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EN 1991-1-2 (2002) (English): Eurocode 1: Actions on

structures - Part 1-2: General actions - Actions on
structures exposed to fire [Authority: The European Union
Per Regulation 305/2011, Directive 98/34/EC, Directive
2004/18/EC]
EUROPEAN STANDARD EN 1991-1-2
NORME EUROPEENNE
EUROpAISCHE NORM November 2002

les 13.220.50; 91.010.30 Supersedes ENV 1991-2-2:1995

Incorporating corrigendum March 2009

English version

Eurocode 1: Actions on structures - Part 1-2: General actions -

Actions on structu res exposed to fi re

Eurocode 1: Actions sur les structures au feu - Partie 1-2: Eurocode 1 - Einwirkungen auf Tragwerke - Teil1-2:
Actions generales Actions sur les structures exposees Allgemeine Einwirkungen - Brandeinwirkungen auf
Tragwerke

This European Standard was approved by CEN on 1 September 2002.

CEN members are bound to comply with the CEN/CENELEC Internal Regulations which stipulate the conditions for giving this European
Standard the status of a national standard without any alteration. Up-to-date lists and bibliographical references concerning such national
standards may be obtained on application to the Management Centre or to any CEN member.

This European Standard exists in three official versions (English, French, German). A version in any other language made by translation
under the responsibility of a CEN member into its own language and notified to the Management Centre has the same status as the official
versions.

CEN members are the national standards bodies of Austria, Belgium, Czech Republic, Denmark, Finland, France, Germany, Greece,
Iceland, Ireland, Italy, Luxembourg, Malta, Netherlands, Norway, Portugal, Spain, Sweden, Switzerland and United Kingdom.

EUROPEAN COMMITTEE FOR STANDARDIZATION

COMITE EUROPEEN DE NORMALISATION
EUROpArsCHES KOMITEE FOR NORMUNG

Man~gement Centre: rue de Stassart, 36 B-1050 Brussels

© 2002 CEN All rights of exploitation in any form and by any means reserved Ref. No. EN 1991-1-2:2002 E
worldwide for CEN national Members.
BS EN 1991-1-2:2002
EN 1991-1-2:2002 (E)

Contents page

Foreword ............................................................................................................................4

Section 1 General ............................................................... D ............................................. 10

1.1 Scope .......................................................................................................................................... 10

1.2 Normative references .................................................................................................................. 10
1.3 Assumptions ................................................................................................................................ 11
1.4 Distinction between Principles and Application Rules ................................................................. 11
1.5 Terms and definitions .................................................................................................................. 11
1.5.1 Common terms used in Eurocode Fire parts ................................................................. 11
1.5.2 Special terms relating to design in general ..................................................................... 13
1.5.3 Terms relating to thermal actions ................................................................................... 13
1.5.4 Terms relating to heat transfer analysis ......................................................................... 15
1.6 Syrrlbols ....................................................................................................................................... 15

Section 2 Struc·tural Fire design procedure ....................................................................21

2.1 General ........................................................................................................................................ 21

2.2 Design fire scenario ..................................................................................................................... 21
2.3 Design fire ................................................................................................................................... 21
2.4 Temperature Analysis ................................................................................................................. 21
2.5 Mechanical Analysis .................................................................................................................... 22

Section 3 Thermal actions for temperature analysis ..................................................... 23

3.1 General rules ............................................................................................................................... 23

3.2 Nominal temperature-time curves ............................................................................................... 24
3.2.1 Standard temperature-time curve ................................................................................... 24
3.2.2 External fire curve ........................................................................................................... 24
3.2.3 Hydrocarbon curve ......................................................................................................... 25
3.3 Natural fire models ...................................................................................................................... 25
3.3.1 Simplified fire models ..................................................................................................... 25
3.3.1.1 General ........................................................................................................... 25
3.3.1.2 Compartment fires .......................................................................................... 25
3.3.1.3 Localised fires ................................................................................................. 26
3.3.2 Advanced fire models ..................................................................................................... 26

Section 4 Mechanical actions for structural analysis .................................................... 27

4.1 General ........................................................................................................................................ 27
4.2 Simultaneity of actions ................................................................................................................. 27
4.2.1 Actions from normal temperature design ....................................................................... 27
4.2.2 Additional actions ............................................................................................................ 28
4.3 Combination rules for actions ...................................................................................................... 28
4.3.1 General rule .................................................................................................................... 28
4.3.2 Simplified rules ............................................................................................................... 28
4.3.3 Load level ....................................................................................................................... 29

Annex A (informative) Parametric temperature-time curves ..............................................30

Annex B (informative) Thermal actions for external members - Simplified calculation

method ..........................................................................................................................33
B.1 Scope .......................................................................................................................................... 33
B.2 Conditions of use ......................................................................................................................... 33

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 BS EN 1991-1-2:2002
EN 1991-1-2:2002 (E)

B.3 Effects of wind ............................................................................................................................. 34

8.3.1 Mode of ventilation .......................................................................................................... 34
B.3.2 Flame deflection by wind ................................................................................................ 34
8.4 Characteristics of fire and flames ................................................................................................ 35
B.4.1 No forced draught ........................................................................................................... 35
8.4.2 Forced draught ............................................................................................................... 37
B.5 Overall configuration factors ........................................................................................................ 39

Annex C (informative) Localised fires ..................................................................................41

Annex D (informative) Advanced fire models ...................................................................... 44

0.1 One-zone models ........................................................................................................................ 44

0.2 Two-zone models ........................................................................................................................ 45
0.3 Computational fluid dynamic models ........................................................................................... 45

Annex E (informative) Fire load densities ...........................................................................46

E.1 General ........................................................................................................................................ 46

E.2 Determination of fire load densities ............................................................................................. 47
E.2.1 General ........................................................................................................................... 47
E.2.2 Definitions ....................................................................................................................... 47
E.2.3 Protected fire loads ......................................................................................................... 48
E.2.4 Net calorific values ......................................................................................................... 48
E.2.5 Fire load classification of occupancies ........................................................................... 50
E.2.6 Individual assessment of fire load densities ................................................................... 50
E.3 Combustion behaviour ................................................................................................................ 50
E.4 Rate of heat release Q ................................................................................................................ 51

Annex F (informative) Equivalent time of fire exposure ..................................................... 53

Annex G (informative) Configuration factor ........................................................................ 55

G.1 General ........................................................................................................................................ 55

G.2 Shadow effects ............................................................................................................................ 56
G.3 External members ....................................................................................................................... 56

Bibliography ..........................................................................................................................59

3
BS EN 1991-1-2:2002
EN 1991-1-2:2002 (E)

Foreword

This document (EN 1991-1-2:2002) has been prepared by Technical Committee CENfTC 250 "Structural
Eurocodes", the secretariat of which is held by BSI.

CENfTC250/SC1 is responsible for Eurocode 1.

This European Standard shall be given the status of a national standard, either by publication of an
identical text or by endorsement, at the latest by May 2003, and conflicting national standards shall be
withdrawn at the latest by December 2009.

This document supersedes ENV 1991-2-2:1995.

Annexes A, C, D, E, F and G are informative.

According to the CEN/CENELEC Internal Regulations, the national standards organizations of the
following countries are bound to implement this European Standard: Austria, Belgium, Czech Republic,
Denmark, Finland, France, Germany, Greece, Iceland, Ireland, Italy, Luxembourg, Malta, Netherlands,
Norway, Portugal, Spain, Sweden, Switzerland and the United Kingdom.

Background of the Eurocode programme

In 1975, the Commission of the European Community decided on an action programme in the field of
construction, based on article 95 of the Treaty. The objective of the programme was the elimination of
technical obstacles to trade and the harmonisation of technical specifications.

Within this action programme, the Commission took the initiative to establish a set of harmonised
technical rules for the design of construction works which, in a first stage, would serve as an alternative to
the national rules in force in the Member States and, ultimately, would replace them.

For fifteen years, the Commission, with the help of a Steering Committee with Representatives of Member
States, conducted the development of the Eurocodes programme, which led to the first generation of
European codes in the 1980's.

In 1989, the Commission and the Member States of the EU and EFTA decided, on the basis of an
1
agreement between the Commission and CEN, to transfer the preparation and the publication of the
Eurocodes to CEN through a series of Mandates, in order to provide them with a future status of
European Standard (EN). This links de facto the Eurocodes with the provisions of all the Council's
Directives and/or Commission's Decisions dealing with European Standards (e.g. the Council Directive
89/106/EEC on construction products - CPD and Council Directives 93/37/EEC, 92/50/EEC and
89/440/EEC on public works and services and equivalent EFTA Directives initiated in pursuit of setting up
the internal market).

The Structural Eurocode programme comprises the following standards generally consisting of a number
of Parts:

EN 1990, Eurocode: Basis of structural design.

EN 1991, Eurocode 1: Actions on structures.

prEN 1992, Eurocode 2: Design of concrete structures.

prEN 1993, Eurocode 3: Design of steel structures.

1 Agreement between the Commission of the European Communities and the European Committee for Standardisation (CEN)
concerning the work on EUROCODES for the design of building and civil engineering works (8C/CEN/03/89).

4
 BS EN 1991-1-2:2002
EN 1991-1-2:2002 (E)

prEN 1994, Eurocode 4: Design of composite steel and concrete structures.

prEN 1995, Eurocode 5: Design of timber structures.

prEN 1996, Eurocode 6: Design of masonry structures.

prEN 1997, Eurocode 7: Geotechnical design.

prEN 1998, Eurocode 8: Design of structures for earthquake resistance.

prEN 1999, Eurocode 9: Design of aluminium structures.

Eurocode standards recognise the responsibility of regulatory authorities in each Member State and have
safeguarded their right to determine values related to regulatory safety matters at national level where
these continue to vary from State to State.

Status and field of application of Eurocodes

The Member States of the EU and EFTA recognise that EUROCODES serve as reference documents for
the following purposes:

as a means to prove compliance of building and civil engineering works with the essential
requirements of Council Directive 89/106/EEC, particularly Essential Requirement N°1 Mechanical
resistance and stability - and Essential Requirement N°2 - Safety in case of fire;

as a basis for specifying contracts for construction works and related engineering services;

as a framework for drawing up harmonised technical specifications for construction products (ENs
and ETAs).

The Eurocodes, as far as they concern the construction works themselves, have a direct relationship with
the Interpretative Documents referred to in Article 12 of the CPD, although they are of a different nature
3
from harmonised product standards . Therefore, technical aspects arising from the Eurocodes work need
to be adequately considered by CEN Technical Committees and/or EOTA Working Groups working on
product standards with a view to achieving 'full compatibility of these technical speci"fical:ions with the
Eurocodes.

The Eurocode standards provide common structural design rules for everyday use for the design of whole
structures and component products of both a traditional and an innovative nature. Unusual forms of
construction or design conditions are not specifically covered and additional expert consideration will be
required by the designer in such cases.

2 According to Art. 3.3 of the CPO, the essential requirements (ERs) shall be given concrete form in interpretative documents for
the creation of the necessary links between the essential requirements and the mandates for harmonised ENs and ET AGs/ET As.
3 According to Art. 12 of the CPO the interpretative documents shall:
a) give concrete form to the essential requirements by harmonising the terminology and the technical bases and indicating
classes or levels for each requirement where necessary;
b) indicate methods of correlating these classes or levels of requirement with the technical specifications, e.g. methods of
calculation and of proof, technical rules for project design, etc.;
c) serve as a reference for the establishment of harmonised standards and guidelines for European technical approvals.
The Eurocodes, de facto, playa similar role in the field of the ER 1 and a part of ER 2.

5
BS EN 1991-1-2:2002
EN 1991-1-2:2002 (E)

National standards inlplementing Eurocodes

The national standards implementing Eurocodes will comprise the full text of the Eurocode (including any
annexes), as published by CEN, which may be preceded by a national title page and national foreword,
and may be followed by a national annex.

The national annex may only contain information on those parameters which are left open in the Eurocode
for national choice, known as Nationally Determined Parameters, to be used for the design of buildings
and civil engineering works to be constructed in the country concerned, i.e.:

values and/or classes where alternatives are given in the Eurocode;

values to be used where a symbol only is given in the Eurocode;

country specific data (geographical, climatic, etc), e.g. snow map;

the procedure to be used where alternative procedures are given in the Eurocode.

It may also contain:

decisions on the application of informative annexes and

references to non-contradictory complementary information to assist the user to apply the Eurocode.

Links between Eurocodes and harmonised technical specifications (ENs and ETAs) for
products

There is a need for consistency between the harmonised technical specifications for construction products
and the technical rules for works4. Furthermore, all the information accompanying the CE Marking of the
construction products which refer to Eurocodes shall clearly mention which Nationally Determined
Parameters have been taken into account.

Additional information specific to EN 1991-1-2

EN 1991-1-2 describes the thermal and mechanical actions for the structural design of buildings exposed
to fire, including the following aspects:

Safety requirements

EN 1991-1-2 is intended for clients (e.g. for the formulation of their specific requirements), designers,
contractors and relevant authorities.

The general objectives of fire protection are to limit risks with respect to the individual and society,
neighbouring property, and where required, environment or directly exposed property, in the case of fire.

Construction Products Directive 89/106/EEC gives the following essential requirement for the limitation of
fire risks:

4 See Art.3.3 and Art.12 of the CPD, as well as 4.2, 4.3.1, 4.3.2 and 5.2 of I D N°1.

6
 BS EN 1991-1-2:2002
EN 1991-1-2:2002 (E)

''The construction works must be designed and built in such a way, that in the event of an outbreak of fire

- the load bearing resistance of the construction can be assumed for a specified period of time,

- the generation and spread of fire and smoke within the works are limited,

- the spread of fire to neighbouring construction works is limited,

- the occupants can leave the works or can be rescued by other means,

- the safety of rescue teams is taken into consideration".

5u
According to the Interpretative Document N°2 "Safety in Case of Fire the essential requirement may be
observed by following various possibilities for fire safety strategies prevailing in the Member States like
conventional fire scenarios (nominal fires) or natural" (parametric) fire scenarios, including passive and/or
II

active fire protection measures.

The fire parts of Structural Eurocodes deal with specific aspects of passive fire protection in terms of
designing structures and parts thereof for adequate load bearing resistance and for limiting 'fire spread as
relevant.

Required functions and levels of performance can be specified either in terms of nominal (standard) fire
resistance rating, generally given in national fire regulations or, where allowed by national fire regulations,
by referring to fire safety engineering for assessing passive and active measures.

Supplementary requirements concerning, for example:

the possible installation and maintenance of sprinkler systems;

- conditions on occupancy of building or fire compartment;

the use of approved insulation and coating materials, including their maintenance

are not given in this document, because they are subject to specification by the competent authority.

Numerical values for partial factors and other reliability elements are given as recommended values that
provide an acceptable level of reliability. They have been selected assuming that an appropriate level of
workmanship and of quality management applies.

Design procedures

A full analytical procedure for structural fire design would take into account the behaviour of the structural
system at elevated temperatures, the potential heat exposure and the beneficial effects of active and
passive fire protection systems, together with the uncertainties associated with these three features and
the importance of the structure (consequences of failure).

5 See 2.2, 3.2(4) and 4.2.3.3 of ID N°2.

7
BS EN 1991-1-2:2002
EN 1991-1-2:2002 (E)

At the present time it is possible to undertake a procedure for determining adequate performance which
incorporates some, if not all, of these parameters and to demonstrate that the structure, or its
components, will give adequate performance in a real building fire. However where the procedure is based
on a nominal (standard) fire, the classification system, which calls for specific periods of fire resistance,
takes into account (though not explicitely) the features and uncertainties described above.

Application of this Part 1-2 is illustrated below. The prescriptive approach and the performance-based
approach are identified. The prescriptive approach uses nominal fires to generate thermal actions. The
performance-based approach, using fire safety engineering, refers to thermal actions based on physical
and chemical parameters.

Design Procedures

Tabulated
Data

Figure 1 - Alternative design procedures

Design aids

It is expected, that design aids based on the calculation models given in EN 1991-1-2 will be prepared by
interested external organizations.

The main text of EN 1991-1-2 includes most of the principal concepts and rules necessary for describing
thermal and mechanical actions on structures.

8
 BS EN 1991-1-2:2002
EN 1991-1-2:2002 (E)

National annex for EN 1991-1-2

This standard gives alternative procedures, values and recommendations for classes with notes indicating
where national choices have to be made. Therefore the national standard implementing EN 1991-1-2
should have a national annex containing all Nationally Determined Parameters to be used for the design
of buildings and civil engineering works to be constructed in the relevant country.

National choice is allowed in EN 1991-1-2 through:

- 2.4(4)

- 3.1(10)

- 3.3.1.1(1)

3.3.1.2(1 )

3.3.1.2(2)

3.3.1.3(1 )

- 3.3.2(1)

3.3.2(2)

4.2.2(2)

4.3.1 (2)

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BS EN 1991~1~2:2002
EN 1991-1-2:2002 (E)

Section 1 General

1.1 Scope

(1) The methods given in this Part 1-2 of EN 1991 are applicable to buildings, with a fire load related to the
building and its occupancy.

(2) This Part 1-2 of EN 1991 deals with thermal and mechanical actions on structures exposed to fire. It is
intended to be used in conjunction with the fire design Parts of prEN 1992 to prEN 1996 and prEN 1999
which give rules for designing structures for fire resistance.

(3) This Part 1-2 of EN 1991 contains thermal actions related to nominal and physically based thermal
actions. More data and models for physically based thermal actions are given in annexes.

(4) This Part 1-2 of EN 1991 gives general principles and application rules in connection to thermal and
mechanical actions to be used in conjunction with EN 1990, EN 1991-1-1, EN 1991-1-3 and EN 1991-1-4.

(5) The assessment of the damage of a structure after a fire, is not covered by the present document.

1.2 Normative references

(1)P This European Standard incorporates by dated or undated reference, provIsions from other
publications. These normative references are cited at the appropriate places in the text, and the
publications are listed hereafter. For dated references, subsequent amendments to or revisions of any of
these publications apply to this European Standard only when incorporated in it by amendment or revision.
For undated references the latest edition of the publication referred to applies (including amendments).

NOTE The following European Standards which are published or in preparation are cited in normative clauses:

p rEN 13501-2, Fire classification of construction products and building elements - Part 2: Classification using data
from fire resistance tests, excluding ventilation services.

EN 1990:2002, Eurocode: Basis of structural design.

EN 1991, Eurocode 1: Actions on structures - Part 1-1: General actions - Densities, self-weight and
imposed loads.

prEN 1991 , Eurocode 1: Actions on structures - Part 1-3: General actions - Snow loads.

prEN 1991, Eurocode 1: Actions on structures - Part 1-4: General actions - Wind loads.

prEN 1992, Eurocode 2: Design of concrete structures.

prEN 1993, Eurocode 3: Design of steel structures.

prEN 1994, Eurocode 4: Design of composite steel and concrete structures.

prEN 1995, Eurocode 5: Design of timber structures.

prEN 1996, Eurocode 6: Design of masonry structures.

prEN 1999, Eurocode 9: Design of aluminium structures.

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 BS EN 1991-1-2:2002
EN 1991-1-2:2002 (E)

1.3 Assumptions

(1)P In addition to the general assumptions of EI\J 1990 the following assumptions apply:

any active and passive fire protection systems taken into account in the design will be adequately
maintained;

the choice of the relevant design fire scenario is made by appropriate qualified and experienced
personnel, or is given by the relevant national regulation.

1.4 Distinction between Principles and Application Rules

(1) The rules given in EN 1990:2002, 1.4 apply.

1.5 Terms and definitions

(1)P For the purposes of this European Standard, the terms and definitions given in EI\J 1990:2002, 1.5
and the following apply.

1.5.1 Common terms used in Eurocode Fire parts

1.5.1.1
equivalent time of fire exposure
time of exposure to the standard temperature-time curve supposed to have the same heating effect as a
real fire in the compartment

1.5.1.2
external member
structural member located outside the building that may be exposed to fire through openings in the
building enclosure

1.5.1.3
'fire compartment
space within a building, extending over one or several floors, which is enclosed by separating elements
such that fire spread beyond the compartment is prevented during the relevant fire exposure

1.5.1.4
fire resistance
ability of a structure, a part of a structure or a member to fulfil its required functions (load bearing function
and/or fire separating 'function) for a specified load level, for a specified 'fire exposure and for a specified
period of time

1.5.1.5
fully developed fire
state of full involvement of all combustible surfaces in a fire within a specified space

1.5.1.6
global structural analysis (for fire)
structural analysis of the entire structure, when either the entire structure, or only a part of it, are exposed
to fire. Indirect fire actions are considered throughout the structure

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BS EN 1991-1-2:2002
EN 1991-1-2:2002 (E)

1.5.1.7
indirect fire actions
internal forces and moments caused by thermal expansion

1.5.1.8
integrity (E)
ability of a separating element of building construction, when exposed to 'fire on one side, to prevent the
passage through it of flames and hot gases and to prevent the occurrence of flames on the unexposed
side

1.5.1.9
insulation (I)
ability of a separating element of building construction when exposed to fire on one side, to restrict the
temperature rise of the unexposed face below specified levels

1.5.1.10
load bearing function (R)
ability of a structure or a member to sustain specified actions during the relevant fire, according to defined
criteria

1.5.1.11
member
basic part of a structure (such as beam, column, but also assembly such as stud wall, truss, ... ) considered
as isolated with appropriate boundary and support conditions

1.5.1.12
member analysis (for 'fire)
thermal and mechanical analysis of a structural member exposed to fire in which the member is assumed
as isolated, with appropriate support and boundary conditions. Indirect fire actions are not considered,
except those resulting from thermal gradients

1.5.1.13
normal temperature design
ultimate limit state design for ambient temperatures according to Part 1-1 of prEN 1992 to prEN 1996 or
prEI\J 1999

1.5.1.14
separating function
ability of a separating element to prevent fire spread (e.g. by passage of flames or hot gases - cf integrity)
or ignition beyond the exposed surface (cf insulation) during the relevant fire

1.5.1.15
separating element
load bearing or non-load bearing element (e.g. wall) forming part of the enclosure of a fire compartment

1.5.1.16
standard 'fire resistance
ability of a structure or part of it (usually only members) to fulfil required functions (load-bearing function
and/or separating function), for the exposure to heating according to the standard temperature-time curve
for a specified load combination and for a stated period of time

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 BS EN 1991-1-2:2002
EN 1991-1-2:2002 (E)

1.5.1.17
structural members
load-bearing members of a structure including bracings

1.5.1.18
temperature analysis
procedure of determining the temperature development in members on the basis of the thermal actions
(net heat flux) and the thermal material properties of the members and of protective surfaces, where
relevant

1.5.1.19
thermal actions
actions on the structure described by the net heat flux to the members

1.5.2 Special terms relating to design in general

1.5.2.1
advanced fire model
design fire based on mass conservation and energy conservation aspects

1.5.2.2
computational fluid dynamic model
fire model able to solve numerically the partial differential equations giving, in all points of the
compartment, the thermo-dynamical and aero-dynamical variables

1.5.2.3
fire wall
separating element that is a wall separating two spaces (e.g. two buildings) that is designed for fire
resistance and structural stability, and may include resistance to horizontal loading such that, in case of
fire and failure of the structure on one side of the wall, fire spread beyond the wall is avoided

1.5.2.4
one-zone model
fire model where homogeneous temperatures of the gas are assumed in the compartment

1.5.2.5
simple fire model
design fire based on a limited application field of specific physical parameters

1.5.2.6
two-zone model
fire model where different zones are defined in a compartment: the upper layer, the lower layer, the fire
and its plume, the external gas and walls. In the upper layer, uniform temperature of the gas is assumed

1.5.3 Terms relating to thermal actions

1.5.3.1
combustion factor
combustion factor represents the efficiency of combustion, varying between 1 for complete combustion to
o for combustion fully inhibited
1.5.3.2
design fire
specified fire development assumed for design purposes

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EN 1991-1-2:2002 (E)

1.5.3.3
design fire load density
fire load density considered for determining thermal actions in fire design; its value makes allowance for
uncertainties

1.5.3.4
design fire scenario
specific fire scenario on which an analysis will be conducted

1.5.3.5
external fire curve
nominal temperature-time curve intended for the outside of separating external walls which can be
exposed to fire from different parts of the facade, i.e. directly from the inside of the respective fire
compartment or from a compartment situated below or adjacent to the respective external wall

1.5.3.6
fire activation risk
parameter taking into account the probability of ignition, function of the compartment area and the
occupancy

1.5.3.7
fire load density
fire load per unit area related to the floor area qf, or related to the surface area of the total enclosure,
including openings, C1t

1.5.3.8
fire load
sum of thermal energies which are released by combustion of all combustible materials in a space
(building contents and construction elements)

1.5.3.9
fire scenario
qualitative description of the course of a fire with time identifying key events that characterise the fire and
differentiate it from other possible fires. It typically defines the ignition and fire growth process, the fully
developed stage, decay stage together with the building environment and systems that will impact on the
course of the fire

1.5.3.10
flash-over
simultaneous ignition of all the 'fire loads in a compartment

1.5.3.11
hydrocarbon fire curve
nominal temperature-time curve for representing effects of an hydrocarbon type fire

1.5.3.12
localised fire
fire involving only a limited area of the fire load in the compartment

1.5.3.13
opening factor
factor representing the amount of ventilation depending on the area of openings in the compartment walls,
on the height of these openings and on the total area of the enclosure surfaces

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 BS EN 1991-1-2:2002
EN 1991-1-2:2002 (E)

1.5.3.14
rate of heat release
heat (energy) released by a combustible product as a function of time

1.5.3.15
standard temperature-time curve
nominal curve defined in prEN 13501-2 for representing a model of a fully developed fire in a
compartment

1.5.3.16
temperature-time curves
gas temperature in the environment of member surfaces as a function of time. They may be:
nominal: conventional curves, adopted for classification or verification of fire resistance, e.g. the
standard temperature-time curve, external fire curve, hydrocarbon fire curve;
parametric: determined on the basis of fire models and the specific physical parameters defining the
conditions in the fire compartment

1.5.4 Terms relating to heat transfer analysis

1.5.4.1
configuration factor
configuration factor for radiative heat transfer from surface A to su rface B is defined as the fraction of
diffusely radiated energy leaving surface A that is incident on surface B

1.5.4.2
convective heat transfer coefficient
convective heat flux to the member related to the difference between the bulk temperature of gas
bordering the relevant surface of the member and the temperature of that surface

1.5.4.3
emissivity
equal to absorptivity of a surface, i.e. the ratio between the radiative heat absorbed by a given surface and
that of a black body su rface

1.5.4.4
net heat flux
energy, per unit time and surface area, definitely absorbed by members

1.6 Symbols

(l)P For the purpose of this Part 1-2, the following symbols apply.

Latin upper case letters

A area of the fire compartment

And,d design value of indirect action due to fire

floor area of the fire compartment

fire area

area of horizontal openings in roof of compartment

15
BS EN 1991-1-2:2002
EN 1991-1-2:2002 (E)

total area of openings in enclosure (Ah,v = Ah + Av )

area of enclosure surface j, openings not included

total area of enclosure (walls, ceiling and floor, including openings)

total area of vertical openings on all walls ( Av I Av,i )

Av,i area of window "i"

protection coefficient of member face i

D depth of the fire compartment, diameter of the fire

design value of the relevant effects of actions from the fundamental combination
according to EN 1990

constant design value of the relevant effects of actions in the fire situation

Efi,d,t design value of the relevant effects of actions in the fire situation at time t

internal energy of gas

H distance between the fire source and the ceiling

net calorific value including moisture

net calorific value of dry material

net calorific value of material i

length of the core

flame length along axis

horizontal projection of the flame (from the facade)

horizontal flame length

flame height (from the upper part of the window)

axis length from window to the point where the calculation is made

amount of combustible material i

o opening factor of the fire compartment (0 J

Av heq / At)
reduced opening factor in case of fuel controlled fire

Ant the internal pressure

o rate of heat release of the fire

convective part of the rate of heat release 0

Ofi,k characteristic fire load

16
 BS EN 1991-1-2:2002
EN 1991-1-2:2002 (E)

Ofi,k,i characteristic 'fire load of material i

heat release coefficient related to the diameter 0 of the local fire

O~ heat release coefficient related to the height H of the compartment

(4,1 characteristic leading variable action

Omax maximum rate of heat release

rate of heat release entering through openings by gas flow

Oout rate of heat release lost through openings by gas flow

Orad rate of heat release lost by radiation through openings

Owall rate of heat release lost by radiation and convection to the surfaces of the
compartment

R ideal gas constant (= 287 [J/kgK])

Rd design value of the resistance of the member at normal temperature

Rfi,d,t design value of the resistance of the member in the fire situation at time t

RHRf maximum rate of heat release per square meter

T the temperatu re [K]

Tamb the ambiant temperature [K]

To initial temperature (= 293 [K])

Ii temperature of the 'fire compartment [K]

Tg gas temperature [K]

Tw flame temperature at the window [K]

Tz flame temperature along the flame axis [K]

W I§) width of wall containing window(s) (W1 ) @il

W1 width of the wall 1, assumed to contain the greatest window area

W2 width of the wall of the fire compartment, perpendicular to wall W1

Wa horizontal projection of an awning or balcony

We width of the core

Latin lower case letters

b thermal absorptivity for the total enclosure (b =J(pcA) )

17
BS EN 1991-1-2:2002
EN 1991-1-2:2002 (E)

thermal absorptivity of layer i of one enclosure surface

thermal absorptivity of one enclosure surface j

c specific heat

geometrical characteristic of an external structural element (diameter or side)

flame thickness

cross-sectional dimension of member face i

the gravitational acceleration

l
9

weighted average of window heights on all walls heq =l~(Av.; h;)} Av

height of window i

heat flux to unit surface area

net heat flux to unit surface area

hnet,c net heat flux to unit surface area due to convection

hnet,r net heat flux to unit surface area due to radiation

h tot total heat flux to unit surface area

heat flux to unit surface area due to fire i

k correction factor

conversion factor

correction factor

m mass, combustion factor

m mass rate

rate of gas mass coming in through the openings

rate of gas mass going out through the openings

rate of pyrolysis products generated

fire load per unit area related to the floor area At

design fire load density related to the floor area At

characteristic fire load density related to the surface area At

fire load per unit area related to the surface area At

18
 BS EN 1991-1-2:2002
EN 1991-1-2:2002 (E)

(Jt,d design 'fire load density related to the surface area At

characteristic fire load density related to the surface area At

r horizontal distance between the vertical axis of the fire and the point along the ceiling
where the thermal flux is calculated

thickness of layer i

limit thickness

time

te,d equivalent time of fire exposure

tfi,d design fire resistance (property of the member or structure)

tfi,requ required fire resistance time

~im time for maximum gas temperature in case of fuel controlled fire

tmax time for maximum gas temperature

fire growth rate coefficient

u wind speed, moisture content

width of window "i"

sum of window widths on all walls (Wt = LlAIj); ventilation factor referred to At

width of the flame; ventilation factor

y coefficient parameter

Z height

Zo virtual origin of the height z

vertical position of the virtual heat source

Greek upper case letters

configuration factor

overall configuration factor of a member for radiative heat transfer from an opening

configuration factor of member face i for a given opening

overall configuration factor of a member for radiative heat transfer from a flame

lPz,i configuration factor of member face i for a given flame

r time factor function of the opening factor 0 and the thermal absorptivity b

time factor function of the opening factor Qim and the thermal absorptivity b

19
BS EN 1991-1-2:2002
EN 1991-1-2:2002 (E)

G temperature [OC]; G [OC] = T[K] - 273

Gcr,d design value of the critical material temperature [OC]

design value of material temperature [OC]

a9 gas temperature in the fire compartment, or near the member [OC]

temperature of the member surface [OC]

Gmax maximum temperature [OC]

effective radiation temperature of the fire environment [OC]

protected fire load factor

Greek lower case letters
coeHicient of heat transfer by convection
area of horizontal openings related to the floor area

area of vertical openings related to the floor area

factor accounting for the existence of a specific fire fighting measure i

factor taking into account the fire activation risk due to the size of the compartment

factor taking into account the fire activation risk due to the type of occupancy

Em sUl1ace emissivity of the member

emissivity of flames, of the fire

T]fi reduction factor

T]fi,t load level for fire design

thermal conductivity

p density

internal gas density

a Stephan Boltzmann constant (= 5,67 . 10-8 [W/m2K4])

free burning fire duration (assumed to be 1 200 [s])

lJIo combination factor for the characteristic value of a variable action

combination factor for the frequent value of a variable action

combination factor for the quasi-permanent value of a variable action

20
 BS EN 1991-1-2:2002
EN 1991-1-2:2002 (E)

Section 2 Structural Fire design procedure

2.1 General

(1) A structural fire design analysis should take into account the following steps as relevant:

selection of the relevant design fire scenarios;

determination of the corresponding design fires;

calculation of temperature evolution within the structural members;

calculation of the mechanical behaviour of the structure exposed to fire.

NOTE Mechanical behaviour of a structure is depending on thermal actions and their thermal effect on material
properties and indirect mechanical actions, as well as on the direct effect of mechanical actions.

(2) Structural fire design involves applying actions for temperature analysis and actions for mechanical
analysis according to this Part and other Parts of EN 1991.

(3)P Actions on structures from fire exposure are classi'fied as accidental actions, see EN 1990:2002,
6.4.3.3(4).

2.2 Design fire scenario

(1) To identify the accidental design situation, the relevant design fire scenarios and the associated design
fires should be determined on the basis of a fire risk assessment.

(2) For structures where particular risks of fire arise as a consequence of other accidental actions, this risk
should be considered when determining the overall safety concept.

(3) Time- and load-dependent structural behaviour prior to the accidental situation needs not be
considered, unless (2) applies.

2.3 Design fire

(1) For each design fire scenario, a design fire, in a fire compartment, should be estimated according to
section 3 of this Part.

(2) The design fire should be applied only to one fire compartment of the building at a time, unless
otherwise specified in the design fire scenario.

(3) For structures, where the national authorities specify structural fire resistance requirements, it may be
assumed that the relevant design fire is given by the standard fire, unless specified otherwise.

2.4 Temperature Analysis

(1)P When performing temperature analysis of a member, the position of the design fire in relation to the
member shall be taken into account.

(2) For external members, fire exposure through openings in facades and roofs should be considered.

(3) For separating external walls fire exposure from inside (from the respective fire compartment) and
alternatively from outside (from other fire compartments) should be considered when required.

21
BS EN 1991-1-2:2002
EN 1991-1-2:2002 (E)

(4) Depending on the design fire chosen in section 3, the following procedures should be used:

with a nominal temperature-time curve, the temperature analysis of the structural members is made
for a specified period of time, without any cooling phase;

NOTE 1 The speci"fied period of time may be given in the national regulations or obtained from annex F following the
specifications of the national annex.

with a fire model, the temperature analysis of the structural members is made for the full duration of
the fire, including the cooling phase.

NOTE 2 Limited periods of fire resistance may be set in the national annex.

2.5 Mechanical Analysis

(1)P The mechanical analysis shall be performed for the same duration as used in the temperature
analysis.

(2) Verification of fire resistance should be in the time domain:

tfi,d ;::: tfj,requ (2.1 )

or in the strength domain:

Rfi,d,t;::: qi,d,t (2.2)

or in the temperature domain:

(2.3)
where

tfi,d is the design value of the fire resistance

tfi,requ is the required fire resistance time

Rfj,d,1 is the design value of the resistance of the member in the fire situation at time t

is the design value of the relevant effects of actions in the fire situation at time t

E>d is the design value of material temperature

E>cr,d is the design value of the critical material temperature

22
 BS EN 1991-1-2:2002
EN 1991-1-2:2002 (E)

Section 3 Thermal actions for temperature analysis

3.1 General rules

(1)P Therma.l actions are given by the net heat flux hnet [W1m2] to the surface of the member.
(2) On the fire exposed surfaces the net heat flux hnet should be determined by considering heat transfer
by convection and radiation as

h net h net,c + h net,r [W/m2] (3.1 )

where

hnet.c is given by e.q. (3.2)

hnet,r is given by e.q. (3.3)

(3) The net convective heat flux component should be determined by:

(3.2)

where
2
ac is the coefficient of heat transfer by convection [W Im K]

eg is the gas temperature in the vicinity of the fire exposed member [DC]

em is the surface temperature of the member [DC]

(4) For the coefficient of heat transfer by convection a c relevant for nominal temperature-time curves, see
3.2.

(5) On the unexposed side of separating members, the net heat flux h net should be determined by using
2
equation (3.1), with a c = 4 [W/m K]. The coefficient of heat transfer by convection should be taken as
2
a c 9 [W Im K], when assuming it contains the effects of heat transfer by radiation.

(6) The net radiative heat flux component per unit surface area is determined by:
. 4 4
hnet,r = lP· em . ef . a· [(er + 273) - (em + 273) ] (3.3)

where

lP is the configu ration factor

em is the surface emissivity of the member

ef is the emissivity of the fire

a is the Stephan Boltzmann constant (= 5,67 . 10.8 W Im2K4)

er is the effective radiation temperature of the fire environment [DC]

em is the surface temperature of the member [DC]

NOTE 1 Unless given in the material related fire design Parts of prEN 1992 to prEN 1996 and prEN 1999, Em =
0,8 may be used.

23
BS EN 1991-1-2:2002
EN 1991-1-2:2002 (E)

NOTE 2 The emissivity of the fire is taken in general as Ef = 1,0.

(7) Where this Part or the fire design Parts of prEN 1992 to prEN 1996 and prEN 1999 give no speci"fic
data, the configuration factor should be taken as cP = 1,0. A lower value may be chosen to take account of
so called position and shadow effects.

NOTE For the calculation of the configuration factor cP a method is given in annex G.

(8) In case of fully fire engulfed members, the radiation temperature 8 r may be represented by the gas
temperature 8 9 around that member.

(9) The surface temperature 8 m results from the temperature analysis of the member according to the fire
design Parts 1-2 of prEN 1992 to prEN 1996 and prEN 1999, as relevant.

(10) Gas temperatures 8 9 may be adopted as nominal temperature-time curves according to 3.2, or
adopted according to the fire models given in 3.3.

NOTE The use of the nominal temperature-time curves according to 3.2 or, as an alternative, the use of the
natural fire models according to 3.3 may be specified in the national annex.

3.2 Nominal temperature-time curves

3.2.1 Standard temperature-time curve

(1) The standard temperature-time curve is given by:

8 9 = 20 + 34510g lO (8 t+ 1) (3.4)

where

e9 is the gas temperature in the "fire compartment

is the time [min]

(2) The coefficient of heat transfer by convection is:

(Xc = 25 W/m2K

3.2.2 External fire curve

(1) The external fire curve is given by:

8 9 = 660 ( 1 - 0,687 e- 0 ,32 t _ 0,313 e- 3 ,8 t) + 20 (3.5)

where

is the gas temperature near the member

is the time [min]

24
 BS EN 1991-1-2:2002
EN 1991-1-2:2002 (E)

(2) The coefficient of heat transfer by convection is:

3.2.3 Hydrocarbon curve

(1) The hydrocarbon temperature-time curve is given by:

a9 = 1 080 ( 1 - 0 , 325 e-O,167 t - 0 , 675 e-2,5 t) + 20 (3.6)

where

is the gas temperature in the fire compartment

is the time [min]

(2) The coefficient of heat transfer by convection is: (3.7)

2
Uc = 50 W/m K

3.3 Natural fire models

3.3.1 Simplified fire models

3.3.1.1 General

(1) Simple fire models are based on specific physical parameters with a limited field of application.

NOTE For the calculation of the design fire load density qf,d a method is given in annex E.

(2) A uniform temperature distribution as a function of time is assumed for compartment fires. A non-
uniform temperature distribution as a function of time is assumed in case of localised fires.

(3) When simp,le fire models are used, the coefficient of heat transfer by convection should be taken as
U c = 35 [W/m K].

3.3.1.2 Compartment fires

(1) Gas temperatures should be determined on the basis of physical parameters considering at least the
fire load density and the ventilation conditions.

NOTE 1 The national annex may specify the procedure for calculating the heating conditions.

NOTE 2 For internal members of 'fire compartments, a method for the calculation of the gas temperature in the
compartment is given in annex A.

(2) For external members, the radiative heat flux component should be calculated as the sum of the
contributions of the fire compartment and of the flames emerging from the openings.

NOTE For external members exposed to fire through openings in the facade, a method for the calculation of the
heating conditions is given in annex B.

25
BS EN 1991-1-2:2002
EN 1991-1-2:2002 (E)

3.3.1.3 Localised fires

(1) Where flash-over is unlikely to occur, thermal actions of a localised fire should be taken into account.

NOTE The national annex may specify the procedure for calculating the heating conditions. A method for the
calculation of thermal actions from localised fires is given in annex C.

3.3.2 Advanced fire models

(1) Advanced fire models should take into account the following:

gas properties;

mass exchange;

energy exchange.

NOTE 1 Available calculation methods normally include iterative procedures.

NOTE 2 For the calculation of tile design fire load density qf.d a method is given in annex E.

NOTE 3 For the calculation of the rate of heat release Q a method is given in annex E.

(2) One of the following models should be used:

one-zone models assuming a uniform, time dependent temperature distribution in the compartment;

two-zone models assuming an upper layer with time dependent thickness and with time dependent
uniform temperature, as well as a lower layer with a time dependent uniform and lower temperature;

Computational Fluid Dynamic models giving the temperature evolution in the compartment in a
completely time dependent and space dependent manner.

NOTE The national annex may specify the procedure for calculating the heating conditions.
A method for the calculation of thermal actions in case of one-zone, two-zone or computational fluid dynamic models
is given in annex D.

2
(3) The coefficient of heat transfer by convection should be taken as a c = 35 [W Im K], unless more
detailed information is available.

(4) In order to calculate more accurately the temperature distribution along a member, in case of a
localised fire, a combination of results obtained with a two-zone model and a localised fire approach may
be considered.

NOTE The temperature field in the member may be obtained by considering the maximum effect at each location
given by the two fire models.

26
 BS EN 1991-1-2:2002
EN 1991-1-2:2002 (E)

Section 4 Mechanical actions for structural analysis

4.1 General

(1)P Imposed and constrained expansions and deformations caused by temperature changes due to fire
exposure result in effects of actions, e.g. forces and moments, which shall be considered with the
exception of those cases where they:

may be recognized a priori to be either negligible or favourable;

are accounted for by conservatively chosen support models and boundary conditions, and/or implicitly
considered by conservatively specified fire safety requirements.

(2) For an assessment of indirect actions the following should be considered:

constrained thermal expansion of the members themselves, e.g. columns in multi-storey frame
structures with stiff walls;

differing thermal expansion within statically indeterminate members, e.g. continuous floor slabs;

thermal gradients within cross-sections giving internal stresses;

thermal expansion of adjacent members, e.g. displacement of a column head due to the expanding
floor slab, or expansion of suspended cables;

thermal expansion of members affecting other members outside the fire compartment.

(3) Design values of indirect actions due to fire And,d should be determined on the basis of the design
values of the thermal and mechanical material properties given in the fire design Parts of prEN 1992 to
prEN 1996 and prEN 1999 and the relevant fire exposure.

(4) Indirect actions from adjacent members need not be considered when fire safety requirements refer to
members under standard fire conditions.

4.2 Simultaneity of actions

4.2.1 Actions from normal temperature design

(1)P Actions shall be considered as for normal temperature design, if they are likely to act in the fire
situation.

(2) Representative values of variable actions, accounting for the accidental design situation of fire
exposure, should be introduced in accordance with EN 1990.

(3) Decrease of imposed loads due to combustion should not be taken into account.

(4) Cases where snow loads need not be considered, due to the melting of snow, should be assessed
individually.

(5) Actions resulting from industrial operations need not be taken into account.

27
BS EN 1991-1-2:2002
EN 1991-1-2:2002 (E)

4.2.2 Additional actions

(1) Simultaneous occurrence with other independent accidental actions needs not be considered.

(2) Depending on the accidental design situations to be considered, additional actions induced by the fire
may need to be applied during fire exposure, e.g. impact due to collapse of a structural member or heavy
machinery.

NOTE The choice of additional actions may be specified in the national annex.

(3) Fire walls may be required to resist a horizontal impact load according to EN 1363-2.

4.3 Combination rules for actions

4.3.1 General rule

(1)P For obtaining the relevant effects of actions Efi,d,t during fire exposure, the mechanical actions shall
be combined in accordance with EN 1990 "Basis of structural design" for accidental design situations.

(2) The representative value of the variable action 0 1 may be considered as the quasi-permanent value
If/2,1 0 1 , or as an alternative the frequent value If/1,1 0 1 .

NOTE The use of the quasi-permanent value ljI2,1 01 or the frequent value ljI1,1 01 may be specified in the national
annex. The use of V/2,1 0 1 is recommended.

4.3.2 Simplified rules

(1) Where indirect fire actions need not be explicitly considered, effects of actions may be determined by
analysing the structure for combined actions according to 4.3.1 for t = 0 only. These effects of actions Efi,d
may be applied as constant throughout fire exposure.

NOTE This clause applies, for example, to effects of actions at boundaries and supports, where an analysis of
parts of the structure is pertormed in accordance with the fire design Parts of prEN 1992 to prEN 1996 and
prEN 1999.

(2) As a further simplification to (1), effects of actions may be deduced from those determined in normal
temperature design:

(4.1 )

where

is the design value of the relevant effects of actions from the fundamental combination according to
EN 1990;

Efi,d is the corresponding constant design value in the fire situation;

1Jfi is a reduction factor defined in the fire design Parts of prEN 1992 to prEN 1996 and prEN 1999.

28
 BS EN 1991-1-2:2002
EN 1991-1-2:2002 (E)

4.3.3 Load level

(1) Where tabulated data are specified for a reference load level, this load level corresponds to:

Efi,d,t = 17fi,t . Rd (4.2)

where

Rd is the design value of the resistance of the member at normal temperature, determined according to
prEN 1992 to prEN 1996 and prEN 1999;

17fu is the load level for fire design.

29
BS EN 1991-1-2:2002
EN 1991-1-2:2002 (E)

Annex A
(informative)

Parametric temperature-time curves

2
(1) The following temperature-time curves are valid for fire compartments up to 500 m of floor area,
without openings in the roof and for a maximum compartment height of 4 m. It is assumed that the fire
load of the compartment is completely burnt out.

(2) If fire load densities are specified without specific consideration to the combustion behaviour (see
annex E), then this approach should be limited to fire compartments with mainly cellulosic type fire loads.

(3) The temperature-time curves in the heating phase are given by:

eg =20 + 1 325 ( 1- 0,324 e -0,2t* - 0,204 e-1,7 t'" - 0,472 (A.1 )

where

e9 is the gas temperature in the fire compartment

= t· r (A.2a)

with

time [h]

r [Olbf 1 (0,04/1 160)2 [- ]

b ~(pc;\)

with the following limits: 100 s; b s; 2 200

p density of boundary of enclosure

c specific heat of boundary of enclosure [J/kgK]

thermal conductivity of boundary of enclosure [W/mK]

o J
opening factor: Av heq 1At

with the following limits: 0,02 S; 0 S; 0,20

2
Av total area of vertical openings on all walls [m ]

heq weighted average of window heights on all walls [m]

2
AI total area of enclosure (walls, ceiling and floor, including openings) [m ]

NOTE In case of r= 1, equation (A.1) approximates the standard temperature-time curve.

(4) For the calculation of the b factor, the density p, the specific heat c and the thermal conductivity A of
the boundary may be taken at ambient temperature.

30
 BS EN 1991-1-2:2002
EN 1991-1-2:2002 (E)

(5) To account for an enclosure surface with different layers of material, b = ~(pcA) should be introduced
as:

(A.3)

If b1 > b2 , a limit thickness Slim is calculated for the exposed material according to:

slim = 3 600 tmax A1 'h . b A

Wit tmax given y eq. .7. [m] (A.4)
C1 P1

then b =: b1 (A.4a)

then b
slim
b1 + [1 - Slim
(A.4b)

where

the indice 1 represents the layer directly exposed to the fire, the indice 2 the next layer. ..

Sj is the thickness of layer i

Pi is the density of the layer i

q is the specific heat of the layer i

Ai is the thermal conductivity of the layer i

(6) To account for different b factors in walls, ceiling and floor, b =: ~(pCA) should be introduced as:

(A.5)

where

Aj is the area of enclosure surface j, openings not included

bj is the thermal property of enclosure surface j according to equations (A.3) and (A.4)

(7) The maximum temperature Bmax in the heating phase happens for t* t~ax

t~ax = tmax ' r [h] (A.6)

3
with tmax = max [(0,2 . 10- . qt,d I 0) ; tlim] [h] (A.7)

where

qt,d is the design value of the fire load density related to the total surface area At of the enclosure
2
whereby qt,d =: qf,d . Af / At [MJ/m ]. The following limits should be observed: 50 S; qt,d S; 1 000 [MJ/m2].

qf,d is the design value of the fire load density related to the surface area Af of the floor [MJ/m2] taken
from annex E.

tlim is given by (10) in [h].

NOTE The time tmax corresponding to the maximum temperature is given by flim in case the fire is fuel
3
controlled. If flim is given by (0,2 . 10- . qt,d / 0), the fire is ventilation controlled.

31
BS EN 1991-1-2:2002
EN 1991-1-2:2002 (E)

(8) When tmax ;::: ~im , t used in equation (A.1) is replaced by:

t ;::: t lIim [h] (A.2b)

with Tiim [Qim 1b]2 1 (0,04/1 160)2 (A.8)

where Olim ;::: 0,1 . 10-

3
. qt,d 1 ~im (A.9)

(9) If (0) 0,04 and C]t,d < 75 and b < 1 160), Tiim in (A.8) has to be multiplied by k given by:

k;:::1+(0-0,04 y qj,d-
75
11160 bJ (A.10)
0,04l A 75 1160

(10) In case of slow fire growth rate, ~im 25 min; in case of medium fire growth rate, ~im ;::: 20 min and in
case of fast fire growth rate, ~im ;::: 15 min.

NOTE For advice on fire growth rate, see Table E.5 in annex E.

(11) The temperature-time curves in the cooling phase are given by:

8 9 ;::: 8 max 625 (f' - t~ax . x) for (A.11 a)

89 8 max - 250 (3 t~ax) (t" - t~ax . X ) for 0,5 < t~ax < 2 (A.11b)

8 g ;::: 8 max - 250 (t" - t~ax . x ) for (A.11 c)

where t* is given by (A.2a)

t~ax
3
(0,2 . 10- . q',d 1 0)· r (A.12)

x 1,0 if tmax > ljim , or x ljim' r 1 t~ax if tmax ;::: ljim

32
 BS EN 1991-1-2:2002
EN 1991-1-2:2002 (E)

Annex B
(i nformative)

Thermal actions for external members - Simplified calculation method

B.1 Scope

(1) This method allows the determination of:

the maximum temperatures of a compartment fire;

the size and temperatures of the flame from openings;

radiation and convection parameters.

(2) This method considers steady-state conditions for the various parameters. The method is valid only for
fire loads qf,d higher than 200 M,J/m2.

B.2 Conditions of use

(1) When there is more than one window in the relevant fire compartment, the weighted average height of
windows heq , the total area of vertical openings Av and the sum of window widths (WI = LWj) are used.

(2) When there are windows in only wall 1, the ratio O/W is given by:

~ O/W= W 2 @il (B.1)

Wi
(3) When there are windows on more than one wall, the ratio O/W has to be obtained as follows:

where

Wi is the width of the wall 1, assumed to contain the greatest window area;

Avi is the sum of window areas on wall 1 ;

W2 is the width of the wall perpendicular to wall 1 in the fire compartment.

(4) When there is a core in the fire compartment, the ratio O/Whas to be obtained as follows:

limits given in (7) apply;

Le and We are the length and width of the core;

Wi and W2 are the length and width of the 'fire compartment:

(B.3)

(5) All parts of an external wall that do not have the fire resistance (REI) required for the stability of the
building should be classified as window areas.

33
BS EN 1991-1-2:2002
EN 1991-1-2:2002 (E)

(6) The total area of windows in an external wall is:

the total area, according to (5), if it is less than 50 % of the area of the relevant external wall of the
compartment;

firstly the total area and secondly 50 % of the area of the relevant external wall of the compartment if,
according to (5), the area is more than 50 %. These two situations should be considered for
calculation. When using 50 % of the area of the external wall, the location and geometry of the open
surfaces should be chosen so that the most severe case is considered.

(7) The size of the fire compartment should not exceed 70 m in length, 18 m in width and 5 m in height.

(8) The flame temperature should be taken as uniform across the width and the thickness of the flame.

B.3 Effects of wind

B.3.1 Mode of ventilation

(1)P If there are windows on opposite sides of the fire compartment or if additional air is being fed to the
fire from another source (other than windows), the calculation shall be done with forced draught
conditions. Otherwise, the calculation is done with no forced draught conditions.

B.3.2 Flame deflection by wind

(1) Flames from an opening should be assumed to be leaving the fire compartment Figure B.1):

perpendicular to the facade;

with a deflection of 45° due to wind effects.

2
Key
1 Wind
2 Horizontal cross section

Figure B.1 - Deflection of flame by wind

34
 BS EN 1991-1-2:2002
EN 1991-1-2:2002 (E)

8.4 Characteristics of fire and flames

B.4.1 No forced draught

(1) The rate of burning or the rate of heat release is given by:

[MW] (8.4)

(2) The temperature of the fire compartment is given by:

-0,1/ 11
Ii = 6 000 (1 - e /0 )0/ 2 (1 - e- 0 ,00286 n) + To (8.5)

(3) The flame height (see Figure B.2) is given by:

LL = max[o; heJl 2,37 (

Av
Q
Pg ( heq g)
1/2 12/3 -1 ']
j J
(B.6)

NOTE With pg = 0,45 kg/m 3 and 9 = 9,81 m/s2 , this equation may be simplified to:
y/3
Lc =1,9 [~ J - h,q (8.7)

L
1< H )1

n
horizontal cross section vertical cross section vertical cross section

LL = -
heq
~
J,2L + h;q =2
heq
L1 =-
heq
3 L1 = H g 2

Lf = LL + L1 Lf = ~ILL +
2 l -:3)2
LH
heq
+ L,

h eq <1,25wt wall above no wall above or heq> 1 ,25 Wt

Figure B.2 - Flame dimensions, no through draught

35
BS EN 1991-1-2:2002
EN 1991-1-2:2002 (E)

(4) The flame width is the window width (see Figure B.2).

(5) The flame depth is 2/3 of the window height: 2/3 heq (see Figure B.2).

(6) The horizontal projection of flames:

in case of a wall existing above the window, is given by:

LH heq /3 if heq :s; 1,25 Wt (B.8)

LH 0,3 heq (heq I Wt)O,54 if heq > 1,25 Wt and distance to any other window> 4 Wt (B.9)

LH = 0,454 heq (heq 12Wt)o,54 in other cases (B.10)

- in case of a wall not existing above the window, is given by:

(B.11 )

(7) The flame length along axis is given by:

when LL > °
Lf LL + heq 12 if wall exist above window or if heq :s; 1,25 Wt (B.12)

2 1~
Lf = (LL + (L H - heq 13)) + heq I 2 if no wall exist above window or if heq > 1,25 Wt (B.13)

when LL = °, then Lf = °
(8) The flame temperature at the window is given by:

Tw 520 I ( 1 - 0,4725 (Lf . WI 10)) + To [K] (B.14)

with Lf . Wt 10 < 1

(9) The emissivity of flames at the window may be taken as tf = 1,0

(10) The flame temperature along the axis is given by:

Tz = (Tw - To) (1 0,4725 (Lx' Wt 10)) + To [K] (B.15)

with

Lx is the axis length from the window to the point where the calculation is made

(11) The emissivity of flames may be taken as:

tf =1- (B.16)

where cit is the flame thickness [m]

(12) The convective heat transfer coefficient is given by:

(B.17)

36
 BS EN 1991-1-2:2002
EN 1991-1-2:2002 (E)

(13) If an awning or balcony (with horizontal projection: Wa) is located at the level of the top of the window
on its whole width (see Figure B.3), for the wall above the window and heq ::; 1 Wt, the height and
horizontal projection of the flame should be modified as follows:

the flame height LL given in (3) is decreased by Wa (1 + );

- the horizontal projection of the flame given in (6), is increased by Wa.

r------------
I
I

abc = Lf abc d e Lf and Wa ab

vertical cross section vertical cross section

Figure B.3 - Deflection of flame by balcony

(14) With the same conditions for awning or balcony as mentioned in (13), in the case of no wall above the
window or heq > 1,25 Wt, the height and horizontal projection of the flame should be modified as follows:

the flame height LL given in (3) is decreased by Wa;

the horizontal projection of the flame LH , obtained in (6) with the above mentioned value of LL is
increased by Wa.

B.4.2 Forced draught

(1) The rate of burning or the rate of heat release is given by:

[MW] (B.18)

(2) The temperature of the fire compartment is given by:

~ 7f =1 200 (1 - e-0 ,00228 £2) + To @il (B.19)

(3) The flame height (see Figure BA) is given by:

~ = 1,366
1)°.4 3
Q
----v2 - heq (8.20)
u A.:

37
BS EN 1991-1-2:2002
EN 1991-1-2:2002 (E)

NOTE With u = 6 mis, ~ "" 0,628 Q I ~/2 -

heq

heq

horizontal cross section vertical cross section

2
!Nt = Wt + 0,4 LH Lf = (LL + LH2) 1/2

Figure B.4 - Flame dimensions, through or forced draught

(4) The horizontal projection of flames is given by:

(8.21 )

NOTE With u 6 mis, LH = 1,33 (LL + heq ) I heq 0,22

(5) The flame width is given by:

Wf = Wt + 0,4 LH (8.22)

(6) The flame length along axis is given by:

(8.23)

(7) The flame temperature at the window is given by:

Tw = 520/ (1 - 0,3325 Lf (Av) 1/2 / Q) + To [K] (8.24)

with Lf (Av) 1/2 / Q < 1

(8) The emissivity of flames at the window may be taken as cf = 1,0

(9) The flame temperature along the axis is given by:

= 1-03325
,
Lx (Av
Q
)1/2 ·}T _ T. )+ T.
wOO [K] (8.25)

where

Lx is the axis length from the window to the point where the calculation is made

38
 8S EN 1991-1-2:2002
EN 1991-1-2:2002 (E)

(10) The emissivity of flames may be taken as:

Ef =1 - (B.26)

where df is the flame thickness [m]

(11) The convective heat transfer coefficient is given by:

ac 9,8 (1 1 deq )0.4 ( Q/(17,5 Av )+ u/1,6 )0,6 (B.27)

NOTE With u;:: 6 mls the convective heat transfer coefficient is given by:
(Xc = 9,8 ( 11deq )0.4 ( Q/(17,5Av )+ 3,75

(12) Regarding the effects of balconies or awnings, see Figure 8.5, the flame trajectory, after being
deflected horizontally by a balcony or awning, is the same as before, i.e. displaced outwards by the depth
of the balcony, but with a flame length Lf unchanged.

a b = Lf abc = Lf
Key
1 Awning
vertical cross section vertical cross section

Figure 8.5 - Deflection of flame by awning

8.5 Overall configuration factors

(1) The overall configuration factor CPf of a member for radiative heat transfer from an opening should be
determined from:

(C1 CPf,1 + C2 CPf,2) d1 + (C3 CPf,3 + C4 CPf,4) d2

lPf (B.28)
(C1 + C2) d1 + (C3 + C4)

where

CPf,i is the configuration factor of member face i for that opening, see annex G;

~ is the cross-sectional dimension of member face i ;

q is the protection coefficient of member face i as follows:

39
BS EN 1991-1-2:2002
EN 1991-1-2:2002 (E)

- for a protected face: o

- for an unprotected face: Ci

(2) The configuration factor CPf,i for a member face from which the opening is not visible should be taken
as zero.

(3) The overall configuration factor (/>z of a member for radiative heat transfer from a flame should be
determined from:

(8.29)

where

(/>Z,i is the configuration factor of member face i for that flame, see annex G.

(4) The configuration factors (/>z,i of individual member faces for radiative heat transfer from flames may be
based on equivalent rectangular flame dimensions. The dimensions and locations of equivalent rectangles
representing the front and sides of a flame for this purpose should be determined as given in annex G.
For all other purposes, the flame dimensions given in 804 of this annex should be used.

40
 BS EN 1991-1-2:2002
EN 1991-1-2:2002 (E)

Annex C
(informative)

Localised fires

(1) The thermal action of a localised fire can be assessed by using the expression given in this annex.
Differences have to be made regarding the relative height of the flame to the ceiling.

(2) The heat flux from a localised 'fire to a structural element should be calculated with expression (3.1),
and based on a configuration factor established according to annex G.

(3) The flame lengths Lf of a localised fire (see Figure C.1) is given by:

Lf = 1,020+ 0,0148 Q2/5 [m] (C.1 )

(4) When the flame is not impacting the ceiling of a compartment (Lf < H; see Figure C.1) or in case of fire
in open air, the temperature B(z) in the plume along the symetrical vertical flame axis is given by:

(C.2)

where

o is the diameter of the fire [m], see Figure C.1

Q is the rate of heat release [W] of the fire according to EA

Qc is the convective part of the rate of heat release [W], with Q c = 0,8 Q by default

z is the height [m] along the flame axis, see Figure C.1

H is the distance [m] between the fire source and the ceiling, see Figure C.1

Flame axis!

Figure C.1

41
BS EN 1991-1-2:2002
EN 1991-1-2:2002 (E)

(5) The virtual origin Zo of the axis is given by:

Zo -1,02 0 + 0,00524 0 2/5 [m] (C.3)

(6) When the flame is impacting the ceiling (Lf 2:: H; see Figure C.2) the heat flux h [W1m2] received by the
fire exposed unit surface area at the level of the ceiling is given by:

h = 100000 if y:; 0,30

h = 136300 to 121 000 y if 0,30 < Y < 1,0 (C.4)

h 15 000 .v3 ,7 if y2:: 1,0

where

Y is a parameter [-] given by:

r is the horizontal distance [m] between the vertical axis of the fire and the point along the ceiling where
the thermal flux is calculated, see Figure C.2

H is the distance [m] between the fire source and the ceiling, see Figure C.2

_ _ _ ~h

Figure C.2

(7) Lh is the horizontal flame length (see Figure C.2) given by the following relation:

[m] (C.5)

(8) O~ is a non-dimensional rate of heat release given by:

OH* = 0 1(1,11 ·10 6 . [- ] (C.6)

(9) i is the vertical position of the virtual heat source [m] and is given by:

.2/5 .2/3 *
z' = 2,4 O(OD 0D) when OD < 1,0 (C.7)
* 2/5
z' 2,4 0(1,0 - OD ) when O~ 2:: 1,0

where

42
 BS EN 1991-1-2:2002
EN 1991-1-2:2002 (E)

Q~=Q/ (1,11.1 0 6 . D2,5) [- ] (C.B)

(10) The net heat flux hnet received by the fire exposed unit surface area at the level of the ceiling, is given
by:

. 4 4
h - a c . (em - 20) - rP· Em . Ef . (5. [ (em + 273) - (293) ] (C.9)

where the various coefficients depend on expressions (3.2). (3.3) and (CA).

(11) The rules given in (3) to (10) inclusive are valid if the following conditions are met:

- the diameter of the fire is limited by D::; 10m;

- the rate of heat release of the fire is limited by Q::; 50 MW.

(12) In case of several separate localised fires, expression (CA) may be used in order to get the different
individual heat fluxes 17 1. 17 2 . •• received by the fire exposed unit surface area at the level of the ceiling.
The total heat flux may be taken as:

(C.10)

43
BS EN 1991-1-2:2002
EN 1991-1-2:2002 (E)

Annex D
(informative)

Advanced fire models

D.1 One-zone models

(1) A one-zone model should apply for post-flashover conditions. Homogeneous temperature, density,
internal energy and pressure of the gas are assumed in the compartment.

(2) The temperature should be calculated considering:

tile resolution of mass conservation and energy conservation equations;

the exchange of mass between the internal gas, the external gas (through openings) and the fire
(pyrolysis rate);

the exchange of energy between the fire, internal gas, walls and openings.

(3) The ideal gas law considered is:

(0.1 )

(4) The mass balance of the compartment gases is written as

dm. . .
-=min -mOUI +mfi [kg/s] (0.2)
dt

where

dm
is the rate of change of gas mass in the fire compartment
dt

is the rate of gas mass going out through the openings

is the rate of gas mass coming in through the openings

is the rate of pyrolysis products generated

(5) The rate of change of gas mass and the rate of pyrolysis may be neglected. Thus

(0.3)

These mass nows may be calculated based on static pressure due to density differences between air at
ambient and high temperatures, respectively.

(6) The energy balance of the gases in the fire compartment may be taken as:

dE
--g =Q- Qout + qn -Qwall-Qrad [W] (0.4)
dt
where

44
 BS EN 1991-1-2:2002
EN 1991-1-2:2002 (E)

is the internal energy of gas [J]

o is the rate of heat release of the fire [W]

Owall (At - Ah,v) hnet , is the loss of energy to the enclosure surfaces

Orad = A"v a 7j4 , is the loss of energy by radiation through the openings
with:
c is the specific heat [J/kgK]

hnet is given by expression (3.1)

m is the gas mass rate [kg/s]

T is the temperature [K]

0.2 Two-zone models

(1) A two-zone model is based on the assumption of accumulation of combustion products in a layer
beneath the ceiling, with a horizontal interface. Different zones are defined: the upper layer, the lower
layer, the fire and its plume, the external gas and walls.

(2) In the upper layer, uniform characteristics of the gas may be assumed.

(3) The exchanges of mass, energy and chemical substance may be calculated between these different
zones.

(4) In a given fire compartment with a uniformly distributed fire load, a two-zone fire model may develop
into a one-zone fire in one of the following situations:

if the gas temperature of the upper layer gets higher than 500 °C,

if the upper layer is growing so to cover 80% of the compartment height.

0.3 Computational fluid dynamic models

(1) A computational fluid dynamic model may be used to solve numerically the partial differential equations
giving, in all points of the compartment, the thermo-dynamic and aero-dynamic variables.

NOTE Computational fluid dynamic models, or CFD, analyse systems involving IIuid flow, heat transfer and
associated phenomena by solving the fundamental equations of the fluid flow. These equations represent the
mathematical statements of the conservation laws of physics:

the mass of a fluid is conserved;

the rate of change of momentum equals the sum of the forces on a fluid particle (Newton's second law);
the rate of change of energy is equal to the sum of the rate of heat increase and the rate of work done on
a fluid particle (first law of thermodynamics).

45
BS EN 1991-1-2:2002
EN 1991-1-2:2002 (E)

Annex E
(informative)

Fi re load densities

E.1 General

(1) The fire load density used in calculations should be a design value, either based on measurements or
in special cases based on fire resistance requirements given in national regulations.

(2) The design value may be determined:

from a national fire load classification of occupancies; and/or

specific for an individual project by periorming a fire load survey.

(3) The design value of the fire load qf,d is defined as:

(E.1 )

where

m is the combustion factor (see E.3)

is a factor taking into account the fire activation risk due to the size of the
compartment (see Table E.1)

is a factor taking into account the fire activation risk due to the type of
occupancy (see Table E.1)

10 is a factor taking into account the different active fire fighting measures i
On = IT Oni
i=1
(sprinkler, detection, automatic alarm transmission, firemen ... ). These active
measures are generally imposed for life safety reason (see Table E.2 and
clauses (4) and (5)).

is the characteristic fire load density per unit 'floor area [MJ/m2]
(see f.i. Table EA)
Table E.1 - Factors Oq1 , Oq2

Danger of Danger of Examples

Compartment
Fire Activation Fire Activation of
floor area Af [m2]
Sql Sq2 Occupancies
artgallery, museum,
25 1,10 0,78 swimming pool
offices,residence, hotel,
250 1,50 1,00 paper industry
manufactory for machinery
2500 1,90 1,22 & engines
chemical laboratory,
5000 2,00 1,44 painting workshop
manufactory of fireworks
10000 2,13 1,66 or paints

46
 BS EN 1991-1-2:2002
EN 1991-1-2:2002 (E)

Table E.2 Factors 8n i

Bni Function of Active Fire Fighting Measures

Automatic Fire Suppression Automatic Fire Detection Manual Fire Suppression

Automatic Independent Automatic fire Automatic Work Off Site Safe Fire Smoke
Water Water Detection Alarm Fire Fire Access Fighting Exhaust
Extingu ish ing Supplies & Alarm Transmission Brigade Brigade Routes Devices System
System to
by by Fire Brigade
01 1 1 2 Heat Smoke
Bn1 Bn2 Bn3 Bn4 Bn5 Bn6 Bn7 Bn8 Bn9 Bn10

0,9 or 1
0,61 1,°1°,87 1°,7 0,87 or 0,73 0,87 0,61 or 0,78 or 1,5
1,0 or 1,5 1,0 or 1,5

(4) For the normal 'fire fighting measures, which should almost always be present, such as the safe
access routes, fire 'fighting devices, and smoke exhaust systems in staircases, the 8ni values of Table E.2
should be taken as 1,0. However, if these fire fighting measures have not been foreseen, the
corresponding 8ni value should be taken as 1,5.

(5) If staircases are put under overpressure in case of fire alarm, the factor Dn8 of Table E.2 may be taken
as 0,9.

(6) The preceding approach is based on the assumption that the requirements in the relevant European
Standards on sprinklers, detection, alarm, smoke exhaust systems are met, see also 1.3. However local
circumstances may influence the numbers given in Table E.2. Reference is made to the Background
Document CENfTC250/SC1/N300A.

E.2 Determination of fire load densities

E.2.1 General

(1) The fire load should consist of all combustible building contents and the relevant combustible parts of
the construction, including linings and finishings. Combustible parts of the combustion which do not char
during the fire need not to be taken into account.

(2) The following clauses apply for the determination of fire load densities:

from a fire load classification of occupancies (see E.2.5); and/or

specific for an individual project (see E.2.6).

(3) Where fire load densities are determined from a fire load classification of occupancies, fire loads are
distinguished as:

fire loads from the occupancy, given by the classification;

fire loads from the building (construction elements, linings and finishings) which are generally not
included in the classification and are then determined according to the following clauses, as relevant.

E.2.2 Definitions

(1) The characteristic fire load is defined as:

Ofi,k =:E Mk,i . HUi . 'l'i =:E Ofi,k,i [MJ] (E.2)

where

47
BS EN 1991-1-2:2002
EN 1991-1-2:2002 (E)

Mk,i is the amount of combustible material [kg], according to (3) and (4)

HUi is the net calorific value [MJ/kg], see (E.2.4)

[If'i] is the optional factor for assessing protected fire loads, see (E.2.3)

(2) The characteristic fire load density qf,k per unit area is defined as:

(E.3)

where

A is the Hoor area (Af) of the fire compartment or reference space, or inner surface area (At) of the fire
compartment, giving qf,k or qt,k

(3) Permanent fire loads, which are not expected to vary during the service life of a structure, should be
introduced by their expected values resulting from the survey.

(4) Variable fire loads, which may vary during the service life of a structure, should be represented by
values, which are expected not to be exceeded during 80 % of time.

E.2.3 Protected fire loads

(1) Fire loads in containments which are designed to survive fire exposure need not be considered.

(2) Fire loads in non-combustible containments with no specific fire design, but which remain intact during
fire exposure, may be considered as follows:

The largest fire load, but at least 10 % of the protected fire loads, is associated with If'i = 1,0.

If this fire load plus the unprotected fire loads are not sufficient to heat the remaining protected fire loads
beyond ignition temperature, then the remaining protected fire loads may be associated with I.Ji 0,0.

Otherwise, If'i values need to be assessed individually.

E.2.4 Net calorific values

(1) Net calorific values should be determined according to EN ISO 1716:2002.

(2) The moisture content of materials may be taken into account as follows:

Hu = Huo (1 - 0,01 u) - 0,025 u [MJ/kg] (E.4)

where

u is the moisture content expressed as percentage of dry weight

Huo is the net calorific value of dry materials

(3) Net calorific values of some solids, liquids and gases are given in Table E.3.

48
 BS EN 1991-1-2:2002
EN 1991-1-2:2002 (E)

Table E.3 - Net calorific values Hu [MJ/kg] of combustible materials for calculation of fire loads
Solids
Wood 17,5
Other cellulosic materials 20
• Clothes
• Cork
• Cotton
• Paper, cardboard
• Silk
• Straw
• Wool
C, lrbon 30
• Anthracit
• Charcoal
• Coal
Chemicals
Paraffin series 50
• Methane
• Ethane
• Propane
• Butane
Olefin series 45
• Ethylene
• Propylen
• Butene
Aromatic series 40
• Benzene
• Toluene
Alcohols 30
• Methanol
• Ethanol
• Ethyl alcohol
Fuels 45
• Gasoline, petroleum
• Diesel
Pure hydrocarbons plastics 40
• Polyethylene
• Polystyrene
• Polypropylene
Other products
ABS (plastic) 35
Polyester (plastic) 30
Polyisocyanerat and polyurethane (plastics) 25
Polyvinylchloride, PVC (plastic) 20
Bitumen, asphalt 40
Leather 20
Linoleum 20
Rubber tyre 30
NOTE The values given in this table are not applicable for calculating
energy content of fuels.

49
BS EN 1991-1-2:2002
EN 1991-1-2:2002 (E)

E.2.5 Fire load classification of occupancies

(1) The fire load densities should be classified according to occupancy, be related to the floor area, and be
used as characteristic 'fire load densities qf,k [MJ/m2], as given in Table E.4.

Table E.4 - Fire load densities qf,k [MJ/m2] for different occupancies

Occupancy Average 80% Fractile

Dwelling 780 948
Hospital (room) 230 280
Hotel (room) 310 377
Library 1 500 1 824
Office 420 511
Classroom of a school 285 347
Shopping centre 600 730
Theatre (cinema) 300 365
Transport (public space) 100 122
NOTE Gumbel distribution is assumed for the 80 % fractile.

(2) The values of the fire load density qf,k given in Table E.4 are valid in case of a factor Oq2 equal to 1,0
(see Table E.1).

(3) The fire loads in Table E.4 are valid for ordinary compartments in connection with the here given
occupancies. Special rooms are considered according to E.2.2.

(4) Fire loads from the building (construction elements, linings and finishings) should be determined
according to E.2.2. These should be added to the fire load densities of (1) if relevant.

E.2.6 Individual assessment of fire load densities

(1) In the absence of occupancy classes, fire load densities may be specifically determined for an
individual project by performing a survey of fire loads from the occupancy.

(2) The fire loads and their local arrangement should be estimated considering the intended use,
furnishing and installations, variations with time, unfavourable trends and possible modifications of
occupancy.

(3) Where available, a survey should be performed in a comparable existing project, such that only
possible differences between the intended and existing project need to be specified by the client.

E.3 Combustion behaviour

(1) The combustion behaviour should be considered in function of the occupancy and of the type of fire
load.

(2) For mainly cellulosic materials, the combustion factor may be assumed as m = 0,8.

50
 BS EN 1991-1-2:2002
EN 1991-1-2:2002 (E)

E.4 Rate of heat release Q

(1) The growing phase may be defined by the expression:

Q=10
6
[ t: J' (E.5)

where

Q is the rate of heat release in [W]

is the time in [s]

tex is the time needed to reach a rate of heat release of 1 MW.

(2) The parameter ta and the maximum rate of heat release RHRf , for different occupancies, are given in
Table E.5

Table E.5 Fire growth rate and RHRf for different occupancies

Max Rate of heat release RHRf

Occupancy Fire growth rate ta [s] RHRf [kW1m2]

Dwelling Medium 300 250

Hospital (room) Medium 300 250
Hotel (room) Medium 300 250
Library Fast 150 500
Office Medium 300 250
Classroom of a school Medium 300 250
Shopping centre Fast 150 250
Theatre (cinema) Fast 150 500
Transport (public space) Slow 600 250

(3) The values of the fire growth rate and RHRf according to Table E.5 are valid in case of a factor Oq2
equal to 1,0 (see Table E.1).

(4) For an ultra-fast fire spread, ta corresponds to 75 s.

(5) The growing phase is limited by an horizontal plateau corresponding to the stationnary state and to a
value of Q given by (RHRt . Afj)

where
2
Afi is the maximum area of the fire [m ] which is the fire compartment in case of uniformly distributed
fire load but which may be smaller in case of a localised fire.
2
RHRf is the maximum rate of heat release produced by 1 m of fire in case of fuel controlled conditions
[kW/m2] (see Table E.5).

(6) The horizontal plateau is limited by the decay phase which starts when 70 % of the total fire load has
been consumed.

(7) The decay phase may be assumed to be a linear decrease starting when 70 % of the fire load has
been burnt and completed when the fire load has been completely burnt.

51
BS EN 1991-1-2:2002
EN 1991-1-2:2002 (E)

(8) If the fire is ventilation controlled, this plateau level has to be reduced following the available oxygen
content, either automatically in case of the use of a computer program based on one zone model or by the
simplified expression:

010.m.H, Ll . rjJ
. rv [MW] (E.6)
1 U V' 'eq

where
2
Av is the opening area [m ]

heq is the mean height of the openings [m]

Hu is the net calorific value of wood with Hu 17,5 MJ/kg

m is the combustion factor with m = 0,8

(9) When the maximum level of the rate of heat release is reduced in case of ventilation controlled
condition, the curve of the rate of heat release has to be extended to correspond to the available energy
given by the fire load. If the curve is not extended, it is then assumed that there is external burning, which
induces a lower gas temperature in the compartment.

52
 BS EN 1991-1-2:2002
EN 1991-1-2:2002 (E)

Annex F
(i nformative)

Equivalent time of fire exposure

(1) The following approach may be used where the design of members is based on tabulated data or
other simplified rules, related to the standard 'fire exposure.

NOTE The method given in this annex is material dependent. It is not applicable to composite steel and concrete
or timber constructions.

(2) If 'fire load densities are specified without specific consideration of the combustion behaviour (see
annex then this approach should be limited to "fire compartments with mainly cellulosic type fire loads.

(3) The equivalent time of standard fire exposure is defined by:

[min] (F.1 )

where

qf,d is the design fire load density according to annex E, whereby C/t,d qf,d' Af / At

kb is the conversion factor according to (4)

Wf is the ventilation factor according to (5), whereby tNt = Wt· At / At

kc is the correction factor function of the material composing structural cross-sections and defined in
Table F.1.

Table F.1 - Correction factor Icc in order to cover various materials.

(0 is the opening factor defined in annex A)

Cross-section material Correction factor kc

Reinforced concrete 1,0

Protected steel 1,0
Not protected steel 13,7·0

(4) Where no detailed assessment of the thermal properties of the enclosure is made, the conversion
factor kb may be taken as:

kb = 0,07 when qd is given in [MJ/m2] (F.2)

otherwise kb may be related to the thermal property b ~(pc;\) of the enclosure according to Table F.2.
For determining b for multiple layers of material or different materials in walls, floor, ceiling, see annex A
(5) and (6).

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BS EN 1991-1-2:2002
EN 1991-1-2:2002 (E)

Table F.2 - Conversion factor kb depending on the thermal properties of the enclosure

b = ~pCA kb
2 2
[J/m s1/2 K] [min· m /M,J]
b> 250O 0,04

720:::; b:::; 250O 0,055

b< 720 0,07

(5) The ventilation factor Wf may be calculated as:

!Nt = ( 6,0 I H )0,3 [0,62 + 90(0,4 - (Xv)4 1(1 + b v (Xh)] ~ 0,5 [- ] (F.3)

where

(Xv = Av IAf is the area of vertical openings in the fagade (Av) related to the floor area of the
compartment (Af) where the limit 0,025:::; (Xv :::; 0,25 should be observed

(Xh = AhlAf is the area of horizontal openings in the roof (Ah) related to the floor area of the
compartment (Af)
2
bv = 12,5 (1 + 10 (Xv - (Xv) ~ 10,0

H is the height of the fire compartment [m]

2
For small fire compartments [Af < 100 m ] without openings in the roof, the factor Wf may also be
calculated as:

Wf = 0- 112 . Afl At (FA)

where

o is the opening factor according to annex A

(6) It shall be verified that:

te,d < tfi,d (F.5)

where

tfi,d is the design value of the standard fire resistance of the members, assessed according to the fire
Parts of prEN 1992 to prEN 1996 and prEN 1999.

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 BS EN 1991-1-2:2002
EN 1991-1-2:2002 (E)

Annex G
(informative)

Configuration factor

G.1 General

(1) The configuration factor @ is defined in 1.5.4.1, which in a mathematical form is given by:

dF - cos 81 cos 82 dA (G.1 )

d1-d2 - 82 2
TT 1-2

The configuration factor measures the fraction of the total radiative heat leaving a given radiating surface
that arrives at a given receiving surface. Its value depends on the size of the radiating surface, on the
distance from the radiating surface to the receiving surface and on their relative orientation (see
Figure G.1).

Figure G.1 - Radiative heat transfer between two infinitesimal surface areas

(2) In cases where the radiator has uniform temperature and emissivity, the definition can be simplified to :
"the solid angle within which the radiating environment can be seen from a particular infinitesimal surface
area, divided by 2n."

(3) The radiative heat transfer to an infinitesimal area of a convex member surface is determined by the
position and the size of the fire only (position effect).

(4) The radiative heat transfer to an infinitesimal area of a concave member surface is determined by the
position and the size of the fire (position effect) as well as by the radiation from other parts of the member
(shadow effects).

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BS EN 1991-1-2:2002
EN 1991-1-2:2002 (E)

(5) Upper limits for the configuration factor <I> are given in Table G.1.

Table G.1 - Limits for configuration factor cP

Localised Fully developed
position effect cP::; 1 CP=1
,
convex CP=1 cP 1
shadow effect
i concave cP::; 1 l/> ::; 1

G.2 Shadow effects

(1) Specific rules for quantifying the shadow effect are given in the material orientated parts of the
Eurocodes.

G.3 External members

(1) For the calculation of temperatures in external members, all radiating surfaces may be assumed to be
rectangular in shape. They comprise the windows and other openings in fire compartment walls and the
equivalent rectangular surfaces of flames, see annex B.

(2) In calculating the configuration factor for a given situation, a rectangular envelope should first be drawn
around the cross-section of the member receiving the radiative heat transfer, as indicated in Figure G.2
(This accounts for the shadow effect in an approximate way). The value of cP should then be determined
for the mid-point P of each face of this rectangle.

(3) The configuration factor for each receiving surface should be determined as the sum of the
contributions from each of the zones on the radiating surface (normally four) that are visible from the point
P on the receiving surface, as indicated in Figures G.3 and G.4. These zones should be defined relative
to the point X where a horizontal line perpendicular to the receiving surface meets the plane containing the
radiating surface. No contribution should be taken from zones that are not visible from the point P, such as
the shaded zones in Figure G.4.

(4) If the point X lies outside the radiating surface, the effective configuration factor should be determined
by adding the contributions of the two rectangles extending from X to the farther side of the radiating
surface, then subtracting the contributions of the two rectangles extending from X to the nearer side of the
radiating surface.

(5) The contribution of each zone should be determined as follows:

p p p

p
p
Key
1 Envelope
Figure G.2 - Envelope of receiving surfaces

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 BS EN 1991-1-2:2002
EN 1991-1-2:2002 (E)

a) receiving surface parallel to radiating surface:

(G.2)

where

a hIs

b wI s

s is the distance from P to X;

h is the height of the zone on the radiating surface;

w is the width of that zone.

b) receiving surface perpendicular to radiating surface:

(G.3)

c) receiving surface in a plane at an angle e to the radiating surface:

acos 8 [
-(a-2-+-s-i-n2-8---:--- tan-
1
+ tan
-1 [ cos 8
(a2 + sin2 e )0,5
il])J (GA)

,
,
,,
,,
I

,,
I

,
I
,
,,
a
-'--
..............
......... , ...

Key
a Radiating surface
b Receiving surface
Figure G.3 - Receiving surface in a plane parallel to that of the radiating surface

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BS EN 1991-1-2:2002
EN 1991-1-2:2002 (E)

Key
a Radiating surface
b Receiving surface
Figure G.4 - Receiving surface perpendicular to the plane of the radiating surface

s
w p
x
2

Key
1 Radiating surface
2 Receiving surface
Figure G.S - Receiving surface in a plane at an angle 8 to that of the radiating surface

58
 BS EN 1991-1-2:2002
EN 1991-1-2:2002 (E)

Bibliography

EN ISO 1716:2002, Reaction to fire tests for building products - Determination of the heat of combustion
(ISO 1716:2002).

EN 1363-2, Fire resistance tests - Part 2: Alternative and additional procedures.

59