Education brief: Learner wellbeing

Learner wellbeing is a complex psychological state that can broadly be understood as how
learners feel and function in the context of education.

What does learner wellbeing mean? • Eudaimonic wellbeing can be understood as how
individuals function in their life. It is also described as
To define learner wellbeing, it is first important to
‘flourishing’ and self-actualisation, nurtured through
understand the construct of wellbeing more generally. In
one’s commitment to personal development, meaningful
Western thought, wellbeing is a multidimensional state of
activities and interpersonal connectedness with others
being most commonly attributed to positive psychology
(Ryff & Singer, 1998).
(Seligman & Csikszentmihaly, 2000), which gave rise to the
positive education movement. Wellbeing research and Together, hedonic and eudaimonic wellbeing represent
practice is founded on two historic traditions of wellbeing: individuals’ overall wellbeing (Figure 1). Learner wellbeing in
hedonia and eudaimonia, both of which originated in the context of education can therefore be understood as a
Greek philosophy. holistic, multidimensional state of being that is the
• Hedonic wellbeing refers to how individuals feel about combined product of all of these different aspects.
their life. It is conceptualised as a combination of an
individual’s overall satisfaction with their life, their
experience of positive feelings and the absence of
negative feelings (Diener & Lucas, 1999).

Individual
Wellbeing

Positive
emotions Relationships

Absence of Feelings Functioning

negative
Personal
emotions
development

Overall life Engagement in

satisfaction meaningful
activities

Fig. 1: Multidimensional model

of individual wellbeing
Education brief: Learner wellbeing continued 2

How is learner wellbeing understood 2019; UNICEF, 2007). Most well-known is the Programme
across the world? for International Student Assessment (PISA), which
introduced the measurement of children’s wellbeing
There are universal similarities and distinct differences in
alongside their academic outcomes in 2015. The OECD
how children experience wellbeing across cultures (Rees &
now uses a multidimensional measure of learner wellbeing
Dinisman, 2015). Nonetheless, learner wellbeing has been
consisting of four sub-constructs: cognitive, social,
advocated as a central goal of education by Eastern and
physical and psychological wellbeing.
Western scholars alike since ancient times. For example,
Confucianist philosophy emphasises self-improvement to
become an upright moral person (junzi). According to What is the theory behind learner wellbeing?
Confucius, self-improvement requires the practice of A number of theoretical frameworks are used to explore
humanity (ren) towards others and yourself, and the virtues learner wellbeing in education.
of attitude, procedure, knowledge, moral courage and
• The Theory of Human Motivation (Maslow, 1943)
persistence (li). There are therefore clear links between
suggests that individual growth can be understood as a
Confucianist thinking and eudaimonic wellbeing
hierarchy of different stages. Each stage describes a
(interpersonal connectedness and flourishing). Wellbeing is
unique set of wellbeing ‘needs’. Maslow’s Hierarchy of
also a key feature in the 19th century writings of Japanese
Human Needs (see Figure 2) theorises that individuals
educator Tsunesaburo Makiguchi – founder of Soka (value-
require ‘lower-order’ or ‘deficiency’ needs (including
creating) education, which is practised today in 190
being physically well, feeling safe and loved) to be met
countries – who posited that happiness cannot exist only at
before they are able to strive to fulfil their ‘higher-order’
an individual level; it should be an educational goal of the
or ‘growth’ needs (to achieve and strive towards self-
school, home and community.
actualisation). Maslow’s theory has important
In the 21st century, increased interest in wellbeing within implications for education because research suggests a
education can be attributed to the work of economists who significant association between learners whose lower-
introduced measures of adult wellbeing as an alternative order needs are successfully met and their ability to
measure to Gross Domestic Product (GDP) for the achieve academically (Noltemeyer et al., 2012). Since
evaluation of the success of an economy. Following this, achievement is a higher-order need, consideration of
international organisations (such as the OECD and United whether learners’ lower-order needs are first being met
Nations) began measuring children’s wellbeing alongside may be useful for teachers as a means of explaining
their academic outcomes in transnational research (OECD, behaviour and educational outcomes.

Self-
actualisation
Fulfilment of
one’s potential

Higher-order Self-esteem
needs Achievements, status, recognition

Lower-order Belonging
needs Love, acceptance, connectedness to others

Safety
Security, health, resources, money

Physiological
Food, shelter, air, water, sleep

Fig. 1: Maslow’s Hierarchy of Human Needs (1970)

Education brief: Learner wellbeing continued 3

• Self-Determination Theory (SDT; Deci & Ryan, 2000) is a • The broaden-and-build theory (Fredrickson, 2004)
modern theory of eudaimonic wellbeing with direct extends the work of Dweck and colleagues, suggesting
educational applicability. SDT suggests that individuals that positive emotions expand individuals’ positive
have three core psychological needs (competence, mindsets and thought-action ‘repertoires’ which in turn
autonomy and relatedness) that, when fulfilled, result in leads to the development of psychological resources they
high wellbeing: can draw upon when challenged.
– Competence refers to succeeding at challenging
endeavours and being able to achieve desired What other terms are associated with learner
outcomes. wellbeing?
– Autonomy involves experiencing freedom of choice • Mental health is related to but distinct from wellbeing.
and being in control of one’s own actions. Mental illness is associated with lower hedonic wellbeing
– Relatedness is understood as connectedness with (Keyes, 2002). The extent of an individual’s wellbeing can
others, feeling one can rely on others and mutual be understood as symptomatic of their mental illness or
respect. mental health. However, formal diagnoses and treatment
for mental illness are undertaken by qualified clinicians
The fulfilment of these needs is important for healthy child (i.e. psychiatrists, doctors or school counsellors), whereas
development, wellbeing and academic achievement wellbeing is a wider state of being that can be nurtured in
(Boncquet et al., 2020). education, home and community settings.
• The PERMA model (Seligman, 2011) is made up of five • Socio-emotional learning (SEL) refers to active processes
pillars of individual wellbeing: learners engage in (such as recognising and regulating
– Positive emotions (the ability to remain optimistic their emotions, communicating with others and
about one’s past, present and future). differentiating between feelings, thoughts and emotions)
– Engagement (in activities that keep our mind on the in order to better understand and manage their emotions,
present and, ideally, in a state of ‘flow’). relate to the emotions of others, and create and maintain
positive relationships (for more information, see the
– Relationships (strong and loving social connections Education Endowment Foundation website).
with others).
• Grit refers to an individual’s passion and perseverance
– Meaning (a sense of greater purpose, spirituality towards long-term goals, despite setbacks. Grit is
or religion). positively associated with wellbeing and growth mindset.
– Accomplishment (having goals and ambitions). • Resilience is defined as positive psychological adaption
The central idea of the PERMA model is that it is possible for in the face of challenges. Though resilience and wellbeing
individuals’ wellbeing to undergo positive change. are positively associated, resilience refers to a specific
• Theory of Self (Dweck & Leggett, 1988) is a cognition- individual trait and is a focus of many educational
affect-behaviour model which suggests individuals’ skills-training programmes, whereas wellbeing is more
‘implicit theories’ (deeply held beliefs) have important all-encompassing.
implications for their psychological functioning.
Individuals’ theory of self can be expressed in one of two What are the benefits of nurturing learner
types of mindset: a fixed mindset (whereby learners wellbeing?
believe they are made up of fixed traits), or a growth • Not only is wellbeing promoted as an important
mindset (whereby learners believe they are made up of educational aim in and of itself, research documents
changeable traits that they are capable of improving). The positive associations between learner wellbeing and
two belief patterns – the ‘helpless’ fixed mindset and the higher academic achievement (Kirkcaldy et al., 2004;
‘flexible’ growth mindset – impact learner wellbeing Suldo et al., 2011). Conversely, research suggests lower
(Schleider et al., 2015). Biopsychosocial research further learner wellbeing is associated with an increased risk of
suggests pupils with fixed mindsets experience more academic underachievement (van Batenburg-Eddes &
intense stress in response to academic pressures (Lee et Jolles, 2013).
al., 2018). In addition, mindsets direct learners to adopt • High learner wellbeing is also positively linked to
different adaptive and maladaptive learning goals in other important academic characteristics including
education. That is, learners’ mindsets determine the type self-confidence, growth mindset and holding mastery-
of goals pursued, which in turn impact their self-esteem. approach goals (an adaptive form of motivational goals
Individuals’ mindsets therefore impact not only how they whereby learners strive to improve their understanding
think about their self (e.g. their intelligence), but also how and skills, rather than performance- or avoidant-approach
they feel about their self and their life (i.e. their wellbeing). goals, which are maladaptive) (King, 2017). These
academic characteristics have in turn been linked to
higher achievement (Blackwell et al., 2007).
Education brief: Learner wellbeing continued 4

• Learners with higher life satisfaction at school have Practical tips

significantly more positive academic experiences, while • Develop a school wellbeing policy as a collaborative
learners with lower wellbeing are at greater risk of
activity, engaging learners, teachers and parents.
school drop-out and behavioural difficulties, according
Empowering learners to express what kind of school
to research (Arslan & Renshaw, 2018).
climate best promotes the wellbeing of themselves and
others can nurture school connectedness through shared
What are the misconceptions of learner
purpose and ideals. Other useful activities to workshop
wellbeing? with learners include priorities-setting exercises that help
• Wellbeing is the same as not having mental illness. A both learners and teachers understand aspects of school
lack of mental illness does not equate to complete mental that are most important to learner wellbeing.
health and wellbeing. Mental illness and mental health • Cultivate a caring and connected school community
can be imagined as existing on opposite ends of a that fosters respectful, supportive relationships among
continuum, whereas wellbeing represents an individual’s learners and teachers. Ensure learners feel they have a
overall state of being, taking into account all dimensions trusted and supportive adult to turn to at school. Feeling
of their wellbeing and their mental illness/mental health. connected to others is an essential psychological need
Importantly, it is possible for individuals with a diagnosed and contributes to positive learner wellbeing. Providing
mental illness to experience high wellbeing, or individuals learners with opportunities to help others such as
without mental illness to experience low wellbeing. peer-to-peer academic mentoring, a ‘buddy’ system or
• Wellbeing equates to how happy you feel. Experiencing regular spaces to work as a team can facilitate a
positive affect (happiness) is just one component of community of care.
children’s hedonic wellbeing. An individual’s wellbeing • Adopt a whole-child approach to understanding the
comprises both their feelings and functioning, and is more academic outcomes of learners that considers how their
complex than simply how happy they feel. The complex psychological lives (both at home and in education)
nature of learner wellbeing requires educators to adopt a contribute to their ability to engage in their learning.
multidimensional approach that considers learners’ social Learner wellbeing cannot be understood in isolation to
connectedness with peers and teachers, sense of other areas of children’s lives. Bronfenbrenner’s Ecological
belonging at school, motivation, sense of purpose, and Systems Theory (1979) provides a useful model for
experiences of positive and negative emotions. understanding this, with the ‘microsystem’ (the home and
• Wellbeing is a static state of being. Learner wellbeing is school) being critical environments for shaping children’s
cultivated socially and culturally through children’s development. Working closely with experts and clinicians
interactions with others, their environment and in the community (such as school counsellors, educational
experiences. Learner wellbeing is malleable to positive psychologists and psychiatrists) can facilitate a joined-up
change and can be influenced by school climate and approach that provides ‘wrap-around’ support for
practices that prioritise wellbeing (Steinmayr et al., 2018). learners. In particular, mental health experts can support
• Young learners and adolescents have the same teachers in understanding any family-, social- or child-
wellbeing needs. There are significant developmental level risk factors experienced by individual learners in
differences between how primary- and secondary-aged order to contextualise and understand their learning and
learners experience wellbeing in education. During the behaviour at school.
developmental window of late primary to early secondary • Facilitate learners’ core psychological needs of
school (ages 7–12) hedonic wellbeing is particularly competence, autonomy and relatedness in existing
important, especially in relation to learners’ academic classroom practice. Research shows that need-supportive
achievement (Gutman & Vorhaus, 2012). However, learning environments are conducive to learner
eudaimonic wellbeing (e.g. motivation to work, academic wellbeing. For example, activities that are learner-initiated
engagement and friendships) appears more important for or offer a degree of control over how learning takes place
adolescents’ academic achievement (Tobia et al., 2019). can support learner autonomy. Ensuring that learning is
pitched at an appropriate level for learners to feel
effective can promote a sense of competence, while
pedagogic approaches that facilitate collaborative working
with peers provide increased opportunities for learners to
feel a sense of relatedness to others.
Education brief: Learner wellbeing continued 5

• Prioritise teacher wellbeing and provide teachers with How is Cambridge International supporting
both professional and personal support. Professional schools with learner wellbeing?
support could include recognising teachers’ valuable
• We understand learners’ educational experiences as being
contributions to school life and achievements through
holistic; inclusive of their cognitive, social and emotional
celebrations and rewards so that they feel appreciated, or
development. This is reflected in our Cambridge learner
including them in decision-making to provide them with a
attributes, as we aim to support schools to develop
sense of autonomy. Personal support on the other hand
learners who are confident, responsible for themselves
may involve getting to know teachers as individuals and
and respectful of others, and engaged intellectually and
finding time to discuss non-teaching matters that may be
socially, ready to make a difference.
affecting them. Providing designated mental health
support and resources for teachers is also important. • In both our Cambridge Teacher and Cambridge School
Facilitating opportunities for regular social interaction Leader Standards, we outline the importance of being
among teachers inside and outside of school can also committed to learners’ learning, personal growth and
foster connectedness with colleagues. Teacher and learner wellbeing (teachers) and investing in the professional
wellbeing are closely linked: teachers who feel supported development and wellbeing of all staff (school leaders).
and mentally well are better able to care for learners and • We also regularly partner with experts in learner
model a healthy lifestyle and mindset. wellbeing and host events such as Q&A sessions with
school counsellors and leading academics in the field, to
offer our schools targeted support.

Author acknowledgement: Tania Clarke

Where can you find more information?

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