AMHARA NATIONAL REGIONAL STATE FOOD SECURITY

RESEARCH ASSESSMENT REPORT

Prepared by

USAID Collaborative Research Support Programs Team

May 2000
 AMHARA NATIONAL REGIONAL STATE FOOD SECURITY

RESEARCH ASSESSMENT

Executive Summary

USAID/Ethiopia has signed an agreement production of field and horticultural crops,

to assist the Government of Ethiopia, in livestock and apiculture. It also looked at
particular the Amhara Regional Authority, technology related to the seed industry,
to design activities that will result in agroclimatic analysis, watershed
increased rural income, and thereby manage-ment, soil erosion and fertility,
increase food security. An important goal food science, socio-economic factors,
of the agreement is to increase rural and the structure of the research system.
incomes through participatory agricultural
research, giving technology users an It is clear that land degradation from
important say in technology development, overgrazing, soil erosion, deforestation,
and transforming a top-down, supply and cultivation of steep, fragile lands has
driven technology transfer system to a resulted in loss of biodiversity, productivity,
bottom-up, demand-driven one. stability, and resiliency in the region. In the
three ANRS research centers the team
To this end, USAID/Ethiopia requested visited, the staff is young and enthusiastic.
field support from USAID’s Washington They expressed the need for more senior
Global Bureau’s Collaborative Research and experienced scientists who would
Support Programs. A ten-member inter- provide leadership and guidance to them
disciplinary team was convened to and the overall research programs. The
conduct an assessment into the research staff are also constrained by
availability of technology in the region and inadequate facilities, equipment, and
the capacity of regional research centers supplies. The research capability needs to
to generate and disseminate technology. be strengthened in several ways, including
This report outlines the team’s findings increasing the research efficiency of the
and suggests an action plan designed to current system, along with strategic
strengthen the research component of the expansion and upgrading of the centers. In
agreement. The action plan is followed by general, the efficiency of current research
a set of anticipated results that should investments should be addressed first,
contribute to the attainment of food followed by upgrading and expansion.
security in the region. Unless this situation is corrected, the lack
of adequate research capabilities will
Assessment. Forty-eight of the 105 continue to be a bottleneck for attainment
woredas of the Amhara region are of food security.
drought-prone and suffer from frequent
food shortages. Many households are The extension capabilities for the transfer
only able to produce sufficient food to of technology packages are organ-
meet their food requirements for less than izationally in place, and the research
six months of the year. centers are relatively well staffed.
However, considerable capability building
The team assessed the availability of is required to upgrade the technological
technology in the region and the capacity expertise of the extension staff, as well as
of those present to generate and subject-matter specialists and develop-
disseminate technology in furthering the ment agents. The extension staff need

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much more technical support and region initiate a plan to prepare a high
research information if they are to be resolution, geo-referenced data base that
more effective in their work. characterizes the socioeconomic and
biophysical conditions down to the village
Immediate Action. Based on the level. This human and natural resource
assessment, the team formulated a data base is needed to transfer successful
research action plan that would contribute technologies discovered through
to the reversal of the current situation and participatory adaptive research to other
set in motion advancement toward food similar locations where they are likely to
security. The first action deals with succeed. Without this spatial data base,
institutionalizing an adaptive, participatory technology will continue to be transferred
research methodology in which by slow, expensive and unreliable trial-
researchers, members of the extension and-error methods.
service, and households have equal say in
setting research priorities. This action will The urgency of the situation, however,
ensure that efforts of research and requires that immediate action be taken
extension personnel are demand-driven, to lessen long standing food security
rather than supply-driven as it is now. This constraints with readily available
research approach should be initiated technologies. For this purpose, a list of
immediately and be ready for imple- technologies for early on-farm testing is
mentation in the coming cropping season. provided. These technologies address
problems which farm households have
The second action is designed to repeatedly cited as causes of crop
provide training, mentoring, and higher failures. It is expected that as farmers,
education opportunity for a young and researchers, and development agents
inexperienced research staff. Isolation work together to test technologies, many
from the global research community, in more existing technologies will be found
general, and the regional and national suitable for local adoption.
research centers, in particular, makes it
impossible for researchers to apply Technical Assistance. The regional
existing and new technologies in the research units will require additional
region. The research libraries are virtually support to conduct on-farm testing of the
empty and telephones are rare. To rectify listed technologies. In particular, the
this situation, the team recommends the young staff can benefit from working with
third action, the installation of a modern experienced researchers invited to
information, computer, and commun- participate in the implementation of the
ication system to link every research on-farm trials. Such senior researchers
center in the region to every other can be invited from national and
regional center and to the national and international research organizations,
global research community. including USAID supported Collaborative
Research Support Programs, which are
The fourth action calls for modernizing designed to participate in these kinds of
the research laboratories and equipment, activities.
and making provisions for timely
replacement of parts and supplies, and Results. Assuming that all components
the fifth action recommends that the for attaining food security are in place, the

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action plan for research proposed above as reforestation, erosion control,
should result in attainment of four increased biodiversity, water harvesting,
conditions that define sustainable and elimination of over-grazing can
agroecosystems. The verifiable indicators measurably increase resiliency. Indicators
of the four conditions are: of resiliency include reduced sediment
load in the Blue Nile and its tributaries,
1. Increased productivity, which refers increased biodiversity in field crops, trees
to increased yields and increased and livestock, and expanded reforested
income per unit input of land, labor, and areas and reduced hectares of
capital. Yields and income are the overgrazed land.
indicators of this condition.
4. Increased equitability, which refers to
2. Increased stability, which refers to the the equal sharing of benefits derived from
reduction in wide yield and income the agroecosystem. The benefits should
fluctuation or feast to famine cycles. Risk- include access to adequate amounts of
minimizing technologies identified nutritious food through household
through participatory, adaptive research production and/or purchases. Two
will contribute to increased stability of the indicators measure the status of
Amhara region agroecosystems. The equitability. These measures are the
verifiable indicator of increased stability is mean household incomes and its
a decline in the coefficient of variation in variance. The aim is to achieve high
the year-to-year fluctuation in yield and means and low variances which
income. translates to high income, reduction in the
number of poor households and a general
3. Increased resiliency, which refers to improvement in the quality of life for
the capacity of the agroecosystem to members of the population that have
withstand and recover from stresses and traditionally suffered chronic poverty.
perturbations imposed on the system by
humans and natural events. Actions such

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 TABLE OF CONTENTS

1.0 SCOPE OF WORK........................................................................................................................................1

1.1 Scope........................................................................................................................................................1

1.2 Deliverable...............................................................................................................................................1

2.0 ASSESSMENT METHODS..........................................................................................................................2

3.0 CONTEXT OF FOOD SECURITY IN THE AMHARA REGION.............................................................3

4.0 SUMMARY ASSESSMENT.........................................................................................................................4

4.1 Diversification of Productive Activities.................................................................................................5

4.2 Risk Management...................................................................................................................................5

4.3 Adaptive Research Linking Research, Extension, and Rural..........................................................5

Households for Technology Adoption

4.4 Natural Resource Conservation, including Biological Components...............................................5

4.5 Reinforcement of High Potential Successes......................................................................................6

4.6 Need for Improved Nutrition..................................................................................................................6

4.7 Need for Increased Research Capability and Coordination.............................................................6

5.0 TECHNOLOGY AVAILABILITY, GENERATION AND DISSEMINATION............................................7

5.1 Soil Erosion and Fertility........................................................................................................................7

5.2 Agroclimatic Analysis and Watershed Management.........................................................................9

5.3 Improved, Dissemination-Ready Genetic Material...........................................................................11

5.4 Field Crop Production...........................................................................................................................12

5.5 Vegetable Production...........................................................................................................................14

5.6 Other High Value Crops.......................................................................................................................15

5.7 Seed Industry.........................................................................................................................................16

5.8 Livestock Production............................................................................................................................ 17

5.9 Apiculture...............................................................................................................................................20

5.10 Food Science.......................................................................................................................................21

5.11 Socio-Economic Factors....................................................................................................................22

5.12 Capability and Structure of the Research System.........................................................................24

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6.0 BUILDING A PARTICIPATORY RESEARCH PROCESS....................................................................28

6.1 Why Participatory Research?.............................................................................................................28

6.2 Facilitating Stakeholder Participation.................................................................................................28

7.0 ACTION PLAN.............................................................................................................................................29

7.1 Action Plan 1. Institutionalizing Adaptive, Participatory Research................................................30

7.2 Action Plan 2. Training, Mentoring and Higher Education.............................................................32

7.3. Action Plan 3. Modernizing Computer and Communication Technology................................... 32

7.4 Action Plan 4. Modernizing Research Facilities and Supply Delivery System............................33

7.5 Action Plan 5. Creating a Georeferenced Spatial Data Base........................................................33

8.0 TECHNOLOGIES FOR IMMEDIATE ON-FARM TRIALS....................................................................34

9.0 TECHNICAL ASSISTANCE FOR TECHNOLOGY IDENTIFICATION, ASSESSMENT,

AND DISSEMINATION......................................................................................................................................37

10.0 ANTICIPATED RESULTS AND INDICATORS OF SUCCESS.........................................................38

11.0 SUGGESTED BUDGET CATEGORIES................................................................................................39

12.0 ANNEXES...................................................................................................................................................41

12.1 Research Assessment Team............................................................................................................41

12.2 Itinerary.................................................................................................................................................43

12.3 Organizations and Persons Contacted...........................................................................................49

12.4 Literature Reviewed...........................................................................................................................52

12.6 Acronyms.............................................................................................................................................56

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 NATIONAL REGIONAL STATE FOOD SECURITY

RESEARCH ASSESSMENT

1.0 SCOPE OF WORK 1.2 Deliverable. A comprehensive report

will be due in draft form at the end of the
1.1 Scope. USAID/Ethiopia has signed visit. It will contain analyses of the current
an agreement to assist the Government agricultural and natural resource
of Ethiopia, in particular the Amhara management research and extension
National Regional State (ANRS), to capabilities and make recommendations for
design activities which will result in reinforcing these capabilities through long-
increased rural incomes, thereby and short-term technical assistance and
increasing food security. These activities training. Recommendations of the report
will initially focus on the 48 chronically will support Strategic Objective 1 and
food-insecure districts (woredas) of the include actions, the results of which will be
ANRS, with the objective of decreasing measurable by the three principal indicators
the number of chronically vulnerable of achievement, food availability, cash
households over the next five years. An income, and nutrition in the 48 chronically
important goal under Strategic Objective food-insecure woredas in the Amhara
1 of USAID/Ethiopia, which is “Rural region for the next five years. The report
household production and will make specific recommendations for
productivity increased,” will be USAID assistance to be directed towards
participatory agricultural research giving two principal activity areas: 1) technical and
technology users an important say in operational support for the design and
technology development. An assessment implementation of applied research plans;
will be conducted to determine the level and 2) the promotion of effective interaction
of technology currently available, both in- and communication between researchers,
country and elsewhere, that can be extension agents, and rural households.
adapted for dissemination and use in The assessment and recommendations
rural, food-insecure areas of Ethiopia. should include the entire Amhara region, so
Information gained during this that successful activities may be expanded
assessment is critical to determine the to other woredas within the Amhara region
levels of technical assistance and training or to other national regional states subject
required for achieving success and to the mutual agreement of the Government
providing benchmark indicators and of Ethiopia and USAID/ Ethiopia. Contained
reasonable timetables. The Collaborative in this report are:
Research Support Programs of USAID’s
Global Bureau are to provide expertise for
the agricultural and natural resource • An assessment of the availability,
technology assessment, which will be generation and dissemination of
conducted in collaboration with USAID, technology.
the ANRS Integrated Food Security Unit, • An action plan for strengthening
the ANRS Bureau of Agriculture, other applied, agricultural research.
stakeholders in the Amhara region, and • Theanticipated results from
regional, national and international implementing the action plan and
research organizations. identification of indicators to measure
success.

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2.0 ASSESSMENT METHODS literature (Annex 10.4). To make first-hand
observations of food production in Amhara
The Amhara Agricultural and Natural region, the team travelled both by air and
Resource (Research) Technology on the ground. The team’s itinerary began
Assessment was conducted by an with reviewing documents and meeting in
interdisciplinary team with expertise in Addis Ababa with officials of the U.S.
agro-climatology, agro-ecology, animal Agency for International Development
science, crop protection, economics, (USAID/Ethiopia), the Ethiopian Agri-
sociology, soil science,vegetable crops cultural Research Organization (EARO),
production and participatory watershed the Centro Internacional de Mejoramiento
management (Annex 10.1). The team de Maiz y Trigo (CIMMYT), the Inter-
evaluated potentials to facilitate rural national Livestock Research Institute
participation in developing, adapting and (ILRI), and the Swedish International
disseminating technology essential to Development Agency (SIDA) (Annex 10.3)
increase food security in the Amhara to obtain information regarding the
region. The team used “household” instead activities of the organizations contributing
of “farmer” to remove the “male farmer” to food security of the Amhara National
stereotype embedded in agricultural Regional State (ANRS).
research and extension and to understand
the complex intra-household dynamics that The team next travelled by air to Bahir Dar,
influence farm and non-farm activities taken the capital of the Amhara region, and took a
up by men, women, and children within a ten-day road trip back to Addis Ababa to
household. Using the household as the unit gather information by meeting with
of analysis enabled the results of research research and extension personnel at the
and extension to be scaled up to various kebele, woreda zone and regional levels,
levels of heirarchies. A heirarchical, as well as with members of rural house-
systems approach was used to conduct the holds in several zones of the Amhara
assessment of agricultural technologies in region. During the trip, the team was
the Amhara region. This method briefed by ANRS officials of the Food
recognizes that the ANRS includes Security Unit, the Bureau of Agriculture, the
approximately 2.5 million households and three Agricultural Research Centers, the
that policies and decisions are made and Plant Health Clinic in Combolcha, and the
implemented at many levels, encom- Regional Sheep Breeding Center at Amed
passing different numbers of people: the Guya, farmers and peasant association
household, peasant association (PA), leaders (Annex 10.3). At each visit, the
kebele, woreda, zone, region, and nation. team was briefed, obtained documents,
and interviewed employees to gain specific
The team’s itinerary (Annex 10.2) to collect information relevant to the scope of work.
information included visits to Ethiopian Field visits with woreda and zonal officials
organizations at the national, regional, and with rural household members
zonal, woreda and kebele level as well as engaged in agriculture and animal hus-
visits with rural household members (Annex bandry were included to give team
10.3). The team also met with members of members an opportunity to observe first-
two International Agricultural Research hand agricultural and animal husbandry
Centers (Annex 10.3) and reviewed activities and natural resource man-
published and unpublished agement.

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3.0 CONTEXT OF FOOD SECURITY IN insecure. There has been no single year
THE AMHARA REGION since 1950 where there was no drought in
the eastern part of the region. Famines
Ethiopia is one of the poorest countries in have been recorded as far back as
the world. Per capita incomes are biblical times. On the other hand, much of
estimated at just over $100 per year. the western half of the region has good
Estimated life expectancy is soils and adequate rainfall and typically
approximately 48 years. Just 3 percent of produce agricultural surpluses.
rural dwellers in the Amhara region have
access to potable water. Adult literacy The population of the Amhara region is
stands at 35 percent of the total approximately 15 million people of whom
population and only 22 percent of children 89 percent live in rural, agricultural
in the relevant age bracket attend primary households. Cereals account for more that
school. Between forty and sixty percent of 80 percent of cultivated land and 85
children are chronically undernourished percent of total crop production. The
and in the Amhara region 80 percent principal cereal crops in the Amhara region
suffer from stunted growth. Nationally, 23 are teff, barley, wheat, maize, sorghum and
percent die before reaching adolescence. finger millet. Pulses and oil crops are the
other major categories of field crops.
Per capita food consumption showed a Nationally, livestock population is the
steady decline from 1979 to 1994. This is largest in Africa (29.8 million cattle, 11.5
true both in terms of consumption of million sheep, 9.6 million goat, 3.9 million
domestic production as well as total equines, 0.25 million camel and 25.8 million
consumption including imports and food poultry) but is characterized by low
aid. An erratic, but general, trend towards productivity. About 27.9 percent of the
improvement in total agricultural livestock in Ethiopia, 30.7 percent of the
production has been achieved since 1995 poultry, and 18.5 percent of the beehives
due to generally adequate rainfall, some are found in the Amhara region.
liberalization of agricultural production,
and increased provision of modern inputs Most of the region is on the highland
to farm households. Surplus production, plateau and is characterized by rugged
however, has led to sharp drops in prices mountains, hills, plateaus, valleys and
of agricultural outputs due to limited gorges. Hence, the region has varied
commercialization infrastructure. Even in landscapes composed of steep fault
recent good harvest years, approximately escarpments and adjoining lowland plains
40 percent of Ethiopians have been in the east, nearly flat plateaus and
unable to meet their basic nutritional mountains in the center, and eroded
requirements. In 1999, failure of the belg landforms in the north. Most of the
(short season) rains in many regions of western part is a flat plain extending into
the country led to a five year high of 6.8 the Sudan lowlands. The topographical
million people depending upon food aid. features represent diversified elevations
ranging from 700 meters above sea level
The Amhara region suffers from recurrent (m.a.s.l.) in the eastern edge to over 4600
droughts and pest invasions. Of the 105 m.a.s.l. in the northwest. Based on
woredas in the region, forty-eight are moisture availability and thermal zones,
drought-prone and chronically food- ten major agro-ecological zones and 18

3
sub-zones have been identified in the the plateaus and low-lying areas is
region. A little over 50 percent of the total another major constraint.
area of the region is considered potentially
arable for agricultural production activities. The traditional method of soil fertility
regeneration by fallowing and use of
A population growth rate of 3 percent a organic fertilizer has almost completely
year is leading to a doubling of the human broken down due to land scarcity
population every 25 years. This rapid resulting from overpopulation. In addition,
population growth rate has led to severe most crop residue is removed by farmers
land shortages and rapid natural resource for either fuel or construction purposes.
degradation. In the Amhara region, 94 Remaining organic matter in fields is
percent of households have insufficient removed by livestock stubble grazing. Dry
land to meet their food needs. Rural manure is used for fuel due to the chronic
households are compelled to clear and shortage of firewood and lack of
cultivate marginal lands on steep hillsides. alternative sources of energy. In sum,
Only one to three percent of the Amhara increasing populations and a declining
region remains forested. Overgrazing availability of land that is increasingly
further denudes the land of vegetative eroded and experiencing a chronic net
cover. Forage requirements are estimated decline in nutrients stocks is undermining
to be 40 percent below needed levels to the ability of the agricultural sector to
maintain the current livestock population. meet the basic food requirements of the
Amharan people.
Much of Ethiopia in general and the
Amhara region in particular is
characterized by mountainous agriculture 4.0 SUMMARY ASSESSMENT
with slope gradients ranging from 5-45
percent. Much of the annual rainfall Individuals have food security when they
comes in short violent events of up to 100 have adequate access to food, in both
mm/day. The exposure of denuded slope quantitative and qualitative terms, either
areas to this type of rainfall results in by producing or purchasing it. The overall
Ethiopia having one of the most serious objective to achieve food security should
soil degradation problems in the world. be to increase household production and
Annual rates of soil loss in the Amhara productivity. Progress toward achieving
region in some steep lands and food security can be measured by:
overgrazed slopes exceed 300 increasing food availability
tons/ha/year, or 250 mm/year. Lesser (kilocalories/person/day), increasing
rates of soil erosion in ANRS are also of household incomes, and improved
concern, since loss of soil reduces the nutritional status of children in the region.
land’s waterholding capacity and soil
fertility. In the ANRS, yields are estimated Based upon the assessment methods
to decline by 1-2 percent per year due to described in Section 2.0, the following
soil erosion. Nationally, on over 2 million summary assessment describes key
hectares, the soil depth is so reduced that elements needed to achieve the goal of
the land is no longer able to support food security in the Amhara region. This
cultivation. Water logging problems summary assessment is based on the
associated with the Vertisols in some of ideas and proposals encountered in the

4
team’s contacts with individuals and can also contribute to more reliable
institutions on both the national and production of field crops and horticultural
(Amhara) regional level. Nevertheless, crops. Management of risk can also be
this is a preliminary draft and the team addressed by the development of
welcomes comments to help modify and appropriate germplasm adapted to the
improve this report. The key elements are above-mentioned production constraints.
summarized in the subsections below and Tree crop production of fruit, fodder, and
will be referred to throughout this fuelwood that is less susceptible to
document. drought is a further risk-coping strategy,
as well as the access to off-farm
4.1 Diversification of Productive employment.
Activities. Three factors contribute to the
need for diversification of the productive 4.3 Adaptive Research Linking
activities of rural households: 1) yield Research, Extension, and Rural
variability affected by such factors as Households for Technology Adoption.
drought, frost and pests that make rural Given the high variability of agro-
households vulnerable when relying ecological zones, risk, and resource
predominantly on cereal crops, 2) price constraints facing rural households, there
variability in output and input markets, and is a need for adaptive research that takes
3) the overall inability of the agricultural into account the diversity of conditions
sector in many areas to produce enough facing rural households. Establishing
food to feed increasing populations. systematic linkages between research,
Diversification is therefore needed both in extension, and rural households is an
terms of agricultural production activities effective means of generating
(e.g,. field crops, fruits and vegetables, technologies appropriate for these
poultry, livestock) and in terms of off-farm conditions. Researchers must have
income-generating activities (e.g., frequent feedback about what is and is
artisanry, petty commerce, paid not working in terms of benefits to
agricultural labor, small business farmers. Rural household members and
enterprises) that allow rural households to extension agents can not only provide
purchase food. that information but are often the best
source of ideas on how to adapt a
4.2 Risk Management. Rural households technology to local conditions. In addition,
operate in a highly risky environment due linkages involving rural households to set
to production risks (climate, pests, the research agenda helps ensure that
diseases, etc.) and the variability of new technologies are not only
prices. The diversification of agriculture technologically viable but indeed address
discussed in 4.1 is one strategy to priority problems as perceived by rural
minimize risk. Practices that conserve households who are the ultimate users of
moisture for crops are another example of technological solutions.
a useful strategy. This is particularly
important to rural households who wish to 4.4 Natural Resource Conservation
invest in productivity-enhancing inputs Including Biological Components.
such as improved seeds and fertilizer that Natural resources such as soils, water,
need adequate moisture to be effective. plants, and animals are key factors
Irrigation and wells, where appropriate, affecting farm productivity. Massive land

5
degradation is undermining the productive potential areas can reduce degradation in
capability of the agricultural sector. marginal areas by reducing production
Conservation efforts that have focused on pressures on degraded and marginal
physical structures (terraces, soil bunds, land. Further, high potential areas have
drainage ditches, etc.) have been only greater capacity to generate off-farm
partly successful and need to be rethought income for household members from low
and reinforced. Greater emphasis on potential areas by employing labor in
planting trees, shrubs and grasses on a upstream (input provision) and
denuded landscape can result in greater downstream (agriculture product
resiliency of production systems. transformation) agricultural sector
Vegetative cover not only helps control activities and other small businesses. On
erosion and conserve water, but also the other hand, the technology packages
serves to recycle nutrients, reduce used in high potential zones are generally
evaporative demand on crops and soils, not appropriate and need to be adapted
and increase soil organic matter. for more marginal, drought-prone areas.
Furthermore, biological components can
serve the dual purpose of natural resource 4.6 Need for Improved Nutrition. Food
conservation and can also provide income security includes both quantitative and
generating products such as fodder, qualitative aspects. Individuals, in particular
fuelwood, fruit, and medicine. Systematic children, may suffer from vitamin and
adaptive research needs to be conducted protein deficiencies even when they have
on dual purpose conservation-income- an adequate level of total caloric intake.
generating techniques such as grass strips, Diversification of agricultural production
upper watershed reforestation, homestead and off-farm income for food purchase are
vegetation and alley cropping. proven means to enable individuals to
obtain a more balanced diet. Research and
4.5 Reinforce High Potential extension programs need to identify and
Successes. Ethiopia has extensive areas take into account nutritional shortcomings
endowed with both fertile soils and in planning their strategic objectives.
adequate moisture that are rare in other Orienting small-scale horticultural
regions of Africa. Recent experiences by promotion toward improved nutrition is one
Ethiopian research and extension in example. In general, efforts should be
collaboration with Sasakawa Global 2000 made to coordinate with health and
showed that a doubling to tripling of yields educational services to address nutritional
is possible in high potential areas with issues in a comprehensive manner.
good soils and adequate water with a
technological package including improved
seed, fertilizer and credit. Economic 4.7 Need for Increased Research
analysis showed that these packages Capability and Coordination. The
also substantially increased net income current ANRS research capability is not
for rural households in these areas. Food adequate for addressing the seriousness
security cannot be achieved by focusing and diversity of problems faced by the
only on chronically food insecure zones. agricultural sector in the Amhara region.
The production of agricultural surpluses The research centers in general lack
from high potential zones can provide low adequate human resources in terms of
cost food to deficit areas. Success in high senior research personnel with advanced

6
degrees as well as trained technical While these factors are critical for food
support staff. In addition, there is need for security, they are beyond the scope of the
greater material resources such as vehicles assessment mandate and are best
to reach the field and equipment to conduct covered in other planning reports
on-station experiments. Furthermore, the
agricultural research system is in a period
of transition due the process of 5.0 TECHNOLOGY AVAILABILITY,
regionalization. A clear division of research GENERATION AND DISSEMINATION
tasks that takes advantage of the
comparative advantages of the different 5.1 Soil Erosion and Fertility.
research centers at the regional, national, Approximately 39 percent of the land in the
and international levels and which avoids Amhara region is estimated to be used for
unnecessary duplication is needed. grazing and browsing and 27 percent is
Support for increased capability should be under cultivation, much of it being
accompanied by greater coordination in cultivated for three millenia or longer. Many
order to be effective. of the soils which shrink and swell have
severe drainage and waterlogging
The team also identified a number of problems during the rainy season. A
other factors that are necessary to majority of the land is steep, infiltration
achieve food security but which are not rates are low, and little surface cover is left
explicitly addressed in this document. after extensive cropping or grazing. Soil
These factors include: conservation measures are needed, but a
high percentage of the land has already
• Land tenure policies to give been severely degraded. Rainfall is
households greater tenure security variable and must be utilized effectively. If
in order to encourage long-term during the high rainfall period some of the
investments to increase productivity excess water could be stored in or on the
and to promote natural resource soil using water management
conservation. technologies, the risk of crop failure and
• Control of population pressures that erosion associated with rainfall variation
are outpacing the ability of the could be reduced.
agricultural sector to increase food
production and are leading to Continuous cropping, loss of surface soil
increased natural resource by erosion, and relatively little application
degradation. of mineral nutrients has resulted in low
• Transportation and communication soil fertility. Soil erosion and low fertility
infrastructure to improve the pose both long- and short-term problems.
commercialization of agricultural Furthermore, these conditions are often
production and inputs as well as to interrelated. The topsoil loss magnifies
improve research-extension-rural deficiencies of nitrogen (N) and
household linkages. phosphorus (P), currently the major
• Supportive economic policies such causes of low soil fertility.
as credit, promotion of the private
sector, improved marketing Ethiopia is considered to have one of the
efficiency. most serious soil degradation problems in
the world. The average annual rate of soil

7
loss in Ethiopia is estimated to be 12 to potassium fertilizer has not been
tons/ha/yr, and it can drastically exceed studied appreciably as soil levels are not
this on steep slopes with soil loss rates low. Additional potash may reduce frost
greater than 300 tons/ha/year, or 250 damage, however, and this aspect should
mm/year, where vegetation is denuded. be evaluated.
On over 2 million hectares, the soil depth
is so reduced that the land is no longer Prior soil tests, such as those by H. F.
able to support cultivation. The Ethiopian Murphy, have shown phosphorus (P)
government launched a massive soil deficiency to be a major problem for crop
conservation program beginning in the production in the Amhara region. A
mid-1970s. Between 1976 and 1990, standard rate of phosphate is now
71,000 ha of soil and stone bunds, recommended, but applications should be
233,000 ha of hillside terraces for based on diagnostic analysis, because
afforestation, 12,000 km of checkdams in availability of soil P may vary. Participatory,
gullied lands, 390,000 ha of closed areas adaptive research is needed to achieve
for natural regeneration, 448,000 ha of efficient fertilization. Soil test labs exist at
land planted with different tree species, some of the research stations and others
and 526,425 ha of bench terrace are being constructed. Simple procedures,
interventions were completed. However, common among all labs in the region and in
by 1990, only 30 percent of soil bunds, 25 the country, should be employed. Reports
percent of the stone bunds, 60 percent of from a program, the International Soil
the hillside terraces, 22 percent of land Fertility and Evaluation Project, sponsored
planted in trees, and 7 percent of the by USAID about 20 years ago, should
reserve areas still survived. Clearly, serve as a guide. The national research
interventions that reduce the land organization, EARO, should try to
degradation rate and that are localized to standardize such procedures across
existing environmental conditions are regions.
necessary.
In general, technology to stabilize soil on
5.1.1 Available technology. The three common grazing lands near stream
regional laboratories are beginning to banks using vegetation is beginning to
generate information regarding the rates of become available at Adet and Sirinka.
fertilizer applications for areas of highly Additional research on tree species other
variable rainfall to refine the general than Eucalyptus is urgently needed. Many
recommendations supplied by EARO, rural households have created surface
ICRISAT, and CIMMYT. For cereals grown drains to remove excess water to prevent
under the various conditions in the region, waterlogging. The removal of this water
adaptive research is needed. Adequate has often caused gully erosion.
nitrogen (N) will increase protein in grain Technology being evaluated is terrace
and forage and will aid human nutrition. building and reducing the land
Legumes grown in rotation with cereals degradation rate using agroforestry
contribute small amounts of N. Other techniques. Much soil conservation and
possible means of increasing N are from water harvesting technology is available
green manure crops and agroforestry, but in the country from EARO and ICRISAT,
economic analysis is needed to assess and additional technology from ICRAF
their economic feasibility. Crop response could be utilized.

8
5.1.2 Capability to generate new positions in the landscape. With
technology. Research on erosion, water increased human population has come
management and soil fertility is being decreased use of fallow land, increased
conducted at the research stations, livestock pressure, and degradation of the
substations or on the fields of rural natural resource base, including soil,
households. Most of the researchers lack water, and native flora and fauna. By
advanced degrees and training could taking a watershed approach across a
become more effective with increased range of hierarchies, from small
funding to conduct adaptive research catchments to larger streams and even
programs. rivers, issues such as upstream-
downstream effects and interactions
5.1.3 Extension capability. The among components of the system can be
Extension Service has increased its addressed. Local communities have
capability to reach farmers through institutional capability to implement,
numerous Development Agents (DA). monitor, and enforce decisions made
With common packages, the DAs, with regarding interventions. The problems to
only brief training in agriculture, can be addressed will determine the size of
contact and advise farmers. Additional the watershed selected, but in watershed
training for DAs and their supervisors research, a focus on scaling up needs to
would allow development of flexible be addressed. Precipitation is one of the
extension recommendations for individual most variable aspects of the environment
farms and actual rainfall. This training that limits productivity and food security.
would also allow the DA to evaluate Due to the inherently low precipitation in
problems that need to be researched. many regions and the variable nature of
When soil testing becomes a practice the timing and amount of rain across food
available to rural householders, the DA insecure regions, the indigenous
could assist them in getting producers are risk adverse. A better
representative soil samples. understanding and predictability of the
weather could enhance adoption of new
5.2 Agroclimatic Analysis and technologies. Irrigation can also provide
Watershed Management. Many of the stability in the water supply and therefore
problems faced by people in the highly in production potential, but irrigation has
complex and variable Amhara region not been developed on a large scale.
cannot be solved on a field-by-field basis Solutions to problems such as land use
or by using a disciplinary approach. The distribution and water management within
landscape is spatially variable, with steep a land-scape/watershed will require a
upper slopes suited to perennial part-icipatory, systems approach to
vegetation, relatively level lowlands and research, extension, and development,
highlands that are primarily used for field because the research arena involves the
crop production, and intermediate zones, livelihoods and lives of the people in the
often with mixed use of crop production watershed.
interspersed with communal pastures.
Human population pressures are high 5.2.1 Available technology. Although
and increasing, with decreased meteorological data are limited, some
landholding size per household and relatively long-term weather stations exist
movement of people from lower to higher in the Amhara region and detailed

9
analysis of some of these sites was available from the Famine Early Warning
reported by IAR, ILRI, and ICRISAT in the System (FEWS) might provide useful
mid-1980s, giving probability distributions information for implementing more flexible
by month or week of the year, along with approaches to adaptive and
mean and standard deviation on an annual demonstrative research for highly variable
and monthly basis. Some of the sites also rainfall areas.
included temperature analysis, although
analysis of risks associated with frost has There has been limited development of
been limited and should be pursued where water supplies for irrigation along streams
historical data from high altitudes are and even less development of small
available. The research centers each ponds (along with protected source areas
maintain one or more weather stations, but upstream) to capture and store water
there appears to have been little analysis during the rainfall surplus months for use
of the data. Agroclimatic analysis of geo- during the dry months. Technology
referenced weather records needs to be developed by ILRI (1999) for PAs to build
conducted for all long term stations (>10 ponds using animal power could provide
years) in or near the region to develop household and livestock water supply
maps of agroclimatic patterns and to (and/or along with small scale irrigation)
determine if precipitation amounts and for gardens or high-value cash crops. It
patterns (starting dates, ending dates, would also serve the added benefit of
length of the belg (short season) and reducing erosion hazard from intense
meher (long season) rainy seasons) are storms by increasing water retention
changing over time—as is widely believed capacity in the landscape. Development
in the region—or if recent dry seasons are of such systems would clearly require the
within the normal range of variability of the participation of households, villages and
climate. The “response farming” approach extension at several levels, as well as
developed in the 1970s-1980s in Kenya adaptive research, and, on
and expanded to sub-Saharan West Africa occasion,Bureaus such as Water and/or
(linear relationships between date of onset Health. In addition, design (based on
of rains to probable length of the season agroclimatic, soils, topographic, and
and total rainfall) should be evaluated to demand analysis), engineering, and
determine if simple indicators could be construction of dams and ponds or other
identified that would guide cropping and irrigation schemes should be balanced
forage production toward those options with the design of the production systems
having high productivity potential with the that would use the water to produce high
lowest risk for that particular season. If value crops or nutritive food supply for
such relationships could be developed, households and communities.
then training of SMSs and DAs in rainfall
probability along with establishment of Research methods and approaches that
rain-gauge sites at woreda or kebele levels can be adapted and applied to implement
could be established on a pilot basis to integrated watershed based research and
guide extension recom-mendations. Other development include participatory rapid
approaches to weather forecasting and appraisal techniques, visioning, system-atic
monitoring benchmark surveys, simulation systems
that integrate biophysical and
socioeconomic models (e.g., ILRI & Texas

10
A&M), and monitoring tools (e.g., Water landscape hydrology or sociology.
Watch in Alabama, The Philippines, and Researchers and extensionists in ANRS
Ecuador ). would benefit from formal training or
experience in participatory research and
Many of the intervention technologies to extension methods. Communities would
improve components of the system exist: greatly benefit from training to develop
for example, species and varieties for institutional capabilities to implement
agroforestry and diversification of practices within watersheds. Local
production, soil and water conservation governments and community groups will
technologies (particularly water also need training and capability building
conservation technologies developed for in participatory approaches. Linkages
vertisols by ICRISAT and others), and with other departments or Bureaus (e.g.,
plant and animal health technologies. Health, Education, Water) need to be
developed or strengthened for watershed-
5.2.2 Capability to generate new based research and development and
technology. There was little evidence of mechanisms for cooperation across
use of agroclimatic information or analyses government or institutional boundaries
to guide research or extension in the agreed upon. Human, physical, and
region. Remote sensing technologies such financial resources for implementation of
as those used by FEWS could be integrated systems research and
investigated for application of early development at a watershed scale, even
detection of regional weather patterns to at a pilot level, are limited.
guide extension recommendations.
Research and SMS staff at various places 5.2.3 Extension capability. Investment
in the region include some agricultural in participatory, watershed-based
engineers, but their capability to conduct research is for the long-term, because
the needed adaptive research or to this type of research is new, not only in
generate new technologies in water Ethiopia, but elsewhere. The pilot
conservation and use or small-scale approach is appropriate at this time while
irrigation and management appears limited. methodologies are developed and
Research and extension soil and water capacities are increased.
conservation programs focus strongly on
soil conservation practices and may fail to 5.3 Improved, Dissemination-Ready
capitalize on the water conservation Genetic Material. Improved genetic
benefits of practices such as terracing and resources of both plants and animals are
tied-ridges. essential in any effort to solve the food
security problems of the region. In such
There is demonstrated understanding of an effort, the genetic materials must be
the need for watershed approach and suitable for the target ecological zones.
commitment to pilot project planning in
the region. An Ethiopian study team 5.3.1 Available technology. The range
visited watershed-based research sites in of available, improved and adaptable
The Philippines and Georgia. However, cultivars or genetic stocks for the food
no formal training among the research deficit parts of the Amhara region varies
centers or extension systems exists in for field crops, livestock, and trees. The
systems research, landscape ecology, crops grown in the region cover a wide

11
range of cereals, pulses, and horticultural limited. The bulk of the afforestation
crops. For the major cereals, which are program underway in the region is based
wheat, barley, tef, sorghum and maize, on planting Eucalyptus trees with
improved cultivars such as ET13, HAR sporadic planting of Cupresses species.
604 (wheat), HB-42 and HB-120 (barley), Indigenous tree and shrub species have
DZ-01-196 (tef), Meko, 76-T1-23, mostly disappeared, apart from protected
Gambella 1107(sorghum), maize and isolated church compounds where
(Katumani composite) are available. In some of the indigenous tree and shrub
addition, there are cultivars in the species remain. Trials are underway at
breeding and varietal release pipelines of some of the research and testing sites to
EARO across most of the crops. Some identify suitable indigenous and exotic
examples which were mentioned are tree species for various ecological
three Striga resistant sorghum varieties conditions. Accelerated efforts are
pending approval by the variety release needed to identify suitable tree species
committee. The major pulses in the for the diverse ecological zones of the
region are lentil, field peas, faba beans region.
and chickpeas, while the major oil crops
are noug, safflower and sesame. 5.3.2 Capability to develop new
Availability of improved cultivars in these technology. In the short term, screening
crops is limited, although indigenous of improved varieties from national and
varieties are available in a wide range of international sources in the different
genetic diversity. EARO and the IARCs ecological zones would be the most
(e.g., CIMMYT, ICRISAT, CIP, CIAT, practical and cost effective approach to
ICRAF) are the main sources of improved develop improved genetic materials.
germplasm. However, over the long term,
comprehensive breeding programs to
The animal genetic resources in the meet needs identified by rural households
Amhara region cover different species of would be necessary to meet the changing
animals existing in diverse ecological needs of the region.
zones. These include cattle, sheep,
goats, poultry, donkeys, horses, mules, 5.3.3 Extension capability. Currently,
fish and bee colonies. Other species of the contribution of technology generated
animals such as pigs are not common. by the research centers in the region to
The different species of animals are extension efforts in the area of crop and
available in abundant numbers and livestock improvement is minimal, mainly
diversity in the different agro-ecological because the centers are relatively new,
zones. These animals are indigenous and inadequately staffed in terms of
have been selected for adaptive traits in experience, and have inadequate
the diverse ecological zones. Although facilities.
some improved breeds of poultry, dairy
and sheep are available, the overall 5.4 Field Crop Production. Cereals,
availability of improved and adapted pulses, oil crops and other field crops
animal genetic stocks is minimal. dominate the agriculture of the Amhara
region. The main field crops in the
In trees, shrubs and forage crops, the Amhara region are:
availability of improved genetic stocks is

12
Cereals Pulses Oil crops tolerance to some of the stress factors.
Barley Lentil Noug (Niger seed) Examples are ET13, HR604, Enkoy,
Boohai, and Mamba for wheat; HB-42 and
Wheat Field pea Safflower
HB-120 for barley; DZ-196, DZ-354, DZ-01-
Tef Chick pea Sesame 99, and DZ-CR-37 for tef; Katumani
composite, A-511, BH-140, Alemaya
Sorghum Faba bean Sunflower Composite for maize; and 76-TI-23,
Gambella 1107, Dinkmash, Birmash,
Maize Cowpea Linseed Alemaya 70, and ETS2752 for sorghum.
Finger millet Rapeseed
The range of available improved cultivars
for pulses and oil crops is much narrower
Oat and in some cases, there are none
available. Some examples are Fogera-1
(noug), CS-20DK (faba bean), and Chilalo
A wide range of both abiotic and biotic (linseed) Some of the improved cultivars
stresses constrain field crops production such as Katumani maize and 76-TI-23
in the region. Among the major abiotic sorghum are early maturing and thus
stresses are drought, waterlogging, frost, escape drought and produce stable yields
and low fertility. The main biological in relatively short growing seasons.
constraints are insects, diseases and Improved crop management technologies
weeds. Some examples are: for stable and high yield production of crops
are also available. Examples are the use of
tied-ridges for moisture conservation, the
Insects Diseases Weeds broad bed maker for improved drainage,
Aphids Rusts (leaf, Striga row planting for more efficient weed control
and fertilizer application, intercropping for
stem, stripe)
Stem borer Smuts Parthenium minimizing pest damage and improving
(Congress weed) yield stability, legume-cereal rotation for
Shoot fly Leaf blight Grasses improved soil fertility , pest control, and
Wollo-Bush Septoria Broad leaf higher yield, and crop substitution for
cricket shorter growing seasons. Combinations of
Pachnoda Scald Wild oats improved cultivars and appropriate
beetle
Termites Net blotch
management practices should give higher
Migratory and stable yields from year to year.
pests Scientists at the research centers have
Weevils been working with scientists at EARO and
Other storage ILRI to develop technologies for cultivation
pests of waterlogged Vertisols. Among these
techniques is a method of using 80-cm
5.4.1 Available technology. The beds separated by 40-cm furrows to allow
judicious management of abiotic and adequate drainage when the rate of rainfall
biotic stresses requires the deployment of exceeds the rate of infiltration of water into
both genetic resistance and appropriate the soil.
management practices. For some of the
important crops mentioned above, there 5.4.2 Capability to develop new
are improved cultivars in Ethiopia which technology. The three regional research
have high yield potential and resistance/

13
centers have personnel who can develop integral effort to promote a market-based
new technologies through participative economy. Diversified cropping systems,
research for field crops production, pest including the production of cash crops, as
control and storage. Further training, well as off-farm activities, are considered
linkages to researchers within and outside by the ANRS Integrated Food Security
Amhara region, and infrastructural support Program to be important mechanisms
will be needed to increase the efficiency of used by households to cope with
the Amhara region agricultural researchers seasonal food shortage vulnerabilities.
in order to generate new and appropriate Because the ANRS economy is largely
technologies through participatory re- dependent upon production of cereals
search. At present, collaboration with and livestock, wider production of high-
EARO and ILRI scientists would be value vegetables in the region can
beneficial to the region. provide a viable mechanism to generate
additional household income and to
5.4.3 Extension capability. The three supplement nutritional intake.
research centers have been involved in
demonstrating improved crop production Vegetables have not been grown to a large
and protection packages. Field days for extent in Amhara region and per capita
rural households are usually held to consumption is relatively low. However,
introduce crop producers to improved small pockets of production have long
technologies. Improved seeds are also existed, and minor consumption of a variety
sometimes distributed by the research of species such as tomato, cabbage, carrot,
centers to farmers to make new cultivars onions, shallots, garlic, potato and the
available to producers. The extension green seed of several pulses exists. These
service also popularizes improved crop crops have traditionally been grown during
production technologies through the rainy season, or near riverbanks or
implementing improved crop production springs where there is access to irrigation.
packages on demonstration fields of rural Interventions that are required to raise
households. The technical packages of vegetable production and consumption in
maize and wheat usually cover improved the ANRS include: raise consciousness
seeds, fertilizer, pest control, and improved about the economic and nutritional value of
management practices. Although the these crops; develop appropriate
technical production packages have given technology packages for the production,
rural households’ higher yields, because of postharvest handling, and marketing of
higher production costs and low market these crops, based on currently available
values, producers have not always realized information; conduct adaptive research to
increased profitability. The extension staff introduce new potential species, varieties
need much more technical support and and technologies used in other
research information to be more effective in regions/countries; expand the land under
their work. irrigation for the production of vegetables
and other high-value crops during the dry
5.5 Vegetable Production season or to mitigate periods of drought;
and conduct marketing research to explore
5.5.1 Available technology. The expansion potentials into local and export
promotion of income generating activities markets.
in the Amhara region is a part of an

14
5.5.2 Capability to develop new 5.6 Other High Value Crops. Income-
technology. The current ANRS capability generating cash crops and off-farm
to implement available technology used in activities provide effective mechanisms
other regions and to develop and for assisting households to cope with
implement new technology is minimal. The periods of food shortage. A wide diversity
reasons are an inadequate research of specialty high-value agricultural
infrastructure to conduct horticultural products are already produced or have
research and the need for appropriately potential for small-scale production in the
trained and experienced research region. These include vegetables
personnel. Such support is essential in the (Section 5.4), apiary products (Sect. 5.6),
areas of germplasm evaluation, seed horticultural seed and seedling production
production, fertility, irrigation, pest (Sect. 5.7), processed products (Sect.
management, postharvest management 5.10) as well as fruits, herbs and spices,
and marketing. Nationally, EARO, and staff oil crops, medicinals, botanicals, wood
from other support agencies (such as the products for fuel and construction, and
National Soils Lab), have the technical non-woody forestry products, sugarcane,
expertise to provide support on several of cotton and fiber crops, among others.
these areas, but specific expertise on
vegetable production is clearly minimal. 5.6.1 Available technology. Indigenous
Nevertheless, an extensive and available knowledge exists to ensure the production
international technical knowledge base for of a variety of specialty agricultural
the production of vegetables does exist. products in the region. Moreover,
Agencies such as the International Potato technology exists, both in the country and
Center (root crops), the Asian Vegetable internationally, which would improve the
Research and Development Center, and productivity, efficiency,and ability to better
CRSP would be instrumental in identifying market these products. Limitations that
existing crops/ technologies applicable to currently prevent the expansion of these
the Amhara region and for capability localized industries, and the income that
building of ANRS research staff. households receive from these products,
include: marked seasonal price
5.5.3 Extension capability. Organ- fluctuations; low productivity; poor
izationally, the extension capabilities to postharvest practices, a lack of market
raise awareness about new potential infrastructure (e.g., credit and financial
vegetable enterprises and for transferring services), seasonal product consistency,
“simplified” technology packages (blanket enterpreneurship, market knowledge, and
recommendations, such as kind of seed, improved, efficient production practices.
planting densities and fertilizer rates) are The following interventions are therefore
established. However, considerable needed to develop market niches for
capability building is required to upgrade particular products and to improve the
the technological expertise of the efficiency of production and marketability of
extension staff (Subject Matter Specialists high value crops for sale or export:
and DAs) in practically all areas of the
vegetable crop production, management • System appraisals at local (woreda)
and marketing process. This expertise will level to assess market/geographical
be essential to support a horticulture opportunities to develop niche
industry in the region. markets for particular products.

15
 • Market analyses studies to evaluate 5.6.3 Extension capability. Extension
seasonal price fluctuations and capabilities to raise awareness about new
volatility, seasonal market windows products and market opportunities and to
and opportunities for inter-regional transfer technology are organizationally in
trade and export. place, and the research stations are
• A synthesis of available information for relatively well staffed. However, con-
each product in the form of technology siderable capability building is required to
production packages. upgrade the technological expertise of the
• On-going research to improve the extension staff (Experts and DAs) in the
productivity and market quality of area of production and marketing of
these products on a variety of key specialty cash crops.
topics including fertility, germplasm
evaluation, pest management, 5.7 Seed Industry. A strong seed
postharvest quality and management industry that provides high quality seeds
and value-added potentials. of improved or indigenous crop
• Assistance in the development of germplasm in a timely manner is a
community marketing programs (such prerequisite for the overall food security
as cooperatives). efforts of the Amhara region. The current
• Available irrigation in some cases. activities and area coverages of the
Ethiopian Seed Enterprise in the Amhara
5.6.2 Capability to develop new tech- region is insignificant compared to the
nology. The current ANRS capability to overall regional demand for high quality
implement available technology and to seed for all crops including cereals,
develop new technology, in terms of forages, pulses, oil crops, vegetables and
physical Experiment Station infrastructure trees. The research centers must play a
and experienced research personnel, is in lead role in developing or obtaining
its initial stages of development and breeder and basic seed, as well as in
needs substantial improvement to fulfill producing foundation seed for their
the needs of the Amhara region. Support respective zones. The research centers
is needed in the topics listed above should also ensure good quality seed
(under section 5.6.1). Nationally, EARO control in both production and distribution
conducts ongoing evaluation trials for a the region. Policy and quality control
variety of fruit, forestry, oil and other issues are the responsibility of the
products. However, specialized research National Seed Industry Agency, and the
should be earmarked to focus on specific ANRS must develop regional capacity
niche products and on particular regarding seed regulatory policies,
technological and market informational strategy and enforcement.
needs. International research and
development agencies could also be 5.7.1 Available technology. The avail-
tapped to cover current informational and ability and effectiveness function of seed
technological gaps in the production and production, processing, storage and
postharvest management of most marketing in the Amhara region is minimal
products. Considerable local market and at present, and these functions should be
production research are necessary, strengthened and expanded. Since
however, to develop appropriate localized comprehensive plans to establish or
technology packages. strengthen the overall seed industry in the

16
region are essential prerequisites for a advanced seed-technology capabilities,
sustainable food security effort, both the such as CIMMYT, ICRISAT, CIAT,
public and the private sector should ICARDA, CIP, ICRAF, AVRDC and the
participate in a complementary manner to CRSPs.
establish and nurture a viable seed
industry that serves the entire region. 5.7.3 Extension capability. Extension
capabilities to raise awareness about
The public sector could play the key role seed technology and for the
to the development and production of dissemination of seeds to producers are
breeder, basic and foundation seed organizationally in place, and in most
stocks and take a leadership role in situations, farmers save their own seed
quality control. The private sector, in turn, and exchange seeds with their neighbors.
could be encouraged to use this The dissemination of improved seed to
technology to produce, process, and farmers is at times restricted, however, by
market commercial seed. The extension lack of availability and by the high
service could continue to assist and production costs of seeds for some crops,
facilitate the dissemination and marketing such as horticultural crops.
of commercial seed. Showa Robit is an
example of a private seed and agricultural 5.8 Livestock Production. Livestock
inputs supplier who meets the demands management includes the introduction of
of seed producers. Such suppliers should new genetic material and types,
be encouraged to establish agricultural rangeland management, land-carrying
supply businesses throughout the capacity improvement and enhanced
Amhara region. forage and feed crop production.

5.7.2 Capability to develop new 5.8.1 Available technology.

technology. Currently, the capability to Tremendous animal resources exist in the
develop and establish a viable seed Amhara region, including cattle, sheep,
industry, both in the public and the private goats, camels, fish, honeybee, poultry
sector, is minimal because of inadequate and equine species, while the genetic
investment in and attention to this important composition of these resources have
sector. Also at the infant stage is the wide variability. However, productivity of
capability of the research sector to the animal resources has not been
generate new seed based technology effectively utilized, so a great need exists
because sufficient personnel with the to improve productivity and conserve the
required experience are not in place. This available animal genetic resource. In
limitation is especially critical for the some instances, the introduction of
production of improved seed for high value genetic materials from outside the region,
crops, such as potatoes and other cash which might include exotic dairy breeds
crops. Support is needed at all stages of for improvement of the dairy sector and
the seed technology process, beginning sheep breeds for improved mutton and
with the development of breeder and basic wool production, would be beneficial.
seed to the processing, storage, marketing Availability of improved genetic materials
and dissemination of commercial seed. could then be enhanced and expanded to
Critical for this process are linkages with benefit rural households through the
organizations that have selective and systematic application of

17
reproductive biotechnology, like artificial strategy to improve milk production
insemination and embryo transfer. potential may be crossbreeding the
indigenous zebu cows with exotic dairy
Animal power: Almost all agricultural breeds, although any such effort needs to
activities depend on animal power. In be an integrated one, since it would
most woredas of the region, however, up require intensified animal production.
to 75 percent of the farmers have either Technologies using improved genotypes,
one or no ox, and the extension package feed resource development, feeding
for cereal crops production does not systems and strategies, breeding and
include any strategy to ensure the reproductive management, artificial
availability of oxen to farmers at the right insemination, animal health management,
time of the year, drastically affecting water resources development, manure
agricultural production, particularly under handling and management, milk handling
unpredictable environmental conditions. and hygiene management, milk pro-
Other traditional arrangements (e.g., cessing and marketing are critical
sharing, borrowing, pairing, renting) to components in the success of such an
enable animal power also interfere with operation. Moreover, a number of policy
the right time of land preparation and issues, such as land use, price, credit and
cultivation. The zebu oxen are suitable for marketing, need to be addressed in order
animal traction and, thus, do not need to create a conducive environment for the
improved genetics. However, alternative success of this type of operation.
sources of animal power other than oxen
(e.g., horses, donkeys, cows) need to be Sheep and goat production: Enormous
investigated, as do appropriate potential exists for improved sheep and
implements associated with different on- goat production in the region, since the
farm and off-farm operations. The use of cool tropics are exceptionally suitable for
animal power in soil and water sheep production of both mutton and
conservation activities, and the wool. Current efforts should be strength-
technologies developed by ILRI and ened to encompass production, pro-
EARO in this regard, need further cessing and marketing, particularly for
examination. wool, while appropriate animal genotypes
in adequate numbers are determined for
Milk production: Zebu animals have been the different agro-ecosystems. There
naturally selected for their ability to would still, however, be a strong need to
survive stress rather than for their ability develop a market-oriented breeding and
to produce meat and dairy products. As a feeding strategy for sheep and goat
result, the milk production potential of production.
these animals is generally lower than the
improved dairy breeds. However, they are Poultry production: Although backyard
hardy animals with relatively high disease poultry production is quite common in all
and drought resistance, low feed and agro-ecological zones, modern poultry
management requirements and high production for both egg and meat needs
butterfat content. Improved milk pro- further intensification. Special attention
duction in the region, particularly around should be paid to the access of
urban centers, ensuring adequate supply dependable genetic material, feed
of fluid milk, is needed. One possible resources, health services and markets,

18
and organizing and strengthening the augment the expansion of forage crops in
processing and marketing component the region.
should be made.
5.8.2 Capacity to develop new
Fisheries: Lake Tana and other fresh technology. At present, the three research
waters in the region contain a variety of centers focus on cereal crops research,
fish with a great potential for fisheries lack a production systems approach and
development in the region. Strengthening have a limited capacity to develop new
current efforts and developing fish animal science technologies. The animal
farming, processing and marketing in science sections are maintained at a
other natural and man-made water bodies nominal level, and in some cases, only
are essential. animal feeds and nutrition sections exist.
Insufficient attention has been focused on
Rangelands management: Although the research facilities and research staff, and a
proportion of grazing lands is shrinking in strong need exists to assess the relevance
many of the farming systems due to high and suitability of technologies developed by
population pressure and a dearth of land ILRI regarding genetics, management, feed
use policy, communal grazing is a resources and feeding systems, animal
common practice in many parts of the power and farm implements. The regional
region. These grazing lands, however, research system should be strengthened to
are overstocked and the land is develop and advance technologies in
overgrazed and degraded. Loss of animal power, dairy production, small
biodiversity is of a major concern. ruminants production, poultry, fisheries and
Developing strategies to improve the apiculture that are suitable to the diverse
carrying capacity of grazing lands, such agro-ecological zones in the region..
as regulation of stocking rates and
preventing oversowing during the rainy
season would improve these land areas.
5.8.3 Extension capabilities. The exten-
Improved forages and feed crops sion service’s main focus is on cereal crop
production: As well as depletion of the production and natural resource man-
feed resource base, improved forage and agement. At all levels, animal science
feed crops production has not been extension experts are few and in most
integrated into the farming systems. instances are heavily involved in
Genetic materials suitable for the various implementing soil conservation and cereal
agro-ecologies are available. For exam- crops extension activities. Benefit would
ple, ILRI has a global collection of over accrue from additional staffing in animal
13,000 accessions of different forage science with strong links to research in
genetic resources. The need exists to order that appropriate technologies for the
quickly screen and identify suitable grass, rural household are developed.
legume crops and multi-purpose tree Improvement of the Menz sheep for mutton
species and to develop strategies for and wool production in on-farm activities
integrating them into the farming systems. are encouraging and should be expanded,
Developing seed production capacity and improved, and strengthened. Available
availability of forage crops would increase technologies in animal power, dairy
the availability of seed and cuttings and production, small ruminants

19
production, poultry, feed resources, production, handling, processing and
fisheries, and apiculture need to also be marketing aspects.
increased, encompassing the production-
to-marketing continuum. Projects involving 5.9.1 Available technology. Even
follow up and expansion of breeding though there are a substantial number of
activities need to explore alternative supply bee colonies in the different agro-
systems involving farmers. Such activities ecosystems of the region, and traditional
might include mechanisms of farmer honey production is a common practice,
participatory delivery systems, such as the indigenous apiculture knowledge has
“heifer in trust” or “passing the gift”, for not been supported by adequate research
expanded use of improved genotypes of and extension efforts. Moreover, modern
animals. apiculture, including product handling,
processing and marketing, has not been
5.9 Apiculture. Considering that honey- well developed and organized, nor has
bee production is a relatively low input diversifying the production of honeybee
operation and that the Amhara region is products, such as nectar production.
one of the major honey-producing regions Improving the design of hives so that
in the country, a large potential for beekeepers in the ANRS could extract
improvement exists. Honey production the honey and wax without destroying
occurs in all zones in the region, reflecting them, as is currently done, would greatly
the suitability of many ecosystems in the increasing the productivity of honey and
ANRS, as well as the existence of a long wax production.
tradition of honey production. Current
estimates indicate that over 692,000 5.9.2 Capability to develop new
beehives in the region produce about 3.3 technology. Programs, staff and facilities
thousand metric tonnes of honey annually. for apiculture research do not exist at the
The estimated amount of wax produced is three research centers. It would be
also substantial. Since over 95 percent of necessary to develop research center
the honey is produced and processed by capacity to undertake apiculture research
the traditional system,there exists in strategically selected locations.
tremendous potential for improving both the Meanwhile, available technologies
quantity and quality of honey and honey by- developed by the Holetta Apiculture
products. It is thought modern honeybee Center in modern honeybee production,
production techniques could increase processing and marketing could be
honey yield by over 50 percent. The appropriately packaged and delivered to
highest proportion of modern honeybee farmers in the region. Balancing natural
production in the region is in the Western resources available to bees and the
Gojam Zone, and according to some human capability to develop and expand
farmers in the region, annual income from apiculture in the region needs careful
sale of traditional beehive honey is consideration.
estimated at 1500 Birr. Strengthening
apiculture activities in the region would 5.9.3 Extension capability. The extension
contribute to substantial increases in rural system requires strengthening in modern
household income, although efforts to honeybee production and processing, and
improve apiculture in the region would also a farmer’s training center on apiculture,
need to examine the providing short-term training

20
in various aspects of apiculture, would be processing, such as methods to substitute
invaluable. Also needed is advice on how sorghum flour for wheat flour in baked
crop production systems could improve the goods. For example, in 1997/98, EARO
quality of honey, and conversely how the food scientists evaluated the food-making
honeybees would contribute to better crop qualities of thirteen sorghum varieties with
production. Loss of biodiversity, expansion different characteristics for Ethiopian food
of weeds such as “congress weed” and types (injera, kitta, nifro, genfo, tella and
unregulated use of agro-chemicals, which kollo). EARO scientists also evaluated ten
endanger honeybee production, are finger millet varieties for food making
important considerations to address. qualities, and popularized and promoted,
through lectures and training, a haricot
bean variety, Roba, for five different food
5.10 Food Science types. In addition, EARO scientists
transferred the following food tech-
5.10.1 Current technology. At the nologies: 1) bean food preparation meth-
household level in the highlands of the ods to twelve women farmers at Melkassa
Amhara region, grain is processed into flour during five days; 2) bean food preparation
by dehulling and grinding, using simple methods and bean food tasting to about
means such as mortar and pestle and 100 field day participants at Melkassa
manual grinding stones. Processing of Research Center; and 3) theoretical
agricultural products by smallholders offers training regarding bean food preparation
an opportunity to add value to harvested methods to thirty-five subject matter
crops and slaughtered animals. Value- specialists. The Melkassa food science
added technologies which are not capital- research group has also conducted
intensive and which are within the financial organoleptic testing of a wide range of
means of smallholders could offer foods to determine consumer prefer-ences.
opportunities both to increase food security Establishing linkages between Amhara
and raise rural incomes. Food processing Regional Agricultural Research Centers
(e.g., simple mills) serving groups of and the EARO food science laboratories at
households at the kebele level could also Melkassa and Holetta could potentially
decrease the time consumed at the improve food security and nutrition of many
household level in processing grains for in Amhara region.
food preparation. Large mills are located in
larger cities such as Debre Zeit to serve the Food science research with livestock and
needs of large baking enterprises. This development of technologies for milk and
technology, however, is inappropriate to meat processing has been conducted for
serve the needs of geographically many years at ILRI and its predecessor,
dispersed small holders in food-insecure ILCA. ILRI conducts research and develops
areas of the Amhara region. technologies for processing of milk both at
the smallholder level and for larger-scale
Technologies are available in Ethiopia for processing. Focusing on smallholder
improved processing and preparation of processing of milk into butter and cottage-
food, including techniques for plant and type cheese, ILCA has developed and
animal products. EARO has laboratories modified a wooden internal agitator that
at Nazret and Holetta which have been can be fitted to the usual clay pot used by
developing improved methods of food the smallholder. This agitator

21
reduces churning time from an average of Ethiopian Health and Nutrition Research
139 minutes to an average of 57 minutes. Institute, gain access to presently
ILRI’s Dairy Technology Unit is based in available technologies. Building on these
Debre Zeit, and one of its objectives is to linkages and with training, personnel of
introduce more processing options and the Research Centers could develop the
more efficient processing methods. Pear- capacity to do participatory adaptive
shaped, woven containers (gorfa) are used research and, in the long term, generate
for milk storage and souring as well as technologies with a participatory process.
churning on the semi-arid Borana Plateau
of Ethiopia. ILRI research has quantified 5.10.3 Extension capability. At Adet
the importance of milk products to rural Research Center, the team viewed a
households to assure con-sumption of demonstration potato “seed” storage
essential vitamins and amino acids which facility, and at two of the woredas, the team
are absent in grain, confirming that a observed grain storage facilities which are
balance of milk and grain is desirable in the used for demonstrations. These indications
diets of rural households. Drought, by of extension capability in post-harvest
decreasing avail-able forage, decreases technologies are encouraging, although the
milk production and thus decreases the team did not find evidence of extension
availability of vitamins and amino acids on ability to transfer technology for food
which rural household members depend, preparation or processing. Emily Frank’s
resulting in, or exacerbating vitamin and report of interviews at the household level
amino acid deficiencies in rural areas indicates that there had been a national-
affected by variable and low amounts of level home extension program, separate
rainfall. As resources become available, from the farm extension program, carried
linkage of ANRS research centers with food out by general development agents in
processing laboratories of EARO and ILRI Amhara region. This program included
could contribute to food security of the home gardening techniques, family
region in food processing and preparation. nutrition, family planning, and food
Nutritional issues in food-insecure areas of preparation. According to the report, those
Amhara region are complex and involve the programs have been discontinued in favor
production, processing and con-sumption of a “family-centered approach.” The Frank
of crops, forage, and livestock. report indicates that respondents viewed
the present program as not providing
adequate information regarding nutrition,
5.10.2 Capability to generate family planning, and food preparation..
technology. There is apparently no
current capability at the three Amhara
region research centers to do research on 5.11 Socio-Economic Factors. The
processing and preparation of food. To ultimate goal of agricultural research is to
better serve the needs of the food- generate improved technologies that are
insecure woredas of the region, and the adopted by rural households. Socio-
region as a whole, the Amhara Regional economic support in the research stations
Agricultural Research Centers could should ensure the generation of
initially develop food science research technologies that are appropriate for the
capabilities, and, by linking with such conditions of rural households. A number
organizations as EARO, ILRI, and the of factors may contribute to the non-

22
adoption of a technology showing promis- hold production conditions. Experiment
ing results in research trials. These factors stations typically have access to machin-
include household resource constraints, ery and/or paid labor to overcome
risk, compatibility with household prior-ities, production bottlenecks facing rural
and technical viability under household households. Furthermore, the simple fact of
production conditions. having a fence around an experiment
station may allow, for example, the control
Resource constraints of a rural household of livestock that otherwise might damage
can impede the adoption of a new late-maturing crops or tree seedlings.
technology. An improved seed-fertilizer
package that requires additional and 5.11.1 Socio-Economic Analysis and
timely field preparation only feasible with Adaptive Research. It is difficult for
two draught animals may not be adopted socio-economic analysis to foresee all the
by a farm without access to this resource. obstacles to the adoption of agricultural
Similarly, agroforestry tree planting that technologies by rural households based
requires substantial labor early in the on research station trials. When farmers
rainy season when household labor is fail to achieve expected results, refuse to
occupied with planting subsistence crops implement a technology, or adapt the
may not be adopted by households. recommended guidelines of a technology
developed on the research station during
Members of households living in extreme a participatory trial, it becomes easier for
poverty often prefer lower but stable socio-economic research to identify the
production over higher but variable above-mentioned farm-level constraints
production. The basic livelihood of to adoption (resource constraints, risk,
farmers barely producing enough to differing priorities, technical viability). This
survive can be threatened by increased enables the process of adaptive research.
variability. Agriculture in the Amhara
region faces many risks such as drought, The experience of rural households
frost, pests, price fluctuations, and input implementing a technology gives insights
availability. New technologies may not be into how to make a technology more
adopted by farmers if they increase risk. appropriate for farmer conditions. If, for
example, a socio-economic researcher
A technology may be effective, for notes that farmers in a drought prone
example, in decreasing soil erosion. area or those without two draught oxen
However, if soil erosion is a long-term have low rates of adoption of an improved
concern of farmers in a given context, seed-fertilizer package, then research
households may put greater priority on can begin to focus on adapting the
technologies that increase production in technology so it is more resistant to
the short term. Also, agricultural drought and can be used without access
production concerns may be secondary to to draught equipment. Rural household
issues such as access to potable water or members are not only the best sources of
improved family nutrition. information about obstacles to adoption,
they also are frequently the best source
A technology that performs well under of suggestions about adaptations to make
experiment station conditions may a technology viable.
encounter problems under farm house-

23
5.11.2 Integrative Aspects of Socio- research trials is key to the process of
Economic Research. Most recent generating technologies that will be
research has focused on increasing adopted by farmers. The Integrated Food
yields. However, if yield increases require Security Unit of the Amhara region has
additional technology, labor and/or conducted research eliciting rural
capital, the gains in output can be offset households’ research and extension
by additional costs. Socio-economic priorities. Household members them-selves
analysis therefore should focus on the identified criteria for determining wealth
impact of a new technology on net farmer categories of households in their woredas.
income. This analysis accounts both for Priorities were identified based on wealth
the additional costs of raising yields as and gender and short, medium, and long-
well as the potential diversion of term research and extension activities were
resources from other economic activities. identified as potential solutions. This
approach serves as an example of how to
Intra-household analysis is also helpful to involve households in the setting the
enable researchers to obtain a better research and extension agenda in order to
understanding of the impact of a new ensure a greater socio-economic
technology within the household (e.g., representation of households.
women’s labor, child nutrition) and to
match technologies with available The three research centers in the Amhara
resources within households. Socio- region all include a socio-economic
economic research could also include an research division. Currently, however,
examination of the informal networks these divisions are understaffed and lack
within a community or kebele. Under- individuals with sufficient training to carry
standing how these networks operate can out the needed research to make adaptive,
help in the process of organizing participatory research successful.
participatory research as well as in
disseminating new technologies on a 5.12 Capability and Structure of the
farmer to farmer basis. Research System

Team building that brings together rural 5.12.1 Current Research System and
household members, extension agents and Future Plans. The capability to develop
researchers as well as individuals from new technology is located mainly at the
diverse disciplinary backgrounds is also three regional agricultural research centers
critical for the success of participatory (Adet, Sirinka, and Sheno). Each of these
research. Socio-economic research should centers has researchers with expertise and
analyze the most appropriate mechanisms responsibilities across a range of
and institutional arrange-ments for disciplines, such as agricultural economics
facilitating team building with individuals of and farming systems, animal production,
diverse backgrounds and make health, feeds and nutrition, agronomy
recommendations on how to best facilitate and/or crop physiology, crop protection,
this process. field crops improvement (breeding and
genetics), horticulture, soil science and
5.11.3 Socio-Economic Research water management, agro-forestry
Capability. Socio-economic analysis in (resource management) and research-
the context of adaptive, participatory extension. The Adet Agricultural

24
Research Center is located in the M2.5 investments should be addressed first and
agroecological zone (moist, tepid to cool, then upgrades and expansion should be
mountainous and plateaus) that serves 15 addressed. To increase efficiency, there is
drought-prone woredas, as well as other a need for short-term and long-term
woredas which are normally food-secure. training, improved access to commu-
The center is located at 2200 m.a.s.l. and nication technologies, and development
includes 131 ha plus eight testing sites. Of of a performance based reward system
the 26 researchers at the center, one has a that will improve morale and retention of
PhD, 10 have MS degrees, and 15 have BS scientific and technical staff.
degrees, with a total staff of 163. The
Sirinka Agricultural Research Center Across all centers, the research staff is
was established as a research center in young and enthusiastic, and all expressed
1987 but was closed during the civil war the need for more senior, experienced
and re-opened in 1995. It is located in the scientists who would provide leadership
SM2.5 agro-ecological zone and serves and guidance to the junior scientists and to
North and South Wollo, Oromia, and Wag- the overall program. The team’s visits
Himra Zones. The center is located 1850 within the region identified the need to
m.a.s.l., in a 900 mm precipitation zone and provide academic training to raise the
manages a 30-ha sub-center at Kobo at training level from predominately the BS
1470 m.a.s.l. with 667 mm precipitation, level to more PhD and MS level scientists.
and several additional test sites. It has 156 This additional, long-term training is
technical and support staff, of whom none necessary to achieve the regional objec-
have a PhD degree, three have MS tive of improved capability to develop better
degrees, and 23 have BS degrees. Five are technologies to support agricultural sus-
presently on study leave. The Sheno tainability and food security goals. The
Agricultural Research Center is also assessments also identified the need to
located in the SM2.5 agro-ecological zone, increase the numbers of researchers in the
located at 2800 m.a.s.l., with 903 areas of economics, agro-forestry, and food
mm of average annual precipitation. The science, as well as to develop new
center consists of 142 ha plus six research centers in critical agro-ecological
additional testing sites distributed across zones.
a range of altitudes from 2500-3100
m.a.s.l. The current mandate has been The capabilities to do research at all ARC’s
restricted to the high altitude areas of N. would be enhanced by such factors as
Showa, but is expanded to include more trained scientists (particularly senior
additional areas. The research staff scientists who are needed to direct
consists of one PhD, five MS, 13 BS, two research), reduced employee turnover,
DVM, with two researchers in training at better access to current scientific literature
the PhD level, and one at the MS level. and improved communication infrastruc-
ture (at present, no telephone or fax at Adet
The research capability needs to be and lack of e-mail and Internet access at all
strengthened in several ways, including sites), improved equipment, instruments
increasing the research efficiency of the and supplies to conduct research, more
current system, along with strategic vehicles and spare parts for vehicles which
expansion and upgrade of the centers. In have broken down. Low salaries and lack
general, the efficiency of current research of incentives were

25
identified as a problem in attracting and 5.12.2 Research linkages. Research
retaining qualified research and technical centers should improve linkages across
staff, as were isolation of the living disciplines within a center, linkage across
conditions for researchers and inadequate the region between centers and support
personal access to transportation, institutions, and linkage with other
communication, recreation, schooling and Ethiopian, African, and other international
medical services for families. Access to scientists. The linkage should occur on
current journals and lack of commu- two levels: 1) informal scientist-to-
nications with scientists outside the center scientist communications with a minimum
were also cited as impeding progress in of restrictions, and 2) formal organization-
doing research that contributes to food to-organization linkages which may
security. Expensive equipment items at require better articulation of channels of
each center were underutilized, or not used communication and protocols for estab-
at all, because of lack of trained lishing agreements.
technicians, inadequate supplies, lack of
spare parts and inacces-sible repair From the team’s discussions with ANRS
services. This indicates that strategic research staff, it appears that the centers’
planning and budgeting to maintain an research is organized along disciplinary
appropriate balance between capital lines, rather than being oriented around
expenditures for major equipment purchase multi-disciplinary problem areas. Most of
and annual expenditures of operating the problems facing the people of the
expenses could increase the efficiency of Amhara region in producing food and
the research system. meeting household food needs transcend
disciplinary boundaries and will require an
The extension system to disseminate integrated systems research and
available technologies is well-developed extension approach to identify new
and structured. Currently, the extension technologies that can contribute to
system is organized and relatively well- solutions of these problems. There is a
staffed at the kebele, woreda, zonal and strong potential for interdisciplinary
regional levels. Subject matter specialists research, because of the mix of
assigned to the various levels are the disciplinary strengths that are located at
main sources of technical information and each research center. However, the
guidance for DAs, who are the basic current strengths in some key areas such
operational units of the extension system. as animal production, natural resource
The subject matter specialists assigned to management, and socio-economics
the different levels of the extension appear to be weak compared to capability
system need more experience and in agronomic sciences. Additional training
training to handle the urgent and difficult in systems research design and
problems facing rural households. methodology is needed in order that
Although the extension system in the research conducted will feed into planned
Amhara region is well-organized and watershed research and management
adequately staffed in quantity, the activities within the region.
technologies available to extension
agents for dissemination need a Informal interaction to exchange
substantial improvement. information pertaining to planning,
methodology, and preliminary results

26
across the research centers exists but contributions and ensure that the USAID
appears to be minimal. This is due to lack support is complementary to them and
of communication facilities such as does not duplicate and overlap what they
telephone, fax, email, and Internet are supporting.
connection; geographic distance between
research centers and limited travel and 5.12.3 Research-extension linkages. A
communication budgets. Annual research major restructuring of Ethiopia’s research
reviews conducted with the regional system took place in the mid 1990s, giving
researchers and national commodity regional states responsibility in research
research leaders with EARO provides a management. Decentralization of
formal structure for interaction among research management from a federal
scientists from the research centers, as system to regional research centers has
well as with national researchers, encountered several challenges, one of
extension, and end users of the research. which is the absence of backstopping in
technical leadership which resulted in
Universities and agencies undertaking inadequacy in generating technological
agricultural and related research include innovations (Amhara National Regional
the Alemaya University of Agriculture, State Bureau of Agriculture: Agricultural
Addis Ababa University, Awassa College of Research Master Plan 1999). In this
Agriculture, Mekele College of Agriculture, transitional phase, the regional
the Institute of Biodiversity, EARO, government and the research centers
Regional institutions (e.g., plant and animal have developed official mechanisms for
health clinics, multiplication centers for program management and coordination,
animals and plants) Ethiopian Institute of although much remains to be done to
Health and Nutrition Research, Coffee and efficiently respond to the region’s food
Tea Development Authority, and research security program. Strategies to establish
systems in other Regional States. There is linkage among the centers and with the
little evidence that the ANRS research national/international research organiza-
centers have undertaken collaborative tions and to upgrade research capability,
activities with the above institutions. infrastructure, and support services at the
Likewise, minimal formal collaboration regional level need to be defined and
exists between the regional research implemented.
centers and the international agricultural
centers (IARCs). National professional The regional and zonal Research and
organizations provide the opportunity for Extension Liaison Committees (RELCs)
informal scientist-to-scientist interactions have served as the mechanism to
and networking, and establishment of coordinate research and extension
regional chapters of such organizations programs. Linkages between research and
might increase networking opportunities. extension need to be strengthened.
Strategies are being developed to address
The team is aware that several donor this need with the proposed creation of the
organizations such as SIDA, the World Research Extension Advisory Councils.
Bank, the Governments of Japan and the Another strategy that may be considered is
Netherlands contribute to various aspects to build the capability of the DAs, since they
of strengthening agricultural research in play an important role in articulating
Ethiopia. It is important to consider these research and extension needs by working

27
with household members at the environments and, hence, may not be
household/watershed level. The current adopted. Technological innovations have
focus on blanket recommendations with to “fit” household livelihood and survival
little flexibility to modify package strategies by reducing vulnerability to crop
recommendations based on 1) household failure or livestock loss, improving
conditions or 2) year-to-year variability in resilience particularly from environmental
rainfall patterns has limited the shocks and increasing rural incomes.
effectiveness of extension of technologies
in drought-prone areas. The primary Second, participation paves the way for
challenge concerning the development enlisting household members’ commit-ment
and adoption of technologies to improve to the goals of the research/ extension
food security in the ANRS will be to project. When they have a sense of
undertake a transformational change from ownership of the project, they could serve
a supply-driven system of extension to a as valuable agents of change, for
demand-driven system that allows disseminating information as well as
smallholders to exercise choice in community mobilization. Tapping into
selecting technological options to meet informal local social networks could be
household objectives within their resource useful in planning extension strategies.
limitations. Because of the complexity of
issues surrounding food security in the Third, household members are the
Amhara region, a concerted effort among primary users of technology, information,
government agencies such as health, and other resources. By interactively
education, water, environment, and involving household members in research
agriculture will be needed when problems and extension, they can gain the
are addressed at the watershed level. capability to evaluate current practices,
Inter-agency cooperation to support options and visualize the outcomes of
information exchange, resource sharing implementing a practice or a technology.
and joint action are among the many
mechanisms to facilitate this synergy. 6.2 Facilitating Stakeholder Partici-
pation. Participatory research and
extension is not a novel idea in Ethiopia’s
research and extension system. While
6.0 BUILDING A PARTICIPATORY there is awareness and effort to use a
RESEARCH PROCESS participatory approach in on-farm exper-
iments/demonstrations, improve-ments
6.1 Why Participatory Research? There could be introduced to maximize intended
are three practical reasons for involving benefits to stakeholders and households.
stakeholders, including rural households, in
research and extension. First, technologies Household participation is critical in the
are not reaching a wide range of following stages of research and extension:
households. A uniform set of techno-logical 1) on-farm diagnosis, 2) identification of
packages may not be appropriate to rural possible solutions, 3) design and
households’ specific objectives or may be implementation of interventions and
inappropriate to their unique social, solutions, 4) verification, and 5) monitoring
economic, cultural (including indigenous and evaluation. Realistic mechanisms are
knowledge systems) and biophysical needed to:

28
• Include a wide range of stakeholders: delivery of research impacts and
individuals, groups or organizations builds confidence on using a
who have influence or can have an participatory approach to research
impact, either positive or negative, in
ensuring food security in the region. Facilitating rural household participation in
• Fully involve stakeholders and rural research and extension involves a high
households through their organizations. degree of transaction costs and flexibility. It
• Strengthen the research and extension demands continuous interaction with
system so that they are bottom-up, households, genuineness to learn with
demand-driven, and based on in-depth them, and sensitivity to their conditions.
diagnosis of the agroecosystem. Participatory research provides an enabling
• Facilitate regular researcher-extension mechanism for households to exercise
agent-household interaction in on- choice. It requires clearly articulated
farm trials. institutional arrangements, defining the
• Consult household members individ- roles and responsibilities of stakeholders
ually in on-farm trials, but also provide and implementors as well as flow of
a forum for them to meet as a group information, to strengthen the linkage
with researchers and extension between research, extension and
agents to facilitate feedback and households. Using a participatory approach
information exchange. to research and extension promises to
• Strengthen mechanisms to promote a introduce innovations in research
timely, two-way feedback across methodology and develop mod-els that
hierarchical levels. could be applied in other woredas, zones,
• Involve the private sector and non- and regions of the country.
farm groups in the delivery of inputs
and other services that are currently
under the responsibility of government 7.0 ACTION PLAN
line agencies. This will hopefully
stimulate and diversify the rural The action plan consists of five parts. The
economy as well as provide off-farm first action plan concentrates on adopting
income generating opportunities. an adaptive participatory approach to
• Build capability among development increase research efficiency and benefits
agents to appreciate and support to households. This approach is designed
participatory approaches to research for immediate implementation and early
and extension results. Guiding principles for designing
• Establishperiodic participatory and implementing participatory adaptive
monitoring and evaluation systems to research are offered as well as examples
monitor outputs and measurable of results produced by adoption of this
indicators of impacts, defined and approach.
agreed upon by the stakeholders.
• Employ social scientists in research The second action plan is designed to
and extension who have an apprecia- increase research efficiency and output of
tion for participatory research and researchers. Short-term training and long-
gender issues in development. term higher education are the primary
• Establish a performance-based reward means to raise staff performance. Since
system that offers incentives for the absence of researchers for training

29
and education will create critical Agriculture, Amhara region Integrated
personnel shortages, the immediate Food Security Unit, Research Centers,
implementation of participatory adaptive NGO’s and other relevant institutions,
research to sustain and even increase should be involved in the prioritization,
technology by farmers is needed. planning and implementation process.

The third action plan focuses on Further key principles of participatory

modernizing computerized information research are listed as follows.
retrieval and communication capacity of
the research centers. This plan is given a • Immediate attention should be given to
higher priority than to increase the adapting existing technologies to local
number of library holdings, owing to the conditions while longer term research
swift obsolescence of information. capabilities are being enhanced.
• Research trials should be concen-
The purpose of the fourth action plan is to trated on households’ fields and be
modernize the research laboratories with managed by household members
adequate equipment and supplies to under farmer conditions.
support the design, implementation and • Trial sites should be representative of
monitoring of applied research. agroecological conditions and stake-
holder-identified problems.
The fifth action plan calls for the • Research trials should include a
systematic, georeferenced biophysical representative cross section of rural
and socioeconomic characterization of households, based on factors as
the Amhara region, since the principal availability of resources, education
aim of agricultural research is to match and gender.
the biological requirements of crops and • Households, through their organiza-
livestock products and practices to the tions, and other stakeholders, should
resource characteristics of households be systematically included in setting
and the physical attributes of their land. A research priorities, as well as in the
georeferenced database on socioeco- monitoring and evaluation of the
nomic condition and physical land research trials.
attributes will facilitate technology transfer • Rural households should be able to
to all locations in the region and is choose from a series of technology
essential to scale up technology adoption options. Each technology option
from a few participating farmers to the should allow for flexibility in implemen-
kebele, woreda, zone and regional level. tation. For socio-economic analysis,
although yields are an important
A more detailed description of the five component of profitability, the focus of
action plans follows. technology evaluation should be on
profitability and the impact on net
7.1 Action Plan 1. Institutionalizing household income.
Adaptive, Participatory Research. The • Finally, while participatory research
guiding principle of participatory adaptive requires that household members be
research in ANRS is that all concerned involved in setting research priorities,
stakeholders, including rural household there are a number of priorities that
organization representatives, Bureau of are so frequently repeated by so many

30
 individuals that researchers and soil. It is worth noting that the fertilizer
households can immediately begin to recommendation for most, if not all of
design and implement trials in areas Ethiopia, does not include potassium.
where the problem stands as a major While the potassium levels may have
bottleneck to achieving food security. been adequate several decades ago, that
may no longer be the case, and now low
An example of a rural household- potassium levels could be contributing to
identified priority is the desire to reduce frost damage and low yields.
yield loss from frost damage. Wheat crop
in the highlands of the Amhara region that Another example of participatory adaptive
appear healthy and vigorous have often trials involves finding technologies that
been rendered sterile by frost. Rural reduce the dependence on manure as fuel,
households express concern that frost thereby allowing this source of organic
damage is occurring more frequently now fertilizer to be reincorporated into fields.
than in the past. They believe that the Simple improved stoves fitted to traditional
region is undergoing temperature cooking pots have been shown to reduce
changes and they would like frost- fuel consumption needs by 30-50 percent
resistant varieties to be developed. While as well as substantially speed up the
frost-resistance in wheat and barley may cooking process. Solar cookers have also
be developed by breeding, it would be shown potential as an alternative source of
many years before such varieties can be energy for food preparation. Fast growing
released. trees such as leuceana that have the
properties of regrowth after cutting can by
The purpose of adaptive participatory trials planted in strategic areas to reduce erosion
is to find solutions to problems such as frost as well as supplying a renewable source of
damage, that can be implemented in the fuelwood. By reducing the fuel needs as
next cropping season. For example, it is well as providing alternative sources of
known from work conducted elsewhere in energy, the dependence on manure for fuel
the world that frost damage can be can be minimized. In addition, simple
substantially reduced by providing improved corrals that serve as collection
adequate amounts of potassium to grain points for manure can further increase the
crops. A simple trial can be installed which availability of this source of organic matter
compares yield and profit from trials to be reincorporated into crop fields.
employing conventional farmer practice
with and without the addition of potassium.
If the results are negative, the household’s The example of alternative fuel sources
losses will be minimal if little additional and improved stoves also illustrates
labor was required to install the trial and the important gender issues that can be
fertilizer cost was borne by the research addressed by adaptive, participatory
unit. research. A substantial amount of many
rural women’s time is taken up by fetching
But if the result is positive, as it might very firewood and cooking. By reducing fuel
well be, it will show that the increased needs, providing readily accessible
incidence of “frost damage” is not related alternative energy sources and decreasing
to a gradual lowering of air temperature but cooking time, women’s labor can be spent
to declining levels of potassium in the in other activities, such as

31
quality time with household members, them so that the advisors are made
recreation, off-farm income generation, or aware of problems and conditions in the
horticultural production to improve family region. Student advisors can also serve
nutrition and to sell as a cash crop. as mentors to prospective students, as
well as a source of answers for questions
The examples cited above illustrate the raised by local researchers. Since the
need to be creative in designing adaptive quality and relevance of a student’s
trials with rural household members. The research depends on his or her advisor’s
trials must be inexpensive and easy to appreciation and understanding of
install, monitor, and evaluate, and conditions to which the student will return,
produce good results quickly. the simultaneous education of students
and their advisor should add to the
7.2 Action Plan 2. Training, Mentoring relevance of higher education.
and Higher Education. Short-term training
to acquire specific skills such as applying While trainees are away from their
analytical methods, operating new research centers for training for extended
instruments and computers or conducting period, or where mentoring is needed in
on-farm adaptive trials must run parallel selected areas of research for young
with long-term efforts to increase the scientists, the employment of technical
number of researchers with advanced assistance could be very useful. Senior
degrees. Short-term training, whenever scientists serving as mentors or experts
possible, should be conducted under in selected areas could come either from
conditions normally encountered by the local or international sources. Locally,
researcher. The aim is to reduce retired Ethiopian scientists, who have
dependence on sophisticated laboratory decades of experience and may be
equipment and to rely on adapting existing available, could be a very valuable
equipment to achieve the desired results. resource of expertise for this purpose. If
senior scientists from abroad are desired,
Mentoring of young and inexperienced the CRSPs collectively could be a
researchers by locally-stationed experts valuable source of expertise and provide
from the national and international local scientists opportunities for
agricultural research centers can make collaborative research. In any case the
up for the lack of senior researchers with need for mentoring or technical
leadership capabilities. The purpose of assistance and its implementation should
mentoring is to give direction and purpose be determined in a participatory manner
to young researchers and the work they by all stakeholders.
produce.
7.3. Action Plan 3. Modernizing
Long-term higher education serves as the Computer and Communication
foundation for achieving excellence in Technology. The gap in computer and
research. It is expected that young communication technology between
researchers enrolled in advanced research research centers in the Amhara region
institutions will return to their centers to and advanced research institutions is
conduct their research. Provisions should huge. Researchers at advanced research
also be made for the students’ research institutions have access to the global
advisors to accompany knowledge base and achieve high

32
research efficiency by their ability to ineffective way to correct yield-reducing,
communicate nearly instantly with nutrient deficiencies. The law of the
researchers around the world. limiting warns us that applying nitrogen or
Researchers in the Amhara region must phosphorus to a soil lacking in potassium
exploit this technology to enable them to or any one of the 16 essential nutrient
perform useful applied research based on elements will do little to increase yield
sound understanding of biophysical and and render investments in fertilizer
socioeconomic processes. unprofitable. A modern research labora-
tory is essential to diagnose the cause
A modern communication system will also and magnitude of problems farm
enable research centers in the Amhara households face. Development agents
region to coordinate their work, reduce need diagnostic services to help them
duplication of effort, develop annual work design, install and monitor on-farm,
plans and communicate results of on- adaptive trials. Without a proper
farm adaptive trials to others. diagnosis, on-farm, adaptive trials are
reduced to slow, expensive and
Installation of a modern computer and unreliable, trial-and-error research.
communication system does not
necessarily guarantee effective use of the A modern research center should be able
system. Short-term training will be to analyze large volumes of samples
necessary for on-station staff, but submitted by development agents,
returning students from advanced interpret the analytical results and
institutions can further encourage communicate them to development
researchers to rely not only on local agents anywhere in the region in a timely
knowledge, but also on the global manner. It is also true that no research
knowledge base now accessible to users center can generate new technologies for
of the Internet. adoption by farm households without
access to diagnostic services.
7.4 Action Plan 4. Modernizing Research
Facilities and Supply Delivery System. 7.5 Action Plan 5. Creating a
Helping households to deal with problems Georeferenced Spatial Data Base. A
requires that each prescription to cure a new technology successful in one
problem is preceded by a proper diagnosis. location is likely to succeed in other
Recommending a prescription without a locations with analogous socioeconomic
thorough diagnosis can be likened to a and biophysical characteristics. This
doctor who prescribes aspirin for all method of technology transfer by analogy
headaches. Top-down transfer of requires that all sites within the Amhara
technology from research centers to farm region with similar characteristics be
households prescribes one cure for all identified. If the site characterization data
households. A good example of this are georeferenced and displayed using a
situation is the fertilizer component of geographic information system, that
technology packages distributed by the would instantly show the real extent over
ANRS Bureau of Agriculture. For each which the technology could apply. A
crop, there is one rate of phosphorous and technology, no matter how outstanding, is
nitrogen for all households. This is a of little value if no analogous sites to
wasteful and receive the technology exist.

33
While participatory adaptive research • Frost—Farmers seem to believe that the
increases adoption among participating frequency of frost damage in cereal
households, it is not designed to transfer grains has been increasing over the last
technology to other analogous locations few years. This belief, however, does
in the region. A large-scale, not seem to be supported by
georeferenced data base will enable temperature data from the region. One
extension agents to abandon slow, explanation for frost damage is
expensive and unreliable trial-and-error potassium deficiency in the cereal crop.
technology transfer in favor of technology There is evidence that potassium is
transfer by analogy. Improvements in involved in cold hardiness. Because
research facilities, staff education and potassium is a very soluble ion, high
adoption of participatory research will do potassium levels increase solute
little to alleviate poverty or raise rural concentration and lower the freezing
incomes unless the capacity to point of water in plant tissue.
disseminate proven technology to other,
similar locations in the region is in place. It is recommended that with and
For example, the transfer of technology without potassium trials be conducted
by Sasakawa Global 2000 to other in areas where farmers have
locations in the region or country can be experienced severe yield loss from
dramatically improved by limiting transfer frost damage.
to analogous sites. Technology transfer
from its site of origin to other locations If potassium is deficient in the soil,
with dissimilar socioeconomic and adding it will not only reduce frost
biophysical characteristics remains an damage but may also increase the
expensive obstacle to agricultural devel- crops resistance to insects and
opment. diseases.

As in all on-farm trials, success will not

8.0 TECHNOLOGIES FOR only depend on yield increases, but
IMMEDIATE ON-FARM TRIALS primarily on the farmers’ decision to
adopt the technology.
Participatory research requires that
researchers, development agents and • Drought—Rainfed agriculture is risky
household members all have equal say in because drought can wipe out
defining the purpose of on-farm trials. The investments in fertilizer, seed and
technologies for immediate on-farm trials labor. For this reason, many
listed below were not selected by a households choose not to invest in
participatory procedure, but were chosen yield increasing inputs. There are two
because farm households have repeat- ways of reducing the risk of yield loss
edly asked for help in these areas, from drought. The first way is to select
without success. Problem areas identified drought tolerant and/or drought-
by farm households include yield loss escaping cultivars. Drought-escaping
from frost, drought, soil erosion, pests, cultivars do so by producing few tillers
soil fertility, and water logging. in dry seasons, thereby enabling a
Technologies to combat or avoid the six smaller biomass to compete for the
problem areas are given below. lower amount of available water. In

34
 drought years, drought-escaping crops tillage are tested on farmers’ fields
will produce low but dependable yields. they should be evaluated for their
In good, wet years, drought-escaping water-conserving and soil-conserving
cultivars produce many tillers to exploit func-tions.
the larger volume of plant available
water. On-farm trials with drought- A third way of reducing soil erosion is to
tolerant and drought-escaping cultivars plant vertiver grass along contours. This
will demonstrate whether the negative grass is well known to researchers in
effects of drought can be diminished. the region, but for some reason farmers
have chosen not to use it or are
A second way to deal with drought is to unaware of vertiver grasses
decrease the fraction of rainfall that runs effectiveness in reducing soil loss.
off the soil by increasing water intake
rates. This can be accomplished by tied- • Weeds—Early weeding is an important
ridges and/or contoured-ridge tillage. cultural practice which must be
The Ethiopian Agricultural Research followed by all farmers. Weeding 20-
Organization has tested tied-ridging and 25 days after emergence,
found it to be an effective means to supplemented by a second weeding at
control soil erosion and to conserve about 40-45 days after emergence, is
water in drought years. The French in recom-mended. With proper and
West Africa have shown contour-ridge timely weeding, increase in yield of
tillage increases the volume of water maize and sorghum by about 1 ton/ha
stored in soils and reduces surface has been recorded.
runoff and soil erosion. Contour ridge
tillage also enables a farmer to divert • Congress weed—A new weed called
excess water into ponds for irrigating congress weed is invading the region. It
high value crops and providing water for has been suggested that the seeds of
livestock. this weed arrived in the emergency food
supply shipped from Australia. Because
Using improved drought tolerant/ it is well-adapted to conditions in the
escaping cultivars of cereals and region and is unpalatable to livestock, a
legumes can contribute significantly to possibility exists that this huge annual
improved and stable yields. A list of biomass production can be put to good
such crops and cultivars are available use. The technology for adding value to
from EARO. Collaboration between a pest (congress weed) hinges on
EARO breeders and agronomists has harvesting the weed before it seeds and
led to the development of these to use the harvested weed as a mulch.
cultivars. In arid regions, EARO has shown that
yields can be doubled by mulching the
• Soil erosion—A common way of surface with basaltic cinders. This
reducing water erosion of soil is by practice has not spread because the
shortening slope length. Contour-ridge cost of transporting cinder makes it too
tillage is based on this principle, so is expensive for use by farmers. Congress
tied-ridge tillage which reduces slope weed, on the other hand, is already
length to the dimensions of the tied there on the farm and can be
ridges. If tied-ridge and contour-ridge

35
 used as a mulch during the growing From on-farm trials, farmers will be
season and as an organic soil able to compare yields and profits
amendment in the next plowing cycle. between current practices of applying
The aim is to transform a pest into a no fertilizer or, depending on the
valuable resource. government’s fertilizer recommenda-
tion, with yields and profits from the
• Striga—The parasitic weed, Striga, plots receiving fertilizer based on
has been identified as one of the main diagnostic tests.
constraints in sorghum production in
the Amhara region. An integrated Another way to increase fertilizer use
Striga management (ISM) technology efficiency is to place the fertilizer in a
has been found effective elsewhere in narrow band near the seed. The current
Africa. Using an ISM composed of practice is to broadcast seed and
tolerant cultivar, intercropping with a fertilizer evenly over a field. This makes
legume, planting in rows, hand weeding difficult and dilutes the
weeding prior to flowering to deplete fertilizer. ILRI is currently experi-menting
the Striga seed bank in the soil, use of with a combination seeder and fertilizer
modest levels of nitrogen fertilizer, and applicator. It is animal drawn and should
use of improved moisture be affordable and beneficial to most
conservation practice such as tied farmers in the region.
ridges result in significant yield
improvements of sorghum. The combination seeder and fertilizer
makes weeding easier between rows
• Soil fertility—Although application of and increases fertilizer use efficiency
chemical fertilizers is known to by concentrating fertilizers near the
consistently increase yield when rainfall seed. The beneficial effect of banding
is adequate, few farmers use fertilizers fertilizers is especially high at low
because fertilizer costs and the risk of rates of application. The reduction in
crop failure from drought remain high. time spent on weeding and the
One reason for the high cost of fertilizer increase in fertilizer use efficiency may
is that the same fertilizer be sufficient to create household
recommendation is applied to all farms demand for this technology.
in the region. It is almost certain that
non-optimum rates of fertilizers are • Water logging—This condition is a
being applied in the majority of cases. consequence of water runoff from
Near-optimum fertilizer rates can be higher ground into local depressions.
applied if diagnostic tests are conducted The area affected by water logging
to identify which of the major nutrients should decrease with adoption of
are deficient in a field. Without a proper contour-ridge tillage, tied-ridges and
diagnosis, it is not possible to prescribe planting of vertiver grass.
a cure for nutrient deficiency. The soil
analyses may need to be performed by Even with the above practices, runoff
EARO initially, but the local units must will occur during heavy downpours, and
be upgraded to take on this task. some means to capture the excess
water in village or household ponds
should be considered. The stored

36
 water can be used to irrigate high- young and inexperienced researchers
value crops and provide drinking water might implement the program described in
for livestock. this report. The food security situation
requires immediate attention, but it will be
• Intercropping—Use of traditional crop several years before the region will benefit
production practices result in very low from the planned long-term training and
yield levels. Agronomists at EARO education efforts. One way to ensure that
have shown that properly planned and the program functions properly from the
executed agronomic practices, such beginning is to enable regional researchers
as intercropping cereals with legumes, to work in concert with experienced
can give 50 percent yield increase counterparts from local, national, and
over the sole crop, accompanied by international research institutions. Many
the added advantage of reduced weed such institutions are already operating in
and pest incidence. the region, but the USAID/Ethiopia program
fills a much needed void in the area of
• Improved crop production practices— strengthening local capacity for
Use of ERO-developed improved crop participatory research in technology
production packages, such as development, evaluation and
improved variety, fertilizer, early dissemination. There are two areas where
weeding, tied ridges, combined with the regional research units can benefit from
IPM-based crop protection can con- collaboration with experienced specialists.
tribute to significant yield increas-es. The first is in identifying suitable
Such packages should be adjusted technologies, including new livestock,
and tailored for the specific ecological crops, varieties, products and practices for
condition of each area. A blanket local testing. Experienced researchers
recommendation of a uniform package bring to the region an understanding and
can not work under all conditions of appreciation, which young researchers
the Amhara region. often lack, of genotype by environment
interactions, and the art and science of
• Alley cropping—Dry season feed matching the biological requirements of
shortage is a chronic problem in the crops and livestock to the physical
Amhara region. Alley cropping maize characteristics of land.
or sorghum with leguminous species,
such as Sesbania sesban, Cajanus The second area where help is needed is in
cajan, Leucaena, can give up to three matching the socioeconomic requirements
tons of biomass from the perennial of a technology to the resource and cultural
legumes, which can then be used as characteristics of the intended customer. In
animal feed. the Amhara region, as elsewhere in the
world, the biophysical has received greater
attention than the socioeconomic aspect of
9.0 TECHNICAL ASSISTANCE FOR agriculture.
TECHNOLOGY IDENTIFICATION,
ASSESSMENT, AND DISSEMINATION There is also need for assistance in
integrating the biophysical with the
There still remains the question of how the socioeconomic components through
regional research units staffed with mostly interdisciplinary, participatory research.

37
Given the current situation, several 10.0 ANTICIPATED RESULTS
subject matter areas require technical AND INDICATORS OF SUCCESS
backstopping in most regional research
units. These areas include livestock The purpose of the action plan is to
management, pest management, crop strengthen the capacity of the Amhara
management, soil fertility, soil and water regional food and agricultural research
conservation, agricultural economics and unit to design and conduct adaptive
participatory research. farmer-identified, on-farm research. The
means to strengthen research capacity
To be effective, one to two individuals includes:
should be stationed in the region to
support local staff, but primarily to work • Institutionalizing participatory adaptive
with regional researchers to identify research to transform a top-down,
problem areas needing the attention of supply-driven technology transfer to
outside experts. Dependence on outside one that is bottom-up and demand-
technical services can be effective if there driven.
is a large pool of specialists, experienced • Training research staff to apply modern
with developing country problems and information and communication tech-
conditions, who can be called upon for nology to promote effective interaction
assistance on a timely basis. Fortunately and communication with other
for the Amhara region, EARO, the IARCs researchers, development agents and
and the large pool of U.S. scientists households in the region and to enable
involved with USAID’s Collaborative researchers to access the global
Research Support Program can be called knowledge base needed to increase
upon. research productivity and efficiency.
• Enhancing research productivity and
The one advantage the CRSPs have over efficiency by upgrading research
other research organization is that the facilities, modernizing outdated lab-
CRSPs are research, education and oratory equipment and analytical
extension institutions. For this reason, methods and ensuring a reliable supply
when U.S. scientists are invited to assist of laboratory chemical supplies.
in short-term technical assistance
assignments, they should also be viewed The results stemming from implementing
as potential advisors to prospective the action plan will be verified by four
students from the region. The technical indicators of food security. These
assistance effort should not be an end in indicators are quantitatively linked to four
itself, but should be used as a basis for properties of sustainable agroeco-
initiating long-term relationships between systems. The first indicator is increased
U.S. universities and the people of the production and productivity. This indicator
Amhara region. While it is for the regional is measured in terms of yield increases
authorities to determine whether such (production) and increased profitability
relationships develop, the CRSPs are (productivity).
geared to operate in this way.
The second indicator measures reduction
in yield fluctuations (feast or famine)
under the new research paradigm. The

38
coefficient of variation (CV) obtained from tion and productivity, increased stability,
analysis of several years of regional increased resiliency, and increased
production data will indicate improve- equitability, would measure the health
ments in production stability. A high CV and sustainability of the region’s agroeco-
indicates high instability and a low CV system. To attain food security, all four
indicates progress towards elimination of indicators of sustainable agroecosystems
famine. must show continued improvement to
keep pace with population expansion.
The third indicator measures the capacity of The aim of the Amhara National Regional
the region’s agroecosystems to withstand State Food Security Program is to ensure
and/or recover from stresses and that households have sufficient access to
perturbations. Results of stresses on nutritious food either through agricultural
Amharan crops include declining soil production or earning enough income to
fertility, increasing human malnutrition and purchase it.
increasing land degradation. Pertur-bations
are catastrophic episodes such as hail,
earthquakes and extremely high rainfall 11.0 SUGGESTED BUDGET
events that occur once in 25, 50 or 100 CATEGORIES
years. One does not need to wait 100 years
to experience a 100-year rainfall event. It Proposed budget line items for imple-
may occur next year and the Amhara menting the action plan.
region must begin to prepare for such
events immediately. This indicator 11.1. Institutionalizing Adaptive,
measures the resiliency of the agro- Participatory Research
ecosystem. Resiliency can be measured in
terms of increased biodiversity, reduced 11.1.1. Researcher/development
soil loss, hectares of reforested area per agent/farmer training workshops
annum and reduced dependence on food
aid. Increasing biodiversity is critical to 11.1.1.2. Travel
improving household diets. Fruit and
vegetable products need to be integrated 11.1.1.3. Perdiem
into a farming systems dominated by cereal
crops. 11.1.1.4. Training materials and supplies

The fourth indicator measures equitability, 11.1.1.5. Rentals

which is the degree to which the benefits
derived from the agroecosystems are 11.1.2. Consultants
equally shared. This property can be
measured by monitoring the mean 11.1.2.1. Travel
household income and its variance. The
aim is to increase household income and 11.1.2.2. Perdiem
reduce the gap (variance) between rich
and poor farmers. 11.1.2.3. Fees

The four indicators of an efficient research

organization, namely, increased produc-

39
11.2. Training, Mentoring and 11.4. Modernizing Research Facilities
Higher Education and Supply Delivery System

11.2.1. Training in 11.4.1. Research facilities

laboratory techniques, such
as use of instruments 11.4.1.1. Repairs

11.2.1.1. Travel 11.4.1.2. New construction

11.2.1.2. Perdiem 11.4.2. Laboratory

11.2.1.3. Training supplies 11.4.2.1. Repairs

11.2.2. Mentoring of young scientists 11.4.2.2. New construction

11.2.2.1. Travel 11.4.3. Equipment

11.2.2.2. Perdiem 11.4.3.1. Repairs

11.2.2.3. Fees 11.4.3.2. New equipment

11.2.3. Higher education in advanced 11.4.4. Assured maintenance services

research institutions and supply of chemicals

11.2.3.1. Graduate student 11.4.4.1. Maintenance fees

stipend, travel, expenses
11.4.4.2. Chemicals and supplies
11.2.3.2. Support for in-country research
needed for degree requirement 11.5. Creating a Georeferenced Spatial
Data Base
11.2.3.3. Travel and perdiem for advisor
11.5.1. GIS training
11.3. Modernizing Computer and
Communication Technology 11.5.2. GIS hardware/software

11.3.1. Local area networks 11.5.3. High resolution satellite imagery

11.3.2. Hardware/software 11.5.4. Data storage and retrieval

11.3.3. Telephones 11.5.5. Data interpretation

11.3.4. Consultants 11.5.6. Retrieving, collating, and

geo-referencing existing data
11.3.5. Access to internet
11.5.7. Consultant services

40
12.0 ANNEXES in the Southeast Asia Research
Management at the University of
12.1 Research Assessment Team Wisconsin-Madison and conducts research
with the SANREM Global Program/
Goro Uehara University of Georgia on assessing
TEAM LEADER decision maker priorities in natural
Professor of Soil Science resources management in Southeast Asia.
Dept. of Agronomy and Soil Science
1910 East West Road, Sherm 101 D. Keith Cassel
University of Hawaii at Manoa Professor
Honolulu, HI 96822, U.S.A. E-mail: Department of Soil Science
goro@hawaii.edu North Carolina State University
Tel. (808) 956-6593, Fax.( 808) 956-6539 3410 Williams Hall
Box 7619
Dr. Uehara is director of the Soil Raleigh, NC 27695-7619, U.S.A.
Management Collaborative Support E-mail: Keith_cassel@ncsu.edu
Program (CRSP), scientific liaison officer
to the International Institute for Tropical Dr. Cassel conducts research in applied
Agriculture and member of the Board for and soil physics, soil conservation on
International Food and Agricultural steeplands, tillage, irrigation, and
Development. He is a member and fellow landscape processes. He is a member of
of the American Association for the the Soil Management CRSP. He has
Advancement of Science, American experience in land clearing, land
Society of Agronomy, Crop Science reclamation, tillage, and soil management
Society of America, and Soil Science research in Honduras, Indonesia, Peru,
Society of America. Philippines, and Nicaragua. As a member
of the graduate faculty he has supervised
Gladys Buenavista numerous domestic and foreign graduate
Visiting Scientist students. Dr. Cassel is a past president of
Dept. Of Agriculture and Applied the Soil Science Society of America.
Economics
University of Wisconsin-Madison Frederick R. Cox
Taylor Hall, 427 Lorch St. Emeritus Professor
Madison, WI 53706-1503, U.S.A. Department of Soil Science
E-mail: gladys@aae.wisc.edu North Carolina State University
3410 Williams Hall
Dr. Buenavista=s areas of work include Box 7619
Rural Sociology, Participatory Research Raleigh, NC 27695-7619, U.S.A.
for Development, Natural Resource
Management and Planning, and Dr. Cox’s specialty is soil fertility, espe-
Monitoring and Evaluation. She is cially in the areas of soil test evaluation
affiliated with the Sustainable Agriculture and nutrient sorption. He has worked
and Natural Resources Management extensively with a number of micro-
(SANREM) CRSP. She coordinated the nutrients and macronutrients. His work
implementation of SANREM in Southeast with phosphorus is the basis for that
Asia from 1994-99. She currently serves section of the Nutrient Management

41
Support System. Dr. Cox is internationally Blacksburg, VA 24061-0334, U.S.A.
recognized for his contributions to the Tel. (540) 231-3516; Fax (540) 231-3519
field of soil fertility and plant nutrition. He E-mail: brhane@vt.edu
is currently involved in an internationally
collaborative effort to develop a Dr. Brhane Gebrekidan is the Program
computerized nutritional management Director of the Integrated Pest
decision support system. Management Collaborative Research
Suppport Program (IPM CRSP) managed
Thomas W. Crawford, Jr. INTSORMIL- by Virginia Tech. He is a plant breeder by
International Sorghum/Millet Research profession. Dr. Brhane has worked for
Program both CIMMYT and ICRISAT for five years
University of Nebraska-Lincoln each serving as a breeder and regional
113 Biochemistry Hall team leader for Eastern and Southern
Lincoln, NE 68583-0748, U.S.A. Africa for each center. He has also
E-mail: TCRAWFORDJR1@UNL.EDU served the former Alemaya College of
Tel: (402) 472-6032, Fax: (402) 472-7978 Agriculture for about fifteen years as
INTSORMIL web site: maize and sorghum breeder, leader of
http://www.ianr.unl/intsormil the Ethiopian Sorghum Improvement
Program (ESIP), and instructor of several
Dr. Crawford is Associate Program undergraduate and graduate courses.
Director of the International Sorghum and
Millet Collaborative Research Support Jean L. Steiner
Program, or INTSORMIL. He has con- US Department of Agriculture,
tributed to development in Africa and the Agricultural Research Service
Caribbean since 1984 as a soil scientist, J. Phil Campbell, Sr., Natural Resource
co-director of a national agricultural Conservation Center
research system, official managing 1420 Experiment Station Road
economic and technical development Watkinsville, Georgia 30677, U.S.A.
assistance, and manager of research. Dr. E-mail: jsteiner@arches.uga.edu
Crawford has done research in soil Tel: (706)769-5631, Fax: (706)769-8962
management, soil genesis and mor-
phology, plant nutrition, agronomy, and Dr. Steiner has been a researcher with
horticulture. He has managed projects USDA-ARS since 1983, directing her efforts
employing remote sensing and towards soil and water conser-vation and
geographic information systems and has water-use-efficiency for dryland cropping
resided and worked in a number of systems at Bushland, TX from 1983-1993
African countries. He speaks French, and towards sustainable agriculture and
Italian, Portuguese, and Spanish. watershed management in her current
position since 1994. She has served on the
Brhane Gebrekidan Technical Committee of the Sustainable
Program Director, IMP CRSP Agriculture and Natural Resource
Office of International Research and Management (SANREM) CRSP and is a
Development Principal Investigator on a SANREM CRSP
Virginia Polytechnic Institute and project to assess priority concerns and
University information needs of natural resource
1060 Litton Reaves Hall decision makers across a wide

42
range of hierarchical levels, from farm to Management CRSP E-mail:
local, state, and national levels. She is dyanggen@yahoo.com
Director of the Research Center that hosts
the SANREM-CRSP Management Entity Dr. David Yanggen is an agricultural and
and guides and coordinates the research of natural resource economist. His research
9 USDA-ARS senior scientists and has focused on fertilizer use, soil and water
manages the human, physical, and fiscal conservation, deforestation, and
resources that support the overall program. agroforestry technologies. He was an
agricultural extension agent with the Peace
Hector R. Valenzuela Corps in Mali, an assistant researcher on
Associate Vegetable Crops Extension the USAID Food Security Project for African
Specialist countries, and a visiting researcher at the
Department of Tropical Plant and Soil International Center for Research on
Science Agroforestry conducting research on the
University of Hawaii at Manoa Alternatives to Slash and Burn Agriculture
3190 Maile Way, St. John 102 initiative in Peru. He currently works in
Honolulu, HI 96822-2279, U.S.A. Quito, Ecuador with the International Potato
Tel. (808) 956-7903; Fax (808) 956-3894 Center and Montana State University on
E-mail: hector@hawaii.edu the Trade-offs Policy Decision Support
Model as part of the USAID Soils
Dr. Valenzuela conducts applied research Collaborative Research Project. He speaks
and statewide educational programs for fluent French, Spanish, and Bambara.
the production of commercial vegetable
crops in Hawaii. His areas of research
involve the use of alternative production
practices to improve nutrient and pest 12.2 ITINERARY
management in the farm, including
germplasm evaluation, the use of organic January 17, 2000 (Monday)
nutrient amendments, habitat manage-
ment techniques, no-till, and organic Team met at ILRI with USAID’s Dennis
farming techniques. Dr. Valenzuela has Panther, 9:30-10:15 AM
been involved in short-term international
assignments in Nicaragua (seed produc- Team met with ILRI scientists, 11:00-
tion technology, and promotion of export- 1:00 International Livestock Research
oriented horticultural industries), Japan Institute, http://www.cgiar.org/ilri/
(organic and sustainable farming), Dr. Garth Holloway, economic
Western Samoa (pest control educational consultant; milk market consultant
materials), and Vanuatu (seed production Abeba Misgina, ILRI research
technologies). Dr. Valenzuela speaks technologist
Spanish and Portuguese. Ms. Zelekawork Paulos, ag economist
Dr. Azage Tegegne, animal scientist,
David Yanggen economist; coordinator of ILRI’s input
Agricultural and Natural Resource Dr. Samuel Benin, post doc, UCD, land
Economist mgt study in Amhara
Montana State University and the
International Potato Center, Soil

43
 Dr. Mohammed A.M. Ahmed, post doc; Meeting with EARO Research Directors,
agriculural economist, Livestock 3:30-4:30 PM
Policy Analysis Project, Oromia Ethiopian Agricultural
region (IFPRI) Research Organization
Dr. Simeon Ehui, ag economist; Dr. Demel Teketay, Director of
coodinator, Livestock Policy Forestry Research.
Analysis Project Tesfaye Zegeye, Director of
Hugo Li Pun, resident director, ILRI Socioeconomics Department.
Teklu Tesfaye, Director of
Ethiopia Agriculture Research Research/Extension Link Dept.
Organization, EARO
Team met with Dr. Kidane Giorgis, Meet with Dr. Mike Roth, Director of the
Director of Dryland Agriculture Research, BASIS CRSP-Social Sciences, 7:30-8:30
2:00–4:00 PM PM

Team met with Dr. Seifu Ketema, Director Field Trip Itinerary
General and Dr. Abera Debelo, Deputy Jan. 20, 2000 (Thursday)
Director General, EARO, 4:30-5:30
Traveled by air to Bahir Dar, Capital of
Jan. 18, 2000 (Tuesday) the Amahara Region

Meeting with USAID’s Dennis Panther Jan. 21, 2000 (Friday)

and Dr. Tadelle Gebreselassie, 10:30-
12:00 AM Bahir Dar, Amhara Region
Amhara Regional Food Security Office,
Meeting with CIMMYT representatives, 9:30-11:30 AM
2:30-4:30 PM Meeting with Mr. Yohanes Mekonen,
International Maize and Wheat Head of the Food Security Unit in the
Improvement Center (CIMMYT) Amhara Region, and Research and
Dr. Thomas S. Payne, Regional Wheat Extension Directors and staff from
Breeder/Pathologist, Eastern Africa and Amhara Region:
Mr. Doug Tanner, Agronomist, Eastern Tadesse Amsalu, Research Coordinator
Africa in Amhara
Adamu Mola, Director of Sheno ARC
Jan 19, 2000 (Wednesday) Zelalem Bayou, Food Security Office
Amlaku Asres, D/Director, BOA
Meeting at Swedish Embassy, Kindu Makonen, Director Sirinka ARC
9:30-11:30 AM
Team met, with Johan Holmberg, Visit Adet Research Center, West Gojam,
Ambassador and Vice President of the 2:00-4:00 PM
Board of CIMMYT, and with Lars Met Agricultural Research Coordinator
Leander, First Secretary. Leander and Researchers from several
briefed the team about SIDA’s activities Departments. Visited labs for Soil
in the Amhara Region. Chemistry, Entomology, Plant
Pathology, and Animal Nutrition.
Persons met included:

44
 Henok Gebre Selassie, Soil Chemistry 1:30-3:00 PM
Mulugetta Alemayehu, Livestock Visit with two rock terrace cereal/pulse
Ayalew Kebede, Research/Extension (Lathyrus) farmers in Tach Gayint
Melkamu Ayalew, Plant Pathology woreda, So. Gondar- one of the more
Aklilu Agdie, Socio-Economics Mr. drought stressed areas in the region,
Yigzaw, Horticulture 2,600 m elevation. One farmer was an
adopter, Mr. Gelaw Wale, and the second
Jan. 22, 2000 (Saturday) one was a non-adopter of the Extension
technology packages. Also met with a
Visit to the ANRS Bureau of Agriculture, local Development Agent (DA), Ms.
Bahir Dar, 12:00-4:00 PM Maereg Abegaz.
Met with program staff from several
departments including: Agricultural 3:45-5:00 PM
Economics, Extension Communication, Meeting at Extension Bureau Office, So.
Agronomy, Livestock, and Extension. Gondar, meet with Extension Specialists.
Persons met included: Amsanu Demissie, Discuss the following programs:
Aynalem Gezahegn, Getachew Afework, Agronomy, Forestry, Credit, Extension
Mebratie Ayalew, Seyoum Mezgebou, Communication, Horticulture, Irrigation,
Tadesse Amsalu, Beamlaku Asres. Agroforestry, Natural Resource
Management, and Watershed
Jan. 23, 2000 (Sunday) management and Livestock production.
Staff met included: Kokeb Bogale,
Team travels by car from Bahir Dar to S. Mulugeta Geletew, Adlew Teshale, and
Gondar Area Belay Tsega.

Jan. 24, 2000 (Monday) Jan. 25, 2000 (Tuesday)

9:30-11:30 AM 10:50 AM
Visit farms in Village of Saly, So. Gondar, Visit Research Field site for Sirinka
about 3,000 m elevation. wheat, teff, Research Center at Kone Village, Wadla
livestock, Met demonstration farmer, Mr. Wareda, Wello, 2,800 m elevation. Wheat
Anley Wassie, and neighboring sites with and barley screening and adaptive trials.
a Woreda Level Administrator (Extension Also pulse and potato trials.
Expert Mr. Desalegne Berhane) and with
a development agent, Mr. Abebe Lakew. 11:30 AM
Team divided into three groups for Visit Extension Office Site, Wadla
surveys of 1) natural resources/erosion; Woreda.
2) cropping systems; and 3) household Meet with Extension Experts to discuss the
members. following programs: Soil and water
conservation, forestry, vegetable/horticul-
12:30 PM ture crops, livestock, irrigation, agronomy,
Team stopped at Arb Gebeya, Tach watersheds, communication, and
Gayint Woreda Capital, to visit the Friday research/extension linkage. Persons met
Market. included: Ato Tadesse, Head of Wadla
Woreda Development Office. Taderse
Getahun, Agric. Development Officer,

45
Solomon B/Meskef, Bureau of Sirinka Agricultural Research Center
Agriculture, and Belihu Mekonnen, Soil (SARC). Evaluation of 15 tree species for
and Water Dept. high elevation adaptation. 3,000 m
elevation.
Jan. 26, 2000 (Wednesday)
10:00-10:20 AM
10:00 AM Estayish Field Test Center, 3,000 m
Woleh Irrigation Project. With Mr. Kindu elevation. Team visits field test site for
Makonen, SARC, discuss watershed barley, sheep & livestock (horse, cattle)
management in Woleh Area, about 15 production. Will test garlic and potato, but
Km south of Sekota, a 550 Ha elevation is too high for wheat production.
watershed. Crops discussed included
teff, barley, wheat, faba (horse) bean,
field pea, Lathyrus, livestock including 11:45-12:00 AM
goat skin disease problems, and Sanka. Visit of diversified crop farm site.
diversified crops (carrot, cabbage, Irrigated onions, castor beans, onions,
tomato, papaya, onions), grown around faba bean, coffee, gesho, and Olea
river banks . africana tree..

12:00-1:45 PM 3:00-4:30 PM
Meet with Extension Experts at Sekota Visit Sirinka Agricultural Research Center
Irrigation Project, 2050 m elevation. (SARC), Sirinka, Welo, 1850 m elevation.
Discuss the following programs: Meet with Kindu Makonnen (Officer in
Extension, Natural Resource charge) and Center Researchers.
Management, Irrigation, Planning,
Agronomy, Pest Control, Horticulture, 6:00-7:00 PM
Livestock, and Forestry. Staff met Visit Lenche Dima Watershed site near
included: Solomon Melaku, Zonal Hara town, Gubalaftu Woreda in No.
Coordinator; Asfaw Teferi, Extension; Welo Zone. Watershed is 1,500 Ha in
Worku Indale, Agronomy; and Berhanu size. Major crops are sorghum, livestock,
Teshager, Extension. teff, chickpea. Programs discussed
included livestock (diseases), pests and
Visit dam Irrigation Project in Sekota, and weeds, soil fertility/erosion, and other
visit with one of target farmers. Crops: natural resources.
barley, wheat, sesame, sorghum, tef,
safflower; and under irrigation: corn, Jan. 28, 2000 ( Friday)
potato and onion. Sorghum is dominant
in the whole zone, but wheat and barley 2:30-4:30 PM
predominate in this particular area. Visit the So. Welo Zonal Bureau of
Agriculture Headquarters in Dessie. Meet
Jan. 27, 2000 (Thursday) with Administrator and Extension
Specialists. Programs discussed included
9:15 AM Livestock; Beekeeping; Land
Visit Forestry Research Site at Boya Management; Food Science; Soil
Elementary School Grounds, with Mr. Development; Plant Nutrition; Agricultural
Kindu Makonnen, Officer in Charge of Economics, Watershed Management,

46
Integrated Pest Management (IPM), and Woreda Ag Council; Woreda Council
Extension Communication. Persons met Member, Woreda BOA Extension Head;
included: Yosef Tsegaye, Food Security Supervisor of the Bureau of Agriculture;
Office, Dessie; Asres Kebede, Extension and with Extension Experts to discuss local
& Acting Head of Zonal Bureau of food security programs. Discuss the
Agriculture, Kiros Tarekegn- Crop following programs: Crop Protection,
Protection; Hassan Mohammed, and Horticulture, Agronomy, Natural Resource
Tigneh Damtew. Conservation, forestry, livestock, and soil
fertility. Programs discussed with the
5:20- 6:30 PM Administrator of the Sheno Research
Visit the Combolcha Plant Health Clinic. Station included: Crop breeding, livestock
Serves 5 zones in East ANRS. Discuss breeding, crop protection, Horticulture,
the following programs: rodents, water and soil management, animal feeds,
entomology, storage pests, weeds, plant agric. economics, and research and
diseases, pesticide application, training extension links.
programs for staff from sister ANRS
institutions, Integrated Pest Management, Staff met included: Shimelis Tibebu-
and national/international linkages. Staff Head of Woreda Bureau of Agriculture;
met included: Ato Indale, Head of the Tafesse Kassa, Zonal Food Security
Combolcha Plant Health Clinic (CPHC), Officer; Yirdaw Alemu; Demissie Degifie;
and Ato Yitbarek, Entomologist. Adamu Mola, Officer in Charge of Sheno
Research Center; Alemayehu Bihonegn,
Jan. 29, 2000 (Saturday) BOA Supervisor; and Kassahun Abate,
Forestry.
9:00-10:00 AM
Visit Employment Generation Scheme- 11:10-11:45 AM
Soil Conservation Food Security program Visit on-farm sheep breeding research
site near Combolcha, Adida Kebele, So. site conducted by Sheno Research
Welo (South of Dessie). Meet with Zonal station livestock researchers, No. Shoa
Food Security officer, with participating Region.
farmers, and with chairman of the local
Peasant Association. 12:00-1:30 PM
Visit the Amed Guya Sheep Breeding
10:30-11:00 AM Center, No. Shoa. 2,900 m elevation.
Visit with part-time bee-keeper farmer (an Discuss the breeding program and the
off-farm income generating activity) on gene preservation of local indigenous
Road to Robit. germplasm.

Jan. 30, 2000 (Sunday) 5:45-7:00 PM

Visit the Sheno Research Station
9:00-10:30 AM facilities with the Center Administrator
Mehal Meda, No. Shoa Region, ca. 2,800 and Researchers. Visit the following labs:
m elevation. Visit the Woreda Bureau of Agronomy/Plant Physiology, Plant
Agriculture at Mehal Meda. Meet with Pathology, Soil Chemistry Lab, and
following personnel: Sheno Research Cereal Breeding.
Station Administrator; Head of the local

47
7-9:30 PM Head of ANRS IFSU, to MEDAC, and to
Team travels by car from Sheno Kurt Rochman, Dennis Panther, Karl
Research Station to ILRI headquarters, Schwartz, Tadelle Gebreselassie, Kindu
Addis Ababa. Mekonen, and other staff.

January 31 to February 9 February 10 & 11

Preparation of 1st draft of report Revisions to 1st draft of report upon

preliminary feedback and 1st draft
February 3 (Thursday) submission

2:00-4:00 PM
Team presentation of 1st draft of report
by Dr. Uehara to Yohanes Mekonen,

48
12.3 ORGANIZATIONS AND PERSONS CONTACTED

Household Members
First name Last Name Position/Comments
Gelaw Wale Adopter Farmer, So. Gondar
Anley Wassie Demonstration Farmer, So. Gondar
ANRS Adet Research Center, North Gojam

First name Last Name Position/Comments

Henok Gebre Selassie Soil Chemistry Dept.
Mulugeta Alemayehu Livestock Dept.
Ayalew Kebede Research/Extension Dept.
Melkamu Ayalew Plant Pathology
Aklilu Agdie Socio-economics
Yigzaw Horticulture
ANRS Agriculture Research Ctr., Sheno

First name Last Name Position/Comments

Adamu Mola Officer in Charge, Sheno
ANRS Sirinka Agriculture Research Center

First name Last Name Position/Comments

Kindu Makonen Officer in Charge
Solomon Benor Sorghum Breeder, SARC
Wondimu Bayu Agronomist, Sorghum, SARC
ANRS Bureau of Agriculture, Bahir Dar, So. Gondar

First name Last Name Position/Comments

Amlaku Asres Deputy Director
Tadesse Amsalu Research Coordinator
Desalegn Berhane Woreda Level Administrator, Extension Expert
Abebe Lakew Development Agent
Maereg Abegaz Development Agent, Tach Gayint Woreda
Amsalu Demissie Staff, Bahir Dar ANRS BOA Headquarters
Aynalem Gezahegn Staff, Bahir Dar ANRS BOA Headquarters
Getachew Afework Staff, Bahir Dar ANRS BOA Headquarters
Mebratie Ayalew Staff, Bahir Dar ANRS BOA Headquarters
Seyoum Mezgebou Staff, Bahir Dar ANRS BOA Headquarters
Tadesse Amsalu Staff, Bahir Dar ANRS BOA Headquarters
Beamlaku Asres Staff, Bahir Dar ANRS BOA Headquarters
ANRS Bureau of Agriculture, No. Shoa

First name Last Name Position/Comments

Shimelis Tibebu Head of Woreda, Bureau of Agriculture
Yirdaw Alemu Staff
Demissie Degifie Staff

49
Alemayehu Bihonegn Supervisor, No. Shoa
Kassahun Abate Forestry
ANRS Bureau of Agriculture, Sekota, Woleh

First name Last Name Position/Comments

Solomon Melaku Zonal Coordinator
Asfaw Teferi Extension Expert
Worku Indale Agronomy Department
Berhanu Teshager Extension Expert
ANRS Zonal Bureau of Agriculture, So. Welo

First name Last Name Position/Comments

Asres Kebede Extension & Acting Head of Zonal BOA
Kiros Tarekegn Crop Protection Extension Expert
Hassan Mohammed Staff
Tigneh Damtew Staff
ANRS Bureau of Agriculture, Walo Area

First name Last Name Position/Comments

Tadesse Getahun Agric. Dev. Officer
Tadesse Head of Wadla Woreda Dev. Office
Solomon B. Meskef Staff, BOA
Belihu Mekonnen Soil and Water Department
ANRS Extension Bureau Office, So. Gondar

First name Last Name Position/Comments

Kokeb Bogale Extension Expert, So. Gondar
Mulugeta Geletew Extension Expert, So. Gondar
Adlew Teshale Extension Expert, So. Gondar
Belay Tsega Extension Expert, So. Gondar

CIMMYT (Centro Internacional para el Mejoramiento de Maiz y Trigo)

POB 5689, Addis Ababa
E-Mail: t.payne@cgiar.org
First name Last Name Position/Comments
Thomas S Payne Regional Wheat breeder/pathologist
Douglas Tanner Agronomist, Eastern Africa
Combolcha Plant Health Clinic (CPHC)

First name Last Name Position/Comments

Indale Head of the CPHC
Yitbarek W. Hawariat Entomologist, CPHC

50
Ethiopian Agriculture Research Organization (EARO) Headquarters, Addis Ababa
E-mail: iar@telecom.net.el
First name Last Name Position/Comments
Demel Teketay Director of Forestry Research
Teklu Tesfaye Research Extension Link Director
Tesfaye Zegeye Socio economics Dept. Director
Seifu Ketema Director General, EARO
Abera Debelo Deputy Dir. General, EARO
Kidane Georgis Dryland Crops Research Director

Embassy of Sweden/SIDA Project

POB 1142, Addis Ababa
E-mail: lars.leander@sida.se
First name Last Name Position/Comments
Lars Leander First Secretary
John Holmberg Ambassador and VP of Board of CIMMYT
Food Security Office ANRS

First name Last Name Position/Comments

Yohanes Mekonen Head, Amhara Reg. IFSU
Zelalem Bayou Staff, Amhara Reg. IFSU
Yosef Tsegaye Food Security Office, Dessie
Tafesse Kassa Zonal Food Security Officer, No. Shoa

International Livestock and Research Institute (ILRI), Addis Ababa

POB 5689, Addis Ababa
E-mail: H.li-pun@cgiar.org
First name Last Name Position/Comments
Hugo Li Pun Resident Director
Azage Tegegne Animal Scientist
Samuel Benin Livestock Agr. economist
Mohamed M.Ahmed Livestock Agr. economist
Abebe Misgina Research Technologist
Zelekawork Paulos Research Assistant
Simeon Ehui Coordinator, Livestock Policy Analysis Project
Garth Holloway Livestock Policy Analysis Project

51
12.4 LITERATURE REVIEWED proposal of the BASIS CRSP and
Institute for Development Research
Amare, Y., Y. Adal, D. Tolossa, P. Castro, (IDR), Addis Ababa University.
P. Little. Undated. Preliminary findings 1999, October. 10 pp.
from the community assessments in South
Wello and Oromiya Zones of Amhara _______. Undated. Highlights on the
Region, Ethiopia. 41 pp. study to launch pilot implementation of
the national agricultural information
Anonymous. Dryland agriculture research system. 28 pp.
strategic plan. 1999. Ethiopian Agr.
Research Organization. June 1999, 86 _______. FEWS Bulletin (various).
pp. FEWS Project, ARD, Inc. Various.

_______. Bilateral and multilateral _______. 1996. Lost crops of Africa vol.
donors’ profile. 1998. Amhara Nat. 1: Grains. National Academy Press.
Regional State Bureau of Planning and 1996. 383 pp. ISBN 0-309-04990-3.
Econ. Development, Social Dev. Planning
Dept, Bahir Dar. 1998 July. 133 pp. _______. 1996. Background information
on the natural resources and agriculture
_______. SIDA support to the Amhara of the Amhara National Regional State.
National Regional State, 1996. Program 12 pp.
Document (Final Revised). ANRS/Sida
Cooperation in Rural Development, Bahr _______. 1996. Pastoral and agro-
Dar. 1996 Nov. 30. 179 pp. pastoral research strategic plan.
Ethiopian Agricultural Research
_______. 1998. Institutionalization of Organization - Dryland Agricultural
farmers participatory research in the Research. 1999, November. 67 pp.
southern nations, nationalities and
peoples regional state: Project proposal _______. Undated. Joint post graduate
submitted to EC-Food Aid and Food program in tropical veterinary
Security Programme. FARM Africa, epidemiology (brochure). Addis Ababa
Addis Ababa. 1998 Sept. 37 pp. University (Ethiopia) Faculty of Veterinary
Medicine and Freie Universitat Berlin
_______. 1999. Characteristics of Sites (Germany) Faculty of Veterinary Science.
in Ethiopia & Eritrea (wheat 10 pp.
agroecological zones). CIMMYT GIS CD-
Rom program. 1999. 3 pp. _______. 1999. Ethiopian research -
extension - farmer linkages strategy,
_______. 1999 Annual Report: Volume I. The Federal Democratic
INTSORMIL, Sorghum/Millet CSRP. Republic of Ethiopia Agricultural
INTSORMIL Pub. 99-6. 1999. 194 pp. Research and Training Project. 1999,
February. 35 pp.
_______. 1999. Case studies on factor
market constraints in the context of _______. 1999. Amhara National
regional food security and income growth Regional State (Region 3) January 1999
in the Amhara Region (3), Ethiopia (a - July 2001. Integrated food security

52
program. Amhara National Regional Economic Development Bureau. Bahir
State Proposal to the European Dar. June 1999. 118 pp.
Commission. 36 pp.
Badiane O. And C.L. Delgado (eds.). A
_______. 1998. Special report - 2020 vision for food, agriculture, and the
FAO/WFP Crop and food supply environment in Sub-Saharan Africa.
assessment mission to Ethiopia. Global International Food Policy Research
Information and Early Warning System Institute, Discussion Paper 4 (Food Ag
on Food and Agriculture - World Food and the Environment). Jun-95. 56 pp.
Programme. 1998, December 21. 28 pp.
Belachew, M. and E. Frank. 1999. Trip
_______. 1997. Market analysis note #2, report - Discussions with women farmers
The response of Ethiopian cereal in four selected watersheds of Amhara
markets to liberalization. Grain Market Region, September 18 - 25, 1999. U.S.
Research Project, Min. of Econ. Dev. and Agency for International Development.
Coop. 1997, January. 6 pp. 1999, Sept. 13 pp.

_______. 1997. Market analysis note #3, Buresh, R.J., P.A. Sanchez, and F.
The deregulation of fertilizer prices: Calhoun. 1997. Replenishing soil fertility
Impacts and policy implications. Grain in Africa. Soil Science Soc. America.
Market Research Project, Min. of Econ. 1997. 251 pp. ISBN 0-89118-829-0.
Dev. and Coop. 1997, January. 7 pp.
CEDEP-Consultants. 1999. Agricultural
_______. 1997. Market analysis note #4, Research Master Plan, Vol. 1, Main
Meeting food aid and price support Report (Final). Amhara National Regional
objectives through local grain purchase: State. 1999 Sept. 146 pp.
A review of the 1996 experience in
Ethiopia. Grain Market Research Project, Delgado, C.L. 1995. Africa’s changing
Min. of Econ. Dev. and Coop. 1997, agricultural development strategies: Past
March. 6 pp. and present paradigms as a guide to the
future. International Food Policy
_______. 1998. Market analysis note #5, Research Institute, Discussion Paper 3
Revisiting grain movement control and (Food Ag and the Environment). Jun-95.
taxation in Ethiopia: A policy brief. Grain 25 pp.
Market Research Project, Min. of Econ.
Dev. and Coop. 1998, January. 7 pp. Donovan, G. and Casey, F. 1998. Soil
fertility management in Sub-Saharan
_______. 1998. Market analysis note #6, Africa, World Bank Technical Paper No
Food aid targeting in Ethiopia: A study of 408. 1998. 60 pp. ISBN 0-8213-4236-3.
household food insecurity and food aid
distributions. Grain Market Research Dvorsky, J. R., J. Verdin, and G. Artan.
Project, Min. of Econ. Dev. and Coop. 1999. Flood risk monitoring in the
1998, March. 6 pp. Greater Horn of Africa using daily rainfall
estimates and a distributed parameter
_______. 1999. Atlas of the Amhara soil water balance model. Am. Geophy.
National Region. Ethiopia Planning and Union, 19th Annual Hydrology Days, 16-

53
20 Aug, 1999. Colo. State Univ., Ft. Inst. Agr. Research. 1998. 37 pp. ISBN
Collins, Co. 970-648-022-6.

EARO. 1999. Annual Report 1997/98. Howard, J., V. Kelly, M. Maredia, J.

Ethiopian Agricultural Research Stepanek, E.W. Crawford. 1999.
Organization. 96 pages. ISSN 1016- Progress and problems in promoting high
7897. external-input technologies in Sub-
Saharan Africa: The Sasakawa Global
Frank, E. 1999. Gender, agricultural 2000 Experience in Ethiopia and
development and food security in Mozambique. Dept. Ag Economics,
Amhara, Ethiopia: The contested identity Michigan State Univ. Staff Paper No. 99-
of women farmers in Ethiopia. U.S. 24. 1999 June. 14 pp.
Agency for International Development.
1999, Sept. 20 pp. Howard, J., M. Demeke, V. Kelly, M.
Maredia, and J. Sepanek. 1998. Can the
Franzel, S. And H. Van Houten. 1992. momentum be sustained? An economic
Research with farmers: Lessons from analysis of the Ministry of
Ethiopia. CAB International. 1992. 303 Agriculture/Sasakawa Global 2000’s
pp. ISBN 0-85198-814-8. experiment with improved cereals
technology in Ethiopia. Grain Marketing
Gemebo, T. D. 1999. Report on the Research Project/Michigan State
assessment of nutritional problems and University, Sasakawa Global 2000, Min.
identification of potential interventions in of Agric. Dept. of Ext. and Coops.,
Amhara National Regional State. U.S. Ethiopian Ag. Res. Org. 1998,
Agency for International Development. September. 43 pp.
1999, December 2. 113 pp.
Institute of Agricultural Research. 1997.
Gizaw, S., K. Mekonnen, and L. Desta Annual Report 1996/97. Institute of
(eds.) 1999. Lenche Dima integrated Agricultural Research. 1997. 73 pp. ISBN
watershed development project feasibility 1016-7897.
study report. Amhara National Regional
State. 1999, May 24. 88 pp. Institute of Agricultural Research. 1999.
Annual Report 1997/98. Institute of
Hailu Regassa, A.K.S. Huda, S.M. Agricultural Research. 1999. 96 pp. ISBN
Virmani. 1987. Agroclimatic data 1016-7897.
analysis of selected locations in deep
black clay soils (vertisols) regions of Institute of Agricultural Research. 1997.
Ethiopia. Institute of Agricultural Annual Report 1995/96. Institute of
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12.5 ACRONYMS

ANRS Amhara National Regional State

ARC Agricultural Research Center
AVRDC Asian Vegetable Research and Development Center
BOA Amhara Region Bureau of Agriculture
BS Bachelor of Science 4-year undergraduate University Degree
CIMMYT Centro Internacional de Mejoramiento de Maiz y Trigo
CIAT Centro Internacional de Agricultura Tropical
CIP Centro Internacional de la Papa
CRSP Collaborative Research Support Program
CV Coefficient of Variation
DA Development Agent (ANRS Bureau of Agriculture)
DVM Doctoral of Veterinary Medicine
EARO Ethiopian Agricultural Research Organization
FEWS Famine Early Warning System
GIS Geographical Information System
IAR Institute of Agricultural Research
IARCs International Agricultural Research Centers
ICARDA International Center for Agricultural Research in the Dry Areas
ICRAF International Center for Research on Agroforestry
ICRISAT International Crops Research Institute for the Semiarid Tropics
ILRI International Livestock Research Institute
MS Master of Science
NGO Non-Governmental Organization
PA Peasant Association
PhD Doctor of Philosophy
RELC Research and Extension Liaison Committee
SIDA Swedish International Development Agency
SMS Subject Matter Specialist(s)
USAID U.S. Agency for International Development

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