on
students motivation. but lack confidence that they
themselves can affect their own students motivation. 

Teachers with high personal efficacy tend to encourage

student autonomy and responsibility, structure
challenging, learning task and help learners succeed on
those tasks. 

Types of Motivation 
1. Intrinsic Motivation
2. Extrinsic Motivation 
Intrinsic and Extrinsic Motivation 
Drives, needs, incentives, fears, goals, social
pressure, self-confidence, interest, curiosity,
beliefs, values, expectations are the energisers
that direct our behavior. 

Some psychologists have explained motivation in

terms of personal traits or individual
characteristics. Other psychologists see
motivation more as a state of temporary
situation. Some explanations of motivation rely
on internal, personal factors such as needs,
interests and curiosity. Other explanations point
to external factors such as rewards, punishments,
social pressure and so on. 

Intrinsic motivation is the natural tendency to

seek out and conquer challenges as we pursue
personal interests and exercise capabilities. When
we are intrinsically motivated, we do not need
incentives or punishments because the activity
itself is rewarding. 

On the other hand, if we do something in order to

earn a grade, avoid punishment or for some other
reason that has very little to do with the task
itself, then it is known as Extrinsic
motivation. 

Recently, the notion of intrinsic-and extrinsic

motivation as two ends of a continuum has been
challenged. An alternative explanation is that just
as motivation can include both trait and state
factors, it can also include both intrinsic and
extrinsic factors. Intrinsic and extrinsic
tendencies are two independent possibilities and
at any given time, we can be motivated by some of
each. 

Four General Approaches to Motivation: 

Motivation is a vast and complicated subject
encompassing many theories. Some theories were
developed through work with animals in
laboratories. Others are based on research with
humans in situations using games and puzzles. 

Behaviorist Approaches to Motivation 

According to the behavioral view, the motivation
depends on the incentives and rewards present in
the environment. A reward is an attractive object
or event supplied as a consequence of a particular
behavior. An incentive is an object or event that
encourages or discourages behavior. 

If the person is consistently reinforced for certain

behaviors, then he/she may develop habits or
tendencies to act in a certain way. Providing
grades, stars, stickers and other reinforcements
for learning or demerits for misbehavior is an
attempt to motivate students by extrinsic means
of incentives rewards and punishments. 

Humanistic Approaches to Motivation 

In the early 1940s, Carl Rogers, one of the
proponents of humanistic psychology emphasize
that intrinsic sources of motivation as a person’s
needs. So, from the humanistic perspective to
motivate means to encourage people’s inner
resources, their sense of competence, self-esteem
autonomy and self actualization, Maslow’s Theory
is a very influential humanistic explanation of
motivation. 

Maslow’s Hierarchy (of Needs): 

Abraham Maslow (1970) suggested that humans have a hierarchy of needs ranging

from lower level needs for survival and safety to higher level needs for intellectual

achievement and self-actualization.

 Maslow’s Hierarchy 

Maslow called four lower level needs-for survival,

then safer; followed by belonging, then self-
esteem. When these needs are satisfied, the
motivation for fulfilling them decreases. He
labeled the three higher level needs, intellectual
achievement, then aesthetic appreciation and
finally, self-actualization being needs. 

When they are met, a person’s motivation does

not cease, instead it increases to further
fulfillment. Unlike the deficiency needs, there
being needs can never be completely filled. 

The strive for improvement is always there in the

individual. Maslow’s theory has been criticized
because the people do not always appear to
behave as the theory would predict. Sometimes,
people get motivated by many different needs; at
the same time. All the needs are inter-related. 
Cognitive Approaches to Motivation 
Cognitive theorists believe that the behavior of an
individual is determined by the thinking process
and not by rewards and punishment. Behavior is
initiated and regulated by plans, goals, schemas,
expectations. and attributions. People respond to
their interpretations of the external events or
physical conditions. Cognitive theorist
emphasizes on intrinsic motivation. 

Attribution Theory of Motivation 

It is the cognitive explanation that describes the
individual’s explanations, justification and
excuses about self and others that influence
motivation. Bernard Weiner propounded the
Theory of Attribution.
Weiner gave three dimensions of the attributed
causes for success and failure. The three
dimensions are the following:
1. Locus: Location of the cause internal or
external to the person.
2.Stability: Whether the cause stays the same
or can change.
3. Controllability: Whether the person can
control the cause.
The cause of success of failure can be categorized
on these two dimensions. e.g.

1. Bad luck is an external factor i.e., unstable

and uncontrollable.

 Reason for failure,

 is Bad luck (external locus)
 i.e., unstable (stability)
 Uncontrollable (controllability) 

   2. Not studying for a particular test.

 Reason for failure is,

 Not studying (internal locus) 
 i.e., unstable (stability) 
 controllable (controllability)

Weiner believes that these three dimensions have

important implications for motivation because
they affect expectancy and value. 

 The stability dimension is related to the

expectancy about the future. If the attribute for
failure is stable, like low aptitude, then the
expectancy of failure in future increases. And if
the attribute is unstable like mood, then the
expectancy of failure is less. 

Locus (internal or external) is closely related to

self-esteem of the individual and also to sense of
taking responsibility. If success or failure is
attributed to internal factors, success will lead to
pride and increased motivation, whereas failure
will diminish self-esteem. 

Controllability factor is related to emotions

such as anger, shame, pity, gratitude etc. When
failure is attributed to lack of ability and ability is
considered uncontrollable, the sequence of
motivation is 

Failure-> Lack of Ability-> Uncontrollable-> Not
Responsible-> Shame-> Withdraw-> Performanc
e declines 

When failure is attributed to lack of effort (a

controllable cause), the sequence is

Failure-> Lack of Effort-> Controllable->

Responsible-> Guilt-> Engagement->
Performance Improves

Socio-cultural Views on Motivation 

The socio-cultural perspective emphasize on
participation, identities and inter-personal
relations within communities of practice. People
engage in activities to maintain their identities
and their inter-personal relations within the
community. 

Four Views of Motivation

Behavioral Humanistic Cognitive

c

Source of Extrinsic Intrinsic Intrinsic Int

Motivation

Important Reinforcers, Need for self- Beliefs, En

Influences reward, esteem, self- attributes par
incentives fulfillment for success ma
and and self- and failure ide
punishers determination expectations com

Key Skinner Maslow Weiner Lav

Theorist
Graham We