BA (JMC) Unit 3, Lesson 1

MADHU BALA INSTITUTE OF COMMUNICATION & ELECTRONIC MEDIA

BACHELOR OF ARTS (JOURNALISM & MASS COMMUNICATION)

BA (JMC): 2016-17
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UNIT 3 BA (JMC) 101 L: 12

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Models of Communication
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LESSON 1 119

Communication Models: definition, scope and purpose

LESSON 2 127

Basic Communication Models: Aristotle’s Classical Model; Shannon- Weaver’s

Mathematical Model; Wilbur Schramm’s Model; Laswell’s Model

LESSON 3 139

Advanced Communication Models: Newcomb’s Model; Westley-Mclean’s Model;

George Gerbner’s Model; Mccombs and Shaw’s Agenda Setting Model; Spiral of
Silence Model
BA (JMC) Unit 3, Lesson 1

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LESSON 1 COMMUNICATION MODELS: DEFINITION, SCOPE AND

PURPOSE
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STRUCTURE
1.0 Objectives

1.1 Introduction

1.2 Linear and Non-linear Models

1.2.1 Linear Models

1.2.1 Non-Linear Models

1.3 Definitions

1.4 Scope and Purpose of Communication Models

1.5 Functions of Communication Models

1.6 Limitations of Communication Models

1.7 Assignments

1.7.1 Class Assignment

1.7.2 Home Assignments

1.8 Summing Up

1.9 Possible answers to Self-Check questions

1.10 Terminal Questions

1.11 Suggested Further Readings

1.12 Keywords

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1. COMMUNICATION MODELS
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This lesson deals with the understanding of various models of communication. The
word ‘model’ typically refers to a representation of a thing or a process. A model is
simplified, graphical or visual presentation of an idea, a principle, a problem, a theory, a
process, a solution etc. The models dealt in this lesson explain the process and effects
of communication and mass communication.

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1.0 Objectives
After going through this lesson, you should be able to:

 describe the meaning of communication models,

 describe various models of communication,

 describe the functions of some basic models of communication,

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1.1 Introduction
A model is a presentation of the real phenomenon in abstract terms that can be applied
in different forms at different times. Communication is an extremely complex process
that becomes more complex with ever- changing communication phenomenon.
Complexity and constant change in communication process makes it imperative that it
is presented in simple and generalized way to explain and understand the structure and
functions of communication. Communication models present this simplification.

According to Mortensen, “In the broadest sense, a model is a systematic representation

of an object or event in idealized and abstract form. Models are somewhat arbitrary by
their nature. The act of abstracting eliminates certain details to focus on essential
factors…The key to the usefulness of a model is the degree to which it conforms--in
point-by-point correspondence-- to the underlying determinants of communicative
behaviour.”

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1.2 Linear and Non-linear Models

There are two types of communication models: linear and non-linear

1.2.1 Linear Models

 Linear models are unidirectional model that defines the message flow from speaker to
audience with or without effect. These models are both vertical and horizontal.
 Linear models are the foundation models and suggest new, useful and significant
concepts, which were later developed into non-linear, interaction, transaction and
convergence models.
 The linear models were useful for, and designed for experiments that assumed one-way
causality for the study of propaganda and mass persuasion.
 These models explain a simple communication act and not the process.

Limitations of the linear models:

 They have a source biased dependency rather than the relationship of those who
communicate and interdependency.
 They focus on the objects of communication as if they existed in vacuum and isolated
from their context.
 They consider the primary function of communication to be persuasion rather than
mutual understanding, agreement and collective action.
 They concentrate on psychological effects of communication on separate individuals
rather than the social effects and relationships among the individuals.
 They believe in one-way mechanistic causation rather than mutual causation, which
characterize human information systems that are fundamentally cybernetic.

1.2.1 Non-Linear Models

 In non-linear models the message flow is bi-directional or multi-directional.

 These models are circular and are usually convergence models.
 The non-linear models follow the cybernetic principle. The four most important elements
of cybernetic explanation are the concept of Information, Feedback, Networks and
Purpose.

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1.3 Definitions
The word 'model' refers as representation of a process, and event or a situation. It is not
a separate or independent method rather it is the representation of an existing object.
The communication model is similarly a symbolic representation of the communication
process. It does not show the details of a message rather it presents only those
elements which are related to the object of sending a message.

Communication model can be verbal, arithmetical, graphical or pictorial.

 W.R. Traccey in his 'Designing, Training and Development Systems' quoted as

"Communication model is a representation of a process and not any separate system
rather a simple may to present the various oriented elements."

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 Mortensen: “In the broadest sense, a model is a systematic representation of an object

or event in idealized and abstract form. Models are somewhat arbitrary by their nature.
The act of abstracting eliminates certain details to focus on essential factors. The key to
the usefulness of a model is the degree to which it conforms--in point-by-point
correspondence--to the underlying determinants of communicative behaviour.”

 “Communication models are merely pictures; they’re even distorting pictures, because
they stop or freeze an essentially dynamic interactive or transitive process into a static
picture.”

 “Models are metaphors. They allow us to see one thing in terms of another.”

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1.4 Scope and Purpose of Communication Models

A model is a miniature, a highly selective visual representation of any reality. In that
sense, communication model means graphical/visual representation of communication
process using various elements involved. The best example is the above described
graphic that visulanalizes various elements and processes in the communication as
envisaged by Joseph A Devito.

Purpose of Communication Models

A graphic representation of any reality helps us visualize the relationships among

various elements of a structure, system or process; an object, event or act. Mc Quil and
Windhal say that a model is a consciously simplified description in graphic form of a
piece of reality. No single model can be expected to present a holistic picture of reality.
Communication models help us to visualise, analyse and discuss various complex
processes and issues that would be otherwise difficult to explain.

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1.5 Functions of Communication Models

Organizing function: Models help us by ordering and relating systems to each other by
providing with images of whole that might not otherwise perceived

Explaining function: Models help us study communication by providing simplified version

which would otherwise be complex

Yet another function of communication is heuristic in nature. It means that in the study
of communication, models guide researchers to the key points of the process or system

Thus communication models help:

a. to assign probabilities to formulate hypothesis in research

b. to predict outcomes
c. to describe the structure of a phenomenon

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Communication model helps us to know about various aspects of communication. And

therefore the importance of communication model can be described as follows:
1. Determination of Effectiveness of Communication: In communication process, three things
i.e. sender, message and receiver are significant. Essential elements of communication
process are represented through communication model and such model helps us to
measure the effectiveness of communication. Such model helps in our decision making.
2. Representation of Methods: Communication models are pictorial representation of
communication process. So, elements & aspects related to communication process are
brought into picture which provides complete idea.
3. Use as a Sample: Communication model involves pictorial representation of various
elements of communication process which can be used as a sample for further research
and investigation.
4. Measure of Inflexibility: Communication model is rigid but communication is ever changing.
To understand the nature of inflexibility, communication model can be an essential source.
5. Representation of Objective: Communication model represents the objectives and its
related aspects regarding the message sent and therefore creates a meaningful picture.
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1.6 Limitations of Communication Models

Communication model plays a vital role in understanding the communication process,
although importance of communication model can't be denied and such models are useful
in many ways, yet they suffer from some limitations which are as follows:

1. Symbolic Representation: A model is a symbolic representation of the communication

process. Details are not available in a communication model. without details sound
decision is hampered.

2. Inflexibility: Communication is an ever-changing process. But communication models are

given through symbols which are inflexible or rigid.

3. Only Relevant things are represented: Less important elements or any supporting
information are not shown in a communication model. So, it is very difficult to form a true
idea about the massage from a model.

4. Premature Ending: Initiators of communication models think that their work is enough and
includes all. But their thinking is wrong. Researchers lose their interest for further because
of such thinking.

5. Cost-Benefit Aspect: Preparation of any model requires a lot of money as well as valuable
time. But the benefits may be less from the application of such model. Hence it is a
problem.

6. Requirement of Skilled Manpower: The development of communication model requires

skilled manpower. Such manpower may not be available always.

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Self-Check Questions
Fill in the Blanks:

1. _________________________ are unidirectional model that defines the message flow

from speaker to audience with or without effect.

2. _______________________ models are circular and are usually convergence models.

3. Models are ___________________. They allow us to see one thing in terms of another.

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1.7 Assignments
1.7.1 Class Assignment

1. State the importance and limitations of communication models.

1.7.2 Home Assignments

1. Define Communication Models.

2. What is the scope and purpose of communication models?

1.8 Summing Up
A model attempts to identify all the elements of a communication process. It depicts the
relationship between various elements. It helps in making predictions. The lesson
discusses the distinguishing characteristics of the models.

1.9 Possible answers to Self-Check questions

1. Linear models

2. Non-Linear models

3. Metaphors

1.10 Terminal Questions

1. Discuss linear and non-linear models of communication.

2. What are the advantages and disadvantages of communication models in our everyday
life?

1.11 Suggested Further Readings

1. Mass Communication in India- Kewal J. Kumar (Jaico Publications)

2. Mass Communication Theory- Denis McQuail (Sage)

1.12 Keywords
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1. Linear: Arranged in or extending along a straight or nearly straight line: "linear

arrangements.

2. Attitude: Manner, disposition, feeling, position, etc., with regard to a person or thing;
tendency or orientation, especially of the mind.

3. Knowledge: Familiarity or conversance, as with a particular subject or branch of

learning.

4. Culture: The arts and other manifestations of human intellectual achievement regarded
collectively.

5. Content: The things that are held or included in something, subject matter.

6. Element: A part or aspect of something, especially one that is essential or

characteristic.

7. Treatment: The manner in which someone behaves towards or deals with someone or
something.

8. Structure: The arrangement of and relations between the parts or elements of

something complex.

9. Code: A system of words, letters, figures, or other symbols used to represent others,
esp. for the purposes of secrecy.

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NOTES

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BA (JMC) 101 Unit 3, Lesson 2

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LESSON 2 BASIC COMMUNICATION MODELS

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STRUCTURE
2.0 Objectives

2.1 Introduction

2.2 S-M-C-R Model

2.2.1 S - Source

2.2.2 M - Message

2.2.3 C - Channel

2.2.4 R - Receiver

2.3 Shannon and Weaver’s Model

2.4 Wilbur Schramm Model

2.5 Lasswell’s Model

2.6 Assignments

2.6.1 Class Assignment

2.6.2 Home Assignments

2.7 Summing Up

2.8 Possible answers to Self-Check questions

2.9 Terminal Questions

2.10 Suggested Further Readings

2.11 Keywords

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BA (JMC) Unit 3, Lesson 2

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2. BASIC COMMUNICATION MODELS

________________________________________________________________________________

This lesson deals with the understanding of various models of communication. The
word ‘model’ typically refers to a representation of a thing or a process. A model is
simplified, graphical or visual presentation of an idea, a principle, a problem, a theory, a
process, a solution etc. The models dealt in this lesson explain the process and effects
of communication and mass communication.

________________________________________________________________________________

2.0 Objectives
After going through this lesson, you should be able to:

 describe the meaning of communication models,

 describe various models of communication,

 describe the functions of some basic models of communication,

________________________________________________________________________________

2.1 Introduction
A model is a presentation of the real phenomenon in abstract terms that can be applied
in different forms at different times. Communication is an extremely complex process
that becomes more complex with ever- changing communication phenomenon.
Complexity and constant change in communication process makes it imperative that it
is presented in simple and generalized way to explain and understand the structure and
functions of communication. Communication models present this simplification.

According to Mortensen, “In the broadest sense, a model is a systematic representation

of an object or event in idealized and abstract form. Models are somewhat arbitrary by
their nature. The act of abstracting eliminates certain details to focus on essential
factors…The key to the usefulness of a model is the degree to which it conforms--in
point-by-point correspondence-- to the underlying determinants of communicative
behaviour.”

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2.2 S-M-C-R Model

David Berlo’s model of communication (1960) explains various components in the

communication process. The four basic components are:

 Source
 Message
 Channel
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 Receiver

S M C R
SOURCE MESSAGE CHANNEL RECEIVER

COMMUNICATION COMMUNICATION
SKILLS
ELEMENTS SKILLS

SEEING
ATTITUDES CONTENTS ATTITUDES
HEARING
STRUCTURE
KNOWLEDGE TOUCHING KNOWLEDGE
TREATMENT
SMELLING
SOCIAL SYSTEM CODE SOCIAL SYSTEM
TASTING

CULTURE CULTURE

2.2.1 S - Source

The source in other words also called the sender is the one from whom the idea/
concept or the thought originates. The sender transfers the information to the receiver
after moulding the thoughts into words.

How does the source or the sender transfer his information to the recipient?

It is done with the help of Communication Skills, Attitude, Knowledge, Social System
and Culture.

Communication Skills

Communication skills form the basis of an effective and complete communication and
create an impact among the listeners. The communicator must be aware of the nuances
of speech, where to pause, where to repeat, where to stress, how to pronounce a word
and so on. The speaker must be conscious of what he is speaking; he must not go on
and on. He must cross check with the recipients and listen to their queries as well. An
individual must take care of his accent while communicating. A bad accent leads to a
boring conversation and incomplete communication.

Attitude

A person might be a very good speaker but if he lacks the right attitude, he would never
become a good orator. The sender must have the right attitude to create an indelible
impression on the listeners. An individual with the right attitude would stand out of the
crowd else the one with the negative or wrong attitude would be lost in the crowd. There
is actually no stopping of the person if he has the right attitude. Therefore, it is rightly
said that if one has the right attitude, the whole world is at his feet.

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Knowledge

Knowledge is never a measure with the number of degrees or educational qualifications

one holds, knowledge is actually the clarity of the information which the speaker wants
to convey to the second party. One must be thorough in the subject he is speaking
about with in-depth knowledge. One must be aware that the questions can pop up
anytime and one has to be prepared to answer them. One needs to be familiar with the
subject and the topic one is speaking on. Before delivering any speech, read as much
as you can and prepare the subject completely without ignoring even the smallest detail.

Social System

A politician delivering a speech, proposes to construct a temple in a Christian

dominated area. The audience is taken aback, the reactions are negative, why did this
happen with the receivers? Was there any problem with the communication skills of the
leader or the right attitude was missing? The displeasure of the listeners was simply
because the speaker did not pay heed to the social set up of the place where he was
communicating. The politician forgot the sentiments, cultural beliefs, religious feelings of
the second party. Had it been a Hindu dominated community, his speech would have
turned out to gain a lot of applause.

Culture

Culture refers to the cultural background of the community or the listeners where the
speaker is communicating or delivering his speech.

2.2.2 M - Message

When an individual converts his thoughts into words, a message is created. The
process is also called as Encoding.

Any message further comprises of the following elements:

Content

No one can read the grey matter to know what one is thinking. A thought has to be put
into words and content has to be prepared. Content is the subject matter or the script of
a conversation. In simpler words, it is the backbone of any communication.

Person A to Person B -“I need a break from my hectic schedule, let’s plan for an outing
tomorrow evening”.

Whatever A communicates with B is actually the content of the message. It is very

essential for the speaker to carefully choose the words and take good care of the
content of the speech. The content must be sensible, accurate, crisp, related to the
thought or idea which has the power to hit the listeners bang on and create an
immediate impact.

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Element

Speech alone cannot bring difference in the communication, there needs to be a

substance. Constantly speaking without any reason, would definitely make the listeners
lose interest after some time. The speech must be coupled with lots of hand
movements, gestures, postures, facial expressions, body movements to capture the
attention of the listeners and make the speech impressive. To hold the interest of the
listener, hand movements, gestures, postures, facial expressions, body movements,
gestures must be used as they form the elements of the message.

Treatment

Treatment is the way one treats the message and then conveyed to the listeners. One
must understand the importance of the message and must know how to handle it. For
example: If a boss wants to issue a memo to an employee, he/she has to be
authoritative and can’t convey the message in a casual way. This is referred to as the
treatment of the message. One must understand how to present the message so that
the message is conveyed in the most accurate form.

Structure

A message cannot be expressed in one go. In order to convey the message in the most
desired form, there needs to be a structure of the message. The structure is like a
building block defining in what sequence the message would reach the audience.

Code

Wrong codes never open a lock, wrong password never provides a gateway to enter the
account. In the same way, the code for communication has to be correct. Your body
movements, your language, your expressions, your gestures are actually the codes of
the message and have to be accurate otherwise the message can get distorted and the
recipient will never be able to decode the correct information.

2.2.3 C - Channel

Channel actually refers to the medium through which the information flows from the
sender to the receiver.

How does one know what the other person is speaking? - Through Hearing.

How does one know whether the sauce in the pizza is mustard or tomato? - Through
Tasting.

How does one know that there is a red light or a green light at the traffic signal? -
Through Seeing.

How will an individual come to know that the bread is fresh or stale? How do we find out
the fragrance of a deodrant? - Through Smelling.

How will you find out whether the coffee is hot or not? - Through Touching.

All the five senses are the channels which help human beings to communicate with
each other.
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2.2.4 R - Receiver

When the message reaches the receiver, he tries to interpret what the listener actually
wants to convey and then responds accordingly. This is also called as decoding.

For smooth flow of communication, the receiver should be on the same platform as the
speaker this would aid in better understanding of the message. He should possess
good communication skills to understand what the speaker is trying to say. He should
have the right attitude to understand the message in a positive way. His knowledge
should also be at par with the sender and must know about the subject. He should also
be from the same social and cultural background just like the speaker.

There are several loopholes in the Berlo’s model of communication. According to the
Berlo’s model of communication, the speaker and the listener must be on a common
ground for smooth conversion which is sometimes not practical in the real scenario.

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2.3 Shannon and Weaver’s Model

In 1948, Shannon an American electronic engineer and mathematician, and Weaver, an
American scientist, both of them united to write an article in “Bell System Technical
Journal” called “A Mathematical Theory of Communication” also called as “Shannon-
Weaver model of communication”.

RECEIVED
MESSAGE SIGNAL SIGNAL MESSAGE
INFORMATION

DESTINATION
TRANS-MITTER

RECEIVER
SOURCE

NOISE
SOURCE

This model is specially designed to develop an effective communication between the

sender and the receiver. The model also identifies various factors which affect the
communication process called “Noise”. At first, the model was developed to improve the
technical communication. Later it was widely applied in the field of communication.

The model deals with various concepts like information source, transmitter, noise,
channel, message, receiver, channel, information destination, encode and decode.

Sender: The creator of the message or the information source selects the desired
message.

Encoder: The transmitter converts the message into signals or waves.

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Note: The sender’s messages are converted into signals like waves or binary data
which is capable to transmit the message through cables or satellites. For example: In
telephone, the voice is converted into wave signals and it is transmitted through cables.

Decoder: The reception place of the signal converts signals into message. A reverse
process of encoding.

Note: The receiver converts the binary data or waves into message which is
understandable for receiver. Otherwise receiver can’t receive the exact message and it
will affect the effective communication between sender and receiver.

Receiver: The destination of the message from sender.

Note: Based on the decoded message, the receiver gives its feedback to sender. If the
message is distracted by the noise it will affect the communication flow between sender
and receiver.

Noise: The messages are transferred from encoder to decoder through a medium.
During this process, the messages may be distracted or affected by physical noise like
technical snag, thunderburst and crowd noise or encoded signals may be disturbed in
the channel during the transmission process which affects the communication flow or
the receiver may not receive the complete message.

Note: The model clearly deals with external noises only which affect the messages or
signals from external sources. For example: If any problem occurring in the network will
directly affect the mobile phone communication or distract the messages.

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2.4 Wilbur Schramm Model

MESSAGE

ENCODER DECODER

INTERPRETER INTERPRETER
Diagram of Schramm's
feedback loop

DECODER ENCODER

MESSAGE

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Wilbur L. Schramm is considered the forefather of the basic model of communication.

His model is a derivation of the Shannon-Weaver’s transmission model of

communication. The Shannon-Weaver model proposed six elements of communication:

1. Source

2. Encoder

3. Message

4. Channel

5. Decoder

6. Receiver

In 1954, Wilbur Schramm's model expands on this thinking by emphasizing the process
of encoding and decoding the message. Schramm contemplated this process as a two-
way circular communication between the sender and the receiver. Where the Shannon-
Weaver model is a more mathematical and technological one, Schramm incorporates
the study of human behaviour in the communication process.

In addition to the six elements above, Schramm included the following concepts:

 Feedback - Information that is echoed back from the receiver to the sender and tells the

sender how well the message has been communicated.

 Field of Experience – the imaginary area which is a part of the individual or a group
containing individual's beliefs, values, experiences and meanings.

FIELD OF EXPERIENCE FIELD OF EXPERIENCE

ENCO- SIGNAL DECO-

SOURCE SOURCE
DER DER

Diagram of Schramm's field of experience

Schramm suggests that the message can be made complex as different meanings are
interpreted by different people. The interpretation or meanings can be denotative or
connotative. Denotative meanings are common or dictionary meanings and can roughly

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be common for most people. Connotative meanings are emotional or evaluative based
on personal experience. A message can also have surfaced and concealed meanings.
Other characteristics of messages that impact communication between two individuals
are: intonations and pitch patterns, accents, facial expressions, quality of voice, and
gestures. The successful transmission of a message depends on whether this message
will be accepted over the other competing messages.

Schramm's model of communication also allows for the process of interpretation of the
message. This process is influenced by the presence of both physical (phone, tv, sirens,
etc.) and semantic (distractions, age, attitudes, etc.) noise.

Schramm believed that all of these elements were important functions of communication
in society. He felt that people in a society need information on their environment or
surroundings and methods of communicating in order to make decisions.

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2.5 Lasswell’s Model

The communication process of Lasswell, in the broader sense, spans to four basic and
important questions. They are: Who? What? Whom? Which? These are well defined
behavioural aspects of the sender in communication process.

Lasswell's model ignores the essential elements of the communication process.

However, this model indicates the major elements in the process by posing some
questions related to the act of communication. They are:

Who?

Says What?

In What Channel?

To Whom?

With What Effect?

WHO? SAYS WHAT? IN WHICH CHANNEL? WHOM? WITH WHAT

EFFECT?
COMMUNICATOR MESSAGE MEDIUM RECEIVER
EFFECT

This model is about process of communication and its function in the society. According
to Lasswell, there are three functions of communication:

 Surveillance of the environment

 Correlation of components of society

 Cultural transmission between generation

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Lasswell’s model suggests the message flows in a multi-cultural society with multiple
audiences. The flow of message is through various channels. This communication
model is also similar to Aristotle’s communication model.

In this model, the communication component ‘who’ refers to the research area called
“Control Analysis”,

‘Says what’ refers to “Content Analysis”,

‘In which channel’ refers to “Media Analysis”,

‘To whom’ refers to “Audience Analysis”

‘With What Effect’ refers to “Effect Analysis”

Example:

CNN NEWS – A water leak from Japan’s tsunami-crippled nuclear power station
resulted in about 100 times the permitted level of radioactive material flowing into the
sea, operator Tokyo Electric Power Co said on Saturday.

Who – TEPC Operator

What – Radioactive material flowing into sea

Channel – CNN NEWS (Television medium)

Whom – Public

Effect – Alert the people of Japan from the radiation.

Advantages of Lasswell model:

 It is easy and simple

 It suits almost all types of communication

Disadvantages of Lasswell model:

 Feedback not mentioned

 Noise not mentioned

 Linear Model

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Self-Check Questions
1. What are the four basic components of David Berlo’s model of communication?

2. How does the source or the sender transfer his information to the recipient in
David Berlo’s model of communication?

3. “Schramm's model of communication also allows for the process of interpreting

the message. This process is influenced by the presence of both physical (phone, tv,
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BA (JMC) 101 Unit 3, Lesson 2

sirens, etc.) and semantic (distractions, age, attitudes, etc.) noise.” Is the statement true
or false?

4. According to Lasswell, the three functions of communication are:

______________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________

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2.6 Assignments
2.6.1 Class Assignment

1. Draw and discuss various models of communication in groups. Also try

implement and interpret these models in today’s scenario.

2.6.2 Home Assignments

1. What are the characteristics of linear and non-linear models of communication?

2. Write short notes on:

a) Field of experience

b) noise

c) Encoding

d) Decoding

e) Gatekeeping

2.7 Summing Up
The lesson dealt with the process of communication through variety of models. A model
attempts to identify all the elements of a communication process. It depicts the
relationship between various elements. It helps in making predictions. The lesson
discusses the distinguishing characteristics of the models.

2.8 Possible answers to Self-Check questions

1. Source, message, channel, receiver

2. It is done with the help of Communication Skills, Attitude, Knowledge, Social System
and Culture.

3. True

4. Surveillance of the environment, correlation of components of society, cultural

transmission between generation

2.9 Terminal Questions

1. Discuss any two models of communication?
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BA (JMC) Unit 3, Lesson 2

2. Discuss the SMCR Model of Communication

3. Discuss Shannon and Weaver’s Model of Communication in detail?

4. Discuss Lasswell’s Model of Communication?

5. Discuss Shramm’s Model of Communication?

2.10 Suggested Further Readings

1. Mass Communication in India- Kewal J. Kumar (Jaico Publications)

2. Mass Communication Theory- Denis McQuail (Sage)

2.11 Keywords

1. Linear: Arranged in or extending along a straight or nearly straight line: "linear

arrangements.

2. Attitude: Manner, disposition, feeling, position, etc., with regard to a person or

thing; tendency or orientation, especially of the mind.

3. Knowledge: Familiarity or conversance, as with a particular subject or branch of

learning.

4. Culture: The arts and other manifestations of human intellectual achievement

regarded collectively.

5. Content: The things that are held or included in something, subject matter.

6. Element: A part or aspect of something, especially one that is essential or

characteristic.

7. Treatment: The manner in which someone behaves towards or deals with

someone or something.

8. Structure: The arrangement of and relations between the parts or elements of

something complex.

9. Code: A system of words, letters, figures, or other symbols used to represent

others, esp. for the purposes of secrecy.

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NOTES

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LESSON 3 ADVANCED COMMUNICATION MODELS

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STRUCTURE
3.0 Objectives

3.1 Introduction

3.2 Newcomb’s Model

3.3 The Conceptual Model of Westley and MacLean (1957)

3.4 Gerbner’s Model

3.5 Mccombs and Shaw’s Agenda Setting Model

3.6 Spiral of Silence Model of Communication

3.7 Assignments

3.7.1 Class Assignment

3.7.2 Home Assignments

3.8 Summing Up

3.9 Possible answers to Self-Check questions

3.10 Terminal Questions

3.11 Suggested Further Readings

3.12 Keywords

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BA (JMC) Unit 3, Lesson 3

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3. ADVANCED COMMUNICATION MODELS

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This lesson deals with the understanding of various advanced models of

communication. We can define a model as a consciously simplified description of a part
of reality presented in graphical form, depicting the main parts of a certain structure or a
process and the relationships between their single parts.

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3.0 Objectives
After going through this lesson, you should be able to:

 describe the advanced communication models,

 describe various characteristics of advanced models of communication,

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3.1 Introduction
There are various communication models to distinguish, each of them focusing on
various situations of communication, bearing different parts of communication into
consideration, e.g. with Shannon it is the channel, Osgood-Schramm work with
communication participants, Belo points at the massage as being a phenomenon.

The Advantages of Models

 CONCISENES AND ACCURACY

As it has been already mentioned, the model allows for explaining or rather
clarifying complicated phenomena, processes and events.

 GENERALITY

Allows for interpreting some theories and creates space for further questions. C.
D. Mortensen cites: “the more complicated the given object – the more chaotic
and unrecoverable is its natural interface – and the more the possible benefit of
the model being created” (MORTENSEN, 1972)

 THE POSSIBILITY OF A FURTHER EXPANDING OF THE THEORY

The given theory can be easily quantified through the model.

 EASY VERIFIABILITY OF THE HYPOTHESES ADOPTED

Especially with mathematical models, various mathematically exact methods can

be used according to the character of the assumed relationships

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3.2 Newcomb’s Model

In the model of interpersonal communication of Newcomb, the emphasis is given on the
psyche and the relationship of the participants, which are influenced by the
communication process. Terms such as message, channel etc. do not appear in the
model. The model explores the implication of the communication process on the psyche
of an individual, it emphasizes the bi-directionality of the communication, addresses the
relationship between the participants and the relationship to the subject of the
communication. On the other hand, it is still forgetting about factors such as
communication process environment and other influences working on the participants of
the communication.

PRINCIPAL STUDENT

POILICY
MATTER

EXAMPLE:

A – Teachers B – Students X – Policy or issue

Teachers introduce a If both students and teachers If “A” or “B” is not

new policy to are satisfied with this policy, ready to accept the
increase the college then the communication policy, then it will
maintains its equilibrium directly affect the social
timing from 6 hours
status between them. system and can’t
to 8 hours.
Otherwise the flow of maintain the
communication between “A” equilibrium status.
and “B” becomes trouble in

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BA (JMC) Unit 3, Lesson 3

A and B are communicating and X is the situation or the social context in which the
communication is taking place. Both the individuals are directed both to each other and
also to X. The balance between those three subjects is maintained by a constant
information transmission. The communication process is perceived as the work of
interdependent factors maintaining equilibrium.

Theodore M. Newcomb based his work on the work of Heider, a psychologist, who was
interested in the amount of consistence or inconsistency which can exist between two
persons in relation to a third person or object. Where there is equilibrium (positive
attitude among them or to the object), each participant is resistant do change. In
situations where there is imbalance, efforts to gain balance occur. So a discrepancy
between A and B and their orientation towards X actually stimulates their mutual
communication.

Newcomb came out of this presupposition also, claiming, that communication is “a

learnt answer in tension’’ and we are probably able to find more communication
activities in conditions of insecurity and imbalance than in any other situation.

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3.3 The Conceptual Model of Westley and MacLean (1957)

This circular model is based on the model of interpersonal communication according to
Theodor Newcomb; as in the original, the basis for the whole concept is the triplet A
(communicator), B (recipient) and X (the subject of the communication), but it is applied
on mass, intentional communication area (see picture 6 Westley and MacLean´s
model). He introduces a new role of the mediator (also controlling subject) and tries to
describe the mutual relationships between the main agents of mass communication.

One of the positive sides of it

is that it pins down the
changeability of the
message in the course of
mass communication. On
the other hand, the influence
of an outer context is not
caught and the influence of
the source on the medium
and vice versa is not
elaborated.

To Newcomb’s model and

his A, B (the communicating
ones) and to X (any matter
or event in the surrounding
of A, B which is the subject
of communication), the
authors added C,
representing the publishing
function – the process determining what and how to communicate.
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BA (JMC) 101 Unit 3, Lesson 3

Each person responds to their sensual experience by choosing only certain objects they
respond to, those are illustrated as X. In the model, A is the reporter, B is the public and
C stands for the controlling subject or channel, e.g. chief editor. f represents the
feedback.

Wesley and MacLean indicate that the balance of Newcomb model is disturbed by A
and C being close together. C functions partly as a channel and also as a mediator of
transfer of X from A to B, so X is further away from B than in the previous model, and
thus the dependence of element B (the public) on A and C is indicated.

In the model, the idea that communication is started by receiving the message rather
than sending it is illustrated. Communication is not started in the moment when the
person starts talking but only when he or she selectively responds to their actual
environment. This is emphasised by the fact that many signals that are important for a
communication process did not have to be sent deliberately.

Another thing the authors are pointing out is the width of changes the message goes
through while being transferred from one subject to the other.

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3.4 Gerbner’s Model

George Gerbner, in 1956 produced a general-purpose model of communication. This
model was considerably more complex than Shannon and Weaver’s but still took linear
process model as its basis. The main advantages of this model over the previous model
are: 1) it relates the message to the ‘reality’ that it is ‘about’ and thus enables us to
approach questions of perception and meaning, and 2) it sees the communication
process as consisting of two alternative dimensions—the perceptual or the receptive,
and the communicating or means and control dimension.

1. Perceptual Dimension:

In this model, ‘E’ is understood as an event that occurs in real life and the event content
or the message is perceived by ‘M’ (Man or a Machine). After ‘M’ absorbs the message
from “E”, it is known as “E1”. E1 is different from ‘E’ as the whole event cannot be
perceived in the exact manner as it took place, the message content is therefore
different. This is known as “Perceptual Dimension”.

These 3 factors are involved between ‘E’ and ‘M’

 Selection

 Context

 Availability

As, ‘M’ (man or machine) cannot perceive the entire content of the event ‘E’. Therefore,
‘M’ selectively chooses only interesting or needed content from the entire event and
filters the unwanted parts. The context occuring in the event is majorly based on ‘M’s
attitude, mood, culture and personality. (For eg. The way a student in higher secondary
will perceive an event like a the inauguration of Taj-Expressway is quite different from
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BA (JMC) Unit 3, Lesson 3

the perception of a journalist and that of the Transport Minister. Each of the ‘M’would
selectively extract parts important for them.)

Perceptual dimension
relationship between
communicating agent
and world of events
M
E2 Selection Context Availability E
Perceptual Dimension
Means and control
E -Event
Channels media dimensions between
control communicating agent M -Man or machine
and communication
E1 -Per eived message y M
product
Means and Controls Dimension

S -Signal or Form

E2 - Content created by M
E2 S

Gerbner’s General Model

2. Means and Controls dimension:

Now again, E2 is the event content which is sketched or artified by ‘M’. Here ‘M’
becomes the source of a message about E to send it to someone else. ‘M’ frames a
statement or signal about the message and Gerbner termed its form and content as
“SE2”. S (Signal or Form) it takes and E2 (Man’s content). Here Content (E2) is
structured or formed (S) by ‘M’ and it can communicate in a different ways.

M has to use channels (or media) to disseminate the message on which ‘M’ has a
greater or lesser degree of control. The question of ‘control’ relates to M’s degree of skill
in using communication channels. If using a verbal channel, how good is M in using
words? If using the Internet, how good is M at using new technology and words?

This process can be extended and made complex by adding the number of receivers
(M2, M3 etc.) who will have further perceptions (SE3, SE4 etc.) of the statements about
perceived events.

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BA (JMC) 101 Unit 3, Lesson 3

Important Note:

Message at every level is altered or changed.

Example:

In case of news reporting, E can be any event that has happened and the reporter (M)
selects a particular part of event (E1) that may be provide his channel higher TRP
ratings or the news may boost the image of particular party which his channel supports.
This SE2 is sent through a medium to the mass audience. Then the audience
distributed the message (SE2) and he (M1) sends to his friends with his interpretation
and the process continues.

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3.5 Mccombs and Shaw’s Agenda Setting Model

Agenda setting is the idea that what the public thinks about is set by the media. The
agenda setting theory was first introduced by Dr. Maxwell McCombs and Dr. Donald
Shaw in 1972. This theory states that the news plays an integral part in the shaping of
political realities. The amount of time spent on an issue and the information relayed in a
news story, along with the story's position, determines how much a reader learns and
the amount of importance placed on the issue. The agenda setting theory of McCombs
and Shaw states that when the media reflect on the views of a candidate during a
campaign, they are also shaping and determining the issues of importance. This can
ultimately set the agenda for a political campaign.

When analyzing agenda setting, there are two basic assumptions to be considered:

1. Media and the press filter and shape reality rather than reflect it.

2. When media focuses on just a few issues and subjects, the public tends to
perceive those issues as more important.

In addition to the
theoretical relevance,
the research also
derives from political
science in the
application of work done
in public opinion,
particularly the use of
public opinion polls. As
Page and Shapiro
(1983) said,” the
responsiveness of
governmental policy to public opinion is a central concern and there is no shortage of
theories regarding the extent to which policy does or does not respond to public opinion.
“Opinion changes are important causes of policy change. When Americans’ policy
preferences shift, it is likely that congruent changes in policy will follow.”

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BA (JMC) Unit 3, Lesson 3

The vast majority of this research, including the McCombs and Shaw study, made use
of the answer to the question: “What do you think is the most important problem facing
this country today?” (Smith, 1980). Little, if any, data with the answer to that question at
the local level exists making it impossible to replicate national research regarding the
correlation between public opinion and media coverage at the local level.

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3.6 Spiral of Silence Model of Communication

Originally proposed by German political scientist Elisabeth Noelle-Neumann in 1974,

Spiral of silence is the term meant to refer to the tendency of people to remain silent
when they feel that their views are in opposition to the majority view on a subject.

The theory posits that they remain silent for a few reasons:

1. Fear of isolation when the group or public realizes that the individual has a
divergent opinion from the status quo.

2. Fear of reprisal or more extreme isolation, in the sense that voicing said opinion
might lead to a negative consequence beyond that of mere isolation (loss of a
job, status, etc.)

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BA (JMC) 101 Unit 3, Lesson 3

For this theory to be plausible it relies on the idea that in a given situation we all
possess a sort of intuitive way of knowing what the prevailing opinion happens to be.
The spiral is created or reinforced when someone in the perceived opinion majority
speaks out confidently in support of the majority opinion, hence the minority begins to
be more and more distanced from a place where they are comfortable to voice their
opinion and begin to experience the aforementioned fears.

The spiral effect is experienced insomuch as this activates a downward spiral where
fears continually build within the minority opinion holder, hence the minority opinion is
never voiced. Since it’s appearing on this blog you could assume that the theory posits
that the mass media has a effect on this process, if you’re assuming that… you’re right
on. The media plays an important role in this process, especially in dictating or
perceptually dictating the majority opinion.

The closer an individual feels their opinion resides to the held majority opinion the more
likely they are to be willing to voice it in public discourse. A few other important tenets to
mention: this theory relies heavily on the idea that the opinion must have a distinct
moral component (i.e. abortion, legalization of _______), no one will experience the
spiral of silence trying to talk out what toppings to get on their pizza with roommates.

The theory has some weaknesses or at least points of contention, two of the most
notable are those of the vocal minority and the internet. The internet (a.k.a. interwebs,
series of tubes – thanks, Al) seemingly levels the playing field, where a minority opinion
won’t be felt by the individual as a minority opinion and might be voiced in that arena
whereas the individual would have not been so vocal in another place of public
discourse. Second, the vocal minority – you know these people, they may be the only
one who thinks that cats need to right to vote, but they won’t shut up about it and are
seemingly outside of the effects of the Spiral of Silence.

________________________________________________________________________________

Self-Check Questions
1. Two dimensions of Gerbner's Model of Communication are:
_____________________________________ and ____________________________

2. Spiral of Silence model is proposed by German political scientist

____________________________________ in 1974.

3. The agenda setting theory was first introduced by ______________________ and

_____________________________ in 1972.

________________________________________________________________________________

3.7 Assignments
3.7.1 Class Assignment

1. Draw and discuss various advanced models of communication in groups. Also

try implement and interpret these models in today’s scenario.

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BA (JMC) Unit 3, Lesson 3

3.7.2 Home Assignments

1. What are the advantages of models of communication?

2. Write short notes on:

a) Perceptual Dimension

b) Means and Controls dimension

3.8 Summing Up
The lesson dealt with the process of communication through variety of models. A
model attempts to identify all the elements of a communication process. It
depicts the relationship between various elements. It helps in making predictions.
The lesson discusses the distinguishing characteristics of the models.

3.9 Possible answers to Self-Check questions

1. Perceptual Dimension and Means and Controls dimension

2. Elisabeth Noelle-Neumann

3. Dr. Maxwell McCombs and Dr. Donald Shaw

3.10 Terminal Questions

1. Discuss any two advanced models of communication?

2. Discuss the Newcomb’s Model of Communication

3. Discuss Westley-Mclean’s Model of Communication in detail?

4. Discuss Gerbner’s Model of Communication?

5. Discuss Mccombs and Shaw’s Agenda Setting Model of Communication?

3.11 Suggested Further Readings

1. Mass Communication in India- Kewal J. Kumar (Jaico Publications)

2. Mass Communication Theory- Denis McQuail (Sage)

3.12 Keywords
1. Channel: a method or system for communication or distribution.

2. Agenda: the underlying intentions or motives of a particular person or group.

3. Opinion: a view or judgement formed about something, not necessarily based

on fact or knowledge.

4. Isolation: the process or fact of isolating or being isolated.

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