Principles of Learning

Introduction

The following assignment discusses motivation, learning activities, organisation of information,

communication and feedback. The theories of psychologists will be referenced to the examples given
for motivation and the organisation of information. Theories include those of Abraham Maslow,
Jerome Bruner and David Kolb.

Motivation

Students attend Learning Resources IT training on a voluntary basis, and are therefore highly
motivated. These students are intrinsically motivated. Borich & Tombari describe this type of
motivation as follows “intrinsic motivation influences learners to choose a task, get energised about
it, and persist until they accomplish it successfully, regardless of whether it brings an immediate
reward” (p210). This description closely matches how our learners behave. Our students have
recognised that they would benefit from improving their IT skills, have sought out and identified a
resource to help them achieve this, and are happy to attend a programme that does not award a
certificate.

Some students are extrinsically motivated, as there are external factors for responsible for their
attendance. An example of this if they are referred by academic staff for additional IT support, or if
they are experiencing problems with an assignment involving IT. Social learning theorists such as
Albert Bandura believe that observing peers shapes learners’ behaviour and that the social
environment can influence personality Zimbardo, McDermott, Jansz & Metaal (p460). This could
explain why some students attend because their peers are already competent in using a computer. If
friends and family are IT literate then the learner feels they should be too. As more people become
adept in using IT, then more people will follow this behaviour. Whatever the motivation factors,
when a learner attends a learning programme it is the responsibility of the tutor to maintain their
motivation.

The learning environment

Introduction

A tutor’s first consideration is to establish and maintain an effective learning environment. Learners
need to feel secure and emotionally safe. As the humanist psychologist Abraham Maslow’s (1962)
Hierarchy of Needs shows, physiological and safety needs must be satisfied before a person can
progress. These needs can be applied to a computer workshop as discussed in Reece & Walker
(p101). To satisfy physiological needs the tutor must ensure that the room is not too hot/cold, the
chairs meet health and safety regulations, and learners have adequate breaks. Many students feel
insecure and apprehensive about learning IT, to ensure they feel emotionally safe it is important that
the tutor show empathy. Computers must be regularly maintained and software properly installed to
ensure the learner does not have to struggle with technical difficulties.
Learning activities

The Humanist psychologists believe behaviour is unique to each individual. We are not all motivated
by the same things and we all have different aims and expectations. Borich & Tombari describe the
humanist theory as follows: “It is called humanist because the primary focus is the inner thoughts,
feelings, psychological needs, and emotions of the individual learner” (p285). The Humanistic
approach should apply choosing teaching methods and planning learning activities.

Learning activities must be structured to meet the needs of all learners. This can be a challenge as
some learners expect formal instruction and the tutor-led approach, while others want to work
independently, requesting help as required. Learners can become frustrated and de-motivated if the
workshop is not at an appropriate level and/or the teaching methods and activities inappropriate to
their needs.

Psychologist Carl Rogers stated that the learner should be placed at the centre of the learning
process through active self-discovery. He also stated that “the job of the teacher, in his view, is to
generate the conditions and environment for students to develop their own self concept” Reece &
Walker (p112). Rogers’s concept of placing a learner at the centre of the learning process is possible
when learning activities and teaching methods encourage independent learning, the tutor taking the
role of facilitator. Computer-based training, student-centered material and exercises are all suitable
for independent learning.

Motivation can be maintained by acknowledging previous learning experience and providing the
appropriate learning materials to enable the learner to build on existing skills.

Learners benefit from seeing a task carried out before they attempt it themselves. When the tutor is
required to teach many new skills the demonstrations are broken up throughout the workshop. One
long demonstration is not appropriate, as learners can become bored, retention is more difficult,
leading to de-motivation.

Communicating effectively with learners

“Our task as teachers is to create an environment where students feel part of a group and feel that
their contribution has worth” Reece & Walker (p112). To achieve this the tutor must be able to
communicate with learners, encouraging communication within the group. Communication must
be a two-way process between tutor and learner.

Learners must be aware of the aims and objectives of the learning programme. The tutor needs to
be aware of the learners’ expectations and v previous learning experiences. This can only be
achieved by fostering an environment whereby the tutor and learner can discuss this, learners need
to feel comfortable. If a learner is not mastering the appropriate skills required to take an
assessment, the tutor must let the learner know, guiding them in the right direction

Communication with learners needs to be consistent to avoid a situation where some learners get
more attention than others. Gagne and Berliner (1988) discuss several biased ways in which a tutor
can interact with a learner. These include: interacting with learners seated only at the front, non-
minority group members more than minority and more able learners more often than the less able.
Educational Psychology A Contemporary Approach – Gary D. Borich & Martin L. Tombari 2nd Edition
1997 Addison-Wesley Educational Publishers Inc. page 261.

Organising information

Learning should be organised and delivered to allow learners to learn at their own pace and have the
opportunity to build on existing skills. It helps learners to see the end result or outcome of the skills
they are trying to attain. This is particularly relevant when learning IT. For example, building a
budget in Microsoft Excel is easier if the learner has seen working model. The Gestalt theory of
seeing the ‘big picture’ can be applied. “Gestalt psychology emphasised the importance of perceiving
whole objects or forms, and proposed a number of principles on how we organise objects.”
Atkinson, Smith & Bem (p166)

Cognitive psychologist Jerome Bruner believed learning to be an active process in which learners
learn based upon their current and previous learning experiences. A learner acquires new
information, transforming that learning with regard to existing knowledge Reeves & Walker (p110).
If you apply this to learning how to use a computer it is important that learners know about the
menus and toolbars before progressing into new skills. When this have been achieved learners can
add to these skills and continue building.

The author of Cognitive Development Today, Peter Sutherland (1992 p55) states: ‘Skinner’s ideas are
suitable for linear subjects, such as computing, where tackling one topic depends on the successful
achievement of the previous one’.

The organisation of information should be hierarchical. Demonstrations, handouts and exercises

flow in a logical sequence. Computer-based training (CBT) is a logical sequence. International
students, learners lacking IT skills in confidence find step-by-step written instructions helpful. An
example of this would the steps required to create a chart in Microsoft Excel. This can be compared
to Skinners theory that people learn by operant conditioning, an operant being a series of actions
the learner does to achieve an outcome.

Another theory that can be applied to learning IT is Jerome Bruner’s theory of the three forms of
representation. This is discussed in Bruner’s book Toward a theory of Instruction (p10). The three
forms of representation is:

Action (enactment and demonstrations)

Icons (summarising pictures)
Symbols (words and numbers)

“We know many things for which we have no imagery and no words, and they are very hard to teach
anyone by the use of words, diagrams or pictures” Bruner (p10). Action can be represented by the
demonstration of a skill to a learner. Demonstrations are an important teaching method in IT.
“Iconic representation is principally governed by principles of perceptual organisation” bruner (p11).
Handouts/exercises include screen shots of the software being learnt.
“Representation in words or language” Bruner (p10). There is always an element of teaching where
speech or text imparts information.
In his influential book, Principles of Learning (1921) Thorndike suggested that learning would occur
subject matter was carefully refined and sequenced and learners appropriately reinforced. The
subject matter is presented and organised to the learner broken down into suitably small steps or
‘frames’, each one generally in the form of a question requiring a response.

Reviewing the learning process with learners

Learners registered for the European Computer Driving Licence are given verbal feedback
throughout the programme. Learners use computer-based training (CBT) as their primary learning
source. Their progress is automatically recorded onto their university network space. The tutor uses
this to check pre-test assessment scores to identify areas of weakness. Learners are given this
feedback verbally during fortnightly tutorials.

The computer-based pre-test could be viewed as a positive reinforcer, a key element in Skinner’s
Stimuli-Response theory. A reinforcer is anything that strengthens the desired response and is one
of the key concepts in behaviour analysis. The learner naturally wants to achieve a high score, when
this is achieved, they are motivated to learn more in order to perform well in subsequent tests. One
of the advantages of computer-based training is that the learner receives a response at each stage of
the learning process and receives immediate feedback.

Negative reinforcement, such as poor pre-test scores, can de-motivate, and should be avoided. The
reason for poor test scores could be that the learner is not suited to CBT and requires more
traditional teaching methods. This learner would be advised to attend the taught workshop
sessions. When the learner’s skills, confidence and experience improve they can be re-introduced
to the CBT pre-tests.

The automated testing software marks the test and the result is immediate. Learners are not given
this information in the test environment. This is because of learners’ who have failed, it is
inappropriate to tell them this in front of another learner. Results are always given to the individuals
at a later stage.

The European Computer Driving Licence tests are regulated by the British Computer Society. They
stipulate that learners are not permitted to know the percentage score, only that they have passed
or failed. Understandably learners want more feedback than just a ‘pass’ or ‘fail’. Test feedback
forms have been devised to meet this need (see appendix 1 – ECDL test feedback form).

The automated test software offers various reports. One of these reports list the tasks tested and
how the learner performed (see appendix 2 – ECDL test results – module 7). The tutor checks these
results and identifies the areas where the learner has done well and where they can improve. The
test feedback form is completed and given to the learner, usually in a tutorial where progress can be
discussed.

Teaching and Learning Strategies

Introduction

The following assignment discusses the teaching and learning strategy for the programme of IT
training workshops (see appendix 1 – IT training programme) run by Learning Resources at The
University of Luton. It includes a description of the teaching methods used, factors to be considered
when choosing a method, and the effect of resource constraints.

Promoting learning in groups, learning through experience and encouraging individual learning is
also discussed.

Lesson plans for Microsoft Access and Internet Explorer and the World Wide Web are included in the
appendix. The teaching methods for both workshops have been evaluated and revised as
appropriate.

The Teaching and Learning Strategy

The objective of the IT Training programme is to equip students with the necessary skills required to
produce assignments and to encourage them to become independent learners. The programme is
available to all students studying at The University of Luton. The majority of students sign up
voluntarily, but lecturers can refer students who require additional help and support.

Students attending workshops often have very different aims, expectations and abilities. Some use
the workshops on a need to know basis while others want to learn all aspects of IT and attend the
entire programme.

The learning process has to be structured to meet the needs of all learners. Some learners expect
formal instruction and the tutor led approach, while others want to work independently, requesting
help as required.

The tutor led approach is applied for some of the workshop but the tutor facilitates for the majority
of the time. Facilitation is the desired approach as it helps to foster a learning environment where
the learner takes responsibility for their own learning, building on existing skills and becoming more
confident.

Teaching methods

The most commonly used teaching methods for the computer workshops are:
Demonstration
Practical
Verbal instruction (step-by-step)
Talk/presentation
Exercises
Computer-based training (including assessment)
Student-centred learning

Computer workshops are by nature practical sessions, though it is sometimes necessary to impart
theoretical knowledge. For example, learners benefit from learning about the concepts of databases
before they actually start to use a database application such as Microsoft Access. Including some
theory on search techniques/criteria can enhance a workshop on Internet Explorer and the World
Wide Web.

The most appropriate and effective method is that of demonstration. Learners benefit from seeing a
task carried out before they attempt it themselves. A workshop may require several
demonstrations, depending on how many new skills are to be taught. If learners find a task
particularly difficult the tutor gives verbal step-by step instruction.

The computer-based training software includes on-line tests, which can be used as a form of
assessment, whether by the learner themselves or the tutor.

The student-centred handouts are available if learners wish to practise skills independently. These
handouts are designed to be used away from a workshop/tutor environment.

Handouts are very important, particularly to learners who find IT difficult. There are two types of
handout, instructions and exercises. The exercises are used to consolidate learning. Handouts must
be written in a concise step by step way. A well-written handout can be utilised by learners of all
abilities.
It is important to distribute handouts at the beginning of the workshop or inform learners that
handouts are available. Learners will then concentrate on the demonstrations and will not waste
time writing instructions.

Factors to be considered when choosing a teaching method

There are many factors to consider when choosing a teaching method. These include the learning
objective, group size, available resources, time and most importantly ability and learning styles of
learners. Some of these will be discussed along with advantages and disadvantages for each
method.

The learning objective

The objective of the IT Training programme is to equip students with the necessary skills required to
produce assignments and most importantly encourage them to become independent learners. To
promote independent learning it is important to use teaching methods that encourage the learner to
work as an individual. Computer-based training, student centred material and exercises are all
suitable for independent learning.
Group size

A formal demonstration (using a multi-media projector) is a very effective and efficient way of
introducing a new skill to a group of 5 or more. Participation is high if the demonstration is good and
of high quality. When the tutor is required to teach many new skills the demonstrations are broken
up throughout the workshop. One long demonstration is not appropriate, as learners can become
bored, distracted and retention is more difficult. Demonstrations may not be appropriate for very
small groups, as it can be quite intimidating.

Verbal step-by-step instruction is more appropriate for groups of 5 and under and very effective for
one-to-one. Using this method for large groups can lead to real problems for the tutor. The tutor
must ensure that all learners are at the same point and that no one is being left behind. This can be
very frustrating for the learners who are managing to keep up and are wasting time waiting for the
others. International students may have problems understanding the tutor’s dialect and find they
get left behind.

Resources

Computers, networks and software are obviously an integral resource. These resources must be in
perfect working order if a computer workshop is to run smoothly. Information technology tutors
should always be aware of what can go wrong and have some idea of how to trouble shoot when
things do go wrong.

There should be a variety of handouts and exercises, ranging from beginners to more advanced. This
is important because the tutor can then meet the needs of learners of different abilities.

Ability of learners

A workshop for an introduction to Microsoft Excel can attract learners of varying abilities. This is
usually because a learner’s perception of his or her own ability often does not match the reality. The
list of pre-requisites (skills they must already have), which is available at the time of signing up for
the workshop rarely deters learners from signing up for a workshop not appropriate to their needs.
The tutor has to use a variety of teaching methods to ensure everyone’s learning needs are met. If
the workshop is too basic for the learner there should be handouts and exercises covering more
advanced topics available. The tutor can also use computer-based learning for learners who find the
workshop material either too easy or too difficult. This then frees the tutor to meet the needs of the
less experienced learners.

Learning styles

Some learners (possibly reflectors) may find computer-based learning, student-centred learning and
the exercises with its element of independent learning appealing because they will be able to work
at their own pace. Others (possibly activists) may find the computer-based training repetitive and
too rigid because there are no opportunities for expression and experimentation.
There should be variety of teaching methods and learning materials to meet the learning style of
each individual.

Effects of resource constraints

Time is the biggest constraint when running any computer workshop. The programme is available to
students from any faculty, studying on any degree programme and they sign up to attend workshops
between lectures/seminars. Due to the limited time available to students it is important that the
workshops are not too long. Most of the workshops run for between 90 and 120 minutes and unless
the group is very small it is often very difficult to cover all of the intended material. If a workshop is
not carefully managed (time wise) the learner may feel their needs have not been met. To
overcome this problem the tutor needs to be realistic in what it will be possible to cover and the
learner must know up front which skills are to be addressed.

Technical problems are a major constraint. A problem with the university network can severely
disrupt a computer workshop, as can a shortage of computers due to faults. When this happens
learners often become de-motivated which can result in learners opting out of IT. It is important
that the tutor checks the resources prior to the start of the workshop. Learners need to be assured
that technical difficulties can be overcome.