Introduction

Geography is the study of Earth's physical and human features. Geographers apply spatial
perspective and spatial organization to search for patterns and relationships between physical
features and human activities on Earth. The study of geography intersects with many academic
disciplines, including history, meteorology, and ecology. The field of geography may be clarified by
comparing it to the field of history, which organizes events and phenomena by time.

Historians study Geographers study

What happened Where things are or where events happened
Why it happened—as a result of previous Why things are there or why events happened
events in that place—as a result of physical and human
factors in that place or in other places and as a
How it might affect events in the future
result of physical and human patterns that can
be found
How might changes affect conditions in that
place and others

History of Geography
600 B.C.E. = Babylonians inscribe the oldest known world map on a clay tablet. It shows Babylon as
the center of the world surrounded by a “bitter river” assumed to be the ocean.

247 B.C.E. = Greek scientific writer, astronomer, and poet Eratosthenes calculates Earth’s
circumference by measuring the angle of the sun on the same day at two Egyptian cities, and then
using the distance between the cities and basic geometry to suggest that the circumference was
46,250 kilometers (28,738 miles). He was only off by about 175 km (109 miles)! He also mapped the
world, with remarkable accuracy around the Mediterranean.

77 C.E. = Pliny the Elder publishes an encyclopedia of geography that provided descriptions and
distances for cities and landmarks in Europe, Asia, and the far south and far east, including India.

150 = Ptolemy, a Greek geographer, created a map of the world that includes the first use of a
coordinate system similar to latitude and longitude.

1519 = Ferdinand Magellan, a Portuguese navigator and explorer, begins the first-ever voyage
around the world with five ships and 250 men. About three years later, one ship and 18 of the
original men return to Spain. Magellan lost his life in the Philippines.

1714 = An untrained clockmaker develops a clock that continually keeps accurate time in a ship’s
home port.

1804 = The Lewis and Clark expedition produces the first accurate maps of the western areas of
North America.

1864 = George Perkins Marsh, a U.S. scholar and conservationist, publishes Man and Nature, which is
considered the first book to connect human actions to environmental degradation.

1909, 1911 = Explorers reach the poles for the first time. Robert Peary and Matthew Henson reach
the North Pole in 1909, and Captain Roald Amundsen reaches the South Pole in 1911
1969 = An estimated 600 million people watch Neil Armstrong set foot on the moon for the first time.

2000 = GPS becomes 10 times more accurate and more accessible when President Clinton orders GPS
signals to be unscrambled.

Alexander von Humbolt (1769–1859) = German scientist who advanced the field of physical
geography through his research and emphasis on the impact of physical features on regions

Carl Ritter (1779–1859) = German geographer who theorized that physical environment played a
significant role in the development of human societies

Carl Sauer (1889–1975) = American geographer who developed the field of cultural geography and
emphasized the relationship between different cultures and their environments

Branches of Geography
 Physical geography = Physical geography focuses on natural forces in Earth's physical and
biological systems, such as climates, landforms, natural disasters, and types of vegetation. It
asks where these forces exist and why they exist there. Physical geographers also search for
patterns in the distribution of these forces.
 Human geography = Human geography is the study of human activities on Earth's surface.
This broad definition allows for a wide variety of special areas of interest, or subdisciplines. In
general, human geography asks where human activities (such as cities, businesses, and
religions) are located and why they are located there.
 Environmental geography = Environmental geography might be described as the intersection
of physical and human geography. George Perkins Marsh, author of Man and Nature, was a
pioneer in this field. The effects of pollution, deforestation, nuclear accidents, and acid rain
all provide fertile areas of study for environmental geographers

Branches of human goegraphy

 Population Geography = Population geography involves the study of where people live, the
socioeconomic characteristics of a given population, the movement of people, and the
causes for population change.
 Urban Geography = Urban geography involves the study of areas with high population
densities and high densities of man-made structures, including the location and relationships
between cities and the function of systems within individual cities.
 Agricultural Geography = Agricultural geography involves the study of agricultural practices
within a particular area and how those practices are related to the environment and
practices in other locations.´
 Social Geography = Social geography involves the study of divisions within society that may
be based on economic class, religion, ethnic background, age, sexual orientation, or other
factors and how those divisions are exhibited spatially.
 Economic Geography = Economic geography involves the study of economic activities across
Earth’s surface, including their location, distribution, and spatial organization.
 Behavioral Geography = Behavioral geography involves the study of human behavior related
to the physical environment, including behaviors based on environmental factors and those
based on perceptions of those facts.
 Cultural Geography = Cultural geography involves the study of culture and norms, how they
are developed, and how they vary and stay the same in different locations
  Political Geography = Political geography involves the study of political processes, political
entities, boundaries, and the relationship between governments at the international, state,
and local levels.

Maps and Geographic data

Maps = most important geographers tools. Created for two reasons: storing information and
communicate them to others. They help people gain a sense of of where they are on Earth's surface
and what their place is within the larger world.

Cartography = the science of creating maps

The production of a map depends on several factors: the purpose of the map, the complexity of the
map, the area to be included in the map, and the data needed to illustrate the map.

Process of creating a map:

 Establish the purpose of the map
 Use the simplification to determine what information is needed for a map, ort he amount of
detail needed
 Add the basic map elements: the title, compass rose, scale, toponyms, and a legend or key.

Process of analyzing the maps

1. Identify basic map elements (title, scale, symbols, legends, toponyms)
2. Identify the type of projection in order to recognize possible disortions
3. Recognize the physical and human features, which are shown
4. Determine the perspective, from which is map created
5. Determine the purpose of the map (thanks to the basic elements)

Physical features = Physical features are the natural features of Earth, such as mountains, lakes, and
deserts.
Human features = Human features are geographic features that human beings made, such as
infrastructure (roads, bridges, and tunnels), landmarks, and cities.

Scale = very important element of the map. To determine the scale is important to know the purpose
of the map (because of the area, which is purposed to show). It can be noted in graphic or ratio form
(f. e. 1:800 = one inch on the map equals 800 miles in real)
 Small-scale = very large area is shown (country, continent, the world) – 1:1 000 000
 Large-scale = small area is shown (neighborhood, district) – 1:5 000

When thinking about the cartographer's choices, you must consider the areas of land that are not
included on the map. Ask yourself: Are the missing areas significant or a result of simplification?
Clarity in a map does not always involve including every single element in the area.

Knowing who the audience is may also have an impact on the way information on the map is
represented. After all, a map for elementary schoolchildren will be different from one that is created
for an audience of geography experts.
Questions to consider:
Map Elements

 What is the purpose of the map?

 Are all the basic elements of a map included?
 What physical or human features are present?

The Cartographer's Choices

 Who might be the likely audience of the map? Does the cartographer assume certain
characteristics about the audience?
 What projection is used? What is distorted?
 What colors or symbols are used? What might these colors or symbols imply?
 What scale is used to show the data?
 What is not shown on the map?
 What toponyms are shown on the map?

Data or Historical Context

 When or where was the map produced?

 What is the original source of the data? (Satellite view? Field survey, census, or imagination?)
Is the source reliable?
 What was the historical context for this map? How does that context affect the
cartographer's selection of data?

Projection
= A method of showing the curved Earth on a flat surface. Any map of Earth surface is disorted by
some degree.

Cardinal directions = Directions associated with the compass points north, south, east, and west

Intermediate directions = Northwest, northeast, southwest, and southeastE

There are three main categories of map projections: planar, conical, and cylindrical. The problem
with any projection is that flat maps will affect one or more of these map properties: shape, size,
distance, and direction. Shape, unsurprisingly, refers to the geometric shapes of landforms and other
objects that you see on a map. Size involves the amount of space that the shapes take up on the
map. Distance refers to the distance between the shapes on the map, and direction refers to the
precision of the cardinal directions and intermediate directions on a map. It is impossible to depict
each of these properties accurately, so cartographers must figure out which one (or more) of the
properties they want to distort. The projection a cartographer uses determines which properties are
distorted.

Planar or Azimuthal Projection

A projection that shows Earth from a central point to any other point. This projection type distorts
size and shape.

Conical Projection
A projection that is formed by placing a cone over Earth. This projection type shows shape accurately
but distorts edge areas.
Cylindrical Projection
A projection that is formed using a cylindrical surface. This projection type distorts shapes at the
poles and is somewhat compressed at the equator. The Mercator projection map, the Robinson
projection map, and the homolosine projection map are all examples of cylindrical projections.
Mercator stretched the distance between parallels to take into account that parallel lines are actually
longest at the equator and shortest at the poles. Using a Mercator map, mariners could create rhumb
lines to chart a path.
Distortions can be in shape, size, distance, or direction. Knowing the projections and distortions can
help the reader assess the accuracy of the map.

Many maps used in school textbooks use the cylindrical style projection called the Robinson
projection for showing particular regions of the world, or even the entire world. Sometimes, an
azimuthal style called a polar map is used to help the viewer understand the spatial relationships of
nations with lands on the poles.

Types of maps
The type of map the cartographer chooses is usually related to the map's purpose. The cartographer
must choose the best type of map to communicate the information. The three main types of maps
are reference maps, thematic maps, and cognitive maps.

Reference maps are maps that show an area's political or physical features. Typical reference maps
include political maps designed to show features on Earth that are directly related to human
habitation. Political maps could include cities, states, nations, or highways and railroads.  Physical
maps show the natural land features such as rivers, mountains, oceans, or deserts.

Most people use cognitive or mental maps every day. That is because you have a mental map that
helps you know the route you will take. The map has only the details that are important to you to get
to where you are going. So it may have cross streets, landmarks, or problem areas like construction
or huge potholes in the road.

Thematic maps illustrate one or more characteristics in a specific area. As you can imagine, there are
a wide variety of styles that can be found in this category.

There are several different types of thematic maps in use today.

A cartogram is a thematic map that uses space to illustrate some type of data to be used
comparatively. In this type of map, the greater the data, the more space is allocated to show them.

Thematic maps
A choropleth map is a thematic map that uses color to indicate selected characteristics. This is the
most commonly used type of thematic map.

A dot map is a thematic map that uses dots or points to show the locations of a certain
phenomenon. In this type of map, the greater the number of dots, the greater the incidence of the
item being studied.
A flow line map is a thematic map that uses arrows of various widths to indicate the direction and
total number of units moving in that direction. This type of map might show movement of people,
goods, or ideas.

An isoline map is a thematic map that uses lines to connect common points. Isoline maps are most
often used as topographic maps of land areas, but are also seen in weather maps or on population
density maps.

A proportional symbol map is a thematic map that uses the size of a symbol to indicate the extent of
the selected item. In this type of map, the bigger the symbol, the greater the degree of
concentration.

A visualization is a thematic map that uses software to create a three-dimensional map that allows
viewers to see what is or was on Earth’s surface. This style allows viewers to see things as they
actually are or to trace changes over time.

Perspective
Gauging the reliability of a map is another critical skill you will use when analyzing maps.
Cartographers maps represent their unique views and understanding (and sometime
misunderstanding) of the world. Maps may contain some or all of the following biases or
perspectives:

 Historical perspective: Maps represent cartographers' understanding of the world during a

specific period of time.
 Cultural bias: Maps represent common cultural values and viewpoints.
 Personal bias: Maps represent the cartographer's own political, economic, or social
viewpoints.

Recognizing the biases on the map will help you determine whether it is a trustworthy source and
what information on the map is most useful.

A map is a primary source that provides important context about its respective time period.
Cartographers view the world from the time period in which they lived. The maps the cartographers
design reflect their understanding of the world at the time. We should pay attention especially on the
boundaries and toponyms (names)

Your culture has a big influence on your thinking and shapes your perspectives on many aspects of
life including maps. Often, the maps focus on a view of the world from the United States, called an
American-centric view. If the focus were from Europe's point of view, it would be a Eurocentric view.

Maps provide cartographers with a powerful medium to showcase their worldview. Cartographers
may create symbols or other visual clues to make deliberate points about current issues. Some
cartographers are more subtle than others in their use of symbolism. We san call it satire.

When you are decribing a way to your home, you describe a part of your mental map of your
neighborhood. Surprisingly, not all mental maps of the same area use the same indicators. Mental or
cognitive maps are internal maps of a person's geographic understanding of a place. Mental maps
can reveal cultural perspectives and biases, as well.

Changes in technology
The arrival of computers and remote sensing changed the way we view the world and the way maps
can help us understand spatial relationships. The use of a Geographic Information System, or GIS, has
allowed geographers and planners to view a site in many ways so that they can answer complex
geographic questions. By allowing geographers to select a variety of layers of information and
imposing them into a final map, GIS moved beyond the simple overlaying of maps that previously
was done with clear acetate sheets or even tissue paper.

Maps became more complex as new technology became available. Early maps were laboriously
produced by hand. Today, computers with the capability of processing elaborate mathematical
formulas and access to data, such as images from satellites, are used to create maps for a variety of
uses. Tools such as remote sensing, geographic information systems, and global positioning systems
are used to help cartographers. These modern tools help contemporary geographers solve problems,
navigate the world more easily, and identify patterns among specific phenomena.

Remote sensing = process that uses satellites or other similar methods to acquire data about Earth's
surface. This technology became possible when aircrafts were equipped with cameras. Today,
remote sensing satellites scan images of Earth's surface and send digital versions of the images back
to Earth for study.

The other two most widely used technological tools in cartography today are Geographic
Information Systems (GIS) and the Global Positioning System (GPS).

GIS is used as a tool that uses many different geographic aspects of a particular location or place to
solve problems. For instance, determining where best to put a new shopping center may involve
maps of housing subdivisions, highway routes, and water and sewage pipelines. The GIS system
combines all this information into one map that can be used to find the most appropriate location for
the shopping center.

GPS helps you figure out where you are or where you are going. The system is able to identify the
precise position of an object on Earth. Originally produced for the military, GPS is used in air, sea, and
land navigation.

Geographic Information Systems (GIS)

 What It Is: A computer system that enables users to store, display, and retrieve data about
an area. It allows geographers to layer different sets of data on maps.
 Purpose: It provides detailed information about an area that enables viewers to analyze
multiple sets of data from a spatial perspective.
 Common Uses: Businesses might use GIS to research and plan the best place to locate a new
office. A GIS may show highway routes, subdivisions, and average income within a specific
area.

Global Positioning System (GPS) 

 What It Is: A system of satellites and receivers that transmit signals that identify the precise
position of an object on Earth's surface.
 Purpose: It provides information necessary to find objects or to navigate from place to place.
 Common Uses: Travelers use GPS to determine how to reach a specific destination. Militaries
use GPS to promote accuracy in military exercises.

GPS and Location

The lighthouses of the 18th century were an early form of GPS. Lighthouses were used as tools to
keep ships safe while navigating the coastlines. With today's technology, known as the Global
Positioning System (GPS), it is more difficult for people to get lost. The idea of GPS is similar to that of
lighthouses, but it is much more sophisticated. GPS devices can be found in most cell phones, and
many cars are designed with GPS systems fitted in the dashboard. Given the prevalence of GPS
devices today, it is hard to imagine a time before there was GPS technology. 

A Network of Satellites
GPS makes establishing absolute and relative location much simpler than ever before and allows
geographers to identify, explore, and understand locations that were either inaccessible or poorly
understood event 50 years ago. Today, almost everyone has access to GPS technology on a phone.

The U.S. military first developed GPS as a navigation system for its defense forces, but now allows
everyone to use it. Twenty-seven satellites, 24 of which are active and three that serve as backups,
make two complete orbits of Earth each day. These orbits are carefully defined and controlled so that
at any point on Earth, at any time of day, at least four of them would be visible. A GPS receiver
mounted in a vehicle or held in your hand sends out signals searching for four or more of the GPS
satellites.

GPS calculates the distance from your location to the satellite by sending signals to a satellite and
calculating how long the signal takes to be returned. Because the signals travel at the speed of light,
the time elapsed between sending and receiving may be measured in nanoseconds. Each satellite has
an atomic clock aboard, whereas GPS receivers each have a simple quartz clock that is not nearly as
accurate. But the GPS satellite software resets the GPS receiver clock each time it receives a signal to
establish absolute location from the satellite.

Navigating by GPS
What happens when someone enters a destination into a GPS device? The system completes a multi-
step process that relays information to the user in mere seconds. The computer within a GPS receiver
uses the map system in its memory, the destination that has been specified, and the absolute
location supplied by the GPS satellite to guide the way. Note that directions are given in relative
terms—such as “Turn at the next exit” or “after 500 yards”—rather than using an absolute location
based on latitude and longitude.

Each GPS satellite weighs 2,000 to 4,000 pounds, orbits at about 12,000 miles above Earth, and
contains an atomic clock worth about $100,000 that is accurate to nanoseconds. Radio signals from
the GPS receiver are constantly being sent, received, and assessed to perform trilateration and
establish absolute location. GPS can provide such exact absolute locations that it can be used to
provide walking directions in cities, as well.

Scales of analysis
Space-time compression = Any phenomenon that alters the qualities of and relationship between
space and time. Two factors can cause this compression: technology and transportation. Technology
changes have sped up the pace and perception of space and time. Another factor in space-time
compression is the change in modes of transportation. Faster and faster ways to move people and
goods were an essential aspect of the history of the 20th century and are also a part of the 21st
century.

Map scale (ratio of distance represented on a map to the actual distance on Earth) vs. Relative scale
(=scale of analysis) describes the way in which areas of the world are grouped together for study.
Scales can move from the smallest size (individual or local) to the largest size (international or
global).
The idea that the world is shrinking involves looking at the world with a spatial perspective. This
perspective organizes the relationships of things in space by asking and answering specific questions.

Five themes of Gepgraphy

Location

Where is Venice on a global map? Where is it in relation to other places? How does this location
affect the people who live there and those who visit?

Movement

What information, goods, and people are moving into and out of Venice? How do these factors
change the lives of the people there?

Place

What physical and cultural characteristics of Venice make it unique from other locations?

Region

What areas share similar physical or cultural features with Venice, such as climate, population,
government, or religion? What areas share functions such as a transportation system? Do people in
Venice think of themselves as living in a city similar to other cities in the area? What distinguishes
Venice from other regions in Italy?

Human-Environment Interaction

How have human beings changed the natural environment of Venice to meet their needs? How have
these changes affected the people living there, positively and negatively?

Location
Absolute location = Position on Earth's surface defined by latitude and longitude

When cartographers used this system on their maps and globes, they called the X axis the equator
and the Y axis the prime meridian. To form the grid pattern, cartographers use a series of imaginary
arcs called meridians and parallels. Meridians are arcs that are formed around the globe between the
North and South Poles, and parallels are arcs drawn parallel to the equator around the globe.
Parallels are perpendicular to meridians. Each meridian is numbered according to a system known as
longitude, and each parallel is numbered according to a system known as latitude.

Relative location = Position on Earth's surface in relationship to physical or man-made features.

Relative location can be described in either a general or a more specific way. Although absolute
location does not change, relative location can change over time.

Time and distance

Distance decay = The farther away different places are from an original site, the less likely the
interaction with the original place will be. Geographers refer to distance decay to describe the
relationship between areas. The greater the distance between two areas, the less likely the two areas
are to interact with one another.
Regional analysis
Region = An area of land that is defined by geographers as sharing common characteristics that set it
apart from other regions. Geographers use regions to better understand Earth and the people who
live here. Because there are so many ways to classify a region, one location can be included in many
regions.

Place = The combination of physical and human characteristics of a specific location

 Physical features of a place, also known as site, refer to the living and nonliving features of a
specific location. This includes vegetation and animal life within an ecosystem, as well as
resources such as water and minerals. It also consists of elevation, climate, and physical
systems such as hurricanes.
 Cultural features of place refer to anything that is human made. This includes the languages
spoken, religions, literacy rates, mortality rates, ethnic composition, government systems,
and architecture. The way that human beings use and shape the physical environment is
known as the cultural landscape.

Ecumene = An area of Earth that is inhabited by permanent human settlements. Areas that are
inhospitable to permanent settlements are non-ecumene. Elevation, climate, resources, and
vegetation all play significant roles in determining whether or not a place is habitable and how
people use the land.

Elevation impacts the climate and available land of a place. Human settlements can be found at most
elevations, but places with the highest elevations generally have fewer residents. Higher elevations
have colder climates, less arable land, and are more remote.

Climate
Several factors influence the climate of a specific place, including proximity to water, elevation,
latitude, and the prevailing wind patterns. Places located between the Tropic of Cancer (23°27' N)
and the Tropic of Capricorn (23°27' S) receive more direct sunlight and tend to have hotter climates
than places located at higher latitudes. The North and South Poles receive minimal sunlight and
reflect more heat than they absorb, giving them a cold, dry polar climate.

Although you might expect all locations along the equator to have hot, tropical climates, this is not
always the case. The higher the elevation, the cooler the temperature. Places located on or near the
ocean tend to have moderate temperatures compared to interior lands.

Topography, wind patterns, seasonal changes, and elevation all play a role in determining
precipitation patterns.

Geographers use a climate categorization system devised by Vladimir Köppen. The Köppen system
divides Earth into five specific climates: tropical humid, dry, mild mid-latitude, severe mid-latitude,
and polar. Geographers have since added the highland classification. Each category has been
subdivided to account for variances.

Vegetation
Vegetation maps identify the natural plant life of a specific region. Generally, vegetation refers to the
grass, trees, and shrubs of a region. The type of vegetation in a given region influences the type of
ecosystems and economy of the region.
Places with tropical climates may be rich in biodiversity, but not be able to support large populations.
Regions that are heavily forested have smaller populations because the trees present an obstacle to
larger human settlements. Also, some forests have a wide range of plants, but few edible species.

Culture
A place's physical features impact the culture of the people living there. When places share similar
physical features, the way in which the societies adapt to the physical environment sets them apart.

Culture includes ideas, values, practices, and man-made material goods.

Governments may set specific zoning (= The practice of designating approved land use within an
area) The practice of designating approved land use within an area) regulations to protect fragile
ecosystems. Countries that face a weakened economy and debt may choose to alter the land for
more profitable uses.

Other factors that may impact land use include the available resources and the market demand for
products.

Another cultural characteristic of place is the standard of living of the people. Geographers analyze
the standard of living by studying different sets of data, such as the distribution of resources, the gap
between the rich and the poor, and the availability of clean water, safe food and health care.

Ethnic groups shape the unique cultures of places through their languages, practices, skills, and
religions.

Cultural landscape = The cultural landscape is the way that human beings use and shape the physical
environment. The languages people speak, their religions, the way in which people make money
through agricultural and industrial activities, and the physical features of a place all combine to give a
region its unique characteristics. These characteristics help distinguish one region from another.

Proponents of regional studies, such as geographers Carl Sauer and Robert Platt, believe that the
social connections and physical processes in a region give it its own unique landscape.

Cultural region = An area in which people share the same culture, which usually means the same
history, beliefs, and languages. People in the same cultural region often share the same religion, eat
the same types of foods, or sometimes have similar ways of earning a living.

Cultural regions can be large, such as the world region known as Latin America, which encompasses
Mexico, the Caribbean, Central America, and South America. Cultural regions can also be as small as
an ethnic neighborhood in a city.

Places that are geographically close are often part of the same cultural region. The boundaries of
cultural regions, however, usually do not exactly line up with national boundaries.

Region x location x place

Location refers to a specific point on Earth. Location answers the question "Where is it?" For
example, Paris is a location in France.

Place describes the human and physical characteristics of the location. Place answers the question,
"What is it like?" Paris is a city known for its art museums, its rich cultural heritage, and its location
along the Seine River.
Region identifies the relationships between different places. Region answers the question, "How is
this place similar to others?" Places that share similarities may be grouped as a region. Paris is the
center of the Paris region of France. It is considered a cultural center of the world.

Three types of regions

 FORMAL REGION
Also called a homogeneous region or a universal region.
A formal region is an area whose defining characteristic, such as climate or the nationality of
people who live there, is found throughout the region.
Political entities such as nations or cities are formal regions, and economic regions, such as
the Corn Belt or a manufacturing region, are formal regions based on human characteristics.
Landform regions, such as the Great Plains, or vegetation regions, such as a coniferous forest,
are formal physical regions.
 FUNCTIONAL REGION
Functional regions are also called nodal regions.
Functional regions are places that are linked by a particular activity or function, such as a
transportation system or an economic activity. Functional regions are organized around a
central point, or node, which is connected to places within the region.
The influence of the central point of a functional region usually becomes weaker as the
distance from that point increases.
 PERCEPTUAL REGION
Also called a vernacular region.
Perceptual regions are determined by people's mental images, or perceptions, of places.
Although people agree about the general location of a perceptual region, not everyone
agrees about their exact locations or even their exact characteristics.
The “heartland of America,” “the Old West,” and “Dixie” are examples of perceptual regions
in the United States.

Human-environmental Interaction
In the 1800s, early geographers began using an environmental perspective, which focused on the
interaction between physical and human systems, or between natural landscapes and societies.

Environmental determinism = The belief that the physical environment determines societal
development. Ideas of Alexander von Humboldt and Carl Ritter in the early 1800s.

Environmental possibilism = The belief that humans have a range of possible choices in adapting to
their physical environment. Accepted by modern geographers.

One of the five themes of geography is human-environment interaction. According to possibilism,

humans not only shape their environment but also are shaped by it. Geographers identify both ways
people are affected by their physical environment and ways that human actions affect the
environment.

In general, human interactions with the environment can be classified in three ways. People depend
on the environment, adapt to the environment, and modify the environment.

Depending on the environment

In certain ways, human beings are completely dependent on their environment for survival. People
rely on clean air to breathe, clean water to drink, and healthy food to grow and maintain their health.
People trust that the temperature and weather will not be so harsh that they cannot survive, and
that water levels in oceans, lakes, and rivers will not flood. (For example Nile, monsoons…)

Adapting to the environment

Clothing, buildings equipment, vehicles. Also adapting in agriculture – we plant crops that will grow
best in a hot, cold, or moderate climate. The type of our body is also adpatation to the environment.

Effects of Human-Environment Interaction

 POSITIVE
People have undertaken a wide variety of activities and projects that have had positive
effects. The Tennessee Valley Authority in the Southeastern United States brought electricity
to millions of rural homes. The Hoover Dam in the Southwest allows productive use of land
that is naturally a desert. The cities of London and Paris are protected against flooding by
elaborate, human-made systems. The Panama and Suez canals.
 NEGATIVE
One negative example of human interactions with the environment can be seen in the
desertification of land in Africa. In recent decades, the dry areas just south of the Sahara
Desert, called the Sahel, have been changing into desert at a rapid pace. The area has been
experiencing less than average rainfall for several decades, and human actions and their
results have made the effects of this natural occurrence even worse. These actions include:

o Population increase: The population has been doubling every 20 years. This means
that the area must constantly produce more food to feed the people living there.
o Poverty: The area includes three of the four poorest countries in the world. With
people struggling to survive, they often use farming methods that increase
desertification.
o Poor farming methods: Farmers clear land for farming, which makes it susceptible to
erosion.
o Overgrazing: Formerly nomadic tribes are now settling in single spots where their
herds graze constantly.
o Use of trees and vegetation for firewood: The already sparse trees and vegetation
are being cut and used for firewood.
o Nomads living in a single spot: Tribes that previously lived as nomads have been
forced to live in single spots, which puts particular areas under constant stress
because the former nomads must use them for farming, grazing, and firewood.

Governments and international groups now work to assess environmental manipulation's risks and
trade-offs. For example, expanded oil drilling in wild areas creates an increased oil supply but risks oil
spills, accidents, and other changes to the environment.

The Aral sea case

The Aral Sea, a saltwater lake that lies in the middle of Central Asia, was once the fourth-largest body
of inland water in the world. Because the lake is found in an area with an inhospitable climate,
people living in the region began diverting the sea's waters for irrigation. After years of irrigation, the
sea began to shrink. Today, its surface area is 60 percent smaller than its original size. How has this
affected the region?
 Lake receives less water from river sources. Available lake water evaporates, leaving behind
high concentrations of minerals and salt. Water is no longer suitable for drinking.
 Wildlife killed by high salt content of lake. Climate becomes more extreme as sea contracts.
Dust storms spread toxic contaminants through region.
 People leave region in search of new jobs as lake conditions are no longer favorable for
fishing industry. Health problems arise from dust storms.