FALCONRY I

t\ SURVEY COURSE FOR THE NOVICE f~LeONER

AS"UIl,rEY'CO, uasr FOR TH~ENO\TICE FALCONER,

TIle perfect prim.er for the new falconer. Falconry I teaches the basics of the various areas

of falconry including:

*History
"Equipment

"Law
" *Care and health

"Fee dirig
*Training the raptor
'Ill d upaatea • IF.' fleW an', und. d informauon: ~

CABIN ROAD PUBLISHING

EverytililJg the newfalconer needs' to' know.

'K.R. VETOYER

FALCONRY I
A SURVEY COURSE FOR THE NOVICE FALCONER

Send Demonoid invite to... '\' maphound@roadrunner.com

" KARL R. VETOYER

Cabin Road Publishing Marion, South Carolina

I,

CO'J(J!E9{fs
The goal of Cabin Road Publishing is to provide quality information to those with interests in uncommon pursuits and subjects, and to do so through an approach that recognizes the delicacy of our environment.
1

Copyright

© 2004 by Cabin Road Publishing

INTRODUCTION, POINTS TO REFLECT ON, HISTORY

All rights reserved. No parts of this book may be reproduced without written pernussron from the publisher, except by a reviewer who may quote brief passages or reproduce illustrations in a review with appropriate credits; nor may any part of this book be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted in any form or by any means - electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording, or other - without written permission from the publisher.

THE RAPTORS

13

ETHICS AND LEGAL

57

THE LANGUAGE OF FALCONRY

97

EQUIPMENT
103~, _

The information in this book is true and complete to the best of our knowledge. All recommendations are made without guarantee on the part of the author or the publisher. The author and the publisher disclaim any liability in connection with the use of this information.

FEED"INGAND GENERAL CARE HEALTH AND MEDICAL TRAINING THE RAFTOR

115 135 159

Printed in the United States by Cabin Road Publishing, ISBN 0-9767396-0-7

11

III

Introduction, Points to

1(gfrect

Oil, andHisiotu

Forward The ancient art of falconry occupies a special station among sports. Few, if any, human endeavors tend to continue practically unchanged for centuries, but falconry has done just that. With few exceptions, the equipment, language, training techniques, and hunting styles have varied little since medieval times. Constant too has been the wide-ranging social status of the devotees participating in this unique and thrilling chase. A favorite of both kings and peasants in the early years, falconry continues to attract people from varied backgrounds, income, and social strata, all with a common bond: a passion for an exhilarating endeavor, coupled with a love of and respect for the magnificent birds that make it possible. The purpose of this book is to provide knowledge and support to those who want to become falconers. This text, along with the training and counsel provided by the novice falconer's sponsor, will enable the apprentice to approach the sport with a basic understanding of its various facets.

INTRODUCTION, POINTS TO REFLECT ON, AND HISTORY

Thousands of years ago as early man struggled to feed hims~lf, one of the most common ~ethods he used was !_~e.....-~~ huntmg of small game. Employmg bows and'1rri'Ows, spears, and hurled rocks, he became aware of the deadly efficiency of a certain noble-looking fellow hunter in the forests and fields. He no doubt noticed, and perhaps envied, the tools with which this magnificent huntsman was equipped: Keen senses enabling him to locate invisible quarry, lightening speed, feet fitted with deadly talons.

IV

Introduction, Points to 2<.fjfectOn, ana '}(fstory

Introduction, Points to 2<.f!{ectOn, cnd TIistoru

Not surprisingly, man sought to form a partnership with this creature of incredible skill.

hunting

HOW DO I BECOME A FALCONER?

Falconry is the most highly regulated field sport in the United States as well as the most highly regulated of all hunting sports. A comprehensive set of federal and state falconry regulations have been enacted for the protection of the raptors. In all states that allow falconry, it is required that the falconer possess the appropriate license from the federal government's Fish and Wildlife Service as well as from the state. Most states also require that the falconer acquire a hunting license for the game he intends to hunt. There have been established rigid regulations on the possession, care and flying of rap tors for falconry purposes. Falconers must serve an apprenticeship plus pass written exams. Mews (housing for the raptor) must be inspected and approved by wildlife officials.

Falconry seems, on the surface, a most impossible undertaking. An undertaking that requires a human being to capture and tame a creature that barely tolerates even its own kind. The thought of not only taming such an animal, but convincing it to hunt for your benefit might seem a task so daunting that even the attempt seems foolish. But the proof is with us. There are in fact people who accomplish these very tasks with those temperamental loners we call birds of prey. They have been doing so for many centuries. First, purely as a way to gather food. Then as a sport of kings. And, like the falconers of today, always for the pure thrill and excitement. And a 'more thrilling and exciting pastime would be hard to find. For those not disturbed by the sight of nature at its most savage, there is little to compare to the spectacular missilelike attack of the Peregrine Falcon. As the fastest animal on Earth, the Peregrine dives on its prey at speeds upward of 150 miles per hour, its dagger like talons extended. Observing such a display leaves little wonder that we stand in awe of these deadly aerial hunters. ' Due to its unique nature, falconry is a sport of relatively few, but nonetheless dedicated participants. There are currently around three thousand practicing falconers in the United States.

APPRENTICESHIP
In order to become a falconer, you must locate and make arrangements with an experienced, licensed falc~r-----------who will agree to take you on as a trainee. There are several resource areas that may assist you in locating a sponsor: '~ *Local falconry clubs - by far the best choice if you have a local club available *Local governmental Fish and Wildlife Departments *Local businesses that sell falconry supplies

Introduction, Points to 'l(ej[ect On, and J{is to n; Introduction, Points to 'Rsj(ect On, and.J(istory

*Local animal shelters often have ongoing relationships with falconers and might direct you toward one

TO BE A FALCONER
The prospective falconer has several factors to consider as he contemplates adopting this rare sport. Due to its nature, falconry is not an avocation one can enter in the same way that one enters stamp collecting or tennis. These latter activities will wait for you - falconry will not. That is to say that falconry is not an activity that one can put away and pull out another day as the spirit moves. A falconer is a falconer every day. And this inyolves commitment in several areas.

schools of their day, exist today only in certain rare occupations. Falconry is unique among sports in its requirement that an apprenticeship be completed prior to assuming full-fledged status as a practitioner of the sport. And it's not tradition that dictates that this should be so; it's a matter of law. In the United States, federal statutes require that the novice falconer arrange an apprenticeship with an experienced falconer who will mentor him in the various aspects of the endeavor. One should not, however, think of this as merely another bureaucratic requirement that must be complied with. Sound judgment, common sense, and consultations with experienced falconers led to the adoption of these laws. Their major thrust is the protection of those magnificent hunters of the sky that we all view with great admiration and respect. The sponsor's experience and skill make him the novice's premier source of information and sound advice. His experienced eye is absolutely indispensable during the processes of manning and training in that he can recognize the subtle nuances and changes displayed by the raptor during this critical stage. The sponsor's knowledge of raptor health issues is not only beneficial in the obvious way, it also can save the time and expense involved in visits to the veterinarian. The sponsor will, in fact, impart knowledge in all aspects of care and maintenance of the raptor.

KNOWLEDGE This publication, as well as other publications the novice may choose, provides a solid foundational knowledge of falconry and the various facets thereof. In the chapters that follow, the novice will learn about the rap tors themselves: their individual physical and behavioral characteristics, their native habitats, their hunting preferences. He will also learn the basics of falconry equipment, law, language, and history. Topics in manning (acclimating the raptor to the presence of, and handling by, a human being), training, and hunting will also be addressed. Just as falconry itself is somewhat of a throwback to an earlier era, so to is the primary method used to train prospective falconers. Apprenticeship's, once the technical
4

TIME
Those considering entrance into the sport falconry should first ascert~ that ~!fjc_jent-fr-~t}me could be devoted to the various-functions required 0l\the falconer. Foremost among these is the care and maintenance of the 5

of

Introduction, Points to p.!j(ect On, ana J{istOlY

. Introduction,

Points to p.!Jfect On, ana J{isl:07Y

raptor. Despite the ferocity they might display when hunting, raptors are fragile creatures requiring a steady, carefully structured lifestyle. Care involves not only feeding and providing water and shelter, it also entails duties such as observing the raptor for changes in behavior, weighing for health maintenance and' hunting status, studying the droppings for signs of illness, and keeping the raptors environment clean and free of dangerous substances. One shouldn't make the mistake of assuming that falconry consists only of weekend hunts, as this is most assuredly not the case. Work, family, and school responsibilities as well as time devoted to other avocations should be considered as one contemplates entrance into the sport. The reaction friends, parents, and significant others might have to the dedication of such a large block of time should also be considered. EXPENSE As with many other activities, falconry can cost as much as you want it to. The really ornate and beautiful hoods and gloves can be quite expensive, as can other discretionary items. After an initial "start-up" cost, however, the sport is relatively inexpensive when compared to other activities such as golf, where an afternoon on the links can cost from fifty to hundreds of dollars. Actual storefronts dealing in falconry items are rare, especially in rural and non-metropolitan areas. The internet, including on-line auctions, is an excellent source of quality falconry items. Shopping here should be done carefully and deliberately. One shouldn't rush to purchase an item before determining that it is of good quality, is the correct item (i.e. for the right raptor), and is priced competitively. As always, your sponsoring falconer is your best source of information.

Mews can be a major several factors:

initial expense depending

on .

The design desired by the falconer or required by local building and zoning regulations. Local climatic conditions.
If the falconer is looking to the future during which time he may house more than one raptor

Federal and state laws also govern the construction and design of mews, so there exists a minimum cost. SAFETY As with all activities, safety should be a constant and very serious consideration of the falconer. Some areas of concern are addressed here.
',

Hkiene of the raptors food supply, both during preparation and in the manner in which it is given is very important~an.xJ:alconers are, however, blase about their own hygiene when in~the presence of their bird. Infections such as Salmonella nteridis are rife in the poultry industry, and will ther fore also be found sometimes in chicks which are ofte? used a raptor food. Avian tuberculosis is common in feral birds. Either infection can be a serious threat to the falconer, so caution should be exercised. Many falconers will, when both hands are occupied, pull a glove off with his teeth, forgetting what was just eaten on the fist or the fact that the raptor muted on it. Knives used in food preparation, as well as the occasional puncture of the hand by a talon, can introduce tetanus, which is a dangerous and potentially fatal disease. 7

Introduction, 'Points to 'R,fjTectOn, and"'}-{iSt071j

Introduction, Points to 'Rgf!ect On, ant! Histon;

All falconers should consult their family physician and have an up-to-date tetanus injection with a booster after ten years.

HISTORY

The determination of a definitive time and place regarding the origins of falconry will most likely never be accomplished. Evidence does exist that humans used birds of prey for hunting in China and Persia well over two thousand years ago. Determining its western origins is omewhat more clear. The first known appearance of the in Europe was recorded somewhere around 600 AD Germanic tribes began to hunt with birds of prey. Over the next two centuries,it spread all over Western Europe ami to Great Britain where it became somewhat of a status symbol. Falconry became a favored pastime of nobility and the clergy.

introduction, Points to 2?!jfect On, and :Hist()Ty

In traduc No 11, Points to 'l\f.f!ect Oil, and Histotu

Kings, Czars, and Emperors possessed very large mews which housed the best birds to be had. In Great Britain skilled falconers found no shortage of work as the royals scoured the countryside to ensure that the best of the best worked the birds in their personal mews. Nobles paid master falconers extravagant salaries. The government position known as Master of the Mews was created for the king's best falconer. The office still exists today. So much a part of life did falconry become, that falcon ownership was one method of determining a person's social rank. People of specific social rankings were allowed only to possess a certain type and sex of bird. To be found in possession of a bird disallowed by one's standing met with severe punishment, as did the poaching of eggs and birds from the wild. With the invention of the shotgun, 'falconry fever began to abate. Soon it became a very rare sport indeed .. The same .was not true of the Middle East however. Falconry remamed a sport of the aristocracy in Arab countries and it is probably thanks to this that it exists today.

One of the fathers of modern falconry was the Holy Roman Emperor, Frederick II of Hohenstaufen. He authored one of the first complete treatises on falconry when he published his book, De Arte Venandi cum Avibus which roughly translated means "The Art of Hunting with Birds". So great was his love of the sport that he is reputed to have lost a battle after taking time off from the war to take his birds out for a hunt. He is generally credited with incorporating the unique falconry practices of the Arabs, for instance the use of hoods, into western falconry when, during the Crusades, he returned home with Arab falconers in tow. Falconry was particularly popular among Scottish kings such as Robert the Bruce who allowed Mary Queen of Scots who was under a sort of house arrest to take her merlins out to hunt larks. Henry VIII, who had the royal mews at Charing's Cross built to house his birds, was quite an avid falconer. Falconry soon became a tool for social climbing as nobility all over the world hosted hunting parties and meets with many fellow falconers hoping not only to bag some game, but also to raise their rank among the elite.
10

I1
/

introduction, 'Poin ts to 1?§frect Oil, atui J-Listonj

FALCONRY IN OUR LANGUAGE

Falconry terms once existed only in the language nobility who actively pursued the medieval art. modern falconers continue to use these terms. Some have found their way into modern English and common usage, although the modern meaning different from the original. of the Most words are in is far

The word 'codger', used today to describe an elderly person, can be traced back to the falconry term 'cadger', or a person who carried a portable perch called a 'cadge' for the falconer. Most cadgers were old falconers and in time a corruption of this came to be used as it is today. 'Callow" which is a nestling raptor whose feathers are still in the blood quill stag, is now used to describe someone who is young or untested. When raptors drink it is called 'bowsing' and a bird that drinks. heavily is called a 'boozer', a term that requires no further explanation. The term mantle piece comes from the action a raptor makes to cover and protect its food ca\Jl~.~ __ ~~~~ to 'mantle'. ~ 'Hoodwinked', the action of placing the hood over the falcon's head to recover the captured prey from its talons, when used among humans has come to mean depriving by trickery. The language of falconry is covered more completely in a later chapter.
12

THERAPTORS
Birds of prey, known as Raptors, survive in just about every habitat in the world. All Raptors are carnivores with each species having its own dietary preference. This preference often coincides with that of an omnivore - the human being - and when it does a hunting partnership (known as falconry) is often formed. As an occupant of the top of the food chain, raptors are a good indicator of environmental health. Contaminated water, polluted air, and the destruction of natural habitat adversely affect the raptor and their food sources. Many species were or still are threatened or endangered. Birds of prey are divided into two Falconiformes, which include hawks (buteos & groups:

13

%e R._apwrs

7lie (R,Jl r=

accipiters), eagles, ospreys, falcons, and New World vultures, and Strigiformes, the owls. Osprey and Vultures are not generally used in falconry, and owls are used infrequently.

shoulders, under wing coverts, and thighs. This bird is native to the southwestern part of the continent and can often be seen hunting in groups. The broadwinged species - eagles and buzzards - are soaring birds. Using their large broad wings as sails they can effortlessly soar for hours. They normally hunt easy prey such as slow or weakened animals.

'E.?d]DES·
There are many species of eagles worldwide. Most commonly known in North America are the Bald Eagle and the Golden Eagle. These are large, soaring rap tors with very long broad wings. It is easy to identify the adult Bald Eagle by its white head and tail; however, the Bald Eagle does not acquire its white head until it is 3-4 years ,old. The Golden Eagle is named for the golden-buff' feathers on its crown and the nape of its neck. The adult bird is usually dark brown with white at the base ofits tail.

f4.CCIP I'PE2?,S
Small to medium sized hawks with short rounded wings and long tails comprise the Accipiters. They live in the forest and tend to be very fast and ferocious hunters. Accipiters include the Coopers Hawk, the Goshawk, and the Sharp-Shinned Hawk. Accipiters generally used in falconry are the Coopers Hawk and the Goshawk. The Goshawk is a very fast andmaneuverable raptor that hunts generally in the forest. Smaller than the Goshawk, the Coopers Hawk is both more widely distributed and more abundant. Cooper's Hawks generally prefer to hunt winged quarry in the air.

Buteos are soaring hawks with strong bodies, broad, rounded wings and moderately short, fan-shaped tails. Buteos include the Rough Leg, Harris Hawks, Redtail, Furruginous, and Broadwing. Among Buteos, it's primarily the Redtailed Hawk and the Harris Hawk that are used in falconry. Deriving their name from their chestnut red tail feathers which are acquired after the first molt, Redtails are one of the most widely distributed birds of prey in North America. A hearty and adaptable bird, the Redtail can often be seen soaring or perched in trees or on poles along roads and highways. They primarily hunt ground quarry but will also take some winged quarry of small to medium size. The Harris Hawk is blackish or sooty brown with bright chestnut

Falcons have aerodynamic bodies and fast, strong wings. These tools allow them to pursue prey in open country where speed is a necessity. This raptor hunts primarily winged quarry by diving from high altitudes at phenomenal speeds and then knocking their prey to the ground. Their speeds can approach 190 M.P.H.

15

(Tfie

1(g1' tots

%e 2?pptors

Peregrines, Gyrfalcons, Kestrels, Mertins, and Prairie Falcons, are the species used for falconry on the North American continent with the Kestrel and Peregrine being the most commonly used. Now an introduction to these magnificent birds.

COMMON NAME: HARRIS HAWK SCIENTIFIC NAME: Parabuteo unicinctus PHYSICAL CHARACTERISTICS: Size: Medium sized hawk. P. u. superior is the largest of the three subspecies. Weight: 1% to 2% Ibs Wingspan: 3%' to 4' Colors: P. u. harrisi and P. u. unicinctus: Sooty brown with chestnut shoulders, under-wing coverts and thighs. P. u. superior: Darker. -, Voice: When surprised or disturbed at the nest: Long, harsh screams. Any mild disturbance results in a much less harsh "eee eee eee eee" sound. LIFESPAN: Average 13 years. RANGE: P. u. harrisi: Southern United States; Louisiana to Kansas, Southern Texas, Mexico, Central America to Ecuador and Peru. P. u. unicinctus: South-eastern California to Chile, Central Argentina, Paraguay, Venezuela, and Brazil. P. u. superior: Southeastern California, southwestern Arizona, southwestern Mexico. POPULATION: Declining in North America.
17

16

'T!1e'l(ap tors

'T!1e 'R.flP tors

MIGRATION: Non-migratory. HABITA T: Lowland areas, sparse woodland and semidesert. Prefers a moderate amount of taller vegetation. BREEDING: In some places, the Harris Hawk practices Polyandry, an arrangement in which a third family member of the family acts as a nest helper by assisting in the feeding of young or by providing prey to the nest or both. Oftentimes the helper is a juvenile female who was part of an earlier clutch. Nests" are generally located in low-lying, isolated woodlands and can be made of sticks, twigs, weeds lined with green mesquite, leaves, bark, grass and moss. The nests are often placed in cactus, mesquite, and other trees. Breeding season is from February to October, with most of the eggs laid in early March. Mating begins about three weeks before egg laying with two to four eggs laid that need an incubation period of 33·36 days. The nestlings fledge at about 40 days of age and double clutching is occasionally observed. FOOD: Small and medium-sized mammals, and mediumsized birds. HUNTING TECHNIQUE: Rapid descending glides which begin from either a high perch or a soaring position. Also may fly horizontally from the perch and make a steep downward plunge at the quarry. If the attack is successful, the hawk will either remain on the ground with the quarry or carry it to a nearby elevated perch to begin feeding. If not successful, the hawk will often perch near the last known location of the prey and await its reappearance until it tires from waiting at which

time it may fly to a higher perch. When the quarry is flushed, the hawk pursues with quick wing beats and will often stoop at it before it reaches cover again. If the prey manages to reach cover, the hawk will swoop vertically upwards a few yards, make a small circle, and then descend on the quarry when it reappears. Harris hawks often hunt in groups consisting of three to six birds. They will fly from one perch to another, which the occupying hawk will vacate as the approaching hawk comes near. This type of hunting tactic eventually ends up with the entire group pursuing quarry or by a dominant hawk pursuing and capturing quarry and the rest of the group following to assist as required.

USE IN FALCONRY: The Harris hawk is an extremely popular hawk in falconry. Very versatile and adaptable the Harris will perform in all sorts of terrain and in all sorts of weather and will fly at all kinds of quarry with a varied, eclectic hunting style. The Harris hawk is also the easiest of all hawks in falconry to train and handle. Due to its relatively social behavior within its own species the Harris hawk tames quickly and develops somewhat of an attachment to its falconer. They are intelligent birds that learn quickly and their positive attributes seem to improve with age. They are consistent hunters and will take quite large quarry such rabbits and ducks. CONSERVATION: The largest threat to the Harris hawk is the degradation and loss of habitat. Actions taken to control brush plus the loss of habitat to urban and oil and gas development often degrade or destroy habitat areas. Hunters and all-terrain vehicles near nesting habitats will cause parents to abandon their nest, with the resulting loss of eggs and young. Electrocution by high19

18

'The '!(ap tors

tension power lines, drowning, illegal trapping, shooting all pose additional hazards.

and

Granting of special status on the endangered species list would benefit the Harris Hawk a great deal.

COMMON NAME: Peregrine Falcon SCIENTIFIC NAME: Falco peregrinus PHYSICAL CHARACTERISTICS: Size: Middle-sized to large falcon. 16-20" long. Weight: Female about 2 lbs, male I1h lbs. The largest race is F. p. paelei and F. p. radamus the smallest Wingspan: 36-44" Colors: Juvenile has brown back and white/creamy underside with irregular spots. The adult is more blue or grey on the back, and spots on the underside have a more regular barred appearance. Voice: witchiw' 'hek-hek-hek', 'kwaahk-kwaahk', 'witchiw-

LIFESPAN: Generally 7-15 years. RANGE AND MIGRATION: With its eighteen races, the Peregrine covers all parts of the world. F. p. peregrinus: Europe, northern Russia and south to the Mediterranean and Caucasus. F. p. calidus: northern Russia, northern Siberia, Lapponia. Migrates as far south as Southern Africa and New Guinea. F. p.japonensis: east Siberia,

20
,~d'

21

'Ifte 9(aptors

'Ihe 2(ppt·ors

Kurile Islands. Migrates to Japan, Riu Kiu and Taiwan. F. Mediterranean area, from Spain and Morocco to Caucasus. F. p. pelegrinoides: North Africa. F. p. baby Ionic us: The central deserts and steppes of Asia, from Iraq and Iran to Mongolia. Migrates to India. F. p. peregrinator: From India and Sri Lanka to China and Taiwan. F. p. minor: Africa south of Sahara. F. p. paelei: From North Kurile Islands, Aleutians to Queen Charlotte Islands. Migrates to California. F. p. anatum: North America. Migrates to Central and South America. F. p. cassini: Chile, from Atacama go Tierra del Fuego and the Falklands. F. p. macropus: Australia, except the southwest. F. p. submelanogenys: South-western Australia. F. p. madens: Cape Verde Islands. F. p. radama: Madagascar and Comoro Islands. F. p. fruitii : Volcano Islands. F. p. ernesti: Indonesia, Philippines, New Guinea. F. p. nesiotes: . New Hebrides, Loyalty Island, New Caledonia.
p. brookei:

female will dive and scream at each other. The male will ceremoniously feed the female, bowing slowly before her. Frequent copulation occurs until the eggs are laid. Nesting places are used for many years and are frequently old nests of ravens, buzzards and other nest-building birds of that size. Very often the eggs are laid on the bare rock or ground. In urban environments, the roofs of skyscrapers are commonly used. Two to five eggs are commonly laid at intervals of 2-3 days. The young hatch after 28-29 days of incubation, and will start flying 35-42 days after hatching. Peregrines are very aggressive toward intruders and they fear no other birds except the gyrfalcon. Even eagles are attacked if they happen to breed in the same area. FOOD: Mainly birds of small to medium size. Grouse, franc?lins, and pigeons, in particular the rock pigeon, are favorites where available. HUNTING TECHNIQUE: One of the most electrifying hunters of the animal kingdom. Most quarry is taken on the wing by the Peregrines trademark blazing direct stoop. Also will engage in a long tail-chase. The prey is usually killed by a hit from the peregrine's large hind talon. USE IN FALCONRY: The premier hunter of winged quarry as well as exhilarating to watch. Most recommend falconers of a solid background.

POPULATION: Varied populations over the world. The North American population has started somewhat of a comeback due to careful protection and monitoring, but much care of this bird is still needed. HABITAT: Resides in all continents with various geographical characteristics. Its mastery of the air gives it the capability of living in practically all sorts of habitats. However, they are most common in open country such as grassland, steppes, and moorland. Most seem to have a preference for rocks and cliffs which is where they will usually be found living and breeding. BREEDING: Rarely begins to breed before the age of two to three years. Couples generally stay together for life. In the mating ritual, the male will stand on a breeding ledge and then fly out when he spots the female, calling to her as he does. Among older breeding couples, the male and 22

CONSERVATION STATUS: The Peregrine Falcon was brought to near extinction in the United States by the use of pesticides, in particular DDT which is now banned. The residue of pesticides such as DDT persists in living tissues and becomes more and more concentrated as it works its
23

'Tfi.e 'i?J!P tors

'771.e1(aptors

way up the food chain, often becoming particularly concentrated in long-lived predator species such as the peregrine falcon. These pesticides result in thin-shelled eggs which cannot sustain the weight of incubation. Although banned in the United States, Canada and many South and Central American countries, the use of DDT still persists in parts of the Latin America where the Peregrine winters. Young birds can accumulate blood levels of pesticides as high as those in adult birds after just one winter in the south. By the mid 1960s no Peregrines were breeding east of the Mississippi and the numbers in the west were in serious decline. Captive-breeding programs have gone a long way toward bring the Peregrine back. Many falcons have been reintroduced to the wild in the hope that peregrines may be reestablished in areas where they once roamed in great numbers.

COMMON NAMES: Red-Tailed Hawk, Chicken Hawk SCIENTIFIC NAME: Buteo jamaicensis PHYSICAL CHARACTERISTICS: Size: The Red-tail is the largest hawk, and, as with most rap tors , the female is nearly 113larger than the male. Weight: 2-4 Ibs Wing Span: 48 inches" Colors: The adult has a rust-colored tail that may have a black terminal bar. Adults are dark brown on the back and the top of the wings. The underside of the bird is usually light with a dark bellyband, and a cinnamon wash on the neck and chest. The adult Red-tailed Hawk is easily identified. When it leaves the perch, the broad, rounded tail shows a rich russet red from which it gets its name. Voice: Hoarse and rasping two to three second scream that is most commonly heard while soaring. Loudest when defending their nest. When parents leave the nest, the young scream for food with a loud wail: "klee-uk," which is repeated several times. LIFESPAN: 10-21 yrs. RANGE: The Red-tailed Hawk ranges throughout North America to central Alaska and northern Canada, and south as far as the mountains of Panama. It is the most

24

25

'Ifte '!\[tp tors

'nie 2?_ap to rs

widely distributed and best known of all the hawks. The Red-tailed Hawk is actually a grouping of 14 sub-species, Each of these is generally specific to a geographical area, differing from the others in size, markings, and specific color schemes. POPULATION: The population of the Red-tail in North America is about 350,000. MIGRATION: Although not truly migratory, they do adjust seasonally to areas of the most abundant prey with many of the northern birds moving south in winter. HABITAT: The. Red-tailed Hawk generally prefers grasslands or marshy, shrub landscapes. A very adaptable. bird, they also homestead in deserts and forests, and at varying heights above sea level.

HUNTING TECHNIQUE: Does not fly fast but soars at high altitudes using its keen eyesight to spot the slightest movement in the grass below. Like all hawks, its talons are its main weapons. USE IN FALCONRY: The most popular raptor in the sport of falconry, the red-tail is also the apprentice's bird by law. CONSERVATION: Even though its numbers are steadily declining, the species itself appears sufficiently adaptable to escape total extermination in the future. Its numbers continue to decline as human population grows.

BREEDING: Mating and nest building begin in early spring, usually March continuing through May. Both males and females perform spectacular aerial displays, circling and soaring to great heights and folding their wings. They dive to treetop level then repeat this display as much as five or six times. Generally lays one to three eggs which incubate for 28~32 days. FOOD: The Red-tailed Hawk is an opportunistic hunter. Its diet is varied, but there is evidence that up to 90% is composed of small rodents, with. rabbits, snakes and lizards included. Where there are large numbers of

pheasant, summer.

these become the food of choice in spring and

26

27

'lfze '!Zaptors

COMMON NAME: GOSHAWK SCIENTIFIC NAME: Accipiter gentilis PHYSICAL CHARA CTERISTICS: Size: Goshawks are solidly built raptors, with powerful legs and feet, giving them the ability to catch mammals heavier than themselves. Length is 19-27 inches. Weight: Male: Weight is slightly less than two pounds. Female: Just over two pounds. Wingspan: Male: inches average. 39 inches average, Female: 42

RANGE: Goshawks are widely distributed throughouth the northern hemisphere, in Europe, Russia, North America, and Canada. POPULATION: Populations seem to be stable with the range expanding in the Eastern United States. Current data suggests that northern Goshawks are not decreasing in population, threatened, or endangered in the Southwest or elsewhere within its range. MIGRA TION: Most Northern Goshawks remain in their territory year round, moving only to find prey, but some migration does occur in late August to early September with the birds returning to their nesting areas in February. HABITAT: Goshawks are strictly woodland birds. BREEDING: The female attracts the male by perching near a suitable nesting site and calling. . The male will either build a new nest or rennovate an old one. Old nests are regularly reused by a' succession of different pairs. The nests are usually high up & under good cover of a canopy of leaves, giving protection from predators. About four to five eggs are laid over the period of a few days starting in late April. Incubation begins after the last egg has been laid, is only done by the female, and lasts for approximately five weeks. Normally, the young all hatch at around the same time. The female will ferociously defend the nest and will often attack intruding humans. FOOD: Goshawks prey on medium to large birds and mammals. Prey represents a varied diet including 29

Colors: Adults range in color from black to blue-gray, with white under parts. Their backs, heads, and wing tops tend to be gray to dark gray to near black. Goshawks' tails are gray, and their undersides are a lighter gray with gray stripes and white streaks. The tails of adults have dark stripes, usually three or four. The Goshawk has a very distinctive white band of feathers above their eyes, which are usually red-brown in adults and yellow in young birds. Juvenile Goshawks are much lighter than adults, with brown backs, heads, and wing tops and brown rather than gray streaks on their undersides. Voice: When in their own territory, Goshawks make harsh screams to warn off intruders. When flying in areas away from their nest, they make "kuk-kuk" or "kek-kek' sounds.

" LIFESPAN: The lifespan of a goshawk is about fifteen years which is long for a bird.
28

%.e 'l<J!ptors

'THe 'l(ap tOTS

starlings, pigeons, grouse, rats, young foxes, and many other things in between.

rabbits,

hares, COMMON SCIENTIFIC PHYSICAL NAMES: NAME: American Kestrel, Sparrow Falco sparverius Hawk

HUNTING TECHNIQUE: Prey is taken from the ground, out of the air, or even out of trees. The Goshawk normally flies directly at the prey, but will sometimes use any available concealment to take the prey by suprise, Goshawks often display dizzying bursts of speed when chasing prey. Short wings and a maneuverable tail enable the raptor to turn rapidly and brake suddenly in pursuit of quarry. Reagardless of their skill at the chase, goshawks often injure themselves. They are often so focused on the prey that they collide with objects in the flight path. Once the prey is caught, the goshawk usually returns to a perch to pluck the prey before eating it. Individual goshawks. often display an individual preference for one type of prey. USE IN FALCONRY: The Goshawk is a very popular raptor in falconry and is regarded by many as the quintesential hunting bird.. Most falconers value Goshawks for their aggressive dispositions and their willingness to chase a variety of prey. Goshawks tend to be nervous, temperament raptors, so manning is an extremely stage of training for them. They are best left to experienced falconers, since many inexperienced falconers will lose the raptor during the hunt.

CHARACTERISTICS:

Size: The American Kestrel is one of the smallest of the common falcons, the only smaller Falcon being the Seychelles Kestrel of Europe. The American Kestrel measures nine to twelve inches in length. Females are generally larger than males. Weight: At maturity, only four ounces. Wingspan: the Kestrel will generally weigh

Between 22 and 27"

Colors: Like all falcons, the Kestrel has distinct falcon facial markings including the 'mustache' and 'sideburns'. On the American Kestrel these markings are black or dark brown. With double black stripes on a white face, the Kestrel is easily distinguished. The backs and tails are decorated with rust plumage and they are the only falcons to have rust colored backs. The tail is relatively long with a much narrower tip and is marked by terminal black barring. Voice: An extremely vocal raptor, the Kestrel's voice is high-pitched and very fast. Its call is described as sounding like "klee, klee, klee" or "killy, killy, killy". LIFESPAN: One researcher estimated that the average lifespan of American Kestrels as 12.6 months. One bird was recorded as reaching 11 years and 9-year~old kestrels
31

CONSERVATION STATUS: Goshawk is included on the "Sensitive Species" lists of the U.S. Forest Service. Sensitive species status requires biological evaluations to consider potential impacts of proposed management actions. Goshawks are also considered a "management indicator" species in many national forests because they are potentially-sensitive to habitat change.

30

'TIie 'J(pplws

are not uncommon. was 5 years.

A verage lifespan

in a captive colony

raise as many as two broods American states.

a year in some southern

RANGE: American Kestrels live in North and South America from near the tree line in Alaska and Canada to southernmost South America. Their range extends to the West Indies, the Juan Fernandez Islands, and Chile. They are not typically found in rainforest areas and they do not migrate long distances. POPULATION: North America Estimated alone. 1.2 million breeding pairs in

FOOD: The American Kestrel preys primarily on small rodents and insects. They have also been known to prey upon amphibians, snakes, other birds, and worms. HUNTING TECHNIQUE: The Kestrel seems to prefer to perch for hunting. The Kestrel hovers, wings beating rapidly. A fast flyer, the American Kestrel has been known to achieve speeds of 40 MPH which allows him to easily catch prey in flight. USE IN FALCONRY: The diminutive American Kestrel is a falcon commonly known in falconry. It is, in fact, one of the first allowed to American apprentice falconers. The Kestrel is more difficult to care for than the Red Tailed Hawk, however. Due mostly to the fact that they have very fast metabolisms and weight maintenance can pose problems. CONSERVATION: The Kestrel's conservation status is good. Moreover, the Kestrel seems to actually benefit from agriculture as their numbers continue to grow as the percentage of land dedicated to farming increases.

MIGRATION: Unlike some migratory raptors, the American Kestrel does not seem to mind the cold and is often seen spending the winters near their home ranges. HABITAT: Farm areas, prairies, wooded streams, deserts, other rural settings, and occasionally on roadsides. BREEDING: In the wild, the American Kestrel does not build its own nest. It is common for them to use empty magpie nests, woodpecker cavities, holes within saguaro cactus, cliff sides, and, in more domestic areas, niches in buildings, or nest boxes made specifically for them. The Kestrel is described as a "cavity nester". The male displays a special gliding flight to attract a female's attention to a potential breeding place. After mating, the female will lay three to five near white, spotted eggs. The spotting is generally light brown. An unusual trait among Kestrels is that the male will sometimes help with incubation. This is not common behavior among most rap tors. Incubation usually lasts for a month. The baby Kestrels grow very quickly and reach adult weight within only two and 'if"" half weeks. They will leave the nest and begin to fly within a month. Kestrels have been reported to 32

33

71ie 2?_aptors

The 1(ap tors

POPULATION: As a species Gyrfalcons are thought to be relatively common, though accurate population estimates are limited by the remoteness of the breeding range. COMMON NAME: GYRFALCON SCIENTIFIC NAME,;, Falco Rusticolus PHYSICAL CHARACTERISTICS: Size: Length is 20-25 inches. The largest falcon in the world, the gyrfalcon has three plumage phases: gray, black, and white. With the dark eye, notched beak, and pointed wings typical of falcons, the size and color of this bird leave no doubt that as to its identity. Weight: up to 4.6 lb Wingspan: up to 63" Colors: This raptor's size and color makes it easily identifiable. In the most northerly part of its range is almost uniformly white, becoming darker as it moves further south. The gyrfalcon is unusual among birds in that it has three distinct color morphs. The three color phases are grey, dark and white. Voice: A persistent, harsh, screeching chatter. LIFESPAN: Up to 25 years in captivity, probably about 12 or less in the wild. RANGE: Gyrfalcons are found in arctic and sub-arctic regions around the world. MIGRATION: Gyrfalcons inhabit sub-arctic and even arctic ranges and will migrate to regions that are more southerly for the winter. Ironically, some of their southern migration ranges are the same northern ranges other birds abandon yearly to move even further south. HABITAT: Rocky seacoasts and islands near sea bird colonies, rivers with rocky bluffs, and mountains above the timberline are all home to breeding gyrfalcons. As with the other large falcons, this bird relies on open space in which to hunt. BREEDING: Gyrfalcons form a monogamous bond that lasts probably until one of the birds dies. The first breeding occurs at two to three yearsof age. The selection of the breeding territory is dependant on the amount of snow cover at the beginning of the breeding season, and the spacing of usable nest sites is dependant on the availability of prey. The nest site will be on a cliff edge or similar rock outcropping, with an overhanging cover .fo protect against the northern weather. A clutch of three or four eggs is laid at two to three day intervals during late April to early May. The eggs are incubated, starting with the third egg, for 34 to 36 days with most of the incubation done by the female. The young are able to feed themselves at about 30 days, and will fledge within 20 days of that event FOOD: Gyrfalcons feed primarily on birds, in particular ptarmigan and sea birds, but also includes mammals in its diet, such as lemmings, ground squirrels, and rabbits.
35

34

'Tfie'l(aptors 'TFlf!. Jqlp

tors

HUNTING TECHNIQUE: The Gyrfalcon hunts mainly other birds that it overtakes with sudden bursts of speed. USE IN FALCONRY: Although the Gyrfalcon has been traditionally used in falconry since the European Middle Ages, their numbers have not suffered terribly from the capture of wild birds. Like many larger species of raptor, the Gyrfalcon can be easy-going and more trusting than other birds with its handlers, but they may also be more difficult to handle because of their sheer size. CONSERVATION STATUS: Considered common in many parts of its range and declining in others, the gyrfalcon seems to have escaped the problems that befell the peregrine falcon in many parts of the world. It should be noted, however, that extensive surveys over most of its arctic range have been few and far between. The biggest threat to peregrine falcons is the indiscriminate use of pesticides on their winter range. Gyrfalcons are for the most part dependent on non-migratory prey and are therefore less predisposed to chemical contamination. Both falcons are potentially threatened by nest site disturbance or poaching of nestlings from nest sites for captive breeding or falconry.

COMMON NAME: MERLIN SCIENTIFIC NAME: Falco columbarius

PHYSICAL CHARACTERISTICS: Size: About 12-14". Slightly larger than kestrels

Weight: Approximately 6-7 ounces Wingspan: 22-30 inches

Colors: The male Merlin is brighter than the female and has a "slate blue" color, whereas the female Merlin appears to be duller and brown. The breast of the bird is mostly white with some brownish streaks. The Merlin's legs are yellow in color or orange ,when breeding. All Merlins have dark eyes which are very large in size. Above their eyes is a white eyebrow-like pattern. Voice: Merlins emit a shrill "ki-ki-ki" cry when alarmed or breeding. LIFESPAN: Average 7 years

RANGE: Merlins are found worldwide. They breed in the northern latitudes and migrating south into Mexico and South America, the Mediterranean, the Middle East, and southern China.

37 36

'lfie :J(ap tors

'me 'l?J1P to rs
by experienced falconers. Their quick metabolisms require a monitored diet and careful weight recording. They tame quickly, but are nevertheless impatient and falconers experience difficulty with their wait-on time. CONSERVATION any special status. STATUS: The Merlin is not afforded

POPULATION: Merlin populations may be affected. in the future as pesticides are found in their eggshells with levels high enough to affect reproduction. Merlin population is linked to that of the meadow pipits, its main food source. MIGRATION: The Merlin Falcon of North America frequently migrates during the winter to southwestern, warmer climates. There are" four different subspecies of Merlin Falcon on that continent: the Bendire's Merlin, Richardson's Merlin, American Merlin, and Black Pigeon Hawk, differentiated by varying coloration and preferred migratory locale. HABITAT: Nests are found in forests or scrublands are near open areas where the rap tors can hunt. that

BREEDING: Like other falcons, Mertins do not build their own nests, but instead use the old stick nests of crows or magpies. Up to five eggs may be laid and incubated by the female. The young remain together after fledging and may migrate south together. FOOD: Merlins feed primarily on small to medium-size birds, but will also take insects, rodents, and small lizards. Known to take birds as large as pigeons, they more often take small passerines or shorebirds. HUNTING TECHNIQUE: The"Merlin either flies slowly at low altitudes or wait on a tree branch until it sees its prey. As the Merlin flies slowly after it, the quarry probably believes that the Merlin Falcon is a slow, nonthreatening, bird, so it does not flee. When the Merlin is close, it darts in suddenly to snatch the unsuspecting prey. USE IN FALCONRY: Merlins are a rather difficult bird to keep in captivity, and therefore should only be handled 38

39

'The :J(.flptors

'me '1(ap

tOTS

COMMON HAWK SCIENTIFIC PHYSICAL Size: length.

NAME:

COOPER'S

HAWK,

CHICKEN

HABIT AT: .A forest dwelling bird found in deciduous woodlands but also seen in urban areas. Not uncommon around farm woodlots. BREEDING: Cooper's hawks build a stick nest high in the middle of a deciduous tree, usually in the crotch, where it lays from two to five eggs. They are known to return to the same area to nest year after year, although recent· studies have shown that individual birds change mates and nest sites frequently in succeeding years. FOOD: Mostly a predator of birds, the Cooper's hawk also feeds on mammals, particularly squirrels and chipmunks. Once the scourge chicken farmers, it is one of many raptors given the label "chicken hawk." HUNTING TECHNIQUE: The Coopers Hawk does a low, rapid attack through the woods. They have an amazing ability to navigate through all kind,S of brush at lightning speeds. They will sometimes take their prey to a nearby water source to drown it, and then proceed to pluck the carcass prior to eating. USE IN FALCONRY: Cooper's Hawks tend to be jittery in captivity and are best left to experienced falconers. They are determined and will give very long-range chases, so you must be prepared to follow them. Cooper's Hawks may be best used hooded until they are close to the game in order to avoid long chases. Once they find prey, Cooper's Hawks refuse to be denied. CONSERVATION STATUS: Populations were thought to be declining as early as the 1930s. The Coopers Hawk has suffered greatly from persecution due to its tendency to take poultry. Habitat destruction has also been a problem. It is considered an endangered species in some states.
41

NAME: Accipiter cooperii CHARACTERISTICS: hawk from 14 to 20 inches

III

Medium-sized

Weight: Females average average 12&15 ounces Wingspan:

a little over a pound;

males

29-37"

Colors: The adults have a gray/blue back, a white underside, horizontally streaked with reddish bars. The head has a black cap, and there are three black bands on the tail. The outer tail feathers are shorter than the rest of the tail feathers, giving the tail a rounded appearance, which is the only way to distinguish this bird from the sharp-shinned hawk other than size difference. LIFESPAN: A cooper's hawk can live to be 7 years. One banded bird lived 10 years 6 months. RANGE: A North breed from southern U.S. American species, Cooper's hawks Canada to the southern part of the

MIGRATION: Fall migration of Cooper's Hawks usually peaks during the first two weeks of October.

40

'Ihe 2\[Iplor"

'Tfu 2(aptors

SCIENTIFIC NAME: Bubo virginianus COMMON NAMES: hoot owl, big cat owl, silent tiger

RANGE: From southern Canada south, throughout the lower 48 States and into Central and South America. They have the most extensive range, widest prey base, and most variable nesting sites of any American owl. POPULATION: Widespread and numerous.

PHYSICAL CHARACTERISTICS: Size: 18-26 inches. Great horned owls are the largest common owl in the east. Weight: 3-4 lbs (females slightly larger than males) Wingspan: 49-62 inches Colors: Dark brown, with a squared off head, gray mottled and streaked below, setting off the stark white throat patch. They also have prominent widely spaced ear tufts and large yellow eyes. These owls are highly variable in color. The back, wings, and tail are mottled and barred with dark brown, with the ground color yellowish buff, tawny brown, or even, in the northernmost populations, pure white. The throat is white, and the remaining under parts are barred with black and white, the width of the dark bars also varying geographically. The conspicuous ear tufts or "horns" give the species its name. Voice: Hoots. Whooo-whooo-whooooooo-who-who. The male vocalizations are more elaborate, more prolonged, ricber, deeper, and more mellow than tbose of the female. LIFESPAN;>rGreat horned owls can live greater than 12 years; some captive birds have lived to 29 years old. HABITAT: A wide variety of terrain, but densely forested regions are preferred. These can be conifer, hardwood, or mixed. Great Horned Owls prefer evergreens for roosting purposes. BREEDING: As with most owls, great horned owls do not make their own nests, but tend to use an abandoned redtailed hawk's nest. These owls have a wider range of nest sites than any other bird in the Americas and will sometimes nest in hollows in trees, on cliffs or artificial platforms, and will also lay eggs on the ground. Nests are normally used for only one season. Great horned owls may start nesting as early as late November. Normally, there are two white to slightly dusty white roundly oval eggs. Incubation is done by the female only and can be as short as 30 days or as long as 35. Young great horned owls begin branching at 5 weeks, when they are almost the size of their parents. However, they are not efficient fliers until 9-10 weeks. FOOD: Great horned owl prey averages 75% mammals consisting mostly of rabbits, hares, squirrels, various other rodents- skunks, raccoons, shrews, armadillos and bats.
42 43

MIGRATION: Because of its skill in hunting during all seasons, the Great Horned Owl has no need to migrate long distances other than to shift hunting technique to the seasonal availability of different small animals. Therefore, the only requirement for dispersal is to find a vacant territory to avoid conflict with another pair of owls.

'l11e '1(ap tors

Only 6 % of the diet consists of birds, including all other owls with the exception of the snowy owl, The birds are plucked before eating. They will also take reptiles and fish. Great horned owls tend to select the largest available prey, because smaller prey costs more energy than it benefits in food. HUNTING TECHNIQUE: Great horned owls are perch and pounce hunters and tend to perch during the daylight hours in a protected rocky alcove or on a tree limb. They mainly hunt at night, but may hunt in daylight hours. From a quiet perch, the owl listens for sounds that betray a creature's presence. They may move about from tree to tree to get a better fix on the source of the sound. Once they pinpoint the sound, the owl silently swoops in, spreads its talons wide and pounces on its prey. Hence the name perch and pounce. Smaller prey is swallowed whole; but larger prey is torn into pieces. These owls will also walk on the ground to capture small prey or wade into water to snatch a frog or fish. USE IN FALCONRY: Great Horned Owls may be used in falconry but a common complaint is that they are stubborn. Many falconers complain that wild-caught Great Horned Owls are nearly impossible to train and say that imprints or eyases are necessary for good hunting. Problems also include the legality of night hunting, which varies from place to place. Also, the perch and swoop method of hunting, which the Great Horned Owl uses, makes it difficult for the' Owl to be used in long chases and nearly impossible for use with dogs. Imprinted Great Horned Owls are often sociable and form strong bonds with their ~~ndlers. Great Horned Owls are powerful hunters and intelligent birds, and it is said that they are enthusiastic bird hunters as well being valuable in mammal hunting.

CONSERVATION STATUS: Great Horned Owls are widespread and common. They adapt well to change and are doing well in most areas. While some illegal shooting and trapping of these owls takes place, the future of the great horned owl appears to be secure. It has adapted well to the presence of people and may be more common now than it was in pre-settlement times. Like other rap tors, these owls benefit people by eating destructive rodents.

44

45

'Ifl.e 1<flptors

'IfJe !l?_aptors

HABIT AT: Forests and thickets. BREEDING: Most nests are built in mature trees against the trunk and supported by one or more large branches and shaded from above. Males may show a high degree of territoriality by having several old nests located within a small area. Nest a substantial platform of large, often fresh twigs broken from branches with a center lined with bark chips. Males assist in building the nest. Old nests of Cooper's Hawks, crows, and other species may be refurbished and reused. Usually 4-5 eggs which are white to bluish white, some marked with splotches of brown. Newborns are covered in white down, with eyes open. FOOD: Feeds primarily on small song birds. The sharp-shinned is a small other birds and catch them in

SCIENTIFIC COMMON

NAME: Accipiter striatus NAME: Sharp-shinned hawk, Sharpie

IDENTIFYING

CHARACTERISTICS:

Size: Length is about 11". Weight: \Vingspan: Males, 3-4 ounces; females, 6-8 ounces. 23"

Color: The tail has four straight dark bands. The color of the adult is dark blue-gray, white, yellow-orange to deep red. The young hawks are mainly light brown. Voice: A series of sharp "kik" notes.

HUNTING TECHNIQUE: hawk that can outmaneuver mid-air.

LIFESPAN: Recorded up to thirteen years. Average in the wild is probably closer to four years. RANGE: Throughout most of North America, breeding from southern Alaska to central California, Arizona, New Mexico and northern Texas.
I.

CONSERVATION STATUS: The Sharp-shinned Hawk is listed as a species of concern in several states and Canadian provinces. Although migration-count data have indicated a decline in populations, breeding survey data seems to indicate an increase. Of particular importance to the future of this raptor is the understanding of its sensitivity to forest fragmentation and various land practices.

POPULATION: One or the most common hawks in many areas, seen by the tens of thousands during migration. MIGRATION: A highly migratory species, it leaves the northern United States in September and winters in Central America.
,,_.'

46

47
II

'Tfze 'l(a p tots

Tlie 'f0ptors

qOL1YE/J{ 'E5'UjL'E
SCIENTIFIC NAME: Aquila chrysaetos Golden Eagle

Golden Eagles are also found in Eurasia Africa.

and northern

COMMON NAME:

POPULATION: The Golden Eagle breeds in a number of regions in the Northern Hemisphere. North America has between 25 000 and 50 000 pairs, most of them in the West. MIGRATION: In North America, migrants breeding grounds from September and most winter western United States and in Mexico. Their return in February and lasts for a few months. Sedentary pairs will normally stay in approximately same range throughout year. leave in the begins adult home

PHYSI CAL CHARA CTERISTICS: Size: body length of 30 - 40 inches Weight: 7 - 13 pounds 6 1/2 - 7 112feet

Wingspan:

Colors: Its name" is somewhat confusing since the Golden Eagle is actually dark brown in color. It does have , a bright golden nape fathers it carries over the back of the head and neck. This raptor has a gray, hooked beak, large" yellow feet and long talons. It distinguishes itself from other eagles and most other birds, by growing feathers down its legs and to the feet. In the greater majority of eagles (and birds), legs are hair and featherless and often scaled. Golden Eagles are more closely related to hawks, like the Red-tailed Hawk, than to Bald Eagles. Voice: The Golden Eagle is not normalJy a very noisy bird. It will however utter a loud, clear yelping call, and mewing cries ill display. Young at the nest calling for food generate clucking calls. LIFESPAN: Fifteen to twenty years

HABITAT: Golden Eagles are birds of open country, from desert grasslands to above timberline. BREEDING: Nests are constructed of large twigs or roots and may be lined with moss, bark, fur or other soft material. The nest may become huge'; as much as 8 to 10 feet across and 3 to 4 feet deep. Eggs are laid between February and May (May to June in the Arctic), commonly two per nest, but as many as four can be laid in one clutch. Incubation is 43 to 45 days with the female usually doing most of the incubating. During times of meager food resources, the older, stronger eaglet may kill its smaller sibling. The young will fledge when 72 to 84 days old and are dependent upon their parents for another 3 months. FOOD: Golden eagles prey primarily on mammals including rabbits, hares, and larger rodents. About 20 percent of their diet is comprised of birds and reptiles. Golden eagles generally feed on food which they catch, although they will eat carrion. HUNTING TECHNIQUE: Golden Eagles use their incredible vision to locate prey. They prefer to attack
49

RANGE: G6lden Eagles are found in the West and across Canada and Alaska. The birds are rarely observed in the Midwest and Eastern states. They winter in North America from south-central Alaska to central Mexico. 48

upwind which increases their aerodynamic control and maneuverability. Golden Eagles are masters at soaring. With their large wingspread these birds can soar for long periods of time with little wing flapping. They may catch thermals, rising masses of warm air, to carry them in a spiral fashion upward high into the sky. 'If the bird spots prey while soaring, it can tuck its wings and swoop at speeds up to 200 mph. To a nearby person, the bird may sound like a low-flying, small airplane. The birds may also hunt from a favorite perch. USE IN FALCONRY: The process of training a Golden Eagle is long and complex. Only experienced General and Master falconers should attempt.it, CONSERVATION STATUS: The golden eagle is' federally protected under the Bald Eagle Protection Act of 1962. In some parts, a decline of golden eagle populations has been recorded. Washington and Montana list it as a species of special concern, while Maine, New 'Hampshire and New York recognize it as an endangered species. But in other areas they are common and populations are stable. They are considered to be fairly common in the western United States, Canada, and Alaska, and some estimates range up to 70,000 birds. Golden eagles are still subject to illegal shooting due to the erroneous belief tha~ they are a serious threat to ranch animals.

SCIENTIFIC NAME: Falco mexicanus COMMON NAME: Prairie falcon PHYSICAL CHARACTERISTICS: Size: 16·20 inches Weight: 1·2 pounds Wingspan: 40 inches Colors: Dark brown cap and cheek. Pale supercilium and patch behind eye. Pale face and throat with thin, dark mustache mark. Dark axiIlars and underwing coverts. Brown back with pale brown fringes. Brown tail with very faint darker bands. Whitish under parts have a few dark streaks on breast and spots on the belly. Short, dark, hooked beak. Voice: Prairie falcons make a "kree-kree-kree" call. LIFESPAN: Adults may live to be 20 years old, but the average lifespan is less than three years. RANGE: Breeds from parts of Canada south to Mexico and northern Texas. Winters in breeding range and sparingly farther east. POPULATION: Although numbers have declined in some developed areas, it appears that the current population is stable overall. Population also may be declining in some places due to habitat loss and possibly due to nest robbing by people. Rodent poisoning may also be a problem.

50

51

'Ihe Raptors

MIGRATION: Prairie Falcons shift habitats periodically throughout the year, and some migrate long distances. In late summer, ground squirrels move underground to escape the heat. Prairie Falcons, losing their major source of prey, leave the nesting grounds at this time and head to higher elevations, where snowmelt prolongs the growing season. In late fall, some birds return to the shrub-steppe, and many spend the winter in open fields and agricultural areas, taking advantage of the flocking birds that winter there. Some also move short distances south and east during the winter. HABITAT: Barren mountains, dry plains, and prairies, BREEDING: Prairie falcons usually begin breeding at two years of age. In late winter or early spring the female lays three to six pinkish eggs, blotched with brown, on a cliff or in an abandoned nest. The eggs hatch after about a month. The young are able to fly after 40 days. FOOD: Prairie falcons eat small mammals and other birds. The young eat insects. They tend to develop a liking for one favorite food and then eat that until the supply is depleted. HUNTING TECHNIQUE: The Prairie Falcon's diet consists mainly of birds, which it pursues on the wing but usually captures on or near the ground. When an elevated perch is available, it will spend a considerable amount of time watching for prey. In open country without high perches, this raptor flies low over the ground and flushes the prey. e
,J

CONSERVATION STATUS: Because of their protection and healthy population the Prairie Falcons have no special conservation status.

USE IN FALCONRY: Falconers sometimes use the Prairie Falcon in falconry, especially in the western states. Somewhat difficult to train and unpredictable in the field, so recommended to advanced falconers only. 52

53

'Ifie 2\.aptors

'me '!?JLptors

THE PHOTO ALBUM

ADR

W K

GRIAT HOB-NED OWIe

C.OOPERI HAWIt

GO~DIl-{ EAGLE

A VI R M.ElUIN

f H

54

5S

'The :fV.lptOI~\

'Ethics

ana Legar

ETHICS AND LEGAL

I H A R p I H I H H A

FALCONRY CODES

OF ETHICS

W
K

The sport of falconry carries with it some unique responsibilities. The following are Codes of Ethics from various organizations. They are representative of most such codes in the various states and countries.

AN ASSOCIATION CODE OF ETHICS

I. DEFINITIONS:
r

1) Falconry is a sport in which rap tors are trained and flown and used to hunt quarry, (natural prey species) in its natural state.

57 56

'Ethics

aTU[

Legal

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2) In this code, the word "hawk" includes falcons, hawks, eagles and other diurnal birds of prey capable of being used for the sport of falconry. II. CARE AND TRAINING OF FALCONRY BIRDS: 1) The falconer shall keep, within the limits set by the regulations and by-laws, only those hawks (those by species and quantity) that he can regularly fly at quarry, except for birds incapable of sustained flight and potential breeders that are held according the applicable section. 2) Hawks shall be housed, fed, equipped, trained and exercised in a manner most conducive to their well-being. 3) The falconer shall keep a logbook (diary) of his falconry activities. 4) The falconer shall make every reasonable effort to recover a lost hawk and to cure or a sick or injured hawk. 5) If a hawk is no longer wanted or cannot be kept or flown adequately, the falconer shall endeavor to either pass it on to another qualified falconer able to fly it at wild quarry, place it with a raptor breeder, or return the bird to the wild at an appropriate time of year when it has full capability of sustaining itself. 6) Prior to deliberately returning a raptor to the wild, the falconer shall notify the Secretary of the Association in order that the bird might first be made available to other falconers-who could make good use of the it.

III. OBSERVANCE REGULATIONS:

OF

FALCONRY

LAWS

AND

1) Each falconer is under a moral as well as a legal obligation to observe the laws and regulations of those governments exercising authority with regards to the taking, possession, import and export of raptors, the taking of quarry and access to land. 2) To propose changes to governmental falconry regulations or to seek legal clarification of these regulations, the falconer shall first consult this association's Board of Directors. The Board shall act as liaison during discussions on such subjects with government officials and shall ensure that such proposals and clarifications represent the Association as a whole. IV. CONSERVATION OF RAPTO~S: 1) The well-being of our native raptor population is fundamental to the continued practice of falconry. Each falconer should endeavor to promote to the utmost the welfare and survival of raptor populations in the wild in accordance with accepted precepts of use-management conservation. 2) Association members shall not take haggards, i.e. wild breeding-age birds, except under exceptional circumstances (such as birds that otherwise would be destroyed due to depredation). 3) In taking legal wild eyasses, the falconer shall leave at least one young to the eyrie/nest unless exceptional circumstances prevail.
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V. CAPTIVE BREEDING: Captive breeding shall be undertaken only in circumstances in which there is at least a reasonable chance of success. 2) Captive breeding birds shall be kept in clean, humane conditions and provided with ample opportunity to breed. shall keep full, proper captive breeding efforts. VI. COMMERCE IN RAPTORS:
3) Falconers

2) The falconer shall endeavor to practice falconry of the highest standards and shall hunt only in a sportsmanlike manner. 3) When hunting with raptors the falconer shall use the utmost discretion when bystanders are present.

records

of their

shall not be encouraged to become falconers unless they show convincing enthusiasm and determination to enter into falconry in a knowledgeable and serious way and in accordance with the code of ethics.

4) Non-falconers

1) Association members shall not engage in commercial traffic in wild North American raptors except as provided for in the regulations. 2) Captive-bred progeny may be given, traded or sold only to persons who are licensed or otherwise able to legally possess falconry birds and who will properly care for and either fly or breed the birds. VII. RELATIONSHIP WITH WILDLIFE OFFICIALS:

IX. PUBLICITY:
1) Public falconry displays, media presentations, or interviews regarding falconry are not to be given by members without the written approval of the Board of Directors. School presentations, etc., are permitted by Regular or Master without prior approval. Such publicity is to be educational and accurate, with strong emphasis on conservation of raptors, noting great difficulties in successfully practicing the sport, refraining from sensationalism and exhibitionism and presented in a manner, which will not bring the sport into disrepute. Non-practicing, Novice and Apprentice members shall not take part in publicity activities unless under the direct supervision of a licensed falconer.
2) Although the Association does encourage conservation activities by its members, any such actions shall not be promoted as activities of the Association without the written approval from the Board of Directors.

The falconer shall attempt to create and maintain a relationship of mutual cooperation and trust with government wildlife officials. This includes the prompt submission of annual falconry permit reports and reports of new birds, lost birds, lost bands, etc., and timely renewal of permits at the appropriate time.
J11#

VIII. PUBLIC RELATIONS: 1) The falconer shall promote a good, positive image of the sport of falconry and the role of raptors in the environment.

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X. ENFORCEMENT:
1) The breach of any of the provisions of the Code by a member of this association may be deemed to be an action injurious to the interests of falconry and the Association. This may result in the expelling of the person from the Association as provided for under the by-laws and the loss of licensure.

7. If I am training an apprentice falconer, I will only advance them to "general" falconer if they follow the code.

FALCONER'S FIELD ETHICS

GENERAL RULES
Do not feed your bird in the presence of other raptors. Hide all food from view of any raptor. Perch your bird so it cannot accidentally bird. Do not hunt near the weathering area. Do not stand behind or next to a falconer's bird unless the falconer okays its. Get permission to closely approach a perched bird. get to another

XI. GENERAL:
The falconer is expected to use discretion, moderation and common sense in all falconry related activities. This should ensure the best possible handling of the falconry bird and should help to maintain our sport in its most favorable light.

FALCONER'S CODE OF ETHICS

1. First and foremost, I follow the laws regarding falconry, 2. I do not keep rap tors unless I fly them free during the hunting season. . 3. If I no longer intend to fly a bird, I will transfer my bird to another code-following falconer; or I will release the bird only if it is actively proving itself in the field. 4. I do not draw undue attention to my birds. S. I keep.my birds, mews, and equipment in top condition. 6. I do everything in my power to recover a lost bird, and to bring a sick raptor back to health.

Report any falconry equipment that is damaged or broken to the falconer immediately.

HUNTING PROPERTY RULES

Always get permission to hunt on private property Give owner your name and a way of contacting you. Leave property in the condition you found it i.e., close gates, do not leave trash, etc. • 63

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Report any abnormalities livestock, down fence, etc.

you may notice, i.e., injured

If another falconer wants to join your group politely tell them your group is full.

Get permission for the use of dogs or firearms.

Ask how many vehicles and people may come in at a time. Let the landowner know the dates and times you will be on his property. If you are a guest of a falconer on private property, respect his agreement with the landowner by entering the property only when accompanied by the falconer or by the landowner.

GROUP HUNTING RULES

When several falconers are hunting together agree on: who will go first, how you will divide the allotted time (by time or kills). If a bird is not hunting or following bring the bird down so another falconer can hunt. All falconers in the group should stay until all birds have hunted. It is wrong to leave after your bird is done and not help the others. The falc~per that is flying is in control of the pace and direction of the hunt. The falconer that is flying should tell all present his particular way of hunting, i.e., walking distance from falconer, when to pull vines, when and who is to shoot marbles, when to approach hawk on game. 64

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FALCONRY AND THE LAW

Due to its nature, falconry is a highly regulated activity. There are many laws and regulations the novice falconer should become familiar with prior to beginning his apprenticeship. This section is divided into two areas: Federal laws dealing with falconry and raptors general An overview prospective falconers

TITLE 50--WILDLIFE AND FISHERIES CHAPTER I--UNITED STATES FISH AND WILDLIFE SERVICE, DEPARTMENT OF THE INTERIOR PART 21--MIGRATORY BIRD PERMITS SUBPART C--SPECIFIC PERMIT PROVISIONS SEC. 21.21 IMPORT AND EXPORT PERMITS.
of (a) Permit requirement. (1) Except for migratory game birds imported in accordance with the provisions of subp~r~ G of. part 20 of this subchapter B, an import permit IS required before any migratory birds, their parts, nests, or eggs may be imported . . (2) An e~port permit is required before any migratory birds, their parts, nests, or eggs may be exported: Provided, that captive-reared migratory game birds that are marked in compliance with the provisions of Sec. 21.13(b) may be exported to Canada or Mexico without a permit. Provided further, that raptors lawfully possessed under a falconry permit issued pursuant to Sec. 21.28 of this part may be exported to or imported from Canada or Mexico without a permit for the purposes of attending bona fide falconry meets, as long as the person importing or e~porting the bird~ returns the same bird(s) to the country of export followmg any such meet. Nothing in this para?raph, however, exempts any person from the permit requirements of parts 17, 22, and 23 of this subchapter.

* *

in

of the

examination

required

THE LAW
Excerpted on the following pages are several sections of laws applicable to falconry in the United States. All laws are subject to change and update of course, and there are also applicable state and local laws which should be researched.

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(b) Application procedures. Applications for permits to import or export migratory birds shall be submitted to the appropriate issuing office (see [[Page 427]] Sec. Sec. 10.22 and 13.11(b) of this subchapter). Each such application must contain the general information and certification required by Sec. 13.12(a)(5)of this subchapter plus the following additional information: (1) Whether importation or exportation is requested; (2) The species and numbers of migratory birds or their parts, nests, or eggs to be imported or exported; (3) .The name and address of the person from whom such birds are being imported or to whom they are being exported; (4) The purpose of the importation or exportation; (5) The estimated date of arrival or departure of the shipment(s), and the port of entry or exit through which the shipment will be imported or exported; and (6) Federal and State permit numbers and type of permits authorizing possession, acquisition, or disposition of such birds, their parts, nests, or eggs where such a permit is required. (c) Additional permit conditions. In addition to the general conditions set forth in part 13 of this subchapter B, import and export permits shall be subject to any requirements set forth in the permit. (d) Term of permit. An import or export permit issued or renewed under this part expires on the date designated on the face of the permit unless amended or revoked, hut the term of the.permit shall not exceed three (3) years from the date'of issuance or renewal.

SEC. 21.28 FALCONRY PERMITS.

(a) Permit requirements. A falconry permit is required before any person may take, possess, transport, sell, purchase, barter, offer to sell, purchase, or barter raptors for falconry purposes. (b) Application procedures. (1) An applicant who wishes to practice falconry in a State listed in Sec. 21.29(k) of this part and which has been designated as a participant in a cooperative Federal/State permit application program may submit an application for a falconry permit to the appropriate agency of that State. Each such application must incorporate a completed official form approved by the Service and must include in addition to the general information required by part 13 of this subchapter all of the following: (i) The number of raptors the applicant possesses at the time the application is submitted, including the species, age (if known), sex (if known), date of acquisition, and source of each; (ii) A check or money order made payable to "U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service" in the amount of the application fee listed in Sec. 13.1l(d) of this subchapter. (iii) An original, signed certification concerning the validity of the information provided in the application in the form set forth in Sec. 13.12(a)(5). (iv) Any additional information requested by the State to which the application is submitted. (2) Upon receipt of a joint application by a State listed in Sec. 21.29(k). as a' participant in a cooperative Federal/State permit application program, the State will process the application for a State falconry permit in accordance with its own procedures. A copy of the application, the check or money order for Federal permit fees, and the original, signed certification required by paragraph (b)(l)(iii) of this section will be forwarded to

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the issuing office of the Service designated by Sec. 13.lI(b) of this subchapter. If the State decides to issue a falconry permit based upon the application, a copy of the permit will also be forwarded to the appropriate issuing office of the Service. (3) An applicant who wishes to practice falconry in a State listed in Sec. 21.29(k) of this subchapter, but which does not participate in a cooperative Federal/State permit application program must submit a written application for a falconry permit to the issuing office designated by Sec. 13.11(b) of this subchapter. Each application must contain the general information and certification required by Sec. 13.12(a) of this subchapter plus a copy of a valid State falconry permit issued to the applicant by a State listed in Sec. 21.19(k) of this subchapter. (c) Issuance criteria. Upon receiving an application" completed in accordance with paragraph (b) of this section that meets all requirements of this part, the Director will issue a permit. In addition to meeting the general criteria in Sec. 13.2I(b), the applicant must have a valid State falconry permit issued by a State listed in Sec. 21.29(k) of this subchapter. (d) Permit conditions. In addition to the general conditions set forth in part 13 of this subchapter, every permit issued under this section shall be subject to the following special conditions: (1) A permittee may not take, transport, or possess a golden eagle (Aquila chrysaetos) unless authorized in writing under Sec. 22.24 of this subchapter. (2) ~,'permit issued under this section is no! ~alid unless the permittee has a valid State falconry permit Issued by a State listed in Sec. 21.29(k) of this subchapter. (3) A permittee may not take, possess, transport, sell, purchase, barter, or transfer any raptor for falconry purposes except under authority of a Federal falconry permit issued under this section and in compliance with
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the Federal falconry standards set forth in Sec. 21.29 of this subchapter. (4) No permittee may take, purchase, receive, or otherwise acquire, sell, barter, transfer, or otherwise dispose of any raptor unless such permittee submits a form 3-186A (Migratory Bird Acquisition/Disposition Report), completed in accordance with the instructions on the form, to the issuing office within five (5) calendar days of any such transaction. (5) No raptor may be possessed under authority of a falconry permit unless the permittee has a properly completed form 3-186A (Migratory Bird Acquisition/Disposition Report) for each bird possessed, except as provided in paragraph (d)(4) of this section. (6) A raptor possessed under authority of a falconry permit may be temporarily held by a person other than the permittee for maintenance and care for a period not to exceed thirty (30) days. The raptor must be accompanied at all times by a properly completed form 3-186A (Migratory Bird Acquisition/Disposition Report) designating the person caring for the raptor as the possessor of record and by a signed, dated statement from the permittee authorizing the temporary possession. (7) A permittee may not take, possess, or transport any peregrine falcon (Falco peregrinus), gyrfalcon (Falco rusticolus), or Harris hawk (Parabuteo unicinctus) unless such bird is banded either by a seamless numbered band provided by the Service or by a permanent, non-reusable band provided by the Service. (i) Any peregrine falcon (Falco peregrinus), gyrfalcon (Falco rusticolus), or Harris hawk (Parabuteo unicinctus) taken from the wild must be reported to the issuing office within five (5) days of taking and must be banded with a permanent, non-reusable band provided by the Service. No raptor removed from the wild may be banded with a seamless numbered band.
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(ii) The loss or removal of any band must be reported to the issuing office within five (5) working days of the loss. The lost band must be replaced by a permanent, nonreusable band supplied by the Service. A form 3-186A (Migratory Bird Acquisition/Disposition Report) must be filed in accordance with paragraph (d)(4) of this section reporting the loss of the band and rebanding. (8) A permittee may not sell, purchase, barter, or offer to sell, purchase or barter any raptor unless the raptor is marked on the metatarsus by a seamless, numbered band supplied by the Service. (9) A permittee may not propagate raptors without prior acquisition of a valid raptor propagation permit issued under section 21.30 of this subchapter. (e) Term of permit. A falconry permit issued or renewed under this part expires on the date designated on the face of the permit unless amended or revoked, but the term of the permit shall not exceed three (3) years from the date of issuance or renewal.

SEC.21.29

FEDERAL FALCONRY STANDARDS.

(a) General. No person may take, possess, transport, sell, purchase, barter, or offer to sell, purchase, or barter any raptor for falconry purposes in any State which does not allow the practice of falconry or in any State which has not certified to the Director that its laws or regulations governing the practice of falconry meet or exceed the Federal falconry standards set forth in this section: Except, a Federal falconry permittee may possess and transport for falconry purposes otherwise lawfully possessed rap tors through States which do not allow the practice of falconry or meet Federal falconry standards so long as the rap tors remain in transit in interstate commerce. The States that have submitted certification to the Director are listed in paragraph (k) of this section. (b) More restrictive State laws. Nothing in this section shall ~e construed to prevent a St~te from making and enforcing laws or regulations not inconsistent with the standards contained in any convention between the United States and any foreign country for the protection of rap tors or with the Migratory Bird Treaty Act, and which shall give further protection to rap tors. (c) Certification of compliance. Any State that wishes to allow the practice of falconry must certify to the Director that its laws or regulations governing the practice of falconry meet or exceed the Federal standards established by this section,Provided That any State that previously submitted its laws or regulations for review by the Director and was listed in paragraph (k) of this section prior to September 14, 1989, shall be deemed to have met this requirement. When a State certifies to the Director that its laws or regulations meet or exceed these Federal standards, a notice will be published in the Federal
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Register and the State will be listed in paragraph (k) of this section. (d) Permit. State laws or regulations shall provide that a valid State falconry permit from either that State or another State meeting Federal falconry standards and listed in paragraph (k) of this section is required before any person may take, possess, or transport a raptor for falconry purposes or practice falconry in that State. (e) Classes of permits. States may have any number of classes of falconry permits provided the standards are not less restrictive than the following: (1) Apprentice (or equivalent) class. (i) Permittee shall be at least 14 years old; (ii) A sponsor who is a holder of a General or Master Falconry Permit or equivalent class is required for the first two years in which an apprentice permit is held, regardless of the age of the permittee. A sponsor may not have more than three apprentices at anyone time; (iii) Permittee shall not possess more than one captor and may not obtain more than one raptor for replacement during any 12-month period; and (iv) Permittee shall possess only the following rap tors which must be taken from the wild: an American kestrel (Falco sparverius), a red-tailed hawk (Buteo jamaicensis), a red-shouldered hawk (Buteo Iineatus), or, in Alaska only, a goshawk (Accipiter gentilis). (2) General (or equivalent) class. (i) A permittee shall be at least 18 years old; (ii) A permittee shall have at least two years experience in the practice of falconry at the apprentice level or its equivalent; (iii) A permittee may not possess more than two raptors and may not obtain more than two raptors for replacement birds during any 12-month period; and (iv) A permittee may not take, transport, or possess any golden eagle or any species listed as threatened or endangered in part 17 of this subchapter. 74

(3) Master (or equivalent) class. (i) An applicant shall have at least five years experience in the practice of falconry at the general class level or its equivalent. (ii) A permittee may not possess more than three raptors and may not obtain more than two raptors taken from the wild for replacement birds during any 12-month period; (iii) A permittee may not take any species listed as endangered in part 17 of this chapter, but may transport or possess such species in accordance with part 17 of this chapter. (iv) A permittee may not take, transport, or possess any golden eagle for falconry purposes unless authorized in writing under Sec. 22.24 of this subchapter; (v) A permittee may not take, in any twelve (12) month period, as part of the three-bird limitation, more than one raptor listed as threatened in part 17 of this chapter, and then only in accordance with part 17 of this chapter. (f) Examination. State laws or regulations shall provide that before any State falconry, permit is issued the applicant shall be required to answer correctly at least 80 percent of the questions on a supervised examination provided or approved by the Service and administered by the State, relating to basic biology, care, and handling of raptors, literature, laws, regulations or other appropriate subject matter. (g) Facilities and equipment. State laws or regulations shall provide that before a State falconry permit is issued the applicant's raptor housing facilities and falconry equipment shall be inspected and certified by a representative of the State wildlife department as meeting the following standards: (1.) Facilities. The primary consideration for raptor housing facilities whether indoors (mews) or outdoors (weathering area) is protection from the environment, predators, or undue disturbance. The applicant shall have the following facilities, except that depending upon 75

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climatic conditions, the issuing authority may require only one of the facilities described below. (i) Indoor facilities (mews) shall be large enough to allow easy access for caring for the raptors housed in the facility. If more than one raptor is to be kept in the mews, the raptors shall be tethered or separated by partitions and the area for each bird shall be large enough to allow the bird to fully extend its wings. There shall be at least one window, protected on the inside by vertical bars, spaced narrower than the width of the bird's body, and a secure door that can be easily closed. The floor of the mews shall permit easy cleaning and shall be well drained. Adequate perches shall be provided. (ii) Outdoor facilities (weathering area) shall be fenced and covered with netting or wire, or roofed to protect the birds from disturbance and attack by predators except that perches more than 6\1/2\ feet high need not be covered or roofed. The enclosed area shall be large enough to insure the birds cannot strike the fence when flying from the perch. Protection from excessive sun, wind, and inclement weather shall be provided for each bird. Adequate perches shall be provided. (2) Equipment. The following items shall be in the possession of the applicant before he can obtain a permit or license: (i) Jesses-At least 1 pair of Alymeri jesses or similar type constructed of pliable, high-quality leather or suitable synthetic material to be used when any raptor is flown free. (Traditional Ivpiece jesses may be used on raptors when not being flown.); . (ii) Leashes and swivels-RAt least 1 flexible, weatherresistant leash and 1 strong swivel of acceptable falconry design; (iii) Bath container-RAt least 1 suitable container, 2 to 6 inches deep and wider than the length of the raptor, for drinking and bathing for each raptor; 76

(iv) Outdoor perches-RAt least 1 weathering area perch of an acceptable design shall be provided for each raptor; and (v) Weighing device--A reliable scale or balance suitable for weighing the raptor(s) held and graduated to increments of not more than \1/2\ ounce (15 gram) shall be provided. (3) Maintenance. All facilities and equipment shall be kept at or above the preceding standards at aU times. (4) Transportation; temporary holding. A raptor may be transported or held in temporary facilities which shall be provided with an adequate perch and protected from extreme temperatures and excessive disturbance, or a period not to exceed 30 days. (h) Marking. All peregrine falcons (Falco peregrinus), gyrfalcon Falco rusticolus), and Harris hawk (Parabuteo unicinctus) possessed for falconry purposes must be marked in accordance with the following provisions: (1) Any peregrine falcon (Falco peregrinus), gyrfalcon (Falco usticolus), or Harris hawk (Parabuteo unicinctus), except a captive red raptor lawfully marked by a numbered, seamless band issued by the service, must be banded with a permanent, non-reusable, numbered band issued by the Service. (2) Any peregrine falcon (Falco peregrinus), gyrfalcon (Falco rusticolus), or Harris hawk (Parabuteo unicinctus) possessed for falconry purposes must be banded at all times in accordance with these standards. Loss or removal of any band must be reported to the issuing office within five (5) working days of the loss and must be replaced with a permanent, non-reusable, numbered band supplied by the Service. (i) Taking restrictions. State laws or regulations shall provide the following restrictions on the taking of rap tors from the wild: (1) Young birds not yet capable of flight (eyasses) may only be taken by a General or Master Falconer during the 77

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period specified by the State and no more than two eyasses may be taken by the same permittee during the specified period. (2) First-year (passage) birds may be taken only during the period specified by the State; (3) In no case shall the total of all periods of taking of eyasses or passage birds exceed 180 days during a calendar year, except that a marked raptor may be retrapped at any time; and (4) Only American kestrels (Falcosparverius) and greathorned owls (Bubo virginianus) may be taken when over one year old, except that any raptor other than endangered or threatened species taken under a depredation (or special purpose) permit may be used for falconry by General and Master falconers. U) Other restrictions. State laws or regulations shall provide the following restrictions or conditions: (1) A person who possesses a lawfully acquired raptor before the enactment of these regulations. and who fails to meet the permit requirements shall be allowed to retain the rap tors. All such birds shall be identified with markers supplied by the Service and cannot be replaced if death, loss, release, or escape occurs. (2) A person who possesses rap tors before the enactment of these regulations, in excess of the number allowed under his class permit, shall be allowed to retain the extra raptsrs, All such birds shall be identified with markers supplied by the Service and no replacement can occur, nor mayan additional raptor be obtained, until the number in possession is at least one less than· the total number authorized by the class of permit held by the permittee. (3) A falconry permit holder shall obtain written authorization from the appropriate State wildlife department before any species not indigenous to that State is intentionally released to the wild, at which time the marker from the released bird shall be removed and surrendered to the State wildlife department. The marker 78

from an intentionally released bird which is indigenous to that State shall also be removed and surrendered to the State wildlife department, A standard Federal bird band shall be attached to such birds by the State or Serviceauthorized Federal bird bander whenever possible. (4) A raptor possessed under authority of a falconry permit may be temporarily held by a person other than the permittee only if that person is otherwise authorized to possess rap tors , and only if the raptor is accompanied at all times by the properly completed form 3-186A (Migratory Bird AcquisitioniDisposition Report) designating the permittee as the possessor of record and by a signed, dated statement from the permittee authorizing the temporary possession. (S) Feathers that are molted or those feathers from birds held in captivity that die, may be retained and exchanged by permittees only for imping purposes. (k) States meeting federal falconry standards. In accordance with this section, the Director has determined that the following States meet Of' exceed the minimum Federal standards for regulating the taking, possession, and transportation of raptors for the purpose of falconry as set forth herein. *Alabama *Alaska *Arizona *Arkansas *CaJifornia *Colorado *Florida *Georgia *Idaho *Illinois *Il1diana *Iowa "'Kansas

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*Kentucky *Louisiana *Maine *MassachuseUs *Maryland *Michigan *Minnesota *Mississippi Missouri *Montana *Nebraska *Nevada *New Hampshire *New Jersey *New Mexico *New York *North Dakota *North Carolina *Ohio *Oklahoma *Oregon *Pennsylvania *Rhode Island *South Carolina *Sollth Dakota *Tennessee *Texad *Utah *Virginia *Washington *Wisconsin *Wyoming [Note: States which aloe participants in a joint Federal/State permit system will be designated by an asterisk.] 80

SEC. 21.30 RAPTOR PROPAGATION PERMITS.

(a) Permit requirement. A raptor propagation permit is required before any person may take, possess, transport, import, purchase, barter, or offer to sell, purchase, or barter any raptor, raptor egg, or raptor semen for propagation purposes. (b) Application procedures. Applications for raptor propagation permits must be submitted to the appropriate Special Agentin Charge (See Sec. 13.U(b) of this chapter). Each application must contain the general information and certification required by Sec. 13.12(a) of this chapter, plus the following additional information: (1) A statement indicating the purpose(s) for which a raptor propagation permit is sought and, where applicable, the scientific or educational objectives of the applicant; (2) A statement indicating whether the applicant has been issued a State permit authorizing raptor propagation (include name of State, permit number, and expiration date); (3) A statement fully describing the nature and extent of the applicant's experience with raptor propagation or handling raptors} (4) A description of each raptor the applicant possesses or will acquire for propagation purposes to include the species, age (if known), sex (if known), date of acquisition, source, and raptor marker number; (5) A description of each raptor the applicant possesses for purposes other than raptor propagation to include the species, age (if 4known), sex (if known), date of acquisition, source, raptor marker number, and purpose for which it is possessed;
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(6) A description and photographs of the facilities and equipment to be used by the applicant including the dimensions of any structures intended for housing the birds; (7) A statement indicating whether the applicant requests authority to take rap tors or raptor eggs from the wild. (c) Issuance criteria. Upon receiving an application completed in accordance with paragraph (b) of this section, the Director will decide whether a permit should be issued. In making this decision, the Director shall consider, in addition to the general criteria in Sec. 13.21(b) of this chapter, the following factors: (1) Whether an applicant's raptor propagation facilities are adequate for the number and species of raptors to be held under the permit. , (2) Whether propagation is authorized by the State in which the propagation will occur, and if authorized, whether the applicant has any required State propagation permit. (3) Whether the applicant is at least 18 years old with a minimum of 2 years experience handling rap tors, and if the applicant requests authority to propagate endangered or threatened species, whether the applicant is at least 23 years old with a minimum of 7 years experience handling raptors. (4)Jf the applicant requests authority to take rap tors or raptor eggs from the wild: (i) Whether issuance of the permit would have a significant effect on any wild population of raptors; (ii) Whether suitable captive stock is available; and (iii) Whether wild stock is needed to enhance the genetic variability of captive stock. (d) Additional permit conditions. In addition to the general conditions found in part 13 of this chapter, raptor propagation permits are subject to the following additional conditions:

(1) Facilities. Any tethered raptor possessed under this permit must be maintained in accordance with the Federal falconry standards for "facilities and equipment" described in Sec. 21.29(g), unless a specific exception in writing is obtained. For untethered raptors, the breeding facilities must be soundly constructed and entirely enclosed with wood, wire netting, or other suitable material which provides a safe, health, environment. The design of such facilities and ancillary equipment must: (i) Minimize the risk of injury by providing protection from predators, disturbances that would likely cause harm, extreme weather conditions, and collision with interior or perimeter construction materials and equipment such as support poles, windows, wire netting, perches, or lights; (ii) Enhance sanitation by providing a well-drained floor, fresh air ventilation, source of light, fresh water for bathing and drinking, access for cleaning, and interior construction materials suitable for thorough cleaning or disinfection; and (iii) Enhance the welfare and breeding success of the rap tors by providing suitable perches, nesting and feeding sites, and observation ports or inspection windows during times when disturbance is felt to be undesirable. (2) Incubation of eggs. Each permittee must notify the Director in writing within 5 days from the day the first egg is laid by any raptor held under a raptor propagation permit, but notice is not required more often than once every 60 days. (3) Marking requirement. Unless otherwise specifically exempted, every raptor possessed for propagation, including all progeny produced pursuant to the permitted activity, must be banded in accordance with the following provisions: * (i) Except for captive-bred raptors lawfully marked with a seamless, numbered band provided by the Service, any raptor possessed for propagation purposes shall be banded

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with a permanent, non-reusable, numbered band issued by the Service. (ii) Unless specifically exempted by the conditions of the raptor propagation permit, each captive-bred raptor produced under authority of a raptor propagation permit shall be banded within two (2) weeks of hatching with a numbered, seamless band provided by the Service, placed on the raptor's leg (metatarsus). In marking captive-bred raptors, permittees: (A) Shall use a band with an opening (inside diameter) which is small enough to prevent its removal when the raptor is fully grown without causing serious injury to the raptor or damaging the bands integrity or one-piece construction; (B) May band a raptor with more than one size band when the potential diameter of the raptor's leg at maturity cannot be determined at the time of banding; (C) Shall remove all but one band from any raptor with more than one band before the raptor is five (5) weeks of age and return all bands removed to the issuing office. (iii) No raptor taken from the wild, produced from an egg taken from the wild, or produced from an egg from any source other than bred in captivity under authority of a raptor propagation permit may be banded with a numbered seamless band issued by the Service. (iv~l No permittee under this section may band any raptor with any band issued or authorized by the Service unless that raptor is lawfully possessed by the permittee. (4) Taking Raptors or Raptor Eggs from the Wild. Any permit authorizing the permittee to take raptors or raptor eggs from the wild for propagation purposes is subject to the following additional restrictions: (i) The State or foreign country in which the raptors or raptor eggs are taken must authorize the permittee in writing to take raptors or raptor eggs from the wild for propagation purposes; (ii) No raptor listed in Sec. 17.11 of this chapter as 84

"endangered" or "threatened" may be taken from the wild without first obtaining the proper permit under part 17 of this chapter; and (iii) No raptor or raptor egg may be taken from the wild except in accordance with State law. (5) Transfer, purchase, sale, or barter of raptors, raptor eggs, or raptor semen. (i) A permittee may transfer any lawfully possessed raptor, raptor egg, or raptor semen to another permittee or transfer any raptor to a falconer who holds a valid State falconry permit if no money or other consideration is involved. (ii) A permittee may transfer, purchase, sell, or barter any raptor which is banded with a numbered seamless marker provided or authorized by the Service, subject to the following conditions: (A) When the permittee purchases from, sells to, or barters with any person in the U.S., that person must be authorized under this part to purchase, sell, or barter captive-bred raptors; " (B) When the permittee purchases from or barters with any person in a foreign country, that person must be authorized by the competent wildlife management authority of the foreign country in which the transaction occurs to sell or barter captive-bred raptors; and (C) When the permittee transfers to, sells to or barters with any person in a foreign country, that person must be authorized to possess, purchase or barter captive-bred raptors by the competent wildlife management authority of his/her country of residence or domicile and the same wildlife management authority must certify in writing that the recipient is an experienced falconer or raptor propagator who is required to maintain any raptors in hislher possession under conditions that are comparable to the conditions under which a permittee must maintain raptors under Sec. 21.29 or Sec. 21.30. No certification is required if the competent wildlife management authority 85

'Ethics and Lega r

'Ethics ana Leqa!

,.

itself is the recipient of captive-bred rap tors for conservation purposes. (iii) No raptor may be traded, transferred, purchased, sold or bartered until it is two weeks old and only after it is properly banded with a non-reuseable marker provided or authorized by the Service, unless it is transferred, sold, or bartered to a State or Federal wildlife management agency for conservation purposes. (iv) A permittee may purchase, sell, or barter semen collected from any captive-bred raptor. (v) A permittee may not purchase, sell or barter any raptor eggs, any raptors taken from the wild, any raptor semen collected from the wild, or any rap tors hatched from eggs taken from the wild. . (6) Use of Service form 3-186A. No permittee may take, purchase, receive, or otherwise acquire, sell, trade, barter, transfer or otherwise dispose of any raptor unless such permitt~e submits a form 3-186A (Migratory Bird AcquisitionlDisposition Report), completed in accordance with the instructions on the form, to the issuing office within five (5) calendar days of any such transfer. Provided, that a permittee does not have to submit a form 3-186A (Migratory Bird Acquisition/Disposition Report) to report the acquisition raptors hatched from eggs produced as a result of the permittee's propagation activities as long as these rap tors remain in the possession of the permittee. (7) Documentation of lawful possession. No raptor ~ay be possessed under authority of a raptor propagation permit unless the permittee has a properly completed form 3-186A (Migratory Bird Acquisition/Disposition Report) for each bird possessed, except as provided in paragraph (d)(5) of this section. (8) Temporary possession. A raptor possessed under authority of a raptor propagation permit may be temporarily held by a person other than the permittee only if that person is otherwise authorized to possess raptors, and only if the raptor is accompanied at all times by the

properly completed form 3-186A (Migratory Bird Acquisition/Disposition Report) designating the permittee as the possessor of record and by a signed, dated statement from the permittee authorizing the temporary possession. (9) Sale, purchase, barter. A permittee may not sell, purchase, barter, or offer to sell, purchase, or barter any raptor unless the raptor is marked on the metatarsus by a seamless, numbered band supplied by the Service. (10) Transfer to another. A permittee may not receive or otherwise acquire from, may not transfer or otherwise dispose of to, and may not loan to or temporarily place with another person any raptor unless that person is authorized to acquire, possess, and dispose of such raptors under a valid permit issued pursuant to this part and part 13 or as permitted by regulations in this part. (11) Use in falconry. A permittee may use a raptor possessed for propagation in the sport of falconry only if such use is designated in both the propagation permit and the permittee's falconry permit. ' (12) Interspecific hybridization. Hybridization between species (interspecific hybridization) is authorized only if each raptor produced by interspecific hybridization is either imprinted on humans (hand-raised in isolation from the sight of other rap tors from two weeks of age until it is fully feathered) or surgically sterilized. (13) Possession of dead raptors, non-viable eggs, nests, and feathers. (i) Upon the death of any raptor held under permit, a permittee must remove the marker and immediately return it to the Director. The carcass must be destroyed immediately, unless the permittee requests authorization from the Director to retain possession of it. A permittee who has obtained written authorization from the Director to retain possession of the carcass may transfer it to any other person authorized by the Service to possess it, provided no money or other consideration is involved. 87

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'Eth.u:s and Lega.(

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(ii) A permittee may possess addled or blown eggs, nests, and feathers from rap tors held under permit and may transfer any of these items to any other person authorized by the Service to possess them provided no money or other consideration is involved. (14) Intentional release to the wild. (i) A permittee must obtain written authorization from the Director and the Director of the wildlife conservation department of the State in which release to the wild is proposed before intentionally releasing any raptor to the wild. The raptor marker must be removed from each bird and immediately returned to the Director. A Federal bird band must be attached to each raptor by a person designated by the Director before its release. (ii) No raptor produced by interspecific hybridization may be intentionally released to the wild. (15) Recordkeeping. A permittee must maintain complete and accurate records of all operations, to include the following: (i) Acquisition of raptors, eggs, or semen from sources other than production. (A) Description of stock: (1) Species, sex, age of each (if applicable), (2) Genotype-natal area (geographical breeding site or area that captive stock represents, e.g., Colville River, Alaska; unknown; migrant taken in Maryland, etc.), and (3) Marker number (if applicable). (B) Type of stock (including number or amount): (1) Semen, (2) Egg, or (3) Bird. (C) How acquired: (1) Purchase, barter, or transfer (include the purchase price or a description of any other consideration involved), or (2) Taken from the wild. (D) Date acquired: month, day, and year. 88

(E) From whom or where stock acquired: (1) Name, address, and permit number of seller, barterer, or transferor; or (2) Location where stock taken from the wild. (ii) Disposition of raptors, eggs, or semen. (A) Description of stock: (1) Species, sex, age of each (if applicable), (2) Genotype-natal area (geographical breeding site or area that captive stock represents, e.g., Colville River, Alaska; unknown; migrant taken in Maryland, etc.), and (3) Marker number (if applicable). (B) Type of stock (including number or amount): (1) Semen, (2) Egg, or (3) Bird. (C) Manner of disposition: (1) Sale, barter, or transfer (include the sale price or a description of any other consideration involved), (2) Live loss, , (3) Intentional release to the wild, or (4) Death. (D) Date of disposition: month, day, and year. (E) To whom or where stock disposed: (1) Name, address, and permit number of purchaser, barterer, or transferee, or (2) Description and location of other disposition. (iii) Production and pedigree record. (A) Mother and father(s): (1) Species, (2) Genotype-natal area, and (3) Marker number. (B) Insemination: (1) Natural, (2) Artificial, or (3) Combined. (C) Eggs laid: (1) Total, 89

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(2) First date, and (3) Last date. (D) Eggs hatched: (1) Total, (2) First date, and (3) Last date. (E) Young raised to 2 weeks of age: (1) Total produced, and (2) Marker number and date marked for each raptor. (16) Annual report. A permittee must submit an annual report by January 31 of each year for the preceding year to the Director. The report must include the following information for each species possessed by the permittee: (i) Number of raptors possessed as of December 31 (including the species, marker number, sex, and age of each raptor), (ii) Number of females laying eggs. (iii) Number of eggs laid. (iv) Number of eggs hatched. (v) Number of young raised to 2 weeks of age. . (vi) Number of raptors purchased, sold, bartered, received, or transferred (including the species, marker number, sex, and age of each raptor) the date of the transaction, and the name, address and permit number of each purchaser, seller, barterer, transferor, or transferee. (e) Term of permit. A raptor propagation permit issued or renewed under this part expires on the date designated on the face of the permit unless amended or revoked, but the term of the permit shall not exceed three (3) years from the date of issuance or renewal.

PART 22--EAGLE PERMITS

SUBPART CM-EAGLEPERMITS SEC. 22.24 PERMITS FOR FALCONRY PURPOSES.
The Director may, upon receipt of an application and in accordance with the issuance criteria of this section, issue a permit authorizing the possession and transportation of golden eagles for falconry purposes. (a) Application procedure. Applications for permits to possess and transport golden eagles for falconry purposes shall be submitted to the appropriate special agent in charge (see Sec. 13.11(b) of this subchapter). Each application must contain the general information and certification required by Sec. 13.12(a) of this subchapter plus the following additional information: (1) A copy of the applicant's master (or equivalent) class permit issued in accordance with 50 CFR 21.28. (2) A statement of the applicant's experience in handling large raptors, including the species, type of experience and duration of the activity in which the experience was acquired. (3) At least two (2) letters of reference from individuals with recognized experience in handling and/or flying eagles. Each letter must contain a concise history of the author's experience with eagles. Eagle handling experience is defined as, but is not limited to, the handling of pre-Act birds, zoological specimens, rehabilitating eagles, or scientific studies involving eagles. Each letter must also assess the applicant's capability to properly care for the fly golden eagles in falconry, and recommend the issuance or denial of the permit. 91

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'Ethics and Legar

(4) A description of the facilities in which golden eagles will be housed. (5) If requesting an eagle(s) from the Service, applicants must specify the sex, age and condition of the eagle(s) they will accept. (6) For eagles already legally possessed, a copy of the permit or other documentation authorizing possession of said birds, and the procedures to be used to minimize or eliminate hazards associated with the use of imprinted birds in falconry. (7) Narne, address, age and experience in handling raptors of any person the applicant proposes to act as an authorized agent in taking possession of golden eagles provided by the Service. (8) To obtain additional or replacement golden eagles, a request in writing to the appropriate special agent in charge must be tendered, identifying the existing permit and, for replacement eagles, the reason for such replacement. (b) Permit conditions. In addition to the general conditions set forth in part 13 of this subchapter B, permits to possess and transport golden eagles for falconry purposes are subject to the following conditions: (1) Golden eagles possessed for falconry purposes are considered as raptors and must be maintained in accordance with Federal falconry standards described in Sees, 21.28 and 21.29 of this subchapter. (2) Only golden eagles legally obtained may be possessed and transported for falconry purposes. (3) Captive breeding of golden eagles possessed for falconry purposes is prohibited. (4) The applicant, or authorized agent, must agree to take possession of a requested golden eagle(s) within 72 hours of notification of availability. Expenses incurred by the applicant in taking possession of said eagle(s) will be the applicant's responsibility. 92

(5) The golden eaglets) must be banded with a numbered eagle marker provided by the Service. (6) All permits issued pursuant to this section shall state on their face that eagles possessed for falconry purposes under authority of this permit may not be transferred or otherwise intentionally disposed of by any means, including release to the wild, without written approval from the appropriate regional director. (7) All permits issued pursuant to this section shall state on their face that the appropriate special agent in charge must be notified no later than ten (10) days after the death of a permit holder. (c) More restrictive State laws. Nothing in this section shall be construed to prevent a State from making and/or enforcing more restrictive laws and regulations as regards the use of golden eagles in falconry. (d) Issuance criteria. The Director shall conduct an investigation and shall not issue a permit to possess and transport golden eagles for falconry purposes unless he has determined: that such possession and transportation is compatible with the preservation of golden eagles; that the proposed possession and transportation of golden eagles for falconry is not otherwise prohibited by laws and . regulations within the State where the activity is proposed; and that the applicant is qualified to possess and transport golden eagles for falconry purposes. In making the latter determination, the Director shall consider, but shall not necessarily be limited to, the following: (1) The applicant's cumulative falconry experience. (2) The applicant's demonstrated ability to handle and care for large raptors. (3) Information contained in the applicant's letters of reference. (e) Tenure of permits. Any permit to possess and transport golden eagles for falconry purposes is valid for as long as the holder maintains a valid master (or 93

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equivalent) class falconry permit or until revoked in writing by the Service. (0 Permission to trap golden eagles for falconry purposes. Applicants desiring to trap golden eagles from the wild for use in falconry must request and obtain permission from the Service prior to exercising this privilege. The following applies to requests: (1) Only golden eagles from a specified depredation area may be trapped for falconry purposes. (2) Permission to trap golden eagles must be requested in writing from the appropriate State Animal Damage Control (ADe) supervisor subsequent to issuance of the permit to possess and transport golden eagles for falconry purposes. (3) Permission to trap will not be granted until the permittee suitably demonstrates to the State ADC supervisor or a designated project leader ~ his/her qualifications and capabilities to trap golden eagles from the wild. (4) All such trapping must be conducted under the direct supervision of the State ADC supervisor or designated project leader in the specified depredation area. (5) Any permission to trap golden eagles from the wild pursuant to this section shall in no case extend more than 90 days from the date of issue. (6) Upon issuance of permission to trap in accordance with the above conditions, the appropriate special agent in charge will be notified in writif'fg by the State ADC supervisor of the individual's name, address, location of the specified depredation area and tenure of permission to trap golden eagles.

FEDERAL FALCONRY EXAMINATION

Federal/State Falconry Permit

Qualifying Examination

for a

PURPOSE: The examination is designed to determine the applicant's knowledge of raptor identification, natural history, care in captivity, falconry techniques, and applicable laws and regulations. LEGAL REQUIREMENTS: Persons desiring to obtain a Federal/State falconry permit are required to answer at least 80 percent of the questions on a supervised examination. The examination provided has been issued by the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service. Once an applicant has passed the examination, no future examination is required by Federal regulation for permit renewal or for changes in permit class or State of residence. Those applicants that have not passed the exam with an 80 percent or higher may -retake the exam three months from the first examination. ' Administering Agency Department of Fish and Wildlife personnel. Content - USFWS 010 Examination The examination consists of 100 multiple-choice questions, each with four possible answers. The questions are distributed into three general categories: Raptor identification/biology 25 % Maintenance of raptors in captivity 50% I~ alconry practices/regulations 25 % A more detailed distribution of questions on this examination is provided by subject. Many of the questions fall into more than one category; i.e. A definition of "eyass" would need to be known to answer a question concerning the handling of eyasses.

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7fu. Language of :Falco my

Number of Questions Subject Literature Review/ Definitions 4 Raptor Biology Species/Sex/Age Identification 4 Ecology (Habitat/Food/BehaviorIDistribution) 10 Breeding Biology 5 Falconry Equipment and Facilities 12 Taking and Initial Handling of Raptors 8 General Health Factors/Food/Water 20 Injuries/Disease/Parasites 15 Training/Hunting Practices 12 4 Ethics 5 Regulations Other 1 Persons intending to take the examination should review the raptor literature and applicable regulations. The questions emphasize the practical aspects· and obligations of being a falconer. A knowledge of scientific names and obscure publications is not required. The statistical probability of scoring 80 percent or more by chance alone is less than one in a million. If an applicant must guess the correct answer to 50 of 100 questions, the probability of achieving a passing score is less than 5 in 1000.

THE LANGUAGE OF

FALCONRY~
The sport of falconry employs a unique language with words and terms that date back to medieval days. As with all language, there is different usage in different parts of the nation and the world. The following is a list of some of the most common words and terms of falconry. Accipiter - Genus of raptor, the "short-winged Goshawks. hawks," i.e.

FAILURE TO PASS Any applicant who fails to pass an examination may take another examination no earlier than three months from the date of the prior examination.

Apprentice - A newly permitted falconer who is under the tutelage of a general or master class falconer. Austringer - One who hunts with accipiters,

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Language oj :JafcoJ/11j

%e Language of '[alconn]

Bal-chatri - A cage like trap with live bait and monofilament nooses that catch the raptor by the feet. Bate - An attempt secured. to fly from the fist or perch when

Crop - Vascular sac were food is first digested. Draw the hood - To pull the closing braces of the hawk's hood Enter - When a trained quarry. raptor first captures a type of

Bind - To grab quarry and hold it. Bolt - To fly straight from the fist to the prey. Bowse - To drink. Brancher - A young hawk that is mostly feathered yet fully capable.of flight.
~.~.' :

Eyas - A raptor taken from nest before fledgling. Eyrie - A raptor nest site. but not Feak - When the bird cleans his beak. General - Indicates that the falconer holding such a permit has completed their apprentice phase, but has not yet accumulated five years of falconry experience. Gorge - To eat to repletion Hack - Leaving skills. a bird free for a time to develop flying

Buteo - Genus of raptor, the Redtail hawk. Cadge - A portable birds.

tha'tbroad-wlnged

hawks,"

i.e.

hawk perch capable of holding several

Carry - Taking a prey item and then moving away from the falconer. .P Cast - The regurgitation of indigestible fur and bones, a normal daily act; or two rap tors flown together; or to physically hold a raptor to prevent movement. Cope - To reshape the {beak} of a raptor abrasive stone , or other implement. sometimes grow longer or asymmetrically, human intervention to correct. Providing hard surfaces on which to hone his beak frequency at which coping is required. Creance - Long training cord or leash. .using a knife, Raptor beaks . which requires the raptor with can reduce the

Haggard - A raptor that was over 1 year old when it was taken from the wild, or a wild raptor that is over one year o.ld. Imping - A method of repairing Imprint - The psychological perceived parent. Interrnewed broken feathers. pairing of an infant to it's

- A raptor that has molted in captivity.

Jesses - Leather straps to secure the bird by the legs. 99

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'The Lall!JUlwe of Talconru

'lnc Language of :Ja(comy

Lure - Usually a leather' bag, sometimes with wing like extensions, attached to the end of a line, and swung to attract a falcon. Training to the lure provides another method of recalling a trained raptor, and also keeps the bird in condition for hunting. Making in - The falconer attempts to come close to the falcon or hawk while the bird is sitting on prey. The object is to be able to leash the bird without the bird {carrying} its prey. Make, to - Completely to train the hawk, when she is said to be 'made'. To make to the lure or make to the hood means to train the bird to come to the lure or wear a hood Manning - The process of taming a raptor. Mantle - To hide food from onlookers by covering with wings. Master - Level of permit which indicates that a falconer has at least five years of experience in the sport of falconry. Often confers upon the master permit holder the privilege to take and keep m~re rap tors, or rap tors of more species than either general or apprentice permittees. Meet - A gathering of falconers and their birds for the purpose of hunting game, swapping stories, and learning more about the art of falconry. National and local organizations hold meets regularly. Mews - Housing for raptors. Mutes - "Hawk whitewash". Hawks can project fecal matter a considerable distance. The resulting streaks and splatters on surrounding objects are referred to as mutes,
100

N.A.F.A. - North established in 1961.

American

Falconers'

Association,

Passager or Passage - A raptor that was taken from the wild in the fall of its first year, or a wild raptor that has not yet molted into its adult plumage. Penned-Hard - Fully grown feathers.

Pitch - Height a falcon takes overhead usually expressed in feet. Preen - Straightening feathers with the beak - grooming. Rouse - Shaking feathers out as a grooming action. Slip - To release the raptor after quarry. Stoop - Rapid decent from altitude, usually in pursuit of quarry. Strike the hood - To pull the opening braces of the hood so that it is ready to be removed Talons - The hard, sharp, chitinous extensions from the toes of raptors. These are the dangerous parts of the raptor's armament. Combined with the great strength of the feet in raptors, the talons can penetrate deeply into prey items, or incautious falconers who rely on short or thin gloves, or no gloves at all. Telemetry - Electronic gear for tracking lost raptors. Tiercel - Male raptor, 'I iring - Tough piece of meat to pull and eat tediously. 101

'Ifu.

Language of :!a(conrlj

'Equipment

Turn tail - To give up chasing quarry in mid-flight Weather secured. - To put a bird outside to enjoy the weather;

Wait-on - The falcon maintaining Warble - An overhead

pitch over the falconer.

wing stretch. and hawks eager to

Yarak - State of mind in accipiters

hunt.

EQUIPMENT
BASIC EQUIPMENT Anklets - Leather straps attached to the raptors legs which enable the falconer to attach bells, certain types of jesses, or other items. Aylmeri - Leather anklets designed by the Aylmeri; replacement for traditional jesses. late Guy

Bells - Exactly that: small bells attached to the bird's tarsus, tail, or around the neck. The benefit of this is to be able to hear the bird when she is in trees hidden by leaves or on the ground on quarry hidden by brush. Bewits - Small strips of leather which attach the bells or other hardware to the bird' s leg. If a different material is used as a bewit, it should not be attached directly to the leg, but rather to the anklet. A cable tie is a great convenience, but must never be attached around the bird's leg. 102 103

'Equipment

'Equipment

Block - The traditional perch for a falcon. Bow perch - The traditional perch for a hawk. Braces - Leather straps on the hood which open and close it. Brail - A leather thong used to restrain one wing on a bird to prevent it from bating. Not used very frequently in modern falconry. Cadge - A frame used to carry several birds at once. Creance - A long line or cord attached to the bird while training. Ten yards is going to work for most situations, but for free flights to verify that your bird is realdy to be taken from the creance, many recommend 50 yards in length. Gauntlet - The glove worn by the falconer. Hood - The leather head covering used on hawks and falcons. The purpose of the hood is to hide the stimulus of the world from the bird to calm her or prevent her from reacting to things. Jesses - Traditionally, these are leather strips which go through the anklets so the falconer can hold the bird of attach the leash. Modern 'jesses are of many types of material including parachute cord and various braids. Leash - Traditionally leather, this is what attaches the bird to the perch or falconer's glove. Modern leashes have taken many forms and many mate~ials are used. Lure - A fake quarry used to train a bird. For training birds to feathered quarry, a feathered lure which looks 104

like a bird is used, sometimes even mimicing the wingbeats. For training to rabbits, birds such as Red-Tails are not terribly picky and will respond to almost anything they are trained to. Swivel - Small metal joint used in between the leash and the jesses. When these birds are on the perch, they make many small movements turning around and such. Without the swivel they would very quickly become entangled and endanger themselves. Telemetry - Modern evolution of bells. A small transmitter is attached to the bird and the falconer has a receiver tuned to the bird's frequency. If the bird is unable to be found, the telemetry is used to locate her. This is one of the most revolutionary changes for modern falconry allowing falconers to fly the same bird for a longer period of time without her being lost, allows other falconers with receivers to assist in finding a lost bird, and allows the falcon to be flown at higher weights then ever before.

THE GLOVE

EXAMPLE OF A FALCONER'S GLOVE

One of the falconer's

basic pieces of equipment,

the

glove has become the symbol of the falconer himself just as

the hood has become the symbol of the hunting-trained

105

'Equipment

'Equipment

raptor, The purpose of the glove is, of course, to protect the falconer from the sharp talons of his raptor, but it has also become an adornment in that many falconer gloves are quite detailed and attractive.

JESSES, SWIVELS, ANKLETS, BELLS

Jesses are leather straps used for securing the raptor to the leash or creance much as a collar is used for a dog. Two styles of jesses can be used for securing raptors. Traditional jesses are single straps which tie on to the bird's legs. Aylmeri jesses (developed by British falconer Gus Aylmer), are two-part jesses, consisting of bracelets and separate jesses. The bracelet is held together by a metal grommet and is worn by the bird at all times. The jess attaches simply by slipping it through the grommet hole. For convenience as well as the comfort of the bird, Aylmeri jesses are preferred and, in some case, required by law. Jesses can be made of any strong leather, but kangaroo is preferred. Kangaroo is considerably stronger and lighter than cowhide. Jesses and bracelets should be regularly checked for wear, tearing" and fit. If a bird is not tethered and does not bate, bracelets may shrink and become too tight on the legs. Jesses and bracelets should also be regularly dressed with a leather dressing such as lanolin or neetsfoot oil, to keep them soft and supple. Swivels are best made from stainless steel. They are attached to the mews jesses, along with a leash to enable the bird to be tied down to it's perch. A creance may also be attached instead of the leash while the bird is undergoing training. Leather anklets are fitted to the legs of the bird to enable jesses to be fitted, which in turn enables the bird to be either held on the glove or secured to it's perch.

THE PERCH
The two main types of perch used to tether birds are the bow perch (1) and block perch (2). The block perch is generally used for falcons and eagles, and the bow perch for hawks. In the wild, falcons tend to perch on rocks or cliff-ledges, so they have a 'flatter' stance than hawks, which are more inclined to perch in trees. Examples of these perches are shown below.

THE BOW PERCH

BLOCK PERCH

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'Equipment

'Equipment

AYLMERI JESSES

TRADITIONAL JESSES

SWIVELS

ANKLETS

Bells come in a wide variety of sizes and tones, and are an essential piece of equipment when trying to locate birds that have gone into thick cover after quarry and cannot be seen. There are various ways of attaching the bells to the bird. Some falconers use a tail-mount that attaches a single bell to the two middle (or deck) feathers of the tail. The most common method though is to attach a single bell to each leg by means of leather bewitts,

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'Equipment

'Equipment

CREANCE AND LEASH

ANGLO· INDIAN

HOOD

DUTCH

HOOD

CREANCE

LEASH OR TETHER

LURES The 'dummy-bunny' is used during training of the bird to chase rabbit. Pieces of meat are tied on, and the dummy pulled along the ground for the bird to chase. A recent innovation is the use of a radio-controlled car with a rabbit skin draped over it, which seems to work quite well. Pheasant wing lures are used similarly.

The creance is a safety line used in training for' free flight. Once the raptor is coming instantly to lure or fist it is normally dispensed with and the raptor is flown free, Creances are also used in rehabilitation by allowing recovering raptors to exercise their wings without getting lost. The leash or tether is used to secure the raptor while leaving some room for movement.

HOODS
A hood is used to make the hawk or falcon sit quietly on the glove or perch. They must be comfortable and a good fit. There are different styles of hoods, but generally there are 2 main types: Dutch and Anglo-Indian.

RABBIT LURE

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'Etjuiplllf.nt

'Etjuipment

MEWS

PHEASANT LURE

SCALES Scales are available with a built-on perch such as the one depicted below.
<

ctured at the left is typical pen for a leon commonly .called a mew. The mew should be built to conform to the following which is federal law:

BATH

"Indoor facilities (mews) shall be 'large enough to aJlow easy access for caring for the raptors housed in the facility. If more than one raptor is to be kept in the mews, the raptors shall be tethered or separated by partitions and the area for each bird shall be large enough to allow the bird to fully extend its wings. There shall be at least one window, protected on the inside by vertical bars, spaced narrower than the width of the bird's body, and a secure door that can be easily closed. The floor of the mews shall permit easy cleaning and shall be well drained. Adequate perches shall be provided." Outdoor facilities should conform which is excerpted from federal Jaw: to the following

"Outdoor facilities (weathering area) shall be fenced and covered with netting or wire, or roofed to protect the birds from disturbance and attack by predators except that
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:Feeling and qenem[ Care

perches more than 6\112\ feet high need not be covered or roofed. The enclosed area shall be large enough to insure the birds cannot strike the fence when flying from the perch. Protection from excessive sun, wind, and inclement weather shall be provided for each bird. Adequate perches shall be provided."

OBTAINING BIRDS
It's very important that you coordinate with a Master Falconer before attempting to obtain your own raptor. Laws are many and strict. In conjunction with a Master Falconer you can begin your search using the following resources: *Local offices of Wildlife and Game agencies *FaIconry clubs and associations *Local pet stores

FEEDING AND GENERAL

* Animal

shelters rescue agencies

CARE
One of the first actions by the owner of a raptor should be the seeking out of, and the establishment of a working relationship with, a Doctor of Veterinary Medicine. This is important not only to you and your raptor, but also to other falconers and raptors you will come in contact with.

* Animal

Always remember that your best source of information is a Master Falconer.

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Many veterinarians suggest a falconer attempt to feed a diet as similar to the raptor's natural prey species that the bird would ingest in the wild, while at the same time ensuring the correct food quantity, quality, wholesomeness, and storage methods.

FEEDING NEONATES
It is very important to know that chicks are immune incompetent for the first ten days after they hatch. Simply put this means that they are very susceptible to infections and have difficulty fighting them off. With this in 'mind, hygiene in the preparation of a chick's food must be of the highest standard. Probably the best way of addressing this problem is to feed a pro-biotic for the first ten to fourteen days after hatching. A pro-biotic is made primarily of helpful bacteria (Strep faecalis & Lacto bacillus), which will colonize the gut thereby avoiding the swamping of the gut by pathogenic (harmful) bacteria. The composition of a chick's diet is far more important than that of an adult bird. It is of utmost importance that the diet consists of whole carcasses, and not just the, meat. Most falconers and vets are aware that one should be careful about giving roughage to young birds. Bone, however, is not roughage, and not only can it be fed, it must be fed. The whole carcass should be pulverized so that no fragments are too large. Calcium deficiency will be addressed later. When young chicks are reared by their parents, the parents will usually carefully pluck any food items until such time as the young can cope with the casting.
~

In those rather rare instances when a bird of a different species is being employed as a foster parent, one must be careful as she may not fully understand the feeding idiosyncrasies of her fostered young. The result is often that she gives the chick too much casting at too young an age. Even more common is the uninitiated hand rearer who gives excess casting. Rough casting such as rodent fur is found to cause the most problems. Some species such as the merlin, seem particularly susceptible to the problem. In view of this, a merlin should not be given fur until it is at least 18 days old. In general, most chicks can (and should) manage a small amount of feathers from day ten, but no fur until a good bit later. If a problem does arise, it will show up as an impaction. The chick slows in its weight gain, has a poor appetite, and may have a swollen hard lump in its abdomen (proventriculus). If the situation is realized at an early stage, then repeated crop tubing with fluid therapy every 2-3 hours will often soften the casting and facilitate its return. If the situation is advanced, however, then surgery is the only option. The prognosis is not good however when operating on a small, weak, and sick young bird.

DEFICIENCIES COMMONLY SEEN IN CHICKS

CALCIUM The most common and most significant deficiency encountered is calcium deficiency which often results in a chick that is initially normal, but then becomes weak, with poor appetite, stands with difficulty, and may even suffer from seizures. Calcium deficiency may arise for one of a var-iety of reasons. First, the egg from which it hatched may have been deficient in calcium, which is a bit ironic since the shell itself is made of calcium. A number of 117

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'Teedillg ani! (jenera{ Care :.Feeding and Yen.era{ Care

factors are important in the metabolism of calcium in the body. First, the diet must contain sufficient calcium, second the bird must have sufficient activated Vitamin D3 in its body to absorb the calcium from the gut, and third the kidney must not be damaged to the extent that all the calcium is lost from the bloodstream before it can be used. Vitamin D3 in the activated form can be supplied in the diet. If it is not activated, then Vitamin D3 requires the action of ultra violet light, either natural from the sun or' artificial, to convert it to the active form. Generally speaking, calcium deficiency in eggs occurs when additional calcium is required as in the case of species with large thick egg shells, or when the adult bird is suffering from kidney disease although this is not uncommon in elderly birds. The result of this form of deficiency is a chick born with bent keel bones (chest or sternum), or with swollen, painful ends to the long bones. If the condition is recognized by a veterinarian, additional calcium can be administered, but often by this stage the damage, has already been done. Calcium deficiency occurs more often due to a deficiency in the chick's diet. Signs of deficiency are not usually seen until the chick is 2-3 weeks old, and may not be recognized until considerably later. The chick is weak, has a poor appetite with little weight gain, is unable to stand, and with feet that rotate inwardly. Severe cases may result in violent seizures. If this condition is suspected, x-rays should be done to determine the severity of the damage. In many instances, birds are beyond help. Many others will respond to a simple change of diet. Those with bent legs he require that they be straightened.

SUPPLEMENTS

IN BIRDS DIETS

Falconers have available to them a wide range of various supplements for addition to the raptor's diet. Most vets agree that, as long the birds are fed a good diet as a routine, supplements are only necessary in exceptional circumstances. Supplements should never be used so that the raptor can be fed a sub-standard diet. A good diet will be varied and will be different depending on the size and type of bird being fed. Such a diet might include mice rats ' , day old chicks, older chicks, squirrel, quail, rabbit, and pigeon. It is quite permissible to feed day old chicks (with yolks removed most days), on 4-5 days of the week as long as improved food is given some days as well. In all instances whole carcasses (meat and bone) should be fed. Never remove the meat from the carcass and feed only that. Temporary situations will occur, usually dictated by the time of year, that supplies may be unavailable. At such times the use of supplements may be called for. The supplement selected should be one which has been formulated for birds by a person with sufficient knowledge to do so, i.e. a vet or Master Falconer. When using packaged supplements, follow the manufacturer's recommendations. Never feed more supplements than is recommended for the particular age, size, and species. Over-supplementing can be very dangerous to the bird.

VITAMIN 82 (RIBOFLAVIN) DEFICIENCY Deficiency in Vitamin B2 is demonstrated by an inward curling of the toes and is typically seen within the first 2 weeks of life. Quality mixed foods which have not been stored for an excessive period should have sufficient levels of Vitamin 82 present. If necessary, supplementation by mouth or injection can be administered. 119

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ana (jt.neraf

Care.

VITAMIN E I SELENIUM DEFICIENCY Vitamin E deficiency can result in the tiltlngof the chick's head backwards to such an extent that the chick's head may be upside down. This malady is often referred to as "star gazing". Seen for the most part in chicks.fed on food which has been stored for too long (especially,if the food had a high fat content), the treatment prescribed is initial injections of vitamin E and selenium, then further supplementation of the diet. DEHYDRATION Although it is generally accepted that few raptors drink, any bird may become dehydrated as many do, especially when ill or exhausted. Chicks are not good at moving into the shade or controlling their' body temperature and may therefore become overheated or dehydrated. If minced chick food is stored in a refrigerator, it will often dry out to some extent. Because of this it is often necessary to add additional fluid such as lactated ringers solution or glucose saline to the food. If at any time a bird's mutes are more watery than usual, it is essential that water is available. Furthermore, all raptors should have water available at all times. Be careful when choosing a suitable water dish; birds can drown themselves in even the shallowest container. FOOD REQUIREMENTS
It is important for falconers, in particular those treating or looking after different-species, to understand the degree of variation in food requirements, dependent on the size of the bird one is feeding. Bird

DAILY FOOD REQUIREMENTS OF BIRDS Weight % of Wt Required daily

100 - 200g
18 - 25

200 - 800g 11 -19 800 - 1200g

7 - 11
4000-10000g 3.5 - 6

The daily requirements will increase at times of stress such as after injury or illness.

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'Teerfing ami yenera[ Care

PROBLEMS

ENCOUNTERED FEEDING ADULT BIRDS

SOURCE OF FOOD

WITH

affect only one family of animals. For example, a rodent virus is highly unlikely to affect birds. On the other hand, feeding any avian derived foodstuff is a potential risk. The problem is that many viruses can be harbored by one species without causing it any harm but when used as food for a raptor, the raptor is infected. Although the virus did not harm the carrying bird, it may be deadly for the raptor. The only sure way of solving this rare but serious problem is the total avoidance of any avian derived food. PIGEONS Pigeons comprise a particular risk to rap tors because of their high incidence of Trichomoniasis (frounce). common misconception is that if only the breast is fed, there is no risk. This is not true. Raptors that are very old, very young, or ill are the most susceptible. Birds in perfect health generally avoid the infection, as evidenced by wild p~regrine falcons consuming pigeons on a regular basis WIth no apparent danger. However, risks should be avoided. Pigeon should be frozen completely and thawed before feeding. The length of time frozen is not a factor.

Regardless of the type of food, it is critical that the falconer is completely aware of the following facts concerning the food: quality, source, method of killing, method used in freezing, and storage methods of the food. All food of wild origin such as pigeon, quail, etc, taken in the wild must be considered as potentially infected. Such animals potentially carry bacterial infections such as Tuberculosis, Salmonella or virus infections such as Paramyxovirus, Adenovirus or Rotavirus, Also they may have been poisoned by alphachloralose, mercury, lead, or DDT (in those places where it is still legal). Any food taken from the wild should be in good physical condition when taken. Wild food should be caught and killed by physical means only. The car-cass should be examined carefully and should look wholesome and disease free. For birds taken from the wild for use as food, the abdomen should be opened and the surface of the liver inspected for the presence of small white spots which are indicative of avian (bird) tuberculosis. If these spots are present, the whole carcass must be discarded. The falconer should be careful of feeding road-kill since the animal may have become road-kill due to illness or poisoning making it slow ahdlor confused. Foods such as rats, mice, squirrels, or foxes are less' likely to cause any infectious disease in raptors since most pathogens will 122

ANIMALS KILLED BY FIREARM

Shotgun or rifle killed animals should be used as foodstuff for raptors with great caution. Some falconers have fed such a diet, and avoided lead poisoning by feeding an increased level of casting. The risk of lead poisoning is great when feeding flrearm-killed carcasses. All traces of ~ead should be cleaned from the animal prior to preparing It for food. The falconer should be familiar with the signs of lead poisoning which are: weakness in the legs and wings, extreme difficulty in standing, grasping at one foot with the other, faulty coordination, loss of appetite, green 123

!Fedi11g aruf fjetteralcare

'feufing and fjenera{ Care

mutes and weight loss. If these signals are observed, the raptor should be evacuated to the vet immediately. The falconer should inform the vet that he suspects lead poisoning.

old quail, fat laboratory rats & mice, and egg yolks. Falconers should be careful to not overfeed their raptors thereby causing them to become overweight and fat. Exercise is very important. FEEDING THE SICKLY BIRD

LARGER RABBITS AND HARES On rare occasions, the use of larger species of rabbits or hares as foodstuff will lead to a problem if the raptor attempts to take the whole thigh bone at once which can sometimes wedge sideways in the crop. Breaking the femur before feeding the carcass prevents this. FEEDING A TOO-RICH DIET As some people do with children or pets, some falconers will over-feed their raptors out of love. Because of this, A.th~roschlerosis is often a cause of death in many raptors. Similar to hardening of the arteries in humans, the condition will arise predominantly in situations of excessive eating and/or a high fat diet, combined with a lack of exercise. And as is often the case with humans , there is no sign of illness until the raptor is found dead. The condition is more common in older birds, especially female birds following the breeding season. High levels of fats are present during this time the purpose of which is to fill the yolks of the eggs. The disease seems to be hereditary. If the condition could be diagnosed prior to its becoming fatal, the disease is reversible simply by controlling and reducing the fat content of the diet and by exercising the raptor. As with many things, avoidance is the best cure and a diet which does not contain excessive fats will prevent this condition. Some of the commonly fed items to be avoided: 124

As a general rule, a raptor should not be fed again until it has brought up the casting from the previous day. However, if a bird is sickly, it is not advisable to wait a full day before giving another meal. In this situation it may be wise not to give any casting. A small meal of finely chopped meat with a little added saline may be a good idea. As soon as, but NOT BEFORE, the bird has put its crop over, it should be given another small meal. When food has passed from the crop into the stomach, the stomach acids will start to process it by aiding in digestion and preventing action by bacteria on the food. "Sour crop" describes the condition in which the food stays in the crop and therefore has no stomach acids to act on it and prevent bacterial decay. The food spoils very rapidly, causing the production of toxins (poisons) which very rapidly kill the bird. If your bird is slow to put its crop over, then a small volume (0.5% of the birds body weight, i.e. Sml for a 1 Kg bird), of saline should be given by mouth. This will usually quickly result in the crop being put over. If it does not and the bird does not throw the crop back of its own accord, then the food must be removed by milking it back up from the crop. This can be a risky procedure as any fluid present in the crop, will return as the meat is brought back up and the fluid may go down the windpipe causing a fatal pneumonia. Whatever the outcome the bird will need veterinary care and antibiotics.

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FEEDING A RAPTOR THAT IS VOMITING

Causes for vomiting in a raptor are too numerous and varied to approach without the care and advice of a veterinarian. Advice is offered here for the situation in which, for whatever reason, veterinary care is not immediately available. First of all, a raptor that is vomiting should not be offered more food since this will almost always lead to further vomiting. Allow the bird to rest for an hour or so then, using a crop tube, feed a small amount of luke warm saline. The dosage should be figures thusly: .5% (one half of one percent) of the raptor's body weight. Stated another way it equals 5 ml per 1 Kg of bird. Place the raptor in a warm, dark, quiet area for about two hours. If the raptor has kept the fluid down, repeat the same dosage again. If that is kept down after two hours, then feed the raptor with the same volume of a liquidized food crop tube. (The liquidized food is something that you will have to either have on hand or go out and purchase). Repeat the liquid food every two hours or so for a total of 3 administerings. If all goes well, then the first meal of finely chopped beef (or a similar meat) can be fed. At this stage if the raptor does not readily take the food, he is not ready for it. Keep in mind that these are emergency measures. A vomiting bird should be taken to the vet as soon as possible.

this. Any disease or abnormality of the mouth, oesopbagus/crop, stomach, or air sac can lead to a bird without appetite. So to can poisoning. In some occasions, the raptor has no problem whatsoever, but simply will not eat. Due to the large number of variables involved, the only course of action that makes sense is a trip to the vet in order to isolate and identify the problem.

RAPTOR'S WEIGHT IS LOW/NOT GAINING WEIGHT IN RELATION TO FOOD INTAKE

Once again, a wide range of conditions may be responsible for this rather common situation. Many falconers immediately assume that the raptor has acquired a parasitic condition. What usually happens then is that the falconer administers a standard wormer which unfortunately, only treats one form of parasite, therefore the condition will not necessarily get better. The only sure solution is to take a sample of the rap tors feces and have it analyzed which will definitely identify any parasitic problem and allow the administration of the specific medication required. Additionally, this test may actua~ly eliminate parasitic infection as the problem, allowing the vet to do further tests and isolate the real problem. Keep in mind that weight loss can be caused by any illness and immediate veterinary advice is required to diagnose and treat accordingly.

FEEDING THE RAPTOR WITH.. NO .APPETITE J . ...

Often falconers are faced with a situation in which a sickly bird that should be eating is not. As with many similar situations, a myriad of conditions can precipitate
126

FEEDING BIRDS AND TRA VELING

It is normally very unwise to feed a bird within a short time of taking him on a trip, because a raptor with a 127

~wfing anti (jenua[ Carl ~eding and (jenera[ Care

stomach or crop full of food or casting may regurgitate during the journey. This is especially true of birds that are not accustomed to traveling, and the danger is multiplied if the raptor is hooded. At the same time, a bird should not be starved for a long period before traveling. And remember, the smaller the bird, the less time they can manage without food. Several essential nutrients are not stored to any extent, or are unable to be rapidly mobilized, by the bird. Glucose and calcium are two examples. High-strung and nervous birds that are overly sensitive to stress might be prone to calcium deficient fits when its food being cut off for a trip is coupled with the stress of the trip itself. Goshawks in particular should be given additional calcium supplements prior to a trip, or any other stressful situation for that matter. An experienced falconry bird that has traveled in the past without travel sickness may be fed after a kill and allowed to travel home.

FEATHERS
A feather is made up of two parts, the shaft and the vane. The vane of a feather is made up of rows of interlocking barbs that come off either side of the shaft. Contour feathers are the ones on the bird's body. They give the raptor a sleek, streamlined shape when it is flying, and keep the body dry when it is raining. Under the contour feathers, there are down feathers. These help insulate the bird against heat or cold. There are also some feathers that look like hairs. They form the bristJes around the mouth, and the eye lashes. Owls have special feathers that make up the facial disk called "fiIoplumes." These long, thin feathers channel sound to the owl's ears, almost like a "radar dish." The biggest feathers are the flight feathers. They are found on the wings and tail, and are what allows birds to fly. Owls have a special design feature on their feathers: the leading edges have a soft fringe that absorbs sound and enables them to fly silently. Birds can raise or lower areas of feathers on their hodies as part of body language and the color of feathers is important for birds being able to recognize their own kind. Birds take care of their feathers every day by preening them with their beak. This keeps them in the right place

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and also spreads oils on them from the preen gland above the bird's tail. The oils from the preen gland help the feathers stay shiny and resist ultra violet radiation from the sun. They may be important for making vitamins (vitamin D). This is why pet birds can look scruffy, if their owners stroke them too much and rub the special oils out of the feathers.

Feather loss can also occur structural damage to the feather barbering by cagemates, and cage feather breakage or rubbing of which also breaks the plumage.

from wear and tear, from infectious causes, trauma. Parasites cause the plumage and skin,

CAUSES OF FEATHER LOSS MOLTING To successfully treat a bird with feather loss, it is important to identify the cause. This often necessitates diagnostic tests to confirm or rule-out disease syndromes and to confirm health of the patient. Viruses- The two most common viral causes are Psittacine Beak and Feather Disease and Polyomavirus . Parasites- Contrary to public opinion, parasites are rarely a cause for feather loss. Red mites, feather mites and lice are occasional causes. Brotogerid parakeets often get a Myalges sp. mite which causes feather loss on their forehead. Giardia protozoa have been implicated in causing itchy skin but probably do not contribute significantly to feather loss or damage. • BacterialFungiBoth types of organisms are common causes of follicle infection and usually respond well to medication. Nutrition- Malnutrition is still a cause for feather abnormalities. Fortunately, a thorough history of the diet and close examination often give telltale cIues. Barbering-» Cagemates frequently pick feathers of birds housed with them.
131

Birds lose and replace most of their feathers at Ieast : once yearly; some species will normally have a partial molt 6 months later. In our area, most species start their major" , molt around Valentine's Day and end it at about the . Spring equinox. South American parrots usually skip the Fall molt but Old World parrots (especially cockatiels) will sometimes drop feathers a few weeks before the Fall equinox, around Labor Day. It is important to know if your bird is undergoing normal feather replacement or has feather loss for other reasons.

TYPES OF FEA THER LOSS As with different types of molt, there are different types of feather loss. Feathers can be chewed off at the level of skin, chewed off with the downy aftershaft left behind, and chewed at the just the tips; leaving a moth-eaten appearance. Other birds will extract the feathers completely, oftentimes vocalizing painfully during this process. While other birds simply chew, abnormally preen, or fray their plumage.
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Behavior- Many factors contribute to behavioral feather loss: sexual frustration, dominance, boredom, territoriality, obsessive compulsive behaviors, predator stress from household pets, lack of parental training for grooming, etc. Physical- Organ disease such as liver damage, kidney failure, tumors, respiratory infection and other infections contribute to stress-induced feather loss.

BEAK CARE Raptors often use stones or other rough surfaces to hone their beaks to an appropriate length. Many raptor keepers will place an Emory cloth covered surface in their bird's enclosure either on the ground or in a place accessible from a perch. Some people prefer to place a large rock in the enclosure on which the raptor can wear down its beak. The provision of whole prey items can also aid your raptor in maintaining an appropriate beak length. If no such surface is available to your bird, it can develop an overgrown beak. In this case, you may find you need to consult a veterinarian to file down your bird's beak 01" you may have to file the beak yourself. You should only file a very small amount frorrr the bird's beak and if you unsure about performing such a procedure, you should consult a veterinarian before attempting it. It is a good idea to observe this procedure being done or to have someone show you how to do it before you try. Usually, a rotary tool with a cone shaped grinding attachment is used. An assistant should hold the bird still. The bird's mouth is usually propped open by placing a object in the mouth. Then, the tool is used to gently file small amounts of the beak. After all cracks have been smoothed away and the upper and lower parts of the beak fit together well when closed, you have finished your task. If at any time the beak begins to bleed, you should stop filing immediately and apply pressure with a gauze pad. If this does not stop the bleeding, you should apply styptic powder, using caution not to get any inside the bird's mouth.

Other Causes- Irritants such as insect bites, tonics applied to the plumage, ointments, improperly trimmed flight feathers, etc. can initiate chewing.

GENERAL HYGIENE
BATHING

Raptors need to bathe themselves in water to maintain good feather condition. Most people provide a bath bucket in which their birds can bathe themselves' as needed. Others, particularly those with more natural or planted aviaries, also mist their birds, or may place a sprinkler system in part of the bird's enclosure that turns on at set intervals each day. In cold weather, birds should be kept reasonably warm until they are dry. Also, birds should not be exposed to sprinkling or misting in the later hours of the day when colder temperatures begin to set in. Usually, raptors will not bathe themselves at night, and some people choose to remove their birds' bath buckets in the afternoon hours. The buckets will be replaced the next morning.
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TALON CARE

Talons may also need to be trimmed from time to time, or they can grow curved under to puncture the bottom of your raptor's foot. Talon trimming can be accomplished with the same rotary tool and attachment used for beak trimming. A clipper ~ type nail trimmer can also be used. Again, the aid of an assistant can greatly facilitate this process. The tip of the talons should be filed or clipped away little by little to avoid hitting the sensitive quick running down the length of the nail. If the nail begins to bleed, apply styptic powder with a sterile swab. To prevent this from happening again, try to trim away less of the next nail.

CONSULT YOUR VETERINARIAN ATTEMPTED TREATMENT!!

BEFORE

ANY

HEALTH AND MEDICAL

BIRD DISEASES
A certain characteristic of birds should be considered prior to attempting to understand their signs of illness. And this is that birds 'attempt to hide an illness. A grain eating bird will even go so far as to crack seeds as the other birds are doing, but then not ingest it. Raptors, as well as almost all other birds, want to conceal injury and weakness for a very simple reason: predators attack the young and infirmed first since either a young animal or an injured or ill one is an easy meal.
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For that reason (and several others) it is incumbent upon the falconer to know his raptor. A falconer who knows his bird well will spot the tell-tale signs of illness regardless of the raptor's best effort at hiding them. The following paragraphs describe the general areas of a raptor's existence that the falconer should be familiar with. Change in these areas will most often be the falconer's first indication that his bird is not well.

:J{wft!i am! MdicaJ

unaware of a particular bird's normal movements. How the bird sits on the perch is of particular importance (as will be explained in detail later), so the countenance of the perched bird should be noted.

EATING AND DRINKING

One of the easier signs of illness (assuming that the falconer has become familiar with his raptor) is a change in food and/or water consumption. A written log of a raptor's eating and drinking habits is good not only for health concerns, but as a general record of the particular bird.

BAROMETERS OF ILLNESS
GENERAL APPEARANCE
First of all, simple familiarity with the normal look of the bird is very important. Knowing the bird's look will allow the falconer to spot sometimes subtle changes in the birds feathers, eyes, beak, or talons. Recognize the consistency of the feathers, the smoothness, the texture, and general sheen. Know the texture, surface appearance, and color of the beak, talons, and feet. Without causing undue stress to the bird, attempt to see the skin beneath the feathers to get at least some idea of how healthy skin appears,

DROPPINGS
A change in a raptor's droppings is probably the single most important indicator of possible illness. So important in fact that a good practice is to make photographs of the bird's droppings when he is known to be ina healthy state. Color film in a close up exposure with a universally known item for scale also in the photograph. A short, readable ruler is best, but a coin such "as a dime can also be used. Note, too, the consistency of the droppings "and remember that a raptor 's droppings are a combination of feces and

STATURE AND MOVEMENT

The falconer should be aware of the raptor's normal countenance and demeanor. How he holds himself on the perch, how he moves, the actions o~ his wings and head w hen going to the glove orlotherwise moving about and his preening habits. One can't recognize sluggishness if
136

urine.

The falconer should attempt, as best he can, to keep a record of the raptor's regularity, as a change in this raises an immediate red flag that mayor may not be serious.

137"

J{ea{t!i alia iMedica! Hea{th and Metfica{

INDICATORS

OF ILLNESS

section on advanced signs of illness which follows later will elaborate on the importance of this. CHANGE IN STATURE AND MOVEMENT: A falconer who knows his bird well will recognize a change in how the bird moves. Sluggishness in movement can indicate a sick raptor as can a change in how the raptor stands the perch. CHANGE IN EATING HABITS: Normally, a bird that starts to eat less on a consistent basis may be ill and the falconer should begin to look for other signs. If none are noted, however, this should NOT deter a call or visit to the veterinarian.

THE INITIAL SIGNS OF ILLNESS

FLUFFED PLUMAGE: When a change is noticed in the raptor's normal sleek look, this may be due to the bird fluffing its feathers in order to maintain heat and keep warm. LACK OF PREENING: Sick birds strive to conserve energy as much as possible. Preening is a very natural and important behavior in a bird, so when he fails to preen, it's a red flag indicating possible illness. The lack of preening may manifest itself in an unkempt, rather dirty look with dull, dusty plumage. CHANGE IN DROPPINGS: Change in a raptors droppings is probably the most significant sign of illness. The falconer should 'examine the droppings for changes in color, consistency (more or less liquid content), regularity of producing droppings, and the total lack of new droppings. Mews should be kept clean and droppings removed often so that the newer droppings are easier to see and analyze. The caretaker should examine droppings daily, because, as stated earlier, droppings are an excellent barometer of the raptor's health. One should remain aware, however, that a change in droppings does not necessarily mean that the raptor is ill. A minor change in diet or accidental ingestion of an otherwise harmless substance can cause these changes as well. That being said, let it still be the rule that when changes are noted, it is tin-e to call the vetednal'ian. The
138

ADVANCED SIGNS OF ILLNESS

. ~isted in this section are the si,gns that something is Significantly wrong. The raptor should he immediately transported to the veterinarian. CHANGE IN FECAL CONSISTENCY AND/OR COLOR: A change in fecal consistency or color is indicative of possible gastrointestinal illness, infection liver disease, or kidney disease as well as several other illnesses. COMPLETE INACTIVITY: A bird which as become totally inactive, is sleeping almost constantly, or leaves the perch for the floor of the mews is most likely seriously ill. . LABORED OR AUDIBLE BREATHING: Prolonged Irregular respiratory functions is indicative of several possible conditions including but not limited to heart, respiratory, liver, or reproductive problems.
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Heafth and 9rf.u!ic.a[

WEIGHT-LOSS: SUDDEN, UNEXPLAINED Indicative of numerous possible illnesses. MASSES APPEARING ANYWHERE ON' "THE BODY: Growths, bulges, or swellings that. appear anywhere on the raptor should be· brought» to' the immediate attention of the veterinarian. Watch also for distention (general swelling) in the stomach area. UNUSUAL DISCHARGES: Any discharges from the mouth, eyes, nose, or a wounded area should receive immediate professional attention. ODORS: A foul smell of decomposition problem with the bird's crop. can indicate a

BIRD DISEASES
INFECTIOUS DISEASES OF BIRDS OF PREY
We will define an infectious disease as a disease which is caused by a living organism. We divide these organisms into the following categories: • • • • Parasites Bacteria Fungi and yeasts Viruses

Since raptors used in falconry are kept either individually or in pairs, the spread of infectious disease is generally limited due to the lack of contact with other birds hosting the diseases. There are, however, other sources by which these infections can reach a captive raptor, These include: *Food - normally infected birds fed to the raptor *Cont.aminated mews and contaminated objects with which the raptor comes in contact such as falconry gloves, portable cages *lnfected raptors wounds inflicted by quarry or by other

140

141

J-{eilrtfr and CJr{er!icn[

Jiea[t!t and' CJr{eaica[

PARASITES
The most common external parasite infecting raptors in temperate parts of the world is Mallophaga which is a biting louse. In sufficient quantities, these lice cause damage to the raptor's feathers. They are also a source of major irritation to the bird. Significant infestations of this parasite is often associated with an underlying condition or disease. Lice infestations can be controlled by applying an appropriate insecticide at ten day intervals. Ticks are sometimes found on raptors, usually attached to the head. They can be fatal to the raptor if left untreated. Treatment consists of removal of the tick as soon as possible and administration of anti-inflammatory and antibiotic medications. The Red Mite, Dermanyssus gallinae, is potentially problematic but generally only when rap tors are kept in enclosures which were previously occupied by chickens, turkeys, or other poultry. These parasites leave the body of the bird for breeding, so a good insecticide spraying prior to occupation of the enclosure by the raptor should prevent this problem. Myiasis species of thoroughly insecticides is the condition in which the larvae of some flies infest a wound. The wound should be cleaned and the raptor treated with local and antibiotics

veterinarian will confirm presence of these nematodes by examining scrapings taken from the raptor or its dropping. Nematode infestations can be treated using several medications. Prevention includes good hygiene in the raptors Jiving environment as nematodes can be transported by an intermediate host. Protozoan parasites are significant in raptors in that they cause several rather serious diseases. The most common is probably Trichomoniasis which is also known as frounce. It's normally evident as necrotic areas on the pharynx causing the raptor to .experience difficulty in swallowing or to continuously favor its mouth. Diagnosis of the condition is accomplished by microscope examination of fresh scrapings of the lesion or saline crop washes all of which must be examined within a short time of their collection since the organism is fragile. Confirmed cases should be treated by the vet as the medications used are prone to overdose. The usual source of infection is other birds, commonly pigeons, used as food. Freezing carcasses before feeding will kill any Trichomonads. Coccidial oocysts found in examination of raptor mutes in s~alI quantities do not necessarily indicate problems, but In larger numbers do require treatment.

BACTERIAL INFECTIONS
Raptors often are· infected with both localized and generalized infections caused by bacteria and bacteria-like micro-organisms.

The nematodes, Capillaria and Ascaridia spp, are somewhat common infectors of raptors. Capillaria causes problems for the most part in the upper alimentary canal in the form of white necrc tic patches on the mouth. Syngamus trachea, commonly called gapeworm, is often found in the trachea of buzzards and barn owls. The 142

143

JieaftfJ aM Muficaf

LOCALIZED BACTERIAL INFECTIONS

Wounds: Generally caused by bites or talons ofquarry or other raptors. Infected wounds usually respond to a thorough cleansing of the site as early' as possible -along with local antiseptics or the administration of antibiotics. Wounds which have gone too long without proper' care may require the removal of accumulated pus. Conjunctivitis, often associated with infra-orbital sinusitis. Best treated with local ophthalmic antibiotic preparations [chlortetracycline, fusidic acid] and 'systemic fluoroquinalones [enrofloxacin - Baytril., see formulary], Panopthalmitis which is caused by a talon wound from another raptor are potentially fatal due' to inf~ction entering the cranial cavity thru the optic nerve. Such wounds require immediate antibiotic therapy and, possibly, partial enucleation of the eyeball. See bumblefoot in the raptor disease section. or are secondary to the fungal infection, Aspergillosis (see fungal section that follows and the section on raptor diseases); Diagnosis may be made from clinical signs by the veterinarian. Crop infections can cause regurgitation of foul smelling material or poorly formed pellets. Enteritis can lead to symptoms of diarrhea, in which the mutes are green and smelly. Raptors in this condition require immediate treatment for dehydration and the administration of antibiotics. FUNGAL INFECTIONS

The infection of the respiratory tract with the fungus, Aspergillus is a very common and serious problem in all raptor species. See the the section on raptor diseases for more information. VIRAL INFECTIONS

GENERALIZED BACTERIAL INFECTIONS

Septicaemias occurs in adult birds but more often in neonate. Septicaemic infections may be caused by one of several bacteria including Mycobacteria tuberculosus, Kcoli, PastureUa, and Staphylococcus. The diagnosis of such conditions is difficult in a live bird. Live birds that are affected demonstrate the typical signs of an ill bird described earlier. 'Bacterial infections of the lower respiratory tract, pneumonia and air-sacculitis, are generally associated with 144
./

raptors include:

Some of the more significant

viral infections found in

ParamyxovinIs Type 1 which is the cause of Newcastle disease in poultry and has been found in raptors. Vaccination of rap tors can be performed using an Inactivated vaccine or a live vaccine such as Hitchner B 1.

Ilerpcs virus which actually consists of several distinct herpes viruses including the falcon, owl, and pigeon herpes viruses all of which have been found in rap tors and have heen shown to he associated with fatal infections. Birds which recover can remain as life-long carriers and no
145

Jiea{tJi and Mediad

:H.ea{tfi and Medica{

vaccines are available. Affected birds and in-contact birds have been treated using acycIovar. Pox virus is noted mostly in warmer climates 01' in imported birds. Infection is carried between birds by biting insects, as in mosquitoes. Damage to the eyelids can lead to a severe conjunctivitis that may require treatment with antibiotic ophthalmic ointments.

DISEASES
ASPERGILLOSIS (ASPER)
This is the most common cause of illness and death in captive raptors, It is caused by spores called aspergillus fumigates. The spore colonies are green to bluish-green at first and darken with age so as to appear almost black. The texture colonies vary from velvety to floccose. Symptoms include, dyspnea (difficulty in breathing), gasping, accelerated breathing, and a persistent slight drop in weight. After a short time the raptor may refuse to eat and will soon die. Treatment at this' , stage is useless as the disease is incurable.
I

Masses of the fungus are sometimes visible to the naked eye in the air passages of the lungs, in the air sacs, or III the abdominal cavity. This is a zooinotic disease which means it can he spread to humans. If diagnosed early, a veterinarian can prescribe an antifungal medication.

BLAIN
.Blain is a liquid filled blister of the second joint (elbow) of the wing. Once the joint becomes anchylosed (stiff) the bird is useless as it will be unable to fly.

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!J{eaft!iad 9,{dica{ J{caft!i ad 9,{dica[

BUMBLEFOOT
Bumblefoot begins as a black scab on the bottom of the foot. The infected area will begin to swell and the raptor will favor this foot when standing or walking and after a time may begin relieve the foot completely by lying down. As the final stage approaches, an abscess win form. At this stage surgery may be required to_remove the infected area. After the surgery, the vet will give instructions regarding flushing the wound and changing the bandages.'

young birds which have not been previously exposed and therefore have no immunity. Transmission: The disease is not spread from bird to bird like some other infectious organisms. Birds become infected by ingesting sporulated oocysts passed in droppings from infected birds and fromcontaminated litter, feed and water. Freshly voided oocysts are not immediately infective. They must spend a short time outside the host to sporulate (undergo a type of cell division) to become infective. Symptoms: Depending on the level of infection and coccidial species involved, signs may include paleness, ruffled feathers, droopy wings, dehydration and unthriftiness. Typically, the birds huddle together and act cold. Mortality may be high :in some cases. Feed consumption is usually reduced. Prevention: Keep bird density a~ low as possible in the mews. Keep the mews as free of manure as possible. Disinfect equipment used on and near the bird and the mews using a solution of 50% bleach and 50% water. Disinfect the mew with a solution of ammonia and water in percentages recommended by a veterinarian. Use a sprayer of type used for weeds.

CAPILLARIASIS
Capillariasis, a condition in which the wall of the crop and esophagus become thickened and inflamed, is caused by a threadworm infecting the upper' part of the small intestine. Raptors can die from severe cases that become pathogenic and appear in the lungs air sacs and abdominal cavity. Capillariasis symptoms include weakness and general emaciation. The raptor will move very slowly or not at all unless forced to do so. In severely affected birds the crop will fill with' a putrid liquid.

COCCIDIA (COCCIDIOSIS)
Coccidial infection is most common in raptors raised in confinement where access to the droppings of other birds allows them to consume no-cysts which are coccidian eggs. The greater' number of birds raised in an area, the higher the incidence of this disease. If the disease is not too severe, survivors developzsome immunity over time and live with a low level of infection, The greatest danger is to 148

COLDS
Like humans, raptors seem to be susceptible to colds during damp, cool weather. Ensure that the bird is fed well and has plenty of fresh water available. Use food supplements and/or medications recommended by the vet.

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:Hea!th. and Medica! :Hea{th ana Mediw{

CROAKS
Croaks is an old name for a disease of the raptor's respiratory tract. Symptoms include wheezing and croaking noises when exhaling. Birds with this disease deteriorate very quickly. A mute sample should be supplied to the veterinarian which he will use to confirm presence or absence of this ailment. Several cardamom seeds added to casting may be used as a preventative with the vet's approval. The raptor should be fed light nourishing foods such as freshly killed young pigeon. The vet may advise force feeding if the raptors life is endangered. be a source of infection. There are avirulent strains which do not cause disease and highly virulent strains that circulate within bird populations causing disease and death. The severity of the disease to the bird depends on the susceptibility of the bird and the potential of the strain of the parasite. Trichomoniasis is cosmopolitan in distribution. In captive birds, the disease has been found in domestic or common pigeons, doves, quail, turkeys, chickens, falcons, hawks, various finches, the Java sparrow, and canaries. In wild birds, the disease has been found in doves and feral pigeons throughout the U.S. T_ransmission: Transmission of T. gallinae occurs by discharge of bodily fluids in one of four ways. Adult doves and pigeons infect their offspring; during feeding, infect other adult birds through contaminated food water and bedding and via courtship behavior. Raptors 'are infected tJ:!rough consumption of infected doves or pigeons. Symptoms: Birds infected with T. gallinae display a variety of clinical signs. The birds are depressed salivate excessively, are emaciated, appear listless, ruffled and dull have difficulty closing their mouth, display repeated swallo~ing movements, exhibit open mouth and noisy breathing, have watery eyes, have difficulty eating and drinking', . have difficulty standing or maintaining their balance, have diarrhea, may have a puffy appearance of the neck, exhibit a sunken and empty crop and have a fetid odor. Birds will usually die from starvation due to the blockage of the esophagus or from suffocation caused by blockage of the trachea by the cheese-like ic masses in the mouth commonly seen with this disease. 151

EPILEPTIC FITS
Seen mostly in short-wings, epileptic seizures usually occur toward the end of the molt. The bird fans from the perch and after a short period of convulsive like movements will go back to the perch. No cure or specific cause is yet known. Leave the raptor undisturbed in a quiet, dark place for a period of time following the event.

TRICHOMONIASIS

(FROUNCE)

Trichomoniasis is caused by Trichomonas gallinae, a single-celled, pear-shaped protozoan. 'I'richomonlasls is also known as Canker (in doves and pigeons) and as Frounce (in rapt~rs). T. gallinae is a parasite of the upper digestive tract of many avian species causing accumulation of necrotic material in the mouth and esophagus. It is principally a disease of young birds and is often fatal. Nearly all pigeons and doves harbor the organism and can 150

Treatment: Your veterinarian will treat this disease using Antiprotozoal medications or others that he deems appropriate. Control: Regularly disinfect food and water containers using 10% bleach solution. Trichomonas gallinae has never been reported to infect humans and is of no public health significance. In isolated populations of doves, trichomoniasis can serve as a significant mortality factor. Research on Co?per's ha~ks in urban areas of Tucson, Arizona reported high mortality in nestlings due to trichomoniasis infection. In some states peregrine falcon chicks handled for banding purposes are treated with metronidazole to prevent infection.

Jlea[t!t am! Me£ico.[

should be contacted immediately plan.

to suggest a treatment

KECKS
See Croaks.

MAGGOTS (FLY LARVAE)

Maggots must be manually removed using forceps, tweezers, or a similar instrument. Care must be taken not to wound the raptor particularly when removing them from the sensitive areas such as tire ears, the face, or the rectum. When the maggots are difficult to reach, place a drop of water on them and remove them as they begin to come out of the cavity. A severe case may require using a diluted mixture of water and white vinegar. at a 50/50 ratio. A medication can be obtained from the vet for a particularly severe case. Make sure you or the vet thoroughly examines the raptor as many of these medications cannot be used if open sores are present.

GAPEWORM
Some worms can carry a protozoan called gapeworm whose eggs lodge in a feeding bird's throat, eventually choking it to death. Gapeworm causes the bird to gasp repeatedly for air and is rather rare in raptors, but does happen occasionally. Gapeworm is bright red in color and about one inch long. See the vet for medication for gapeworm.

SWELLING OF THE FEET INFLAMMATION OF THE CROP

When a raptor regurgitates its food soon after consuming it, there is a distinct possibility that t~is condition is present. Loose and discolored castings with undigested ~ragments of food a day or so before the regurgitating begins is another symptom. Mutes take on a brownish-red color and a pasty consistancy. At this point in the condition, the bird often dies. The veterinarian 152 Swollen feet in birds new to falconry are often caused hy the jesses. Fitting soft, well oiled jesses can prevent this.

TAPEWORM
Tapeworm is a parasite that feeds in the intestines of the raptor and may also infest the duodenum, jejunum and ileum. Flattened, ribbon-shaped, and usually

:J reaM ana 'Jv{eaicll{

ted in shape tapeworms are hermaphroditic and segmen, '1'1 lack both a mouth and an alimentary canal. l~y ra~lge . length from millimeters to over twenty-five feet. ~reatment is difficult to determine until the correct species of tapeworm is identified. Hexachlorophene a~ a dose of 25-50 mglkg of body weight for the species Raillietina cesticillus is often prescribed. Butynorate at 5150 mglkg of body weight given orall.y is also effective. Butynorate also removes five other species:

Hymenolepis R.tetragona Davainea proglottina carioca Choanotaenia infundibulum, Ameobotaenia sphenoides.

CLINICAL SIGNS: Infected animals, including birds, typically do not develop obvious disease associated with WNV. In areas where WNV is most prevalent, disease and death are most commonly seen in susceptible young birds while adults do not show signs of disease. In non-avian species, when infection causes disease, clinical signs are usually limited to flu like symptoms (lethargy, fever, malaise, lack of appetite, nausea, swollen lymph nodes). Unfortunately most affected birds are found dead so symptoms are not often seen. WNV can cause inflammation of the brain (encephalitis) and neurological signs. If this occurs, disorientation, instability (ataxia), Inability to rise, muscle tremors, blindness, and seizures may be observed. Incubation time in birds is about 4 days. DIAGNOSIS: Exposure to WNV in mammals can be detected using a blood test, however this is not yet available for birds. After death, the virus can be demonstrated in the brain and spinal chord, however, animals suspected of having WNV should be necropsied (autopsied) at the state laboratory. TREATMENT: There is no specific treatment for WNV, but supportive therapy according to clinical signs (often fluids and nutritional support) can be of significant benefit. PREVENTION: The best method of prevention is to decrease an animal's exposure to mosquitoes by limiting time outdoors between dusk and dawn when mosquitoes are most active and reducing the mosquito population around your home. Eliminate standing water by disposing of containers around property in which water may accumulate, cleaning gutters, changing the water in aviary
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WEST NILE VIRUS (WNV)

NATURAL CYCLE AND TRANSMISSION: . West Ni.le virus (WNV) is a flavivirus first i.solate~ m 193 m Uganda. It has since-been seen in Africa, ASia, the mldd.le east the Mediterranean region of Europe and recently 111 the 'United States (first isoiated in New York in 1999). Although WNV has been identified in ~any wild and domestic animals, including humans, buds aC,t as. the natural host. WNV is spread through rnosquito bites, therefore the risk of transmission is greatest from ~ay t.o October when mosquitoes are most active, The vln~s IS unable to adequately replicate in animals other than ?Irds. When non-avian animals are infected, it is a mistake in !he lifecycle of the virus. They act as a d~ad end host: meanmg the virus is unable to infect a mosquito and contll~u~.on to the next host. There is variability in the SlisceptIlnhty of different avian species to WNV. Some species such as corvids (crows, jays, ravens, magpies) and raptors (hawks, owls, eagles) are more susceptible.

154

water vessels daily, stocking ponds with mosquito fish, and landscaping to limit puddle accumulation. Window; and door screens may also help limit your. pet's exposure to mosquitoes.

on a. lar'g~ scale. An ill bird tends to eat and drink less rnakmg this method unreliable. SUBCUTANEOUS: The word 'subcutaneous' indicates ,'~)e.n~aththe skin', as in an injection beneath the skin. 1.11Is seldom used in birds except for some vaccines. IS INTRAMUSCULAR: Injections into a muscle. Most common injection sites in birds are the breast and the thigh. INTRA VENOUS: Intravenous refers to injections which are made into the veins. This is very risky in birds because their veins are very fragile and a major nerve resides alongside a major vein and might be damanged as a result of an injection.

ADMINISTERING MEDICATION
The high metabolic rate of a bird usually requires that medication be administered more frequently and in higher doses than is done in mammals. Thereforeit is imperative that the falconer consult with a vet prior to attempting to medicate his bird. Birds are particularly sensitive to the toxic effects of medications, so the vet must evaluate the whole animal - especially weight - when deciding on a dosage of a medicine. Most drugs are not aimed at .birds and this presents another problem to the. falconer who might attempt to medicate his. raptor himself. The vet, however, can consider the many variables involved when determining the dosage of a medication that was manufactured for an animal of a different species with a different metabolism. METHODS OF DRUG ADMINISTRATION TOPICAL: Topical medications present many problems when administering to a raptor or any other bird. Creams and oils disturb feathers and the bird will groom themselves thereby removing the medication. Furthermore, the bird will ingest some or all of the medication which may cause even more problems. When a topical medication is absolutely necessary, the bird may have to be partially restrained for a time. . l ORAL: Medications which are added to a bird's water or food is impractical unless many birds are being medicated
156

CROP TUBING
Crop tubing is a skill that every falconer should develop. Not only is it used for medications, it is also used ~()remergency feeding and watering when the raptor's life ~s threatened due to a condition which has prevented his intake of sufficient amount of food or water. Birds tend to bite at a syringe, so medicine or other substances can be easily administer"ed by crop tube once the skill is learned. GENERAL CROP TUBING PROCEDURE The general instructions presented here should only be l~sed after consultation with a vet or a Master Falconer. Ie urthermore, these instructions are for a raptor small enough for' the falconer to restrain with one hand. For larger birds, a helper will be necessary.

Heafth and 'Mediad

'Training the :I\9ptor

Hold the bird in the left hand and restrain the head using thumb pressure on the front of the neck just below the mandibles and the first one or two fingers around the back of the neck. Hold either one or both legs with the pinkie finger. Care should be taken to not put pressure on the raptor's chest which will stop the bird from breathing. Inspect the tip of the tube to ensure that nothing is left there from a previous use and that no extraneous material has become stuck there as these may dislodge and choke the bird. Move the tip of the tube toward the beak and allow him to bite the tip of it. Increase the pressure with the thumb as needed to encourage the raptor to open the beak. Roll the tube over the bird's tongue as the tube in the hand moves around to the front of the beak until it is slightly on the left side of the bird. As this is done, pass it gently down the esophagus and into the crop. The tube can be twisted slightly and gently as it is moved downward. Gentle pressure is then applied to the plunger of the syringe in order to, transfer the contents into the crop. Care should be taken as to not overfil1 the crop. When the correct amount of material has been transferred, the tu be can be gently withdrawn. Crop tubing is an indispensable skill for any falconer or bird owner. Not only is it used to administer certain medications, but also for feeding in an emergency situation when the raptor is weak or incapacitated. Veterinarians, experienced falconers, and rehabilitation centers use the procedure routinely. Bear in mind that this procedure should only be attempted .~hen assisted by an experienced falconer or a veterinarian.

TRAINING THE RAPTOR

INTRODUCTION The methods used in training rap tors have changed very little over the many centuries in which men have practiced falconry. The key is, and always has been, to train the raptor to hunt as it would in its natural state with one significant addition: A human being as a hunting partner. Training the raptor consists of three phases: *Manning

* Condi tioning
*Entering

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'Training tk !l(aptor

THE ROLE OF HUNGER IN TRAINING When preparing to train a new raptor, one of the first tasks of a falconer is the determination of the highest weight at which the bird will consistently return to the falconer when called. This is known .as the raptor''s "response weight" and is a critical toolin the training of the raptor. When at its response weight;' theraptor should have a minimal amount of fat for energy;bu~ not so much that it sees no further benefit in its association with the falconer. A raptor should never be completelydeveid of fat. Maintaining the raptor at his approximate .response weight makes training possible. The raptor is a. creature that expects scheduled, consistent behavior, so he expects to perch, fly, hunt, and eat at a specific time every day. If the raptor has failed in a certain training 'objective on a given day, it may not be fed until evening. The raptor is rewarded with food during each step of the training process: Hopping to the glove, flying a short distance to the glove, flying a long distance to the glove. All of these are reinforced with food rewards. When the falconer takes the raptor after quarry, the raptor is rewarded when he chases game. He is rewarded with a full meal when he catches it. The raptor gradually learns the style and begins to know what is expected of it, expect from the falconer. When this stage reward system can be relaxed somewhat. now he trained to release the game alive. of the falconer and what it can is reached, the The raptor can

MANNING
Anyone who witnesses the training of a newly captured elephant in India will observe that the first task performed by the mahut (elephant trainer) is the cornering of the beast (using trained elephants as blockers) and then the patting, petting, and rubbing of the animal while speaking to him constantly. This forced familiarity rapidly dissipates the elephant's natural fear of humans, and relatively quickly a bond develops between the mahut and the animal, as the touch and presence of people become accepted, and, importantly, the elephant begins to associate the human with the tasty morsels of food which the trainer provides as frequent reward. \Ve expose rap tors to similar stimuli during this stage of falconry training which is known as "manning". Manning represents an extremely stressful period in the life of a raptor. As with any creature (including a human being), a very new and very different lifestyle tends to traumatize. With this in mind, the manning process must be approached carefully, systematically, and with compassion toward the raptor. However, it's more than compassion and respect for the raptor dictating that the falconer demonstrate care and restraint during the execution of the manning process. The threat which the raptor initially perceives in the falconer may cause adrenaline and cortisol levels in the 'blood to increase which in turn, over time, lessens the raptors resistance to certain diseases. In short the falconer may ruin or even kill his raptor if he should adopt a too aggressive attitude during the manning 161

160

(Training tile'l?pptvr Traininq tlie.1(_aptor

process. patient.

Key points to remember:

Take you r time.

Be

or so until he accepts it. selected sound as he eats.

Remember

to make your pre-

Keep in mind during manning (as well as during all other training activities) that your most valuable tool is food. The raptor will only cooperate when he comes to associate you, and the activities you ask of him such as hunting when signaled, with food. Manning the raptor consists of several distinct activities which are best presented in list form in order to delineate them as individual actions: When the raptor is first brought home, the falconer must spend as much time with him as possible. The falconer must become a familiar and non-threatening presence to the raptor. It's better however to not have the raptor with you during activities which might unduly upset him such as a party, visitors in the house, etc. At the beginning,.keep the raptor in as dark a setting as practical. Approach him slowly and avoid surprises. When you feed him, make a distinctive, pre-selected sound as he eats the food. The sound can be a low whistle, a distinctive sound made with the lips or tongue, or a simple one-syllable word which must be pronounced in the same cadence and with the same tone each time. This is a very important step in that this is the time that the raptor begins to associate both the falconer and the sound with food. (In the next step the falconer should don his falconry glove) 1. Place bits of food on your gloved hand and present it, slowlypnd non-threateningly, to the raptor. If the raptor refuses the food at first, continue to present it every hour

2. After feeding the raptor two or three times in the manner described in three above, begin to gently coax the raptor on to the glove using the food as an enticement. If the raptor con~inues to hesitate at mounting the glove, you should try again every half hour or so till he mounts. Be sure and place the food on the glove in such a way that the raptor cannot reach it unless he is standing on the glove. Remember to make your pre-selected sound as he eats. 3. Perform the glove feeding exercise daily for several days until mounting the glove becomes second nature for the raptor.

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'Training tfie 1(p.ptvr

TRAINING FOR THE HUNT

From this point, the training of shortwings (accipiters), broadwings (true hawks and buzzards)' and. longwings (falcons) differ greatly. If the raptor was 'taken' from; the wild, hunting can begin very soon since the bird <already knows how to hunt. But if the raptor was bred in captivity or taken as a baby, there is still work to do. Though born with the hunting instinct, they must nevertheless be taught to hunt. Training is conducted in one of two ways (some falconers choose to train their raptors in both) depending on the game the falconer wants to hunt. In the first training method, the raptor is conditioned through the use of a lure that resembles the eventual intended quarry. The bird is taught to fly after the lure, and later the actually prey, from the glove of the falconer. The second method, which is normally used to train for the hunting of flying quarry such as pheasant or ducks,teaches the raptor to "wait-on" high above the falconer and to "stoop" on the game when flushed by the falconer or the hunting dog. Another hunting style widely in use is sometimes called the "follow" style. The raptor flies from tree to tree as he follows the walking falconer and waits for game to flush at which time he begins the chase.

falconer developed during procedure is as follows:

the manning

process.

The

Begin with the raptor perched on a post, an assistant's gloved hand, or a perch. Hold a food reward in your ~loved h,and and coax the raptor into coming to your glove lor t,he fo(~d'. Start at just a short distance - maybe three or four teet - then gradually increase the distance. Remember: Use your audio signal each time in order to reinforce it. It is quite important that the distance not be increased t~o rapidly since this may confuse the raptor and cause hun to flyaway from the falconer thereby requiring that the creance be used to bring him back. That is, of course, the purpose of the creance, but the less the creance is used to pull. the bird in, the better. Using the creance puts unnecessary strain on the raptor's leg, so avoid its use as much as possible. When the raptor wiH fly one hundred yards or more to the glove, he is ready for free flight and the hunt.

THE LURE
In the next phase of training, the raptor is introduced to Jure. The lure is used to train the raptor to hunt in association with the falconer. Also important the lure exercises the raptor and keeps him in good physical condition.
Ute

THE CREANCE Once the raptor is satisfactorily manned, the falconer introduces the creance in an outdoor setting. The creance is a long, very light leash secured to the raptor's leg. The ranjor is cal1ed to the. glove over' progressively greater distances using food rewards and the distinctive call of the

The lure can take one of several forms: **Though out of practice almost entirely in the western world, the lure can be (and originally was) a dead animal of' the type that the raptor will be used to hunt. .

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'Train ing the 1'\slptor

lures either bought from a falconry supply source or made. The artificial Jure must bear resemblance to the eventual prey and MUST have an actual foodstuff attached to it. combination of the first two: An artificial lure adorned with feathers, or fur, and the meat of the potential prey.

** Artificial

(Training tile !.R.Jlp tor

well at 10 yards, but hesitates or breaks routine at 15 yards, decrease back to the 10-yard distance and practice a bit more. Then increase to 12 yards, 13.5, etc. Continue to increase the distance at which the lure is cast until you reach about 30 yards. When the raptor performs very consistently at 30 yards, consider removing the creance and practicing with the lure as he flies unt~thered. Practice the free flying for several training sessions then change the lure procedure as follows. . W.hen the raptor flies to the lure, yank it away. COnlI?Ue to experiment with this until the raptor turns and flies back to the lure and lands on it. After he does so practice this several more times. When returning to the lure seems to be automatic to the raptor, begin yanking the lure away not once but twice, then, working slowly, three and more times until the raptor will turn several times until you let the lure rest and he la~lds on it.

** A

TRAINING

WITH THE LURE

Regardless of the type of lure used, make sure that the lure is generously adorned with edible food during this phase of training. With the raptor attached to the creance, .kneel down and cast the lure a very short distance. When the raptor jumps to it, allow him to eat some of the attached food while simultaneously feeding him morsels by hand all the while using the vocal signals that you chose at the beginning of the.manning process. Gradually coax the raptor onto the glove using morsels and gentle nudging. Bringing back to the glove during this phase of training will lessen his natural inclination to carry off his quarry when hunting. Continue these exercises until the raptor feeds on the lure without hesitation as the falconer walks and moves very close to him as he feeds. Next begin to increase the distance at which the lure is cast. Increase the distance gradually in a steady evenly paced method. If the raptor begins to hesitate at any stage, simply return to the previous distance until he is ready for the next increase and then increase more gradually that you did the first time. For example, if the raptor performs 166

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